ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE Vol. 116(3), 201–217, 2008

Terminal Pleistocene human skeleton from Hang Cho Cave, northern Vietnam: implications for the biological affinities of Hoabinhian people Hirofumi MATSUMURA1*, Minoru YONEDA2, Yukio DODO3, Marc F. OXENHAM4, Nguyen Lan CUONG5, Nguyen Kim THUY5, Lam My DUNG6, Vu The LONG5, Mariko YAMAGATA7, Junmei SAWADA8, Kenichi SHINODA9, Wataru TAKIGAWA10 1Department of Anatomy, Sapporo Medical University, Sapporo 060-8556, Japan 2Department of Integrated Bioscience, Graduate School of Frontier Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 277-8561, Japan 3Department of Nursing, Faculty of Human Science, Hokkaido Bunkyo University, Eniwa 061-1408, Japan 4School of Archaeology and Anthropology, Australian National University, Canberra ACT0200, Australia 5Institute of Archeology, Hanoi, Vietnam 6The University Museum, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Vietnam 7Faculty of Literature, Waseda University, Tokyo 162-8644, Japan 8Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Saint Marianna University, Kawasaki 216-8511, Japan 9Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Nature and Science, Tokyo 169-0073, Japan 10Department of Anatomy and Anthropology, School of Medicine, Tohoku University, Sendai 162-8644, Japan

Received 16 April 2007; accepted 9 January 2008

Abstract An excavation at the cave site of Hang Cho in northern Vietnam resulted in the discovery of a terminal Pleistocene human skeleton in a relatively good state of preservation. The material cul- ture from this site belongs to the pre-ceramic Hoabinhian period. An AMS radiocarbon date on a tooth sample extracted from this individual gives a calibrated age of 10450 ± 300 years BP. In discussions of the population history of Southeast Asia, it has been repeatedly advocated that Southeast Asia was occupied by indigenous people akin to present-day Australo-Melanesians prior to the Neolithic expan- sion of migrants from Northeast Asia into the area. Cranial and dental metric analyses were undertaken in order to assess the biological affinity of early settlers in this region. The results suggest that the Hang Cho skeleton, as well as other early or pre-Holocene remains in Southeast Asia, represent de- scendants of colonizing populations of late Pleistocene Sundaland, who may share a common ancestry with present-day Australian Aboriginal and Melanesian people.

Key words: Hang Cho, Vietnam, skeleton, Southeast Asia, Hoabinhian, AMS dating, biological affinity

Introduction wan Island, Philippines (Fox, 1970; Macintosh, 1978; Dizon et al., 2002), Gua Gunung Runtuh in Peninsular Malaysia The study of the population history of Southeast Asia is (Zuraina, 1994, 2005; Matsumura and Zuraina, 1999) and complex due to various migration processes, the intermixing Moh Khiew Cave in Thailand (Matsumura and Pookajorn, of populations throughout prehistory, poor sample sizes and 2005) have provided additional support for the existence of limited radiometric dating. In general terms, Southeast Asia an ‘Australo-Melanesian’ lineage in ancient Southeast Asia is thought to have been originally occupied by indigenous (for a review see also Oxenham and Tayles, 2006). Never- people (sometimes referred to as Australo-Melanesians) that theless, our knowledge of pre-ceramic period peoples is still subsequently exchanged genes with immigrants from North incomplete as a number of past studies were based on sub- and/or East Asia, during the Holocene, leading to the forma- adult or poorly preserved material. Discoveries of new spec- tion of present-day Southeast Asians (Callenfels, 1936; imens from the pre-ceramic period, coupled with detailed Mijsberg, 1940; Von Koenigswald, 1952; Coon, 1962; Ja- morphometric analyses, are required to assess the hypothesis cob, 1967). More recent studies based on late Pleistocene of a Pleistocene occupation of Southeast Asia by Australo- and early Holocene human remains represented by speci- Melanesians. mens from Niah Cave in Borneo (Brothwell, 1960; To address this issue the authors have focused on Hoabin- Kennedy, 1977; Barker et al., 2007), Tabon Cave on Pala- hian sites, which were widely expanding over the mainland Southeast Asia during the late Pleistocene and early Ho- locene, in order to excavate additional human skeletons from * Correspondence to: Hirofumi Matsumura, Department of Anat- this under-sampled period. Over the last half century Viet- omy, Sapporo Medical University, South 1 West 17, Sapporo 060- 8556, Japan. namese archeologists have devoted much of their efforts to E-mail: [email protected] the study of the Hoabinhian, a term in Southeast Asia loose- Published online 21 May 2008 ly equivalent to what in Europe would be called the Me- in J-STAGE (www.jstage.jst.go.jp) DOI: 10.1537/ase.070416 solithic, or pebble-tool complex (Tan, 1980, 1997). Current-

© 2008 The Anthropological Society of Nippon 201 202 H. MATSUMURA ET AL. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE ly more than 120 Hoabinhian sites have been discovered and Past and present excavations studied in Vietnam, the majority being limestone caves and In 1926 and then 1932 the French archeologist M. Colani, rock shelters conducive to good preservation of human re- who first detected this site, discovered dozens of stone tools mains. Unfortunately, only a few late Hoabinhian sites, such at Hang Cho Cave and identified them as belonging to a as Mai Da Nuoc and Mai Da Dieu (Cuong, 1986), have pro- vided well-preserved skeletal material. In 2004, our multinational project team excavated the cave site of Hang Cho in northern Vietnam. This site, previ- ously known to have early Hoabinhian cultural material (Thuy and Doi, 1998), revealed an early inhumation burial. The aims of this paper are to: (1) describe this cave site and the material cultural context; (2) provide an absolute date (AMS) of the human skeleton; (3) discuss the preservation and dentocranial morphology of this specimen; and (4) present the results of qualitative and quantitative compari- sons of this specimen with prehistoric and modern samples from East/Southeast Asia and the Southwest Pacific in order to resolve the aforementioned issue of the biological affinity of these early Southeast Asian peoples.

Description of Hang Cho Cave and its Cultural Context Figure 1. Location of the Hang Cho site in Hoa Binh Province, Vietnam. Topology The Hang Cho site is situated at the foot of a limestone mountain located in Luong Son district, Hoa Binh province, approximately 50 km southwest of Hanoi, northern Vietnam (20°50′24″N and 105°30′11″E, see Figure 1). The cave, which formed several tens of meters above the present allu- vial plain, opens towards the southwest. The width of the main entrance is 11 m with an average height of 15 m. The subsidiary entrance has a width of 8 m and a height of 10 m (Figure 2). The main chamber expands to a depth of 18 m and a width of 20 m at its largest extent (Figure 3). The floor of the cave slopes 1.2 m up to the northeast wall of the main cave, with a hard deposit of freshwater shells at the higher part of the floor. There is good natural light in the cave and the path leading to it is quite manageable by foot. A large and flat valley extends in front of the cave, an area that is to- day utilized for rice agriculture, while the main entrance to the cave opens several meters above this field (Figure 2).

