History of rome theodor mommsen pdf

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Or, clearing the history of your visits to the site. I have other questions or need to report the error Please email the diagnostic information above to help2020 and pglaf.org (removing the gaps around q) and we will try to help. The software we use sometimes will cause false positives, i.e. blocks that shouldn't have happened. Apologies if this happened because human users outside Germany who use e-books or other site features should almost never be blocked. Last updated: January 28, 2020. This scientific volume is written by one of the leading classics of the 19th century. Theodore Mommsen, winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature, not only laid out Roman history before Roman Republic and the reign of Julius Caesar, but also closely compared the political thought and terminology of the ancient Republic, especially during its last century, with with of its time. The notebook used by Theodore Mommsen for his Remish Gesicte or The History of Rome. The History of Rome is a multivolume history of ancient Rome written by Theodore Mommsen (1817-1903). Originally published by Reimer and Hirzel, Leipzig as three volumes from 1854-1856, the work was devoted to the Roman Republic. A subsequent book was published that dealt with the provinces of the Roman Empire. Recently, another book about the Empire was published, reconstructed from lecture notes. The initial three volumes were widely accepted after publication; indeed, Roman history made Mommsen famous in one day. Still read and cited, this prolific Mommsen is the most famous work. The work was specifically quoted when Mommsen was awarded the Nobel Prize. The Genesis of Theodore Mommsen in 1863, writing history followed Mommsen's earlier achievements in the study of ancient Rome. He himself was not designed to write history, but the opportunity presented itself in 1850 while at the University of Leipzig, where Mommsen was thirty-two years a special professor of law. Invited to give a public lecture while in Leipzig, I made an address about Gracchi. Reimer and Hirsel, the publishers, were present, and two days later they asked me to write a Roman story for their series. After being fired from the University for revolutionary activities, Mommsen accepted the offer to publish partly for my existence, and partly because the work is very attractive to me. Publishers specified that the work focused on events and circumstances, and avoided discussing the scientific process. While they certainly wanted the esteemed academic work to match their acclaimed tv series on history, Carl Reimer and Solomon Hirsel also sought one with literary merit that would be available and appeal to an educated public. As a scientist, Mommsen was an active participant in the latest achievements in ancient Roman studies. However, Mommsen also had some experience as a journalist. It is quite possible that he will be able to become a popular academic author. The time has come for this work, Mommsen wrote to the Roman Studies Officer, more than ever it is necessary to present to a wider audience the results of our research. Original history was originally conceived as a five-volume work covering Roman history since its inception to Emperor Diocletian (284-305). The first three volumes, which covered the beginning of Rome up to the fall of the republic, ending with the reforms of Julius Caesar, were published in 1854, 1855, and 1856, as Remish Geschichte. These three volumes have really become popular, very popular. Their success was immediate. Here a professional scientist presented to his readers the prose that was of such strength and such an understanding of the details, combined with such such a self- confident skill of an extensive field of learning. Especially in the third volume of Mommsen, as the narrative told of how the political crisis in the Roman Republic came to its final climax, he wrote with a fire of imagination and emotions almost unknown in professional history. Here was scientific training with the stylistic power of the novel. These first three volumes of Remish Gesicte have remained popular in Germany, with eight published during Mommsen's lifetime. After his death in 1903, eight more German publications were published. Later volumes of the Province of the Roman Empire, 117 AD. The planned fourth volume, covering Roman history under the Empire, was postponed until The Mommsen's then 15-volume work on the Roman inscriptions was completed. This task required his services as a researcher, writer and editor who occupied Mommsen for many years. After repeated delays, the projected fourth volume was eventually abandoned or at least not published; the early manuscript may have been lost in the fire. Despite the absence of the fourth volume, in 1885, Mommsen was ready for another volume about ancient Roman history; he described the imperial provinces. In Germany this work was published as volume five of it Geschichte Remish. In thirteen chapters, Mommsen discusses the various provinces of the Roman Empire, each of which is a separate topic. There was no neglected narrative of political events, often dramatic, as was the case in Mommsen's popular chronological account of the Roman Republic in its first three volumes. The English translation was entitled The Province of the Roman Empire from Caesar to Diofleia. In 1992, a reconstructed edition of what was the missing fourth volume of Mommsen on the Empire was released. It was based on the recently discovered lecture notes of two of Mommsen's students: Sebastian Hensel (father) and Paul Hensel (son). Two Hensels took note of lectures on roman politics, with which Professor Mommsen read at the University of Berlin from 1882 to 1886. Alexander S demand opened them in 1980 in a bookstore in Nuremberg. Edited by Barbara Sprost and Alexander Sprost, the notes were given by a reconstructed German text, Ryumishe Kaisergeshicht. In English, modern English translations were the work of William Dixon, then professor of divinity at the University of Glasgow. The first three German volumes (which contained five books) were published between 1862 and 1866 by R. Bentley and Son, London. For several decades, Professor Dixon prepared further English editions of this translation without keeping up with Mommsen's changes in German. All told, about a hundred editions and reissues of English translation were published. In 1958, a selection of the last two books The story was produced by Dero A. Saunders and John H. Collins for a shorter English version. The content was chosen to highlight Mommsen's account of the socio-political struggles that led to the fall of the Republic. Subject to new annotations and revised translations, the book is an aversion, revealing a historical chronology. With austerity Mommsen is shown narrating about serious political drama and illuminating its consequences; the book concludes with a long description of the new government order put on by Julius Caesar. As for Mommsen's 1885 fifth volume of the Roman provinces, Professor Dr. Dixon immediately began to monitor his translation. In 1886 it appeared as a province of the Roman Empire. From Caesar to Diofletian. The missing fourth volume of Mommsen was reconstructed from student notes and published in 1992 under the name Remishe Kaisergeshicht. Soon Claire Kreuzl translated it into English as The History of Rome under the Emperors. The overview of the contents of the Republic With exceptions, Mommsen in his Geschichte Remish (1854-1856) narrates a direct chronology of historical events and circumstances. Often strongly worded, he carefully describes the political acts taken by the heroes, demonstrates immediate results, draws implications for the future, while shedding light on the developing society that surrounds them. The chronology of the contents of his five books (in the first three volumes) is brief: the Roman Senate (Cicero attacks Katilina, 63 BC). A 19th-century mural in the Italian Senate at the Palazzo Madama. Book I, Roman origin and monarchy; Book II, Republic to Union of Italy; Book III, Punic Wars and east; Book IV, Gracchi, Marius, Friend and Sullah; Book V, Civil Wars and Julius Caesar. The broad touches of Mommsen's long, sometimes intense account of the Roman Republic were summarized at the 1902 Nobel Prize in a speech by the secretary of the Swedish Academy. At first, the power of Rome stems from the health of his family, for example, obedience to the Roman state was associated with obedience of his son to his father. From here, Mommsen skillfully unfolds a huge canvas of Rome's long development from the rural city to the world capital. One of the first sources of stability and effectiveness was the stubbornly preserved constitution; for example, a reformed Senate consisting of patricians and plebeians was generally honorably engaged in public affairs of the city-state. Description of the Roman Constitution. However, the great expansion of Rome and subsequent transformations worked to undermine the ancient order. Gradually, the old institutions became unable to effectively fulfill new and complex conditions, to perform the necessary civil tasks. Alleged sovereignty of the commission assembly) became only a fiction that could be used by demagogues for their own purposes. In the Senate, the old aristocratic oligarchy began to be corrupted by the enormous wealth gained as a result of military conquests and their consequences; It no longer served its functional purpose, it was unable to meet the new demands placed on Rome, and its members selfishly sought to preserve inherited prerogatives from legitimate challenge and transition. Often unpatriotic capitalism abused its power in politics and irresponsible speculation. Free peasantry became compressed by competing demands of powerful interests; accordingly, their numbers began to decline, eventually leading to a restructuring of recruitment and then disastrous consequences for the entire commonwealth. Bust of Sulla in Munich Glyptotek. In addition, the annual change of consuls (two Roman leaders) has begun to have a negative impact on the consistent management of its armed forces and their effectiveness, especially in the post-Punic era. This eventually led to the extension of military commands on the ground; consequently, the Roman generals of the army became increasingly independent, and they led soldiers who were personally loyal to them. In short, the political power of civil power was not commensurate with the real needs of the Roman state. As the power and reach of Rome has increased, the political situation developed in which an absolute team structure imposed by military leaders at the top might, in the long run, in the long run, in many cases more successfully and cause less chaos and difficulties to citizens than the corrupt and incompetent rule of oligarchy quarrelling old families who de facto controlled the government. Such was his goal when the conservative Optimat, the noble and Roman General Sullah (138-138), seized state power by military force; nevertheless, he sought without constant success to restore the nobility of the Senate to its former power. Political instability soon returned, and social unrest was an unpleasant norm. The conservative reconstruction of the republic's institutions was abandoned and ruptured. In the end, the decisive victory in the civil war of the incomparable Julius Caesar (100-44), which was followed by his executive skills and public reforms, became a necessary and welcome step forward on the way to resolving the pathetic and bloody moron in Rome. This, in the dramatic narrative of Theodore Mommsen. Julius Caesar, obverse; Victory is at hand Venus with a scepter, on the contrary. Denary. The penultimate chapter of Mommsen contains sketches of the national construction program started