DOCSLIB.ORG

Demonstrative Contrasts in Hindukush Indo-Aryan

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Demonstrative Contrasts in Hindukush Indo-Aryan Demonstrative contrasts in Hindukush Indo-Aryan Noa Lange Department of Linguistics Independent Project for the Degree of Master (One Year) 15 HEC General linguistics Master’s programme in language sciences – specialization in typology and linguistic diversity Spring term 2016 Supervisor: Henrik Liljegren Examiner: Bernhard Wälchli Expert reviewer: Emil Perder Project affiliation: “Language contact and relatedness in the Hindukush Region,” a research project supported by the Swedish Research Council (421-2014-631) Demonstrative contrasts in Hindukush Indo-Aryan Noa Lange Abstract Hindukush Indo-Aryan (HKIA) is a disputed subgroup of Indo-Aryan languages spoken within a linguistically diverse area stretching from northeastern Afghanistan, across northern Pakistan to northwestern India, principally covering the mountainous region of Hindukush–Karakoram–Western Himalaya. A noteworthy feature of some of these languages is a three-way demonstrative system, or three deictic terms used by speakers to direct one another’s attention to referents at different distances in their environment. It has been suggested that the distinguishing feature of one such demonstrative in HKIA is its referents’ remote distance from the interlocutors, or their absence from the environment altogether. The purpose of this study is two-fold: firstly, it is to more closely examine the demonstrative systems of a sample of HKIA languages on the basis of fieldwork data; secondly, it is to compare the data to previous accounts of the systems, as well as to the demonstrative systems of other languages spoken in the region. The results provide evidence that two demonstratives in HKIA are distance-contrastive, and one is invisibility-contrastive vis-à-vis the other two. Such a three-term system is moreover shown to be present in languages of the area that span across three other genealogical families, which suggests that the feature may be areally influenced. Keywords Demonstrative, Hindukush Indo-Aryan, invisible, areal typology, The Greater Hindukush Demonstrativkontraster i Hindukush-indoariska Noa Lange Sammanfattning Hindukush-indoariska (HKIA) är en omtvistad grupp av indoariska språk som talas i ett språkrikt område från nordöstra Afghanistan, genom norra Pakistan till nordvästra Indien, vilket främst täcker Hindukush-, Karakoram- och västra Himalaya-bergen. Ett anmärkningsvärt drag i ett antal sådana språk är demonstrativsystem med tre nivåer, eller tre deiktiska termer som talare använder för att rikta varandras uppmärksamhet åt referenter vid olika avstånd i deras omgivning. Det har föreslagits att det utmärkande draget för en av HKIA-språkens sådana demonstrativor är det stora avståndet mellan dess referenter och talarna, eller rentav referenternas frånvaro från omgivningen. Syftet med denna studie är dubbelt: i första hand att närmre undersöka demonstrativsystemen hos ett urval av HKIA-språken på basis av fältdata; i andra hand att jämföra dessa data med tidigare beskrivningar av systemen, samt med demonstrativsystem i andra språk som talas i regionen. Resultatet ger bevis för att två demonstrativor i HKIA är avståndskontrastiva, och att en kontrasterar osynlighet från de andra två. Det påvisas dessutom att ett likadant tredelat system finns i språk som talas i området från tre andra genealogiska familjer, vilket tyder på att draget kan vara arealt signifikant. Nyckelord Demonstrativor, Hindukush-indoariska, osynlig, arealtypologi, The Greater Hindukush Contents 1. Introduction ........................................................................................ 1 2. Background ......................................................................................... 2 2.1 The Greater Hindukush .................................................................................. 2 2.1.1 The area ................................................................................................ 2 2.1.2 The languages ........................................................................................ 3 2.1.3 Previous research .................................................................................... 4 2.2 Areal typology .............................................................................................. 5 2.3 The demonstrative ........................................................................................ 6 2.3.1 Definition ............................................................................................... 6 2.3.2 Demonstrative contrasts .......................................................................... 7 3. Methods .............................................................................................. 9 3.1 Language sampling ....................................................................................... 9 3.2 Questionnaire data .......................................................................................10 3.3 Comparison data ..........................................................................................13 4. Results .............................................................................................. 15 4.1 Demonstratives in sample 1 ..........................................................................15 4.1.1 Sample 1 results summary ......................................................................15 4.1.2 Khowar [khw] ........................................................................................16 4.1.3 Bateri [btv] ...........................................................................................17 4.1.4 Gawri [gwc] ..........................................................................................18 4.1.5 Indus Kohistani [mvy] ............................................................................18 4.1.6 Torwali [trw] .........................................................................................19 4.1.7 Dameli [dml] .........................................................................................20 4.1.8 Gawarbati [gwr] .....................................................................................21 4.1.9 Gilgiti Shina [scl] ...................................................................................21 4.1.10 Kalkoti [xka] ........................................................................................22 4.1.11 Palula [phl] ..........................................................................................23 4.1.12 Ushojo [ush] ........................................................................................23 4.1.13 Kashmiri [kas] .....................................................................................24 4.2 Demonstratives in sample 2 ..........................................................................25 4.2.1 Sample 2 results summary ......................................................................25 4.2.2 Chitral Group (HKIA) ..............................................................................27 4.2.3 Kohistani Group (HKIA)...........................................................................27 4.2.4 Kunar Group (HKIA) ...............................................................................28 4.2.5 Shina Group (HKIA)................................