Figure 2. View of the Hang Cho site from the southwest.

Figure 3. Excavation trenches at the Hang Cho site. Pit I–Pit IV: excavation trenches by the present study. Key: shell, shell mound area; SN, trench surveyed by Seoul National University; square mark with 1997, 1997’ excavation trench by the Vietnamese Institute of Archaeology; aster- isk, sampling point of shells for AMS dating by Seoul National University in 2003; A–H, locations of cross-sections in Figure 4. Vol. 116, 2008 HANG CHO SKELETON IN VIETNAM 203

Hoabinhian cultural assemblage. As her excavation notes layers. The upper portion in Layers I (surface soil), II (yel- were not published, the location of her excavation trench is low soil) and III (charcoal and ash) were disturbed, whereas unknown. the lower portions lying below the burned soil in Layer IV Following M. Colani’s work, the Vietnamese Institute of (light brown soil) was relatively stable. This lower level re- Archaeology investigated Hang Cho Cave by opening a test vealed fresh-water shells, small lithic flakes, and animal trench (2 m × 2 m) (Figure 3) in 1997 and found artifacts bones, while the upper portion included a few fragments of manufactured from whole pebbles and flakes. The presence cord-marked pottery. From Layer V (yellow-brown soil), of a substantial number of pebbles with circular depressions many potsherds, ornaments made from sea shells, and a identify the Hoabinhian nature of the assemblage (Tan, bark-cloth beater were found. These findings are associated 1997), although there are still a considerable number of tra- with the late Neolithic or the early Metal period (approxi- ditional chopper-chopping tools. Hang Cho site was settled mately 3500 years BP). From Layer VI (brown soil includ- by early Hoabinhian people between c. 12000 and c. 10000 ing a small number of broken shells) a cluster of Hoabinhian years BP (Thuy and Doi, 1998). lithic artefacts were uncovered. The lithics found in this lay- In 2003, research members of the Hanoi National Univer- er were smaller than those found in Pits II–IV. From Layers sity and the Seoul National University sampled the freshwa- VII (dark brown soil with numerous shells) through Layer ter shell mounds formed in the main chamber (this sampling VIII (dark brown soil with small numbers of broken shell), point is shown in Figure 3), in order to derive AMS dates. down to Layer IX (dark brown soil with few shells), lithic The shells provide calibrated dates ranging from implements and flakes, bones, loess, and burned soil with 14100 ± 300 years BP at the lowest layer to 9710 ± 50 years charcoal and shells were encountered. BP at the highest layer (Seonbok et al., 2004). These dates suggest the possibility that the human occupation of this Pit II cave continued for more than 4000 years and suggest that the Pit II is in the northwest part of the main chamber, and has Hoabinhian cultural layers belong to the terminal Pleis- an excavated area of 16 m2. The cultural layers of this pit tocene and early Holocene periods. were more reddish in colour than those of Pit I, were porous, Our multinational excavation project took place in 2004, and contained many shells, small lithic flakes, and bone arte- with members consisting of archeologists and anthropolo- facts. The north–western part of the pit was quite intact, gists from Vietnam, Japan, Australia, and students from Ko- whereas the south–western part in Layer IA (brown porous rea. Four excavation trenches were set up in various areas of soil) was disturbed to a depth of approximately 50 cm from the cave, labeled Pit I, Pit II, Pit III, and Pit IV (Figure 3) the ground surface. From Layer IB (darkish brown soil with a total excavated area of 43.7 m2. The stratigraphy, ma- mixed with a large number of shells), a considerable number terial cultural, and deposition of the inhumation burial are of Hoabinhian artifacts were uncovered. This layer included described in the next section of this paper. a thin layer of pinkish clay which was made of burned soil. Layer IC consisted of brownish–pink porous soil with many Stratigraphy and cultural context shells where a considerable number of lithic implements and Each excavation trench was divided into 1 m2 grids la- a thin calcified clay expansion including charcoal were un- beled with numbers. The soil was carefully removed from covered. Layer II (brown porous soil) contained fewer lithics every artificially identified layer of sediment of 10 cm in than the upper layer. thickness. Based on looseness of soil and the presence of holes, the disturbed areas were identified. The soil was Pit III with the inhumation burial screened through a 3 mm wide metal mesh to detect small Pit III (11.2 m2 excavated area) was opened in the middle fragmental bones and flakes of stone tools. of the main chamber and extended past the drip line. The top Stratigraphic profiles of representative sections are shown layers, with a depth of 80 cm (Layers I and II), were heavily in Figure 4. The stratigraphy of the four excavated pits with- disturbed. The hard brown soil in Layer III, which included in the main cave and rock shelter areas are basically similar. a 2 m × 2.5 m hearth, was stable and provided numerous The upper part of the cultural layers had been removed or lithic artifacts of Hoabinhian culture and molluscan shells. disturbed, while the remaining layers below the surface dis- The inhumation burial, found beside the hearth, appears to turbance are uneven in thickness and generally thinner have been dug from the top of the hearth levels (Figure 5). around the mouth of the cave. The cultural layers have an av- The apparent grave cut, which was devoid of grave goods, erage thickness of about 1.0–1.5 m, although the color of the was 80 cm wide and 148 cm long, with the head directed to- layers and the volume of molluscan shells contained show ward the east (the head at a depth of 82 cm, the body at a variations depending on which excavated pit is examined. depth of 92 cm from the ground surface). The supine body The composition of layers and the cultural material in each was buried in a flexed position with the knees raised (and pit are summarized bellow. The condition of the inhumation subsequently disturbed and damaged at a later date). burial is discussed in the description for Pit III. Vertebral faunal remains found within the Hoabinhian cultural layers Pit IV will be reported at a later date. Pit IV, at a higher elevation than the other pits and with an excavated area of 9 m2, was located at the eastern end of Pit I Hang Cho Cave. Under the surface soil of Layer I, compact Pit I, excavated area 7.5 m2 and located under an over- shell (land snail) layers (Layer III) spread at the rear of the pit hang on the west side of the cave, revealed nine stratigraphic to an approximate depth of 70 cm. The dark brown soil in 204 H. MATSUMURA ET AL. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE

Figure 4. Cross-sections of excavation trenches and ground plan of the inhumation burial. A–H are the locations of cross-sections in Figure 3.