by Caesar after his victory. Institutions have been reformed, many to rule Rome, have become more united design, as if ready for a future empire that would endure for centuries; it is, for the last five and a half years Caesar is alive. His work in government included: the slow appeasement of the party struggle, nevertheless with the Republican opposition hidden and sporadic; his assumption about the emperor's name (rejection of the crown, but continued from 49 years as a dictator), with the return of the Senate to the advisory board, and the popular commission as a compatible legislature, although the law can only be made by his decrees; his assumption of power over taxes and treasuries, over provincial governors, and over the capital; the highest jurisdiction (judicial and appellate) in relation to the ongoing Republican legal system, with Judex being selected among senators or equals, but criminal courts remain corrupt as a result of infighting between factions; the supreme command of the roman army, which was reorganized and remained under civilian control; reform of public funding, budgeting for income and expenses, as well as the distribution of maize; cultivating civil peace in Rome through control of criminal clubs, new city police and public construction projects. Impossible problems: widespread slavery, the disappearance of family farms, the extravagance and immorality of the rich, acute poverty, speculation, debt; Caesar's reforms: in favor of families, against the absent, restriction of luxury, debt relief (but not write-off, as required by popular), personal bankruptcy for unpaid debt, replacing enslavement by creditors, usury laws, road construction, distribution of public agricultural land in moderate Gracchan fashion, and new municipal law. Mommsen writes: It is quite possible that Caesar, through his reforms, came as close as possible to the extent that it was possible, as it was given to the state and the Roman in the future. Curia Julia at the Forum, residence of the Imperial Senate. As for the Roman provinces, the former improper and financial plunder committed by Roman government agents and Roman merchants is described; Caesar's reforms replaced the quasi-independent Roman rulers with those chosen by the Emperor and carefully controlled, with tax cuts; oppression by individuals was more difficult to arrest. The abatement of the early popular notion of provinces as country estates to be operated or exploited for the benefit of Rome. Favors granted to The Jews; Latin colonies continue. Cultural accession of Latin and Hellenic; Italy has been transformed from the mistress of subjective peoples into the mother of a rejuvenated Italo-Greek nation. Census of the Mediterranean population Rome; popular religion remained free of additional state norms. Continuing to develop the Pretor Ordinance and plans to codify the law. Roman coinage, weights and measures are reformed; creating the Julian calendar. Speed and very accuracy The plan was executed to prove that he had long been carefully pondered and all his parts settled in detail, Mommsen comments. It was probably the meaning of the words that were heard to fall from him, that he lived enough. The exceptions to a simple chronology are periodic deviations in its narrative, where Mommsen inserts separate chapters, each devoted to one or more of a number of specific subjects, such as The Original Constitution of Rome (Book I, Chapter 5); Etruscans (I, 9); Law and Justice (I, 11); Religion (I, 12); Agriculture, trade, trade (I, 13); Measuring and writing (I, 14); Capitol Wolf with legendary founders Romulus and Remus. Tribune plebs and decemvirate (Book II, Chapter 2); Law - Religion - Military System - Economic Condition - Nationality (II, 8); Art and Science (II, 9); Carthage (Book III, Chapter 1); Government and governed (III, 11); Land and Capital Management (III, 12); Faith and manners (III, 13); Literature and art (III, 14); Peoples of the North (Book IV, Chapter 5); Commonwealth and its economy (IV, 11); Nationality, religion, education (IV, 12); The Old Republic and the New Monarchy (Book V, Chapter 11); Religion, culture, literature and art (V, 12). Theodore Mommsen in 1881 Mommsen's experience in the study of the Roman language was recognized by his peers as wide and deep, for example, his direction of the project of ancient Latin inscriptions, his work in the ancient dialects of Italy, a journal that he began dedicated to Roman coinage, . , Strafrecht. His bibliography lists 1,500 works. The provinces of the Roman Empire (1885, 1886) contain thirteen chapters, namely Northern Italy, Spain, Gallia, Germany, Great Britain, Danube, Greece, Asia Minor, Euphrates and Parthia, Syria and Nabateans, Judea, Egypt and African provinces. As a rule, each chapter describes the economic geography of the region and its inhabitants before turning to how the imperial regime has adapted to its peculiarities. In the case of the North, military governance is often emphasized; while the East focuses on culture and history. A quarter of the way into its brief introduction to the province of Mommsen's commentary on the decline of Rome, the capital: the Roman state of this era resembles a mighty tree whose main stem, during its disintegration, is surrounded by energetic offshoots pushing their way up. These shoots are the provinces that he describes here. Diofletian Empire (245-313, p.284-305) Constantine (272-337). Missing fourth volume of Mommsen, reconstructed by Barbara Sprost and Alexander Sprost from lecture was published as Remishe Kaisergeshicht in 1992. Thus appearing many years after the third volume (1856), and the fifth (1885). It contains three sections of roughly the same size. The first section is arranged in chronological order by the emperor: August (44 BC 14); Tiberius (14-37); Gaius Caligula (37-41); Claudius (41-54); Nero (54-68); Year of the Four Emperors (68-69); Vespasian (69-79). Chapters of the second section are entitled: General Introduction; Internal Politics I; Wars in the West; Wars on the Danube; Wars in the East; Internal Policy II. Third section: General Introduction; Government and society; History of Events (this is the longest subsection arranged by the emperors) : Diocellian (284-305); Constantine (306-337); Sons of Constantine (337-361); Julian and Jobian (355-364); Valentinian and Walesa (364-378); From Theodosia to Alaric (379-410). This salvaged work contains a great wealth of material, which follows in the footsteps of the master historian. However, perhaps because of its nature, as the reconstructed lecture student notes, it often lacks the intricacies of literary composition and style, and of course the narrative drive of the original three volumes. Nevertheless, it is good to remember that the students who participated here in the lecture notes were themselves quite experienced people, and one listener and recorder was already a mature father. Roman portraits Several writers noted The ability of Mommsen to interpret personality and character. The following highlights are taken from The Rendering of Mommsen's figures from ancient Rome, namely Hannibal, Scipione African, Grachi brothers, Marius, Druze, Sully, Pompey, Cato, Caesar, and Cicero. Hannibal Barca (247-183). From Carthage, not Rome, is actually a sworn enemy of Rome, as the Roman people met him. No Punic writer has left us a story about him, but only his enemies, whether Greek or Roman. Mommsen tells us the Romans accused him of cruelty, Carthaginians with greedy. It is true that he hated and knew how to hate, and that a general who had never experienced a shortage of money and shopping could hardly be less than avid. But although anger, envy and meanness have written his story, they have not been able to smear the pure and noble image he represents. His father, Hamilcar, served carthage as an army general; Hannibal's youth were held at the camp. As a boy on horseback, he became a fearless rider at full speed. In his father's army, he accomplished his first weapons feats under his father's eye. In Hispania his father spent years building a colony for Carthage from which to attack Rome; but the son saw his father fall into battle beside him. Led by his brother-in-law Hasdrubal, Hannibal led the cavalry with courage and brilliance; Asdrubal was then killed. By the voice of his comrades Hannibal at the age of 29 took command of the army. Agree that he combined a rare perfection of discretion and enthusiasm, caution and energy. His inventive cunning made him a love of taking special and unexpected routes; ambushes and cunning of all kinds were familiar to him. He studied the Roman character closely. An unrivalled spying system - he had regular spies even in Rome - he kept himself up to date with his enemy's projects. He was often seen in disguise. However, nothing he did during the war could be justified in the circumstances and in accordance with international law at the time. The power he wielded over people manifested itself in his incomparable control over an army of different peoples and many languages - an army that never played against him in the worst of times. After the war, Hannibal served Carthage to reform the city-state constitution; later, as an exile, he exerted influence in the Eastern Mediterranean. He was a great man; wherever he went, he riveted everyone's eyes. Scipione African (235-183). His father, a Roman general, died in the Spanish war; years ago, his son Publius Cornelius Scipione (later African) saved his life. Since then no one offered to succeed in the father's post, the son offered himself. People's Commission mistook the son for his father, all this made a wonderful and lasting impression on the citizens and farmers of Rome. Publius Scipio is himself enthusiastic refers to others, respectively inspired enthusiasm. The Roman Senate agreed to a simple military podium, acting instead of a prator or consul, i.e. his father. He was not one of the few who with his energy and iron would hold back the world to accept and move along new paths for centuries, or who at any rate understood the reins of fate for years until his wheels flip them over. Despite the fact that he won battles and became a well-meaning statesman in Rome, he was not Alexander or Caesar. However, a special charm lingers around the form of that graceful hero; it is surrounded, as if with a dazzling halo... in which Scipione with mixed credulity and agility always moved. His enthusiasm warmed his heart, but he did not forget the vulgar, nor to follow his calculations. So naive as to share the belief of many in their inspirations... yet in secret carefully convinced that he was a man specially favored by the gods. He would agree to simply be an ordinary king, but still the Constitution of the Republic extends even to heroes like him. He was confident in his greatness that he knew nothing about envy or hatred, politely acknowledged the merits of others and sympathetically forgave the mistakes of others. After his war-ending victory over Hannibal in zama, he was named He was an excellent army officer, exquisitely refined an experienced speaker who combines Greek culture with Roman culture. He won the hearts of soldiers and women, his compatriots and Spaniards, his rivals in the senate and his great Carthaginian antagonist. His name was soon on everyone's lips, and he was a star who seemed destined to bring victory and peace to his country. However, its nature seemed to contain a strange mixture of genuine gold and shiny tinsel. It was said that he set the fashion for nobility in arogance, name hunting, and client making. In his policy, Scipione Afrikan sought support for his personal and almost dynastic opposition to the Senate in many ways. No demagogue, however, he was pleased just to be Rome's first burgess. Tiberius Grakhus. Tiberius Grakhus (163-133). His maternal grandfather was Scipione African. His father, Tiberius Grakhus Major, was twice consul, an influential man at his death in 150. The young widow of Cornelia Afrikan, a highly cultivated and remarkable woman, gave up her marriage to the Egyptian king to raise her children. She was a highly cultivated and conspicuous woman. Her eldest son, Tiberius Sempronius Grachus, in all his relationships and views... belonged to the Scipionic circle sharing its refined and thorough culture, which was both Greek and Roman. Tiberius was a good and moral arrangement, a gentle aspect and a quiet bearing, apparently adapted for anything, not for the agitator of the masses. At that time, political reform was widely discussed among aristocrats; however, the Senate has always avoided this. Tiberius announced the reform. Perhaps he was personally motivated by the incident as a questor with the army on the campaign in Spain: there he escaped the terrible ordeal because of his elite connections. The reformist ideals of this young, vertical and proud man fed on Hellenic rhetoric. His intentions became known... there was no point in approving the voices, and many public posters called on the african's grandson to think of the poor people and deliver Italy. In 134 it became the tribune of the people. The terrible consequences of the previous misbehaving government, political, military, economic and moral decline of the Burgesses, were just at that time naked and open to the eyes of all. ... Therefore, Grakh immediately after taking office proposed to adopt an agricultural law. Land reform was supposed to benefit small farmers, restore the prosperity of Italy's free farmers; it concerned the rural states of the de facto state long held in the possession of wealthy families and Rome and Latin allies. His proposed law seemed to have secured the support of the Senate, but it was effectively vetoed by another tribune acting on behalf of powerful Roman landowners; twice his bill was vetoed. Tiberius Gracchus then addressed the People's Assembly, which overthrew grandstands and yourself Land Reform Act. Cornelia and her children: Tiberius and Gaius Grakhus, elder Sempronia. Rome about this period was ruled by the Senate. Anyone who carried the measure of the administration against the Senate majority made the revolution. It was a revolution against the spirit of the constitution when Gracchus presented the domain question to the people; and the revolution is also against... the grandstands vetoed. The People's Assembly was also a large stormy crowd and unsuitable for the adoption of legislation. However, the control of the Senate has become so corrupt that the man who will replace him can benefit the commonwealth more than he has damaged it. But there was no such brave player Tiberius Grakhus. He was a tolerably capable, quite well-meaning, conservative patriot who just didn't know what he was doing. Angry aristocrats from the senate caught and chained to The Death of Gracha; Along with it, 300 other reformers died. The Senate then closed the ranks, saying that Tiberius Grachus wanted to take over the crown. However, the Land Commission, sanctioned by the Tiberius Reform Act, was allowed to meet and within a few years had managed to significantly increase the number of small farmers who owned their own land. Scipio Aemilianus (184-129), in-law and accepted grandson of Scipio Africanus and thus cousin to Gracchi, played ambiguous r'le. A good soldier, a fine orator, trustworty, and known for his unwavering honesty, his policies put him between the aristocracy and the reformers. Against the oligarchy, he brought the ballot to criminal proceedings in the people's courts. Nevertheless, he was largely opposed to land reforms; rightly or wrongly, the remedy seemed to him worse than the disease. In the end, on behalf of allied Latin landowners, he influenced the termination of the land commission. As a result, he too was killed, probably by a land reformer. Gaius Grachus in front of the Plebis Consilum. Gaius Grakhus (154-121). Gaius was the younger brother of Tiberius Sempronius Grachus and the second son of Cornelia Afrikan. Gaius set himself a project to reform the constitutional order of the Senate and the people of Rome. (Under construction) Gaius Marius. Bust in Gliptotek in Munich. Gaius Marius (157-86). The son of a poor day laborer in an Italian village, Marius was brought up on a plough. He joined the army as soon as he could. Known for his abilities and excellent appearance, he served during campaigns in Spain and by the age of 23 became an officer. When he returned home, he planned an army career, but regardless of his merits, he could not achieve the political positions that in themselves led to the highest military positions, without wealth and without ties. The young officer acquired both successful commercial speculation and an alliance with the girl of the ancient patrician clan Julia. In 115 he served as a prator, and in 107 he served as consul. In Africa, he then led the Under his leadership served Sullah, who captured Jugurt, which ended in war. Again Marius became a consul, an unprecedented four consecutive terms (104-101), during which he led the army to victory in Germany. A brave and straight man who impartially administered justice, he was incorruptible. A skilled organizer... a capable general who kept the soldier disciplined and at the same time conquered his affections... Marius boldly looked the enemy in the face and joined the problem with him in due course. Not a man of outstanding military potential, he enjoyed a reputation for such potential. Marius took the place of unparred honor among consuls and triumphants. But he was no better at fit for that score for a brilliant lap. His voice remained sharp and loud, and his gaze wild, as if he still saw libyans or cimbrians in front of him, rather than well-mannered and scented colleagues. ... His irrefutable political culture... what should have been thought of a consul who was so ignorant of constitutional etiquette to appear in a triumphant suit in the Senate! In other ways, too, the plebeian character clung to him. He was not just, according to aristocratic phraseology, a poor man, but, worse, a humble and declared enemy of all bribery and corruption. After the manner of the soldiers he was not nice, but loved his cups... he did not know the art of giving feasts, and kept a bad cook. It was also embarrassing that the consul did not understand anything but Latin, and refused to speak Greek. ... Thus, he remained throughout his life a compatriot tossed adrift among aristocrats . Marius, a farmer by birth and a soldier by inclination, began as not a revolutionary. However, hostile attacks by the aristocracy undoubtedly drove him later into the camp of his opponents, where he quickly proved sublime as the new popular leader. People of quality recognized his services in getting decisive military victories. However, with people, he was more popular than any before or after him, popular both in his virtues and his flaws, his inexhaustible disinterest as his boorish roughness; he was called a set by Romulus' third. Meanwhile, the pitiful government oppressed the land more than the barbarians. On Marius, the first man of Rome, a favorite of the people ... handed over the task once again to deliver Rome. His sensual passion was stirred. However, for this village and soldier the political proceedings of the capital were strange and absurd: he spoke badly as he commanded well. Firmer he was in the presence of spears and swords, that among the applause and the ane. If he hadn't deceived his party's expectations and if he hadn't betrayed his own sense of duty, he should have checked the mismanagement Case. However, his efforts at social reform would have ended very badly. He knew neither the art of getting his antagonists nor that keeping his own party in the subject. He stirred up the proletariat with unworthy actions outside the law; though he nobly shrunk from the excess, he accepted the results. Once a popular, gallant man, he slowly began to be seen in a different light as a laughing-stock. Later, during his seventh consulate in 86, many of his political opponents were killed. He avenged the whole noble pack, which angered him with victory and envenomed his defeat. Unfortunately, Marius finally became the cracked leader of a reckless gang of robbers who brought him hatred for all the people. Livius Drusus (d.91). His father, of the same name, acting as a podium but on behalf of the Senate, sponsored competing programs and called for the overthrow of Gaius Grakhus. The son also adheres to strictly conservative views. He belonged to the circle of the supreme nobility and possessed a colossal fortune; in disposition too he was a true aristocrat-man decidedly proud. However, he followed the wonderful adage that nobility implies commitment. He seriously turned his back on the common light- mindedness for the elite society. In morality, he was respected, not loved properly, his door and purse were always open. Later it became a tribune; as political events unfolded, Drus became less antagonistic and more of a disciple of the late Gayus Gracha. He advocated reforms aimed at eliminating corruption in the courts caused by the equinox of merchants (who then acted as judex); to this reform he added the granting of Roman citizenship to Italians. After the apparent victory of these reforms in the Senate and then their repeal, while energetic he was killed. After his death, a social war broke out across Italy for citizenship rights. Cornelius Solla. A Roman denarium. Cornelius Solla (158-78). (Under construction) Pompeii. Bust, Nu Carlsberg Gliptotek, Copenhagen. Pompey Magnus (106-48). His father was Pompey Strabo, a consul who deserved to triumph in the social war. He was neither an unconditional adherent nor an open opponent of Sulla, who half in recognition, half in irony at first called Pompey Great. Sound in body and mind, good athlete, experienced rider and swordsman, young Pompey won extraordinary military honors and public recognition. Unfortunately, his mental endowments were by no means in keeping with these unprecedented successes. He was neither a bad nor an incapable man, but a man who was quite ordinary. Excellent soldier, he was without a trace of any higher gifts. As Commander Pompey was careful and delivered strike only when he established a huge superiority. His honesty was a rich man ... His reputation for integrity and disinterest came not only from his virtue, if the Senate is rife with vice. However, as a landowner he was fair; he did not join the rebel schemes in which the grandees of the time expanded their possessions, attacking their modest neighbors. A good man, he showed affection for his wife and children. He was the first to move away from the barbaric custom of executing captive kings of countries fighting Rome. His honest face became almost notorious. However, on the orders of Sulla Pompey left his beloved wife, and then ordered the execution of soldiers loyal to him, all because of Sulla and politics. He wasn't violent, but he was cold. A shy man, he spoke in public not without embarrassment; and in general was angular, tough and clumsy in sexual intercourse. He was no less qualified than for statesmen. His goals are uncertain, unable to decide on the means, short-sighted, he did not want to hide his indecision and indecision under the cloak of solemn silence. He often deceived himself that he was deceiving others. Like Marius, Pompey was in every way incapable of leading and keeping together a political party. His sublime social position also remained fundamentally ambivalent. Allied aristocracy for its consular origins and through Sulla, he disliked Sulla personally and worked against the Constitution of Sulman, and his family gene was a recent harvest and not fully accepted by the nobility. Pompey kept in touch with