Layer IV provided many broken molluscan shells, fish bones, Lithic artefacts small animals, and small lithic flakes with retouched edges. A total of 1523 Hoabinhian lithics were found in situ: Pit, Entering Layers V and VI (black soil and compact dark I n = 144; Pit II, n = 700; Pit III, n = 310; Pit IV, n = 369. brown soil, respectively) the number of lithics and molluscan Heavy cutting tools and scrapers made of cobbles were the shells tended to decrease. The bottom of Pit IV was covered most frequently encountered lithics. In terms of typology the by a culturally sterile yellowish-brown soil (Layer VII). following were identified: choppers and chopping tools with cutting edges on the longitudinal edges, ‘Sumatraliths’ or oval/almond-shaped unifacial artifacts, thick discoid flaked Vol. 116, 2008 HANG CHO SKELETON IN VIETNAM 205

Figure 5. Burial position of the Hang Cho skeleton in Pit III. cobbles, short and elongated axes, edge-polished adzes, large stones with many small surface pits, and a few shell scrapers. The most representative Hoabinhian lithics are il- lustrated in Figure 6. At Hang Cho Cave unifacial artifacts outnumber bifacial ones, while many flakes shows signs of use wear.

Dating the Skeleton In typical AMS measurements, 1 mg of carbon, corre- sponding to 2.5 mg of collagen, is sufficient to determine the radiocarbon age with an uncertainty of 40 years. If collagen is initially greater than 1% of one-quarter of the fresh bone weight, then 0.25 g of bone will produce enough carbon for radiocarbon dating. However, many skeletal remains, espe- cially older samples and those from tropical regions, do not contain enough collagen. One of the authors (M.Y.) dated the Hang Cho skeleton using a newly developed micro-scale 14C dating technique (see references below). The left lower canine root of the Hang Cho human skele- ton was first cleaned by brushing and an ultrasonic bath. Or- ganic matter attached to the surface was removed in a solu- tion of 0.1 M HCl and 0.2 M NaOH. The sample was crushed into fine powder by a freezer mill. The powder was then sealed in a semipermeable membrane and gently react- Figure 6. Representative Hoabinhian stone tools unearthed from ed with 1 M HCl to remove hydroxyapatite. The remaining the Hang Cho site. matter was heated at 90°C in deionized water to extract col- lagen. The solution was filtered by a glass filter and lyo- philized. The extracted ‘collagen’ was then analyzed for ra- Produced graphite was measured by NIES-TERRA, an diocarbon dating. For details of the process of collagen AMS at the National Institute for Environmental Studies, extraction, see Yoneda et al. (2002). Tsukuba, Japan (Tanaka et al., 2000). Each target was mea- The collagen was combusted into CO2 by an elemental an- sured for 30 min (10 min × 3). The bone sample (630.5 mg) alyzer (Yoneda et al., 2004). Carbon and nitrogen content produced a 0.2 mg extraction, the yield of which was 0.03%. during extraction was monitored by elemental analysis The empirical criteria for collagen yields in isotopic analysis (EA). Trapped CO2 was reduced to graphite by using hydro- are greater than 1% (Ambrose, 1990; Van Klinken, 1999), gen and iron catalysis (Kitagawa et al., 1993). A graphitiza- which shows the poor status of ‘collagen’ in this sample. tion system designed for micro-scale (< 100 μg) samples Other parameters suggested a bad preservation status as was used for this sample (Uchida et al., 2004) because the well. Although the carbon and nitrogen content in well-pre- extracted matter was as small as 0.03 mgC. served collagen are generally expected to be larger than 40% 206 H. MATSUMURA ET AL. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE and 10%, respectively (Ambrose, 1990), the extracted mat- ter (0.131 mg) contained 23.1% carbon and 1.36% nitrogen. Furthermore, the atomic ratio of carbon and nitrogen (C/N ratio) is the most reliable indicator for collagen preservation (DeNiro, 1985). The biological samples given by DeNiro (1985) display C/N ratios between 2.9 and 3.6, but this sam- ple had a C/N ratio at 14.6, which is clearly at variance with the background ratios A small graphite sample (27 μg) was reduced from CO2 trapped by EA by using the micro-scale graphitization sys- tem (Uchida et al., 2000). The measurement of the 14C/12C ratio was conducted with standard materials, NBS SRM- 4990c oxalic acid (HOxII) and IAEA-C6 sucrose. The size of the standards was matched to the sample: 27 μg of HOxII and 28 and 29 μg of IAEA-C6, respectively. The back- ground level was corrected by a 14C-dead standard, IEAE- C1. The 14C-free graphite (29 μg) was produced from IAEA- Figure 7. The calibration of the radiocarbon age of the Hang Cho C1 by reaction with 100% phosphoric acid. Exact matching skeleton. between samples and standards is very important for micro- scale 14C measurement, especially for samples smaller than 350 μg (Yoneda et al., 2004). Two results of IEAE-C6 at portions were the greater and lesser wings of the sphenoid 153.0 ± 2.1 and 151.3 ± 1.9 pMC (percent modern carbon) bone. The facial skeleton lacks the nasal bones and some showed good agreement with consensus values at parts of the maxilla and palatine bones. Other missing por- 150.61 ± 1.1 pMC. The background sample corresponds to tions include the ethmoid and lachrymal bones, and the infe- 1.0 ± 0.1 pMC (37014 years BP). Graphitization and AMS rior conchae and vomer, which together form the inside of measurement of smaller samples, around 27 μg, provide rea- the orbits and the inner portion of the nasal cavity. sonable results in this study. The cranial shape is ovoid in superior view. The cranial The conventional radiocarbon age of this sample is vault is dolichocephalic (cranial index 71.9). The external 9259 ± 206 years BP, which was calibrated using a δ13C iso- occipital protuberance is not prominent. The superior nuchal tope fractionation value of −33.4 ± 1.3‰. It cannot be ruled line is moderately developed, but the nuchal plane is out that the isotopic value was somewhat influenced by di- smooth. The temporal line, to which the temporal muscles agenetic effects, nevertheless the age of the human remains attach, is marked in the frontal region but becomes weak to- from the Hang Cho site is not inconsistent with the time- wards the posterior end of the temporal bones. frame of the Hoabinhian lithic assemblage. Although the dia- The glabella region is prominently protruding compared genetic effects seem not to be serious, we shall discuss this with the majority of modern East Asian females, although problem, including the integrity of ‘collagen’ elsewhere. As the supercilliary arch is relatively flat. The frontal bone is shown in Figure 7, the conventional age corresponds to the perpendicularly elevated. The facial skeleton is low and calibrated age from 10,750 to 10,150 cal years BP (68.2%), wide (Virchow’s index 64.2). The orbital margins are rela- or from 11,150 to 9,750 cal years BP (95.4%). The calibra- tively straight, while the nasal root is slightly concave. The tion was conducted using OxCAL 3.10 (Ramsey, 1995) with coronal, sagittal, and lambdoidal sutures are completely a calibration dataset INTCAL 04 (Reimer et al., 2004). fused ecto- and endocranially. The mandible expresses weak alveolar prognathism. Frontal nerve incisures and superior Description of the Human Skeleton orbital foramina exist on either side of the frontal bone. The supramastoid crest is well developed, while the mastoid pro- The Hang Cho individual was estimated to be an old, ma- cess is moderate in size. ture female based on the pelvic features, extent of tooth attri- The mandibular body is relatively small and low, while tion, cranial suture closures, pubic symphyseal face mor- the muscle attachments are well developed. The mental em- phology, and severity of osteoarthritis. Descriptions of the inence is weakly projected. The mylohyoid line is well angu- preservation and the morphological features of Hang Cho lated. The mandibular ramus is wide with a deeply concaved skeleton, including the determination of sex and estimate of mandibular notch. The preangular incisula is shallow and the age at death, are provided bellow. lateral prominence is small at the gonial angle. The attach- ment area of the medial pterygoid muscles is well developed. Cranium and teeth The following teeth are present in the maxilla and mandi- Figure 8 displays various aspects of the reconstructed ble. Hang Cho skeleton, and Table 1 gives the cranial measure- M3 M2 M1 P2 P1 C / / I1 I2 C P1 P2 M1 M2 M3 ments taken following Martin’s definitions (Bräuer, 1988). M3 M2 X P2 / C X I1 O I2 C X P2 X M2 M3 Facial flatness measurements and indices were taken after right left Yamaguchi (1973). X = tooth lost antemortem and alveolus remodeled. Although the cranium was fragmented by crushing in situ, O = tooth lost postmortem and alveolus not remodeled. almost all parts of the specimen were reconstructed. Missing / = tooth lost postmortem and alveolus damaged. Vol. 116, 2008 HANG CHO SKELETON IN VIETNAM 207