the Populars and joined Caesar in the triumvirate. However, on the contrary, he was well suited to the connection with the oligarchy of the Senate, because his dignified appearance, his solemn formality, his personal bravery, his decent personal life, his eager all initiatives and his mediocrity, so characteristic of the genuine Optimate. There was an affinity that existed at all times between Pompey, the Burgess and the Senate. Pompey, however, refused to fit in. With the vertigo at the height of fame, to which he rose with dangerous speed and ease, he began to compare himself to Alexander the Great and much taller than any senator. His political position was utterly flawed. He was in conflict; deeply indignant, when people and laws did not bow unconditionally before him, he nevertheless trembled at the thought of doing something unconstitutional. His many agitated lives passed joylessly away in the eternal inner contraindication. The pomp for Mommsen was the most tedious and most starched of all artificial greats. He died before his wife and son when one of his old soldiers hit him from behind when he came ashore in Egypt. Of all the The part is no more pathetic than passing for more than one actually. Kato Utisensis. Silver Denari was released 47-46. Kato Utisensis (95-46). His mother's brother was the reformer Livius Drus. His father's grandfather was the famous censor Kato the Elder (234-149). Here Kato (also called the younger) was a rare man among the aristocracy, a man of the best intentions and a rare devotion, but quixotic and joyless. Although honorable, persistent, sincere and strongly tied to the country and its hereditary constitution, he had little practical understanding. Kato, blunt in intelligence and sensual, as well as morally disadvantaged passions, may have made a tolerant public accountant. Walking in the sinful capital as an exemplary citizen and mirror of virtue, he scolded those who are not in their turn. His ancestor Kato the Elder worked as a farmer, his anger made him a speaker; the owner of the plough and sword, in politics his narrow but original and common sense usually hit the nail on the head. The younger Kato, however, inspired by the example of his great-grandfather, made a strange caricature of him. Formal and philosophical, a follower of Stoa, the younger Kato will speak in scholastic wisdom and appeared as this cloud walker in the realm of abstract morality. However, like his ancestor, he began to travel on foot rather than ride, take no interest, give up badges of distinction as a soldier, and as the legendary King Romulus appeared shirtless. At an utterly miserable and cowardly age, his courage and his negative virtues spoke powerfully with many. As the only conservative to note who possessed, if not talent and understanding, at least integrity and courage ... he soon became the Optimate party champion. He never missed a Senate meeting, and while he lived, he checked the details of the state budget. But, unfortunately, in politics he simply lacked common sense. Kato's tactic seemed to be nothing more than to set a face against everyone who strayed from the traditional catechisms of the aristocracy, which, of course, worked as much against the Optimats as they did for them. By its character and actions, this Don quixote of the aristocracy proved the exhaustion of the policy of the Senate. After Caesar's victory in Tapsus, ending the civil war, Kato was usually for the benefit of the republican remnant in Outica, and then took his life for the sword. Kato was with anything but a great man. But he was the only person who honorably and courageously defended in the last struggle the great republican system doomed to destruction. Kato played a bigger role in history than many people far outnumbered by his intelligence. It only reinforces the deep and tragic significance of his death that he himself was a fool; actually it's just because don quixote is a fool that he Figure. However, Kato inspired a republican protest against Caesar's victory, which tore as a gossamer all that so-called constitutional character with which Caesar invested his monarchy, and exposed as a hypocritical reconciliation of all parties within the empire. The inexorable war that the spectre of the legitimate republic waged for centuries against the Empire, from Cassius and Brutus to Tracey and Tacitus, the war of conspiracies and literature was Kato's legacy. Shortly after his death, this Republican opposition began to honor like a saint Kato, who in life was often laughter and scandal. But the greatest of these signs of respect was the involuntary reverence that Caesar rendered to him when he made an exception in the contemptuous pardon he offered to vanquished opponents. Only Kato he pursued even for the grave with this vigorous hatred, which practical statesmen are not good to feel towards the antagonists, opposing them from the region of ideas that they consider equally dangerous and impossible. Julius Caesar, British Museum. Gaius Julius Caesar (100- 44), Under construction Cicero, copy of Bertel Torvaldsen, Copenhagen. Tulli Cicero (106-43). Opportunist, accostomed to flirt from time to time with Democrats, from time to time ... with the aristocracy, and provide their services as a lawyer for every influential person under impeachment without distinction of a person or a party. Wealth and commerce were then dominant in the courts, and Cicero's lawyer made himself well achieved as an eloquent imperator and courtier and witty champion. He was not an aristocrat, but a Novus-homo; he did not belong to any party, but cultivated enough ties among both wholesale and popular. Elected consul at 63, he dived legal responsibility in the Catilina conspiracy. As a statesman with no understanding, idea or purpose, Cicero has appeared consistently as a democrat, as an aristocrat, and as a triumvirate tool, and has never been more than a short-sighted egotist. He was valiant in opposition to bogus attacks, and he knocked down many of the pastboard walls with loud noise; no serious matter has ever been, nor in good or evil, resolved by them. In Latin, its value depends on his mastery of style. Yet as an author, he was a dabbler, a journalist in the worst sense of the term, and poor for all the concepts in ideas. His letters reflect the urban or villa life of the world of quality, but remain essentially stagnant and empty. As speaker Cicero had neither conviction nor passion; he was nothing more than a lawyer. He issued his court statements; its proization can be an easy and enjoyable reading. He used the anecdote to excite sentimentality, to revive the dry business of the right mind or wit of a mostly personal kind. However, a serious judge will find such advantages of very dubious value his want political insight into speeches on constitutional issues and a legal deduction in forensic addresses, selfishness forgetful of his duty... terrible futility of thought. However, as a mouthpiece for Cicero's politicians was useful because of the talent of his lawyer to find a reason, or at any rate of words, for everything. Nevertheless, Momsen acknowledges that Cicero's works, which are presented in the form of stylistic dialogue, are not without merit. De Oratore and other rhetorical writings contain a shop of practical forensic expertise and forensic anecdotes of all kinds easily and tastefully laid out, and actually solve the problem of combining didactic instructions with entertainment. The treatise of Cicero De Republica represents then the popular idea that the existing constitution of Rome is essentially an ideal state organization, to which philosophers sought. However, it is the only mix of mongrel history and philosophy. Relying on the Greeks for both ideas and literary devices, De Republica contains comparative originality, as the design shows throughout the Roman local coloration, and a proud consciousness of political life, which the Romans certainly had the right to feel compared to the Greeks. These dialogues show fictional supporters of Cicero, including statesmen from the Scipi circle, who provide a living and effective foundation... for scientific discussion. In a commentary on i Writers, the authors described Mommsen's history as transforming previous works on ancient Rome. He used new sources, such as ancient inscriptions, to get new ideas. He also wrote in a new way. But his very point of view was new, the product of his own life and time, a worldview of the 19th century from the middle Of Europe. From the point of view of our last era, the view of the 19th century is a result that now looks like a kind of distortion. On the other hand, each person's worldview will necessarily embrace unique ideas. New sources of Mommsen followed the generation of historian Barthold Niebuhr, who made significant advances in Roman studies. Nibur raised the standards of scholarships and thus highlighted the lack of rigor of the previous work. He insisted on investigating the initial sources. With his shrewd questioning, he defied the preserved Latin and Greek historical literature, especially with regard to the earliest of Rome. Nibur sifted it carefully to separate what really reflects actual events: stories obtained in individuals with personal knowledge, as opposed to inventions created separately from the event and containing suspected information, such as legends or tales carefully scrambled with myth and fiction. He relied, in part, on the emerging field of criticism of sources to shed new light on Works. [85] [85] Roman history has been praised. Barthold Niebur (1776-1831). However, Mommsen outdid Nibur. Mommsen sought to create a new category of material evidence on which to build an account of Roman history, i.e., in addition to literature and art. The main importance is numerous surviving Latin inscriptions, often on stone or metal. Also included were Roman ruins, and various Roman artifacts ranging from ceramics and textiles, to tools and weapons. Mommsen encouraged systematic research of these new sources, coupled with developments in philology and legal history. This program was largely aimed at further development of this program: inscriptions were collected and authenticated, work was carried out on the ruins, technical examination of facilities was carried out. Historical models can be built on the results of coordinated synthesis of these various studies. Such modeling will give historians an objective basis, independent of ancient texts, with which it would be possible to determine their authenticity. The information found in surviving literature then could for the first time properly be carefullyed for its truth value and accordingly evaluated. Comparative linguistics, numismatics and epigraphy, Mommsen tried to create material that had the status of archival evidence and which would serve to control the narrations of historical writers such as Livi and Appian. Their stories have already been subjected to the close attention of earlier scholars, the most significant of which was Barthold Georg Niebur (1776-1831). ... Niebur's method is to apply the principles of source criticism to unravel contradictions in traditional storytelling and then to explain them, applying models developed in the light of his own experience, such as conscription in peasant society. Mommsen's work was aimed at establishing completely new categories of evidence of the historian's use. Mommsen's work received immediate, widespread recognition, but the praise she received was not unanimous. While the public welcomed the book with delight and scholars testified about its impeccable erudition, some experts were annoyed at the search for old hypotheses rejected by the old conjecture..... Mommsen omits most of the legends of the foundation and other stories about early Rome because he could not find independent evidence to test them. Thus, he ignored the