Figure 8. Views of the Hang Cho skull, the upper limbs, and the left pelvis.

The mandible lacked the right second incisor, left first cluded extensive morphological study of the tooth crowns. premolar, and both first molars antemortem. The occlusal surfaces of the remaining teeth were heavily worn, repre- Infra-cranial skeleton senting the 7th grade of the Smith system (Smith, 1984), The following section summarizes the preservation and where enamel remains only on the outer rim, the entire oc- morphological observations of the infra-cranial remains. clusal surface of the crown being lost and secondary dentine Both scapulae were fragmented and only the glenoid cavity, visible on every tooth. The right maxillary first molar and acromion, and lateral margin were preserved. Both humeri right mandibular second molar exhibit open dental pulp survive, except for the proximal heads. The right humerus chambers on the occlusal surfaces. The crown of the right has a well-developed deltoid tuberosity (Figure 9, No. 1), mandibular third molar was chipped off at the mesial, buc- greater tubercle crest (Figure 9, No. 2), and a clear groove cal, and distolingual corners. The alveolus of the left lower for the radial nerve. Both left and right radii and ulnae were third molar was eroded by an abscess or granuloma. well preserved and almost complete. The supinator crest is High rates of interstitial wear reduced the mesiodistal pronounced in the ulnae, especially the right ulna (Figure 9, crown diameters and only the buccolingual diameters were No. 3). The ulnar tuberosity for both sides is very rough and recorded (see Table 2). Unfortunately the heavy wear pre- prominent (Figure 9, No. 4). The radial tuberosity of the 208 H. MATSUMURA ET AL. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE

Table 1. Cranial and mandibular measurements (mm) of the Hang Cho skeleton Martin No. and Measurement Martin No. and Measurement Martin No. and Measurement 1 Maximum cranial length 192 29b. Frontal subtense 29 66. Bigonial breadth 99 1d. nasion-occipital length 189 30. Bregma-lambda chord 30 67. Bimental breadth 49 2 glabello-inion 183 30(3). Lambda-asterion chord 89 68. Mandibular length 82 2a. nasion-inion 173 31a. Occipital perpendicular 27 69. Symphyseal height 31 3 glabello-lambda 189 31b. Lambda-subtense fraction 49 69(1). Mandibular height at mental 26 5 Basion-nasion length (103) 32. Frontal profile angle 82 69(2). Mandibular height at M2 27 7 Foramen magnum length (32) 32b. Nasion angle 65 69(3). Mandibular body breadth 11 8 Maximum cranial breadth 138 32c. Basion angle 65 69b. Mandibular body breadth at M2 17 8c. Maximum temporal breadth 135 32(1). Frontal inclination 49 70. Ramus height 64 9. Minimum frontal breadth 100 32(1a).Frontal inclination 57 71. Ramus breadth 34 10 Maximum frontal breadth 112 32(5). Frontal curvature angle 124 72. Profile angle 87 10b. Bistephanic breadth 109 33d. Occipital angle 120 72b. Nasion angle (b-pr) 75 11 Biauricular breadth 119 33e. Parietal angle 131 72c. Basion angle 33 11b. Biauricular breadth (ra-ra) 120 33(1). Lambda-Inion angle 95 74. Alveolar profile angle 57 12 Biasterionic breadth 115 41. Facial length (ek-po) 78 77. Naso-malar angle 145 13 Bimastoid breadth (103) 43. Upper facial breadth 113 77a. Nasio-frontal angle 139 14a. Frontal base breadth 92 44. Biorbital breadth 104 78. Orbit. profile inclination 94 16. Foramen magnum breadth (30) 45. Bizygomatic breadth 128 79. Mandibular angle 130 17. Basion-bregma height 135 45(1). Bijugal breadth 115 80a. Mandibular dental arch length 52 19a. Mastoid height 23 46. Bimaxillary breadth 95 8:1. Cranial index 71.9 20. Auriculo-bregmatic height 118 46b. Anterior bimaxillary breadth 97 17:1. Length-height index 70.3 21. Auricular height 124 48. Upper facial height 61 17:8. Breadth-height index 97.8 22. Cranial height (n-i) 112 NPH Howell’s nasion-prosthion 59 48:45. Upper facial index 47.7 23. Horizontal circumference 550 48(d). Cheek height 22 48:46 Virchow’s index 64.2 24. Transverse arc 315 50. Anterior interorbital breadth 23 Frontal chord 106 25. Sagittal arc 398 51. Orbital breadth 42 Frontal subtense 27 26. Frontal arc 130 OBB Orbital breadth (dacryon) 40 Frontal index 25.5 27. Parietal arc 150 52. Orbital height 31 Simotic chord 13.0 28. Occipital arc 118 54. Nasal breadth 26 Zygomaxillary chord 97 28(1). Lambda-inion arc 48 55. Nasal height 47 Zygomaxillary subtense 33 28(2). Inion-opisthion arc 68 61(2). Bicanine breadth 41 Zygomaxillary index 34.0 29. Frontal sagittal chord 130 65. Bicondylar breadth (118) ( ): estimated value; NPH, OBB: Howell’s definitions of measurements (Howell, 1989).

Table 2. Buccolingual crown diameters (mm) of the Han Cho skeleton Maxillary dentition I1I2C P1P2M1M2M3 Right — 6.63 9.26 10.15 10.96 12.57 12.92 12.15 Left — — 8.23 10.37 10.79 12.55 13.05 13.02 Average* 6.63 8.75 10.26 10.88 12.56 12.99 12.59 Mandibular dentition I1I2C P1P2M1M2M3 Right 5.69 — 8.07 — — — — 11.33 Left — 6.33 7.89 — — — 11.74 — Average* 5.69 6.33 7.98 — — — 11.74 11.33 * Average: right and left sides right radius is prominent and exhibits an enthesophyte at the left metacarpals are present. All proximal phalanges except insertion of biceps brachii (Figure 9, No. 5), while the left the 1st, all middle phalanges, and the distal right 2nd, 4th, radius is free of musculo-skeletal stress markers. Measure- 5th, and left 5th phalanges were preserved in situ. ments recorded for the arm bones are given in Table 3. The The right os coxa preserves only as a portion of the ace- stature of the Hang Cho individual, using Sjovold’s (1990) tabulum and a part of the iliac blade. On the left side, the il- sex- and race-independent formula on the left radius, is esti- iac, ischial, and pubic body are preserved, but the pubis is mated to be 162.5 ± 5cm. separated from the other parts. The greater sciatic notch The carpals, including the right capitate, hamate, scaphoid, forms an obtuse angle, suggesting the sex is female. Al- pisiform, left hamate, and trapezium, are preserved. All the though the symphysial surface of the pubis is roughened and right metacarpals are preserved, while only the 2nd and 5th has a clear ventral outline with slight osteophytes, the dorsal Vol. 116, 2008 HANG CHO SKELETON IN VIETNAM 209

Figure 9. Close-up views of specific characteristics found in the upper limbs, pelvis, and talus. 1, a well-developed deltoid tuberosity in the right humerus; 2, a greater tubercle crest in the right humerus; 3, a supinator crest in the ulna; 4, a prominent ulnar tuberosity; 5, enthesopathy on the right radial tuberosity; 6, a pre-auricular sulcus in the right pelvis; 7, an extension of the medial malleolar surface in the left talus; 8, an exten- sion of medial portion of the superior surface. one is not distinct. The auricular surface is uneven and ap- bi Province, southern Thailand, dated to 25800 ± 600 years pears porotic. In the anteroinferior position of this surface BP (Pookajorn, 1991, 1994; Matsumura and Pookajorn, there is a clear pre-auricular sulcus (Figure 9, No. 6). 2005). Unfortunately the poor condition of the cranium No femoral, tibial, or fibular elements were preserved due meant that only dental data can be utilized for comparisons. to possible postmortem/post-interment disturbance. The pre- The second comparative specimen is the Liujiang cranium, served foot bones include the right calcaneus, left talus, Guanxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, southern China (Woo, cuboid, navicular, and all cuneiforms, and the following tu- 1959). We treated the Liujiang cranium as female (after Wu bular bones: right 3rd, left 1st, and 2nd metatarsals; left 1st, and Poirier, 1995; Wolpoff, 1999), although it has also been 2nd, 5th proximal, 2nd, 3rd, 5th middle, and 1st, 2nd distal sexed as male (e.g. Woo, 1959). The Liujiang dentition was phalanges. The talus shows the extension of the medial mal- not used for comparison due to the lack of mandibular teeth. leolar surface and medial portion of the superior surface in The third late Pleistocene specimen used comparatively the anterior direction (Figure 9, Nos. 7 and 8). According to is the Coobool Creek sample, Coobool Crossing on the the definition of Barnett (1954), these features are identified Wakool River, South Australia (Brown, 1989), dated to c. as squatting facets. Identifiable vertebrae consist of cervical 14000 years BP. spines and the sacrum, while preserved ribs are all highly The only early Holocene female sample is the Mai Da fragmented. Dieu specimen, which is a nearly complete skull of the late Hoabinhian period (c. 8000 years BP) excavated from the Morphometric Comparisons Mai Da Dieu rock shelter in Thanh Hoa Province, northern Vietnam (Cuong, 1986). Comparative samples Middle Holocene samples consist of five series, including Cranial and dental measurements from representative late those from the Neolithic period. The Middle Holocene Pleistocene and Holocene human specimens from the East/ Flores specimens, all from pre-ceramic contexts and dated Southeast Asian and Southwest Pacific regions were used as from c. 7000 years BP to c. 4000 years BP (Jacob, 1967), a basis for comparison with the Hang Cho skeleton. A list of came from Liang Momer, Liang Toge, Liang X, and Gua comparative cranial and dental samples and data sources is Alo. The Guar Kepah series, discovered in a shell midden in given in Table 4. Lenggong district, Peninsular Malaysia (Callenfels, 1936; Skeletal remains from three late Pleistocene sites were Mijsberg, 1940). Only the dental samples were utilized from used for craniometric comparisons of the cranial metric data. above Flores and Guar Kepah series due to the poor skeletal The first is a female individual from Moh Khiew Cave, Kra- preservation of female crania. Man Bac is a late Neolithic (c. 210 H. MATSUMURA ET AL. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE

Table 3. Limb bone measurements (mm) of the Hang Cho skeleton were also used for the cranial and dental comparisons. Humerus Right Left There are discrepancies in the measurement systems of upper facial height and orbital breadth between Howell’s 4. Bi-epicondylar breadth 50 — (1989) data and that of other researchers. Howell’s upper fa- 4a. Maximum bi-epicondylar breadth 50.5 — cial height (NPH) is measured at the anatomical point of 5. Maximum mid-shaft diameter 23.5 — 6. Minimum mid-shaft diameter 14 — prosthion, while others use the alveolar point according to 7. Minimum shaft circumference 56 — Martin’s method (M48). Dodo (2001) noted an average dis- 7a. Mid-shaft circumference 62 — crepancy of approximately 2 mm in his studies of various fe- 6/5. Mid-shaft cross-section index 59.6 — male cranial samples. As for the orbital breadth, Howell Radius Right Left used dacryon (OBB) while others use the maxillofrontale (M51). Data using both methods, recorded for Japanese fe- 1. Maximum length 230 232 2. Physiological length 219 225 male samples (Hanihara, 2002), indicate an average differ- 3. Minimum shaft circumference 34 35 ence of 2.7 mm. Brown (1989) also adopted Howell’s meth- 4. Maximum Transverse. shaft diameter 14 15 od of utilizing either upper facial height or orbital breadth. 5. Sagittal shaft diameter 10 12 Because of these measurement differences, all the compara- 4a. Transverse mid-shaft diameter 14 13 tive data, except for Howell’s and Brown’s, were corrected 5a. Sagittal mid-shaft diameter 11 10 by subtracting 2 mm from the upper facial height and 4(1). Transvers head diameter 20 — 2.7 mm from the orbital breadth measurements. The upper 5(1). Sagittal head diameter 22 21 5(6). Distal breadth 29 30 facial height and orbital breadth after Howell’s method were 3/2. Length-thickness index 15.5 15.6 originally provided in Table 1. 5/4. Shaft cross-section index 71.4 80.0 Ulna Right Left Craniometric multivariate analysis In order to confirm impressions of craniofacial propor- 2. Physiological length 223 226 tions recorded in the previous skeletal descriptions, four rep- 3. Minimum shaft circumference 36 36 6. Olecranon breadth 24 23 resentative indices based on the above cranial measurements 11. Dorso-ventral shaft diameter 17 13 are compared between Hang Cho and other samples. 12. Transverse shaft diameter 11 13 Figure 10 plots the averages of the cranial indices (M8/M1), 12a. Transverse head diameter 14 15 upper facial indices (NPH/M45), orbital indices (M52/ 3/2. Length-thickness index 16.1 15.9 OBB), and nasal indices (M54/M55). The cranial index of 11/12. Shaft cross-section index 154.5 100.0 the Hang Cho specimen is low due to its dolichocranic shape, which is comparable to prehistoric and modern Ab- original Australians. With regard to the upper facial index, 3500–3800 years BP) or Phung Nguyen period (Cuong, the Hang Cho skull is characterized by a relatively low and 2001; Phung, 2001; Hiep and Phung, 2004; Matsumura et broad face. The nasal and orbital indices suggest that the al., 2008) cemetery site in Ninh Binh Province, northern Hang Cho specimen has a low and wide orbital shape and Vietnam. In the Man Bac series, only the cranial measure- relatively low and broad nasal shape. Overall, the Hang Cho ments were recorded by one of us (H.M.). The Japanese cranium shares closer similarities to Australian specimens sample is represented by a Jomon series which represents such as those from Coobool Creek and Tasmania, as well as early hunter-gatherers that lived in the Japanese archipelago to the Tolai Melanesians and Liujiang specimen. from c. 13000 years BP to 2300 years BP (Akazawa and The morphological affinities between the Hang Cho skull Aikens, 1986). The samples used here are of the middle to fi- and comparative samples were also explored using Mahal- nal Jomon phases (c. 4000–2300 years BP). In China a anobis’ generalized distance and Q-mode correlation coeffi- Neolithic rice-farming sample from Weidun, south of the cients (Sneath and Sokal, 1973). Both procedures indicate Yangtze River, Jiangsu Province, dates from c. 7000–5000 the likelihood of similarities in proportion or shape of the years BP (Chang, 1986; Nakahashi et al., 2002). cranial morphology between samples, with the advantages Early Metal Age samples are represented by three com- that Mahalanobis’ generalized distances take the inter-corre- posite series: (1) early agriculturist Ban Chiang, Thailand lation of measurements into account, and the Q-mode corre- (Gorman and Charoenwongsa, 1976; Pietrusewsky and lation coefficients entirely eliminate the overall absolute size Douglas, 2002); (2) Dong Son remains from Vinh Quang, factor. Contrasting the results from these two techniques Chau Son, Doi Son, Quy Chu, Nui Nap, Minh Duc, Dong will help us to interpret the estimates of sample affiliations. Mon, and Dong Xa located near Hanoi and dated from c. To calculate these values, nine cranial measurements, 3000 to 1700 years BP (Thuy, 1993; Cuong, 1996); and (3) available for the Hang Cho skeleton and the published fe- Yayoi samples, the first rice cultivators in Japan and dated male series listed in Table 4, were selected. That is, maxi- from c. 2400 years BP to 1750 years BP (Hudson, 1990) mum cranial breadth (M1) and length (M8), cranial height from northern Kyushu and Yamaguchi Prefecture (Kanaseki (M17), bizygomatic breadth (M45), upper facial height et al., 1960; Nakahashi, 1989). An additional non-composite (NPH), orbital breadth (OBB) and height (M52), and nasal series, the Jiangnan series, is an early historic sample from breadth (M54) and height (M55). The variance and covari- southern China dated to the Eastern Zhou Period and West- ance matrix used in this calculation of Mahalanobis’ gener- ern Han Period in Jiangsu Province (Nakahashi et al., 2002). alized distances was derived from Howell’s data set. Data recorded for several modern samples (see Table 4) To aid in the interpretation of the intersample phenetic af- Vol. 116, 2008 HANG CHO SKELETON IN VIETNAM 211