scientific field, which sought a harmonized point of view, using only ancient writers. Instead, Mommsen in Rumicht presented only events from preserved literature that could be somehow tested for other known ones obtained elsewhere, such as inscriptions, philology or archaeology. The book struck and shocked scientists with their revolutionary attitude to the vague beginnings of Rome, sweeping away the old legends of kings and heroes, and with them complex complex the structure is derived from these tales by Barthold Niebur, whose reputation as a great master of Roman history was then sacred. It replaced Nibur's critical work with a much more penetrating critique and a deeper body of withdrawal. The work continues, of course, in the trans-generation pursuit of modern understanding that one can legitimately understand from what is left of the ancient world, including the work of ancient historians. To be self-aware about how the approach of ancient evidence is certainly in the challenge. New style Were scientists who disapproved of his tone. It was really the work of a politician and a journalist as well as a scientist. Prior to writing the story, Mommsen participated in the events of the 1848 german riots, the year of the all-European uprisings; he worked on editing a periodical that was involved in politics. Mommsen later became a member of the Prussian Legislature and eventually the Reichstag. Mommsen's transparent comparison with modern politics is said to distort his terse style to be journalistic, i.e., not up to the standard to be achieved by a professional academic. On his modernist tone, Mommsen wrote: I wanted to knock the ancients off the fantastic pedestal on which they appear in the real world. Therefore, the consul had to become a mayor. As for his partisanship, Mommsen replied: Those who have experienced historical events... to see that history is not written or made without love and hate. On the challenge that he favors Julius Caesar's political career, Mommsen referred to the corruption and dysfunction of the reeling Republic: When the government cannot govern, it ceases to be legitimate, and whoever has the right to overthrow it is also entitled. He went on to clarify that Caesar's role should be seen as the lesser of two evils. As an organism better than a machine, it is every imperfect constitution that gives space for the free self-determination of most citizens infinitely better than the most humane and wonderful absolutism; for one is alive and the other is dead. Thus, the Empire will keep together only a tree without juice. Theodore Mommsen. The Roman party Only in one important aspect, Saunders and Collins hold , made Mommsen get into a serious mistake. They note that most scholars blamed Mommsen for his depiction of the Roman party system during the Late Republic. They readily acknowledge that the Senate was dominated by hardcore aristocrats or oligarchies who also almost monopolized the main offices of the government, such as the consul, through family ties, marriage, wealth or corruption. It can be said that such men formed the party in the sense that they had at least a common view - stubborn conservatism. They argued in vain, among the for public honors and personal greed, forming clicks and intrigues in what is tantamount to a private game. This wrong injustice of the Senate undermined Rome, causing long-term misdeeds and injustices that caused sporadic and sometimes massive and desperate opposition. But the opposition was never organized into the party. ... There was no clear political tradition that flowed from Gracchi through Marius to Caesar. Classic Lily Ross Taylor looks at the matter as follows. Cicero, to refer to these two rival political groups, constantly used the Latin word partes English party. Cicero (106-43) was a key figure in Roman politics who wrote volumes about it. In distinguishing the two groups, he used Latin terms optimates for supporters of the Nobility of the Senate and popular for elite supporters of popular demonstrations or simplicity. She points to the Roman historians Sallust (86-34) and Livi (59 B.C.-17) for partial confirmation, as well as later writers Plutarch (c.46-120), Appianu (c.95-c.165) and Dio (c.155-c.235), and later Machiavelli (1469-1527). These rival political groups, professor Taylor argues, were quite amorphous, as Mommsen knew. In fact, when Mommsen wrote it Romische Geschichte (1854-1856) political parties in Europe and America tended to be amorphous, being comparatively disorganized and unfocused, lacking member loyalty and often lacking programs. However, in the 20th century modern parties became better organized with solid politics, so that their comparison with ancient Rome becomes more and more weak. She describes Mommsen: Theodore Mommsen ... presented the party policy of the late Roman republic in terms of the struggle of its time between liberalism and reaction, which won the battle in 1848. Mommsen identified Roman optimates with the hated Prussian Junkers and aligned with Caesar against them. But he fully acknowledged the lack of principle or program among the people. He was well aware of the amorphous nature of the Roman parties. The parties he knew in Prussia and in other German states were almost equally amorphous. As Professor Taylor continues, since Mommsen wrote modern party tickets and party lines, they have become more disciplined, and the meaning of the party has undergone radical changes. Thus, the terms optimat and people's party mislead the modern reader. Recently, there has been a protest against the appropriation of parties to Rome. The protest has gone too far. That is, the aforementioned differences were strong and concomital policy during the last century of the Roman Republic. In 1961, the British historian Edward Hallett Carr published his What Is History?, which became well known. In this suggested that the very nature of writing history would lead historians in general to reveal themselves readers as prisoners in the context of their own age and culture. As a result, it can be added that each generation feels the need to rewrite history so that it better fits into their own situation, their point of view. To illustrate his point here, Carr chose a number of well-known historians, including Theodore Mommsen, as examples. Democratically elected National Assembly at St. Paul's Church, Frankfurt, May 18, 1848. Accordingly, Carr informs us that the multivolume work of Mommsen Remishe Gesicte (Leipzig 1854-1856) can tell a shrewd modern historian about Germany in the mid-19th century, while it presents a story about ancient Rome. One of the main events of recent times in Germany was the failure of the 1848-1849 revolution, while in The Goodmee's Roman history his narrative of the Republic comes to an end with the revolutionary emergence of a strong state executive in the figure of Julius Caesar. Carr's hypothesis follows. Mommsen was imbued with a sense of the need for a strong man to clean up the mess left by the inability of the German people to realize their political aspirations; and we will never value his story in its true value until we realise that his famous idealization of Caesar is the product of this desire of a strong man to save Germany from ruin, and that the lawyer-politician Cicero, this ineffective chatter and slippery procrastination, came straight out of the Paulicirch debate in Frankfurt in 1848. Far from protesting or denying such observation, Mommsen himself readily admitted it. He added: I wanted to knock the ancient off their fantastic pedestal, where they appear in the real world. So the consul had to become a mayor. Maybe I overdid it; but my intention was sound enough. Along with Carr on Mommsen, Carr also approaches the history of George Groth's Greece (1846-1856) and states that he must also reveal the England of that period as well as Ancient Greece. So, about Groth Carr's book of conjecture. Groth, an enlightened radical banker writing in the 1840s, embodied the aspirations of Britain's growing and politically progressive middle class in an idealized picture of Athenian democracy, in which Pericles was seen as a Bentamite reformer and Athens acquired an empire in the absence of intelligence. It may not be fanciful to suggest that Grote's neglect of slavery in Athens reflects the failure of the group in which he belonged to face the challenge of a new English working-class factory. democracy in the fifth century BC, Professor Carr attributes R.G. Collingwood as his inspiration for this line of thinking. Collingwood's Robin Collingwood, a professor at Oxford in the early 20th century, worked to create a philosophy of history in which history remained a sovereign discipline. As part of this project, he studied a lot of Italian philosopher and historian Benedetto Kroce (1866-1952). Collingwood wrote about Croc, here in his 1921 essay. Croce shows how Herodotus, Livi, Tacitus, Grote, Mommsen, Thierry and so on, all wrote from a subjective point of view, wrote so that their personal ideals and feelings colored all their work and in parts falsified it. Now, if so, who wrote the real story, the story is not colored by points of view and ideals? Obviously no one. ... History, perhaps, must be seen, and must be seen by someone from someone's point of view. ... But this is not an accusation against any particular school of historians; it is the law of our nature. To sum up, Edward Carr presents here his interesting developments concerning the theories proposed by Benedetto Croce and then adopted by Robin Collingwood. Carr does not refer to the erroneous views or guilt characteristic of Mommsen or any of the other historians he mentions. Rather, any such errors and shortcomings would be common to the entire writing story. As Collingwood argues, the only safe way to avoid a mistake is to refuse to seek the truth. Nevertheless, this line of thought, and these examples and illustrations of how Germany's Mommsen can color its history of ancient Rome, illuminate both the process and the result. Caesar's figure of Julius Caesar (100-44) remains controversial among historians and students of ancient Rome. Mommsen saw him as a leader with a special gift for organizing and transforming the city-state that came to rule the Mediterranean world. Caesar was opposed by the oligarchy of aristocratic families, the optimums that dominated the Senate and almost monopolized public office, which profited from corruption in the city and exploited foreign conquests. They blocked the changes required by time, strangulation or coopting, from time to time violence, anyone who advanced progressive programs. Although the state was dangerously unstable and the city was often rented by an armed mob, the optimums relied on its heritage of the Roman tradition. Julius Caesar, bust at the Museum of Archaeology Nazionale di Napoli. Caesar emerged from the heart of this old nobility, but he was born into a family that had already allied with popularism, i.e. those who advocated constitutional change. Thus, Caesar's career was associated with the struggle for a new order, and, unable to find an opportunity on peaceful tracks, he became a warlord whose triumph in the field of arms contributed to political change. However, both sides in this long struggle have been history of violence and corruption. Mommsen, too, learned and reported: Caesar the rake, Caesar the conspirator, and Caesar a trailblazer for later centuries of absolutism. Some contemporaries follow the optimat that it was the nefarious role that Caesar played in the fall of the Republic, whose ruling array of institutions has not yet outlived their usefulness. On the contrary, the fall of the Republic marked the beginning of a repressive Empire whose divine rulers held absolute power. Julius Caesar as a villain was a view shared, of course, by his knife-wielding assassins, most of whom were also nobility. Common is also without shame that the embodiment of classical Roman politics and writing, Marcus Tullia Cicero (106-43). For some observers, after the assassination of Caesar, Cicero saved his rather precarious career in politics with his high-profile position in favor of the Republic. Also strong among Caesar's opponents was Marcus Porousius Kato Utisensis (95-46), who for a long time led the opiates, supporters of the Republican aristocracy, against the popular and, in particular, against Julius Caesar. In the imperial era, stoic Kato became a symbol of lost republican virtue. M. Tulli Cicero at the age of about 60 years. However, even mortal enemies could see Caesar's bright genius; indeed, many conductors were its beneficiaries. Brutus, Cassius and others who, like Cicero, became attached to the plot, did not act out of enmity towards Caesar than out of a desire to destroy his dominacio. The conspiracy also failed to rebuild the Republic. The libertines of the aristocrat meant very little to the population: people, armies or even cavalrymen; his killers could not understand the real pulse of respublica. Contemporaries may be able to see both sides of the issue, however, as a historian can. Indeed, there is a big difference in the context between, say, an American and a German historian of the 1850s, where in 1848 citizens made rather spontaneous, rambling efforts to advance German politics towards a free and united country: it was defeated by the nobility. The philosopher Robin Collingwood (1889-1943) developed a subtle perspective on history in which each person explores the past to create his own true understanding of the man's unique cultural heritage. While objectivity is still crucial to this process, each of them will naturally extend its inner truth out of the universe of human truth. This corresponds to sharp restrictions on the ability of each person to know all aspects of history. To a relaxed degree, these restrictions also work for the historian. Collingwood writes: It doesn't reduce the story to something arbitrary or capricious. He remains a genuine knowledge. How can it be if my thoughts about Julius Caesar are different from Mommsen's? none of us are wrong? No, because the object is different. My historical object is about my own past, not About Mommsen's past. Mommsen and I live in many things, and in many ways we live in a common past; but we are different people and people of different cultures and different generations, we have a different past. ... Your views on Julius Caesar should be slightly different, perhaps a little, but palpable. This distinction is not arbitrary, because I see, or should be able to see that in its place, except (once again) from all the questions about the errors, I had to come to its conclusions . The modern historian of ancient Rome echoes the crude, current consensus of scholars about this great and contradictory figure, as he completes his well-regarded biography of Julius Caesar: When they killed him, his killers did not realize that they had eliminated the best and most visionary mind of their class. The commentary of the second volume of Mommsen mentioned the future publication of the fourth volume about the Roman Empire. Due to the huge popularity of its first three, there remained for decades substantial interest and expectations regarding the appearance of this fourth volume. However, he did not appear during Mommsen's life. Consequently, this missing fourth volume has led many scientists to speculate about why not. At the same time, such reflections served to suggest where Theodore Mommsen was to be located among the portrait gallery of historians of the 19th century and the modern era. As for the question of why Mommsen was unable to continue his history after the fall of the republic, Carr wrote, During his active career, the problem of what happened after a strong man took over is not yet relevant. Nothing inspired Mommsen to project this problem back onto the Roman scene; and the history of the empire remained unwritten. Because of Mommsen's expertise in many fields of research, he knows as an eyewitness because... such a perfect understanding (puts it) in the position of a contemporary. Thus, he feels a certainty that he cannot explain, for example, the judgment of a statesman or a shrewd business person who shapes his opinion with processes that he does not try to analyze. Without following Niebur's divinations, Mommsen's manner raises the question of whether a discrete and controlled interstitial projection protected by monitoring results is closely post-fact. Is it obligatory to sacrifice claims of objectivity? The term intuition based on science, practicing such methods are vulnerable to caustic problems for the integrity of their science. Recognition of such ailments may also include an assessment of the skills and quality of the outcome. Praise for Mommsen's work continues to attract a sophisticated and popular In their opening remarks, Saunders and Collins express their admiration for Mommsen and his contribution to the study of ancient Roman history: Theodore Mommsen (1817-1903) was the greatest classical historian of his century or ours. His only rival in any century was Edward Gibbon, whose monumental history of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire complements rather than competes with The Goodmeen's excellent description of the Roman Republic. One encyclopedic reference concludes: No less great, as is an antique dealer, lawyer, political and social historian, Mommsen had no competitors. He combined the power of the minute-long investigation with the sole faculty for a bold generalization... On the history of Rome historian Arnold Toynbee writes: Mommsen wrote a great book, which, of course, will always be considered masterpieces of Western historical literature. G.P. Gooch gives us such comments, appreciating The Story of Mommsen: His confidence in sensitivity, his multifaceted knowledge, his pulsating life role and the Venetian coloration of his portraits left an invaluable impression on each reader. It was a work of genius and passion, the creation of a young man, and as fresh and vital in the day as when it was written. 1902 Nobel Prize, Theodore Mommsen, 1897 Portrait of Franz von Lenbach. In 1902, Professor Theodore Mommsen became the second person to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, which was established the previous year. This world recognition was given to him with a special reference to Ryumisha Gesicte (History of Rome). Praise called him the greatest living master of the art of historical writing. The award was given almost fifty years after the first appearance of the work. The award also came in the last year of the author's life (1817-1903). This is the only time the Nobel Prize for Literature has been awarded to a historian as such. including the history of current events, and the Nobel Memorial Prize was awarded for two economic stories (1993). Nevertheless, the multivolume history of Rome Mommsen remains in the only Nobel class. The encyclopedia of 1911 Britannica, a well-known reference, but nevertheless a source unpreparedly critical, sums up: No less great as an antique dealer, lawyer, political and social historian, Mommsen lived to the time when among the students of Roman history he had disciples, followers, critics, but no rivals. He combined the power of minute investigations with an exceptional faculty for bold generalization and the ability to track the impact of thought on political and social life. British historian G. Gooch, writing in 1913, eleven after the Nobel Prize, Mommsen, gives us this assessment of his Ryumishes Geschichte: His confidence in sensitivity, his multifaceted knowledge, his throbbing vitality and Venetian coloring his portraits left an invaluable impression on every reader. It was a work of genius and passion, the creation of a young man, and as fresh and vital in the day as when it was written. Another British historian, Arnold Toynbee, wrote about the history of Rome in 1934 at the beginning of his 12-volume universal history: Mommsen wrote the great book Rumishes Gesicte, which, of course, will always be considered masterpieces of Western historical literature. See also Theodore Mommsen The Story of Rome Barthold Georg Niebuhr Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Links - G. Gooch, History and Historians in the nineteenth century (London: Longmans, Green 1913, 4th impr. 1928) in 456. Facts about the Nobel Prize in Literature: awarded for a specific literary work: While the Nobel Prize for Literature is awarded for the work of a writer, there are nine laureates in literature for whom the Swedish Academy has allocated a specific work for special recognition. Theodore Mommsen in 1902: The greatest living master of the art of historical writing, with a special reference to his monumental work The History of Rome . G.. Gooch, history and historians of the nineteenth century (1913, 1928) in 456, quoting a letter from Mommsen to the novelist Freitag. - Cf., Alexander Demandt, Introduction at 1-35, 1, in Mommsen, History of Rome under emperors (London: Routledge 1996). The Saudis and Collins, Introduction at 1-17, 5-6, to their edition of Mommsen, History of Rome (New Haven: Meridian Books 1958). - Gooch, History and Historians in the nineteenth century (1913, 1928) in 456, quoting Mommsen's correspondence to Henzen. On another note, Mommsen married Marie Reimer, the daughter of her publisher Leipzig; together they had sixteen children. T. Wiedemann, Mommsen, Rome and the German Kaiserreich 36-47, at 44, in Mommsen, The History of Rome under emperors (1992; 1996). Mommsen, Rumishe Gesicte, 3 volumes (Leipzig: Reimer and Hirsel 1854-1856). Although published in three volumes, this part of Mommsen's story is organized into five books. The Saudis and Collins, Introduction 1-17, at 5-6, their truncated edition of Mommsen, The History of Rome (New Haven: Meridian Books 1958). In the.. Dixon, Translator's Foreword (1894) on v-x, viii, to The History of The Mommsen of Rome, Volume One (1854; 1862; reprint by free press/Wing of the Falcon Press, Glencoe IL, 1957). Alexander Demandt, Introduction 1-35, at 1, in Mommsen, History of Rome under emperors (London: Routledge 1996). Fire in 1880 in Mommsen's home office due to gas was suggested as a reason not to be the four, but Alexander Demandt rejects such speculation. A. Demand, Introduction 1-35, at 7, 22-23, in Mommsen, History of Rome under emperors (1992; London: Routledge 1996). There was a lot of scientific discussion about the fate of the missing fourth volume. Cf., A. Demandt, Introduction at 1-13 (Why No Volume IV?), in Mommsen (1992; 1996). Issue Cf., Comment section here below. The fifth volume of Mommsen with subtitles Die Provinzen von Caesar bis Diokletian (Berlin: Weidmann 1885). Issue Cf., Review content section below. Published decades earlier, from 1854 to 1856. Mommsen (1885; London: Macmillan 1909; reprint of New York 1996) at 4-5. Theodore Mommsen, Rumishe Kaisergeshichte (Munich: C.H.Beck'sche 1992), edited by B. and A. Demand; translates as The History of Rome under emperors (London: Routledge 1996). The Hensel family was different. His father wrote a family history (1879), which included the composer Felix Mendelssohn, brother of his mother. His son became a professor of philosophy. His paternal grandfather was a Prussian court artist. A. Demand, Introduction 1-35, at 14-15, 17, in Mommsen (1992; 1996). Theodore Mommsen (1992; 1996), Introduction at 1-35 A. S demand, page 9-10, 13-14. Dixon's translation of the first three volumes of Mommsen was published in four English volumes. Dixon, Foreword by The Translator (1894) on viii, as published by Sons of Charles Scribners, New York, 1895. For example, as stated here by the earliest date of the following publishers. London: R. Bentley (1862), J. M. Dent (1868), Macmillan (1894), Routledge/Tommes (1996). New York: C. Scribner (1866). Glencoe IL: Free Press (1894). Mommsen's Remish Gesicte has been translated into many languages after being published in Italian, French, English, Russian, Polish and Spanish. New York Times obituary, Professor Mommsen is dead on the front page (November 2, 1903). Relatively recently, the first volume was translated into Chinese by Li Jianyang and published by the Commercial Press, Beijing, 1994. T. Wiedemann and Van Neysin, Roman history of Mommsen in Histos, Art.1 (April 1997). Mommsen, The History of Rome. A story about events and faces from the conquest of Carthage to the end of the Republic (New Haven CN: Meridian/Greenwich 1958), edited by Saunders and Collins. Text selected from Mommsen's Book IV and Book V. As for his writing here, Gooch believes: Mommsen achieves a full step with Marius and Solla, and portrays the dying struggle of the Republic with incomparable strength and brilliance. Gooch (1913, 1928) at 456. Saunders and Collins, in their edition of The History of Rome (1958), discuss their reduction and their revision of Dixon's translation, in Introduction 1-17, at 12-15 and 15-16. Also published by R. Bentley and Son, The translation was later revised by F. Haverfield, apparently for the 1909 edition of Macmillan, London. Watch Haverfield's Prefab Note, included in a 1995 reissue by Barnes and Noble, New York. Theodore Mommsen, The History of Rome at the Emperors (London: Routledge 1996), edited by Thomas Wiedemann, from the German edition of B. Demandt and A. Demandt, introduction A. Demandt, translated by Claire Krojzl. Summary of Mommsen's book in Presentation Speech by Carl David af Virsen, Permanent Secretary of the Swedish Academy, Stockholm, December 10, 1902. List of Literature Nobel Prize - 1902:Theodore Mommsen. Af Virson was also a poet. - Mommsen, History of Rome (1854-1856; 1862-1866; reprint 1957 free press) at I: 72-86 (Bk.I, ch.5 start). These social principles were not specific to Rome, but were common to all Latins. Mommsen, History of Rome (1854-1856; 1862-1866; reissue of 1957 by The Free Press) by phone: 410-412 (Bk.II, ch.3 end). For example, Mommsen, History of Rome (1854-1856; 1862-1866; reissue of 1957 by the Free Press) III: 35-63 (Bk.III, ch. XI of the second half), and 293-296 (Bk.IV, ch.1 end). Mommsen, History of Rome (1854-1856; 1862-1866; reissue 1957 by the Free Press) III: 57-63 (Bk.III, ch.11 end). Mommsen, History of Rome (1854-1856; 1862-1866; reissue 1957 by the Free Press), for example, in IV: 163-166 (Bk.IV, ch.11 beginning/middle). For example, reform for some agricultural land proposed separately by Gracchi, Tiberius (168-133) and Gaius (154-121), and similar reforms put forward by Drusus (d.91). Mommsen, History of Rome (1854-1856; 1862-1866; reprint 1957 free press) at III: 297-333, 334-370 (Bk.IV, ch.2 and ch.3), and III: 483-489 (Bk.IV, ch.6). Mommsen's term. It included poor plebs. - Mommsen, History of Rome (1854-1856; 1862-1866; reprint 1957 free press) at III: 65-75, 96-97, 98-103 (Bk.III, ch.12 start and end), in III: 305-309, 311-314 (Bk.IV, ch.2 average start), and, for example, in IV: 171-172 (Bk.IV, ch.11 middle). Due to the decline in the population of poor plebeians and free peasantry in general, foreigners and landless proletarians were entitled under Marius (157-86) to serve in the army. Their relatively weak government ties made them less loyal to Roman politicians, but economic dependence encouraged their connection to the general's commander, their salarymaster. Mommsen, History of Rome (1854-1856; 1862-1866; reprint 1957 free press) at III: 456-462 (Bk.IV, ch.6 near start), but compare on IV: 135-136 (Bk.IV, ch.10 mid/end/end). Several triumvirates, during the last decades of the Republic, functioned in some respects as military dictatorships of the light. Cf., Mommsen, History of Rome (1854-1856; 1862-1866; reprint 1957 free press) on IV: (Bk.V, ch.3 mid), and in IV: 504-518 (Bk.V, ch.6 end), relative to the two triumvirates of Pompey, Cassus and Caesar. Among the Roman generals who interfered in the civilian government: before Sulla, Marius (157-86) was a simple people; after Sulla, a simple wholesale of Pompey the Great (106-48), whose main opponent was the noble popular Julius Caesar (100-44). Here ends the rendering of the content taken from the Presentation Speech of Af Virsen for the Nobel Prize of 1902, in relation to Mommsen Remish Geshicht (1854-1856), translated as The History of Rome (1862-1866). A similar, though longer, review of the contents of Roman history was previously provided by V. Allen, Theodore Mommsen at 445-465, in the North American Review, 112 (1870). To discuss the opposite answer to Mommsen, such as his portrayal of Julius Caesar, see the Comment section below. Mommsen, History of Rome (1854-1856; 1862-1866; reissue of Free Press 1957) in V: 315-377 (Bk.V, ch.11). Mommsen, History of Rome (1854-1856; 1862-1866; reissue of the Free Press 1957) on V: 377-406 (Bk.V, ch.11), quote on 406. Mommsen, History of Rome (1854-1856; 1862-1866; reissue of the Free Press 1957) on V: 406-442 (Bk.V, ch.11), quotes on 427 and 442. Six centuries later, the codification of the law occurred under Justinian (r.527-565), at 434-435. Another scientist suggested that Mommsen must have considered Caesar's murder an incalculable disaster. In the.. Allen, Theodore Mommsen in the North American Review (1870) at 112: 445-465, at 456. The inscriptionum Latinarum (1867 and continues) body, which under its editor's office has grown to 40 volumes of sheet occupying eight feet of shelves. W. Warde Fowler, Roman Essays and Interpretations (Oxford Univ. 1920), Theodore Mommsen: His Life and Work 250-268, at 261-262. Mommsen, Die unteritalischen Dialekte (Leipzig: Weidmann 1850). Mommsen helped show that Latin and other italic languages were sister languages to the ancient Greek language, which was fatal to the Pelasgian theory favored by Niebuhr. In the.. Allen, Theodore Mommsen 445-465, at 446, in the North American Review, 112 (1870). - Seitschrift Fuhr Numismatic; plus Mommsen's own large volume on ancient Roman coins, zber-das Ryumish Menzvesen (1850). Of the coins, standard scales and alphabet used by the ancient Romans, Mommsen claimed that their main influence was Greek civilization, not Etruscan. In the.. Allen, Theodore Mommsen 445-465, in 448, in the North American Review, 112 (1870). Mommsen, Rumishes Staastreth, 3 volumes (Leipzig: Hirsel 1871-1876, 3d ed. 1887). Goh calls Mommsen's Staazzrecht the greatest historical treatise on political institutions ever written. History and historians in the nineteenth century (1913, 1928) in 460. Rumishes Strafrecht Mommsen, 3 volumes Dunker and Unipot 1899). Fritz Stern, Variety Of History (Cleveland: The World / Meridian 1956) in 191. The 920 subjects are listed in The Mommsen's bibliography, prepared by the dongemaster in 1887. Nobel Prize Presentation Speech (Re Mommsen), given by Af Virson (Stockholm, December 10, 1902). Mommsen, Roman Province (Leipzig 1865; London 1866; London: Macmillan 1909; reprint of New York 1996) at 4-5. Theodore Mommsen, 'Rumishe Kaisergeshichte (Munich: C.H.Beck'sche 1992), edited by Barbara and Alexander Sprost; translated by Claire Kreuzl as The History of Rome at the Emperors (London: Routledge 1996), edited by Thomas Wiedemann from the German edition of B. and A. Demandt, essay T. Wiedemann, introduction A. Demandt. See above, Post on Original. See here below the more recent volumes on Nota-Rene. Alexander Demandt, Introduction 1-35, at 14-17, in Mommsen, History of Rome under emperors (1992; 1996). Presentation of a speech by Carl David af Virson, Swedish Academy, Stockholm, December 10, 1902. Hannibal, Scipione African, Gaius Grachus, Marius, Sulla and Caesar were mentioned in particular. The list of literature nobel prize - 1902:Theodore Mommsen and W. Ward Fowler, however, in his Roman essays and interpretations (Oxford University 1920), Theodore Mommsen: His Life and Work 250-268, in 259, writes that Mommsen went astray, condemning Pompey and Caesar, Cither. Mommsen, History of Rome (1854-1856), translated by Dixon (1862-1866), reprinted by the Free Press (1957), II: 243-245 (Bk.III, ch.VI at the beginning of the middle). His father Hamilcar: II: 236-239. His Oath Against Rome: II: 238 and 483 (Bk.III, ch. IX end). As a civilian leader: II: 378-379 (Bk.III, ch. VII at the beginning of the middle). Exile to the East: II: 449, 451, 454 (Bk. III, ch. IX is closer to the beginning). Mommsen (1854-1856; 1957) II: 324-327 (Bk.III, ch.VI mid), 483 (Bk.III, ch. IX end); III: 61 (Bk.III, ch. XI near the end). Mommsen, History of Rome (1854-56; reissue: Free Press 1957) in III: 318 (Bk.IV, ch. Iii middle). Cornelia Afrikana enjoyed a literary celebrity in Roman culture. The collection of letters from Cornelia, Gracchi's mother, was notable in part for the classical purity of language and the writer's high spirit, partly as the first correspondence published in Rome and as the first literary staging by a Roman lady. Mommsen (1854-56; 1957) at IV: 250 (Bk.IV, ch. XIII near the end). Mommsen (1854-1956; 1957) III: 317-318, 319-320, 321-323 (Bk.IV, ch. Iii middle). Mommsen (1854-1856; 1957) III: 329-331, 333; 325-327 (Bk.IV, ch.II end). Accepted as Publius Cornelius Scipione Aemilianus Africanus. Mommsen, History of Rome (1854-56; reprint 1957) at III: 314-317, 327, 331-332, 334, 337-339 (Bk.IV, ch.II mid to end ch. Start III). Mommsen (1854- 1856; 1957) III: 334-337, 342-344 (Bk.IV, Start); 349, 353–361; 366-370 (Bk.IV, ch. III end). Mommsen, The History of Rome (1854-1856; reissue: Free Press 1957) III: 452-453 (Bk.IV, ch.VI beginning). Mommsen (1854-1856; 1957) iii: 453-454 (Bk.IV, ch.VI beginning). Mommsen (1854-1856; 1957) in III: 454-456 (Bk.IV, ch.VI beginning); IV: 274 (Bk.V, ch. I'm in the early middle). Mommsen (1854-1856; 1957) in III: 472 (Bk.VI, ch.IV mid); IV: 68 (Bk.I, ch.VI middle). Cf., III: 467-478; And, IV: 60-69. Mommsen, History of Rome (1854-1956; 1957) III: 483-484, 486-489 (Bk.IV, ch.VI end); 497-498 (Bk.IV, ch. VII is closer to the beginning). Mommsen, History of Rome (1854-56; 1957) III: 407-409, 537-54x, IV: 98-100, 102-106, 108, 111, 114, 139-142-145, 150. Mommsen (1854-1856; 1957) IV: 271-273 (Bk.V, ch. I'm late to start). Mommsen (1854-1856; 1957) IV: 274-275 (Bk.V, ch. I'm late for the start); In: 272-273 (Bk.V, ch. X early end). Mommsen (1854-1856; 1957) IV: 454-455 (Bk.V, ch. V near the beginning). Kato Senior: III: 45-47 (Bk.III, ch. THE XI is the late middle). Mommsen, History of Rome (1854-56; 1957) V: 299-300, 302-304 (Bk.V, ch. X near the end). Mommsen, History of Rome (1854-56; 1957) IV: 278, V: 305-314. Mommsen (1854-1856; 1957) IV: 470-471 (Bk.V, ch. V mean); In: 503-506 (Bk.V, ch. XII near end), 132- 133 (Bk.V, ch. VIII middle). The self-trained law Mommsen apparently did not really appreciate Cicero's lawyer. As for the figure of Katilina: IV: 470, 475, 478-479, 482-483 (Bk.V, ch. V near the end); 516-518 (Bk.V, ch.VI end). Mommsen (1854-1856; 1957) V: 507-509 (Bk.V, ch. XII near the end). See Collingwood's criticism and reflections below, subsection of Caesar. Barthold Georg Niebur, Romisha Gesicte (Berlin 1811-1833); later edited by Leonhard Schmitz as Romisha Geshicht, von de Ersten panishe Craig encore zum tode Constantine (Berlin: Realschulbuchh 1844). Thomas Wiedemann, Mommsen, Rome and german Kaiserreich 36-47, at 43, in Mommsen, History of Rome under emperors (1992; 1996). According to Mommsen, all historians, as far as they are worthy of this name, are disciples of Niebur, not least those who are not from his school. G. P. Gooch, History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century (London: Longmans, Green 1913, 4th impr. 1928), Niebuhr at 14-24, a quote by Mommsen at 24. Peter Gay and Victor G. Wexler, historians at