Table 4. Comparative samples and data sources (females) Sample Locality Period Data (Skull) N. Data (Dentition) N. Moh Khiew Southern Thailand Late Pleistocene — — Matsumura and Pooka- 1 jorn, 2005 Liujiang China Late Pleistocene Woo, 1959 1 — — Coobool Creek Australia Late Pleistocene Brown, 1989 9 Brown, 1989 8 Mai Da Dieu Northern Vietnam Early Holocene — 1 Matsumura et al., 2001 1 Guar Kepah Mainland Malaysia Middle Holocene — — Matsumura and Pooka- 9 jorn, 2005 Middle Holocene Indonesia Middle Holocene — — Matsumura and Pooka- 4 Flores jorn, 2005 Man Bac Northern Vietnam Middle Holocene Present authors (unpub- 4— — lished) Jomon Japan Middle Holocene Ogata, 1981 38 Matsumura, 1989 210 Weidun Southern China Middle Holocene Nakahashi and Li., 2002 3 Matsumura, 2002 29 Ban Chiang Northern Thailand Early Metal age Pietrusewsky and Dou- 28 Pietrusewsky and Dou- 33 glas, 2002 glas, 2002 Dong Son Northern Vietnam Early Metal Age Cuong, 1996 24 — — Yayoi Western Japan Early Metal age (Immi- Nakahashi, 1989 135 Matsumura, 1994 79 grant Type) Jiangnan Southern China Eastern Zhou and West- Nakahashi et al., 2002 18 Matsumura, 2002 10 ern Han Periods Japanese Japan Modern Howells, 1989 (N Japan) 32 Matsumura, 1989 28 Hainan China Modern Howells, 1989 38 — — Australians Australia Modern Howells, 1989 49 Brown, 1989 (Swanport) 23 Tasmania Australia Modern Howells, 1989 42 — — Tolai New Britain Modern Howells, 1989 54 — — Andaman India Modern Howells, 1989 35 — — Atayal Taiwan Modern Howells, 1989 38 — — Negritos Philippines Modern Genet-Varcin, 1951 14 — — Dayak Borneo Malaysia Modern Yokoo, 1931 12 — — Java Indonesia Modern Yokoo, 1931 14 — — N: sample size finities, cluster analyses using the unweighted pair-group cause of the lack of data from comparative specimens. method (UPGMA) (Sneath and Sokal, 1973) were applied to Figure 12 represents the summation of ten buccolingual the Mahalanobis’ distance matrix and Q-mode correlation diameters of the comparative samples, and although tooth coefficient matrix computed using the nine cranial measure- size alone does not imply population relationships, it is pos- ments. sible to compare the degree of absolute largeness of Hang Figure 11 represents two dendrograms resulting from a Cho teeth to other modern and prehistoric samples. The late cluster analysis applied to the Mahalanobis’ distance and Q- Pleistocene Moh Khiew specimen is marked by the largest mode correction coefficients respectively. Two major clus- total crown size. The tooth size of the Coobool Creek sample ters were drawn in both dendrograms, in which the late is next largest, followed by the modern Australian Aborigi- Pleistocene Liujiang and Coobool Creek, and the modern nal and Middle Holocene Flores samples. The overall tooth Australian, Tolai Melanesian, and Tasmanian Aboriginal size of Hang Cho is comparable to the average size of these samples form one major cluster to which Hang Cho speci- samples. men also clusters. The late Neolithic Man Bac and early Figure 13 displays the results of a cluster analyses ap- Bronze Age Dong Son specimens, despite being from neigh- plied to the Mahalanobis’ distance and the Q mode correla- boring regions in northern Vietnam, were clearly separated tion coefficients computed using the ten buccolingual crown from the cluster that include the Hang Cho specimen. These diameters. In both dendrograms Hang Cho is connected with later period Vietnamese samples belong to another major a cluster containing the Middle Holocene Flores, Moh cluster formed by the remaining Neolithic to modern sam- Khiew Cave, and Australian samples, which is distinct from ples from Southeast Asia, Southern China, and Japan. another separate cluster joining the Neolithic to modern samples from East/Southeast Asia. Dental metric multivariate analysis As noted, dental metric comparisons were made for buc- Discussion colingual crown diameters only due to extreme interproxi- mal wear which had reduced the mesiodistal diameters. For New radiocarbon dates for the Hang Cho skeleton provide the Hang Cho data given in Table 2, average buccolingual a calibrated age of 10450 ± 300 years BP (68.2%) or diameters of the right and left side were used for statistical 10450 ± 700 years BP (95.4%), suggesting that this material comparisons where teeth and their antemeres were present. belonged to the terminal Pleistocene. This estimated date is Data from the third molars were not used in this analysis be- within a range determined by AMS dating using freshwater 212 H. MATSUMURA ET AL. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE

Figure 10. Plots of cranial indices (M8/M1), upper facial indicies (NPH/M45), orbital indices (M52/OBB), and nasal indices (M54/ M55).

± Figure 11. Dendrograms of cluster analyses applied to the Mahal- shell mounds formed in the main chamber (14100 300 anobis’ distance and Q-mode correlation coefficients, based on nine years BP at the lowest layer to 9710 ± 50 years BP at the top: cranial measurements. Seonbok et al., 2004). Furthermore, this date is consistent with the Hoabinhian material cultural complex uncovered surrounding the burial of the Hang Cho skeleton. In Viet- nam, only a few skeletal remains are known from the pre-ce- Hang Cho and Australo-Melanesian samples. ramic level at Dong Can (c. 16000 years BP: Cuong, 1986), Beyond Vietnam’s borders a considerable number of pre- Mai Da Dieu, and Mai Da Nuoc (c. 8000 years BP: Cuong, historic human remains have been recovered in various re- 1986). The Dong Can specimen is missing more than half of gions of Southeast Asia (see Tayles and Oxenham, 2006, for one side of the cranium, and these pre-ceramic skeletal se- an overview). As far as the pre-ceramic culture sites are con- ries lack post-cranial elements. The Mai Da Dieu and Mai cerned, most of the skeletal remains are found in Malaysia Da Nuoc series include nearly complete skulls belonging to and Indonesia. Several sites in the north of Peninsular Ma- the later stage of the Hoabinhian period. Accordingly, the laysia have produced Hoabinhian (Tampanian) human skel- Hang Cho skeleton is very important in terms of its good, in- etons, such as Gua Kajang, Gua Kerbau, and Gua Cha. From cluding post-cranial, preservation and sound dating, indicat- the western part of Flores Island some human remains asso- ing an early Hoabinhian period origin. ciated with Hoabinhian period artefacts have been recovered The Hang Cho skeleton, dated to the terminal Pleistocene, from Liang Momer, Liang Toge Liang X, Gua Alo, Gua may represent one of the early indigenous settlers of this re- Nempong, and other sites. Among these sites, well-pre- gion. Multivariate analyses of cranial and dental data, mak- served skeletal individuals are unearthed from only a few ing large-scale comparisons with Northeast/Southeast Asian sites such as Gua Cha, Liang Momer, and Liang Toge. and Pacific groups, demonstrates close affinities between Although many of these skeletal remains from pre-ceram- Vol. 116, 2008 HANG CHO SKELETON IN VIETNAM 213

ic contexts are fragmented, a number of earlier analyses fre- quently described morphological features akin to those of Australian Aboriginal or Melanesian people, citing their dolichocranic skulls with protruding glabella regions, mas- sive jaws with relatively large teeth, alveolar prognathism, and long gracile limbs (e.g. Evans, 1918; Duckworth, 1934; Mijsberg, 1940; Trevor and Brothwell, 1962; Jacob, 1967; Bulbeck, 2000). They were all associated with pre-ceramic levels and so-called ‘Sumatralith’ pebble tools (oval unifa- cials), hammer stones, and slabs, and were thus all said to belong to the late Hoabinhian period. Tracing back to the late Pleistocene and early Holocene periods, several sets of human remains have been discovered in Southeast Asia. In east Malaysia, Niah Cave in Sarawak is the site of the earliest well-dated modern human remains in Southeast Asia. The so-called ‘Deep Skull’ from Niah Cave has an associated radiocarbon date of c. 40000 years BP Figure 12. Summation of the ten buccolingual tooth crown diam- (Kennedy, 1977; Barker et al., 2007). In mainland Malaysia, eters of the Hang Cho specimen and comparative tooth samples. the excavation of Gua Gunung Runtuh revealed a 10000– 11000 years BP primary burial of an adult male (Zuraina, 1994, 2005). Tabon Cave on Palawan Island is a well-known site which has produced the oldest human skeletal remains in the Philippines, consisting of a frontal bone and two man- dibular fragments and a tibia. The mandibular fragment has been AMS dated to c. 30000 years BP (Dizon et al., 2002). From southern Thailand, a late Pleistocene human skeleton was excavated at the Moh Khiew Cave in Krabi Province (Pookajorn, 1991, 1994). An adult female buried in the pre- Neolithic cultural level has been AMS dated to 25800 ± 600 years BP. The Wajak skulls from central Java in Indonesia (Dubois, 1922; Weidenreich, 1945; Wolpoff et al., 1984) have long been regarded as late Pleistocene, but AMS dating of the skeleton indicates that a middle Holocene date (c. 6500 years BP) may be more appropriate (Storm, 1995). The majority of analyses of Pleistocene and early Hol- ocene East/Southeast Asian material demonstrate Australo- Melanesian characteristics in the skeletal and dental mor- phology, despite issues with using subadult or poorly pre- served material (Brothwell, 1960; Macintosh, 1978; Cuong, 1986; Jacob and Soepriyo, 1994; Matsumura, 1995; Matsumura and Zuraina, 1995, 1999; Matsumura and Pookajorn, 2005). However, both Jacob (1967) and Storm (1995) have identified so-called ‘Mongoloid’ features in the Wadjak specimens. Based on these earlier findings, as well as more recent dis- coveries of preceramic period skeletons, it has been argued that Southeast Asia was occupied by an indigenous popula- tion, sometimes referred to as ‘Australo-Melanesian’, before immigrants from East Asia dispersed widely into this region (e.g. Callenfels, 1936; Mijsberg, 1940; Barth, 1952; von Koenigswald, 1952; Coon, 1962; Jacob, 1967, 1975; Brace, 1976; Howells, 1976; Brace et al., 1991; Matsumura and Hudson, 2005). This population history scenario for South- east Asia is known as the ‘Two Layer’ or ‘Immigration’ model. This ‘Two-Layer’ hypothesis is supported by a wide range of genetic, linguistic, and archeological evidence, Figure 13. Dendrograms of cluster analyses applied to the Mahal- anobis’ distance and Q-mode correlation coefficients, based on ten which has linked the pre-modern expansion of the Austrone- buccolingual crown diameters. sian and Austroasiatic language families with the dispersal of rice-cultivating populations during the Neolithic period (Renfrew, 1989, 1992; Bellwood, 1991, 1993, 1996, 1997; 214 H. MATSUMURA ET AL. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE

Bellwood et al., 1992; Hudson, 1994, 1999; Blust 1996; Acknowledgments Glover and Higham, 1996; Higham, 1998, 2001; Bellwood and Renfrew, 2003; Diamond and Bellwood, 2003). We express our sincere gratitude to Ha Van Phung, Direc- There are, however, different interpretations regarding tor of the Institute of Archaeology, Vietnam, for permission these peoples based on recent studies of dental and cranial and collaboration during excavation of the Hang Cho site. morphology. Studies by Turner (1987, 1989, 1990, 1992) We are appreciative of the collaboration of the Hoa Binh based on nonmetric dental traits suggested that both early Provincial Museum during our excavation project of the and modern Southeast Asians display the so-called ‘Sunda- Hang Cho site. Thanks to Fumiko Saheki for assistance of dont’ dental complex. Turner concluded that early Sunda- with skeletal reconstruction, and to Damien Huffer for com- dont populations migrated into Northeast Asia and evolved ments on an earlier draft. This study was supported in part by into ‘Sinodont’ populations. Cranial studies by Hanihara a Grant-in-Aid in 2003–2005 (No. 15405018) and in 2008 (1993, 1994) advocated that Proto-Malays, similar to the (No. 20370096) from the Japan Society for the Promotion of present-day Dayaks, widely inhabited Southeast Asia during Science, and a Research Grant by the Toyota Foundation in the late Pleistocene. Hanihara (1993) regards Proto-Malay 2006–2007 (No. D06-R-0035). as an original source for present-day Southeast Asians. Pietrusewsky (1992, 1994, 1999) analyzed a number of large-scale craniometric data sets from Southeast Asia and References argued for regional continuity in Southeast Asia and relatively Akazawa T. and Aikens C.M. (1986) Introduction. 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Bulbeck (2000) has dis- Barker G., Barton H., Bird M., Daly P., Datan I., Dykes A., Farr L., Gilbertson D., Harrisson B., Hunt C., Higham T., cussed at length some of the interpretive problems resulting Kealhofer L., Krigbaum J., Lewis H., McLaren S., Paz V., from the scarcity of pre-Neolithic materials in Turner’s Pike A., Piper P., Pyatt B., Rabett R., Reynolds R., Rose J., Southeast Asian samples. Turner (1987) himself presumed Rushworth G., Stephens M., Stringer C., Thompson G., and that further sampling, particularly of older remains, may Turney C. (2007) The ‘human revolution’ in lowland tropical show the ancient presence of Australo-Melanesians in Southeast Asia: the antiquity and behavior of anatomically Southeast Asia. modern humans at Niah Cave (Sarawak, Borneo). Journal of Human Evolution, 52: 243–261. Our new discovery of the early Hoabinhian Hang Cho Barth F. (1952) The southern Mongoloid migration. 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