work (New York: Harper and The Line 1975) at 1-3. G.. Gooch, history and historians of the nineteenth century (London: Longmans, Green 1913, 1928) at 454-465. Cf., Mommsen, Rector's Address (University of Berlin 1874), second half translated into History Diversity edited by Fritz Stern (Cleveland: World/Meridian 1956) on 192-196. T. Wiedemann, Mommsen, Rome and the German Kaiserreich 36-47, at 43, in Mommsen, The History of Rome under emperors (1992; 1996). G.. Gooch, history and nineteenth century (1913, 1928) in 456-457. Apparently Mommsen mentions Romulus only once in connection with identifying the early boundary line of Roman territory. Mommsen (1854-56; 1957) in I: 58-59 (Bk.I, ch.4 mid). Saunders and Collins, Introduction 1-17, at 6, in their short edition of Mommsen, History of Rome (Leipzig 1854-56; New Haven CN: Greenwich/Meridian 1957). Cf., Gary Forsyth, Critical History of Early Rome. From the backstory to the First Punic War (University of California 2005), for example, its Chapter 3, Ancient Sources of Early Roman History in 59-77. - Gooch, History and Historians of the nineteenth century (1913, 1928) at 456-457, 455, 464-465. - Gooch, History and Historians (1913, 1928) at 457-458, quoting Mommsen four times. Saunders and Collins, 1-17, at 8-9, to their abbreviated 1958 edition of Rome's Mommsen Story. Here Saunders and Collins seem to summarize Mommsen, The History of Rome (1854-1856; 1862-1866; reprint free press 1957) in III: 297-304 (Bk.IV, ch.2 beginning). Lily Ross Taylor, party politics at Caesar's age (UCLA 1949) at 8- 14, with notes 18-54 at 187-193; especially in 10-12 and historians in footnote 51. a b Taylor, Party politics in Caesar's time (University of California 1949) at 12. Lily Ross Taylor (1949) in 12 text note 50 (in 192) quotes Mommsen, The History of Rome (1854-1856; 1862-1866; reissue of the Free Press 1957) in III: 303 (Bk.IV, ch.2 start/mid): Both sides fought equally for shadows and measured in their ranks by none but enthusiasts and hypocrites. Both were equally corrupt and in fact equally useless. None of them had a plan to go far beyond the status quo of the time. Their contests were more over political tactics than over state politics. Edward Hallett Carr, What Is History (New York: The Accidental House 1961) at 28-29, 35; against Mommsen at 43-45. This reaction to the Roman history of Mommsen (1854-1856) began in the mid-1850s. Gooch, History and Historians in the nineteenth century (London: Longmans, Green 1913) in 457. Lily Ross Taylor, party politics in the Caesar era (University of California 1949) at the age of 12, where the comparison between ancient Rome and Mommsen's Germany is directly celebrated and drawn. Some see an analogy not between Ancient Rome and Germany Mommsen, but with Rome and the modern West. In 1931, Egon Friedell summed up: Crassus becomes a speculator in the manner of Louis Philippe, the Gracakh brothers are socialist leaders, and the Gauls - Indians, etc. Friedell, Kulturgeschichte der Neuzeit (1931), in III: 270. a b Carr, Edward Hallett (1961). What is history. New York: Knopf. 43-44. OCLC 397273. Mommsen is quoted in G. Gooch, history and historians in the nineteenth century (London: Longmans, Green 457. See the discussion here above in the New Style section. Carr, what is history? (New York: The Accidental House/Vintage 1961) at 43. Carr, what is history? (1961) at the time of 44. Carr, what is history? (1961) at 29-31. Collingwood's essay here explains the Theory of E Stooria della Storeyography (Bari 1917). Collingwood (1921, 1965) at 5. R. G. Collingwood, The Philosophy of Croce History in Hibbert's journal, 19: 263-278 (1921), collected in his essays on the philosophy of history (University of Texas 1965) in 3-22, 11. Edward Hallett Carr (1961). What is history. New York: Knopf. 43-44. OCLC 397273. Other historians mentioned by Carr (at 48) include: Trevelyan, Namier, and Meinecke. R. G. Collingwood, The Philosophy of Croce History in Hibbert's journal, 19: 263-278 (1921), collected in his essays on the philosophy of history (University of Texas 1965) in 3-22, 11. For example, Luciano Canfora, Giulio Cesare. Il dittatore democratico (Roma-Bari: Jus. Laterza and Figli 1999) translates as Julius Caesar. life and times of the dictator of the peoples (University of California 2007). In addition to the usual attacks and praise associated with the name of Julius Caesar, here Canfora also mentions the great destruction that is said to have been caused by the conquest of Gaul under Caesar's command, including the enormous loss of human life and enslavement of the population, as reported by Pliny the Elder (23-79) in his Naturalis Hision: 91-99, and also found in other ancient authors. Canfora (1999, 2007) at 118-123, 121. Mommsen, History of Rome (1854-1856; 1862-1864; release of free press 1957), for example, in IV: 278-280 (Bk.V, ch.1 mid) and V: 107, 174, 305-315 (Bk.V, ch. 8 start, ch.9 mid, ch.11 start). - Mommsen, History of Rome (1854-1856; 1862-1864; reprint of free press 1957), for example, at III: 297-299 (Bk.IV, ch.2 start). Sander and Collins, Introduction 1-17, at 8, to their short edition of Mommsen, History of Rome (New Haven CN: Meridian 1957). Cf., Erich S. Grun, Last Generation of the Roman Republic (University of California 1974, 1995) in 498-507. Grun is not given to Judge Caesar, but in 504 he concludes that the Republic could well survive, but for the serious damage caused by the ferocious civil war between Pompey and Caesar. Cf., W. Warde Fowler, Roman essays and interpretations (Oxford Univ. 1920), Thomas Mommsen: His Life and Work 250-268, at 259. In the.. Allen, Theodore Mommsen in the North Atlantic Review (1970) at 112: 445-465, in 452: The veneration of his lawyer to power too often leads him to the side of power and prerogative against impotent traction after freedom. Of course, on the contrary, Mommsen the revolutionary of 1848 may have shaken his head to read this comment. Compare: William Shakespeare, The Tragedy of Julius Caesar (1599), in full plays and William Shakespeare, edited by Wm. A. Neilson and Chs. J. Hill (Cambridge M.A.: Houghton and Mifflin 1942) in 1012-1042. Shakespeare's play may yet affect how Caesar is viewed, though above the editors on 1011 comment: Caesar's character is deliberately foreshortened in the play for dramatic purposes. Since Caesar must be killed, Shakespeare must emphasize those qualities in him that can justify the act in the eyes of those who commit it and who must, temporarily, have the sympathy of the audience. Consequently, Caesar is presented without reference to the true sources of his greatness, the emphasis is on his arrogance. Cicero in his published writings refers to Caesar's killers as the company that made that most glorius cases. Cicero, Second Filippic vs. Anthony (October, 44 BC); in Cicero, Selected Works, edited by Michael Grant (Penguin Books 1962, 1971) at 102-153, 113. Cicero writes in a personal letter to his friend Atticus that one of them eyes about the death of a tyrant. Citing D.R. Shackleton Bailey in his Cicero (New York: Sons of Chs. Scribner 1971) at 228. Bailey, in 227 remarks: Shen Brutus was waving a dagger that he had just loaded into Caesar's body and shouting congratulations to Cicero by name, he knew he could count on a sincere response. Cicero regarded this murder as a magnificent feat of patriotic heroism, and a sacrifice as a public enemy, the fate of which all good citizens should rejoice and rejoice. J.P.V.D. Balsdon, Cicero Man in Dudley and Dory, Editors, Cicero (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul 1964) at 171-214, 186. H. H. Scullard, Political Career 'Novus Homo', in Dudley and Dory, editors, Cicero (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul 1964) at 1-25, 24. Scultar calls it the greatest period of his life for a series of speeches by Cicero, Philippica. Cicero, Selected Letters, edited by D. R. Shackleton Bailey (Penguin Books (1965-1980), 1982) at 13 (Cicero), in 239 (C. Cassius Longinus), at 245-246 (D. Junius Brutus). David Shotter, Fall of the Roman Republic (London: Routledge 1994) at 86. Mary Beard and Michael Crawford, Rome in the Late Republic (Cornell University 1985) at 68-71, 85-87. David Shotter, Fall of the Roman Republic (London: Routledge 1994) at 86-87. Cf., Rudolph Stadelmann, Sozial und politische Geschichte der Revolution von 1848 (Munich: F. Bruckman 1948, 2d ed. 1970), translated as the social and political history of the German revolution of 1848 (University of Ohio 1975). Lily Ross Taylor, party politician at caesar's age (University of California 1949) at 12. R.G. Collingwood, Philosophy of History University, History Asn. #79 1930), reissued in his essays in the philosophy of history, edited by Wm. Debbins (University of Texas) at 121-139, 138-139. Luciano Canfora, Giulio Cesare. Il dittatore democratico (Roma-Bari: Jus. Laterza and Figli 1999) translates as Julius Caesar. All life and times of the dictator of nations (University of California 2007) at 348 years old. H.H. Scullard, from Gracchi to Nero. The history of Rome from 133 BC to 68 AD (London: Methuen 1959, 4th century 1976) in 157-158. Cf., Erich S. Grun, Last Generation of the Roman Republic (University of California 1974, 1995) in 490-497. Demand. Circumstances have changed, POV has changed. Objective differences. Positivism. Allen at 452; Mommsen sees things that others overlook, and gives weight to evidence where others find no evidence. 452-453; intuitive 453. This is a serious defect that there are so few references to power. Allen at 464. Allen's quote. For example, his portraits. Mommsen, The History of Rome (New Haven: Meridian Books 1958), edited by Saunders and Collins, at 2. Encyclopedia Britannica, cited by Saunders and Collins, Introduction to 2, Mommsen, History of Rome (1958). Arnold J. Toynbee, Study of History, Volume One (Oxford University 1934, 2d ed. 1935, 1962) at I: 3./ref'gt; - History and Historians (1913, 1928) at 456 and 458. Nobel Prize for Literature in 1902. nobelprize.org. - Cf., Alexander Demandt, Introduction 1-35, at 1 (502 n.2), to the history of Mommsen Rome under emperors (Munich 1992; London 1996). Demand also mentions Winston Churchill. Bertrand Russell won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1950. In the award presentation of his then recent work History of Western Philosophy (1946) was mentioned first along with a few other books, 35 of his titles being mentioned in all. Winston Churchill was the winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature. He was chosen in 1953 for his political oratory, his biographies, and his history, such as his Second World War (1948-1953). More recent works, of course, he wrote in his role as a lead participant, and it was a joint effort. Churchill later wrote his history of English-speaking peoples (1956-1958). The 1993 Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences was awarded simultaneously to Robert Vogel and Douglas North, both of whom wrote separately economic stories, each using the analytical structures of their discipline to better understand the major events of the past. Encyclopedia Britannica, cited by Saunders and Collins, Introduction to 2, Mommsen, History of Rome (1958). Cf., Theodore Mommsen in the 11th edition, published in 1911. G.. Gooch, history and historians (1913, 1928) in 456 and 458. Arnold J. Toynbee, History Study, Volume One (Oxford University 1934, 2d ed. 1935, 1962) at I: 3. references History of Rome, Book I in the Gutenberg History of Rome Project, Book II in the Gutenberg History of Rome Project, Book III in the Gutenberg History of Rome Project, Book IV in the Gutenberg History of Rome Project, Book V in the Gutenberg Project by Rumiche Gesicte, in German obtained from (Mommsen History_of_Rome_) history of rome theodor mommsen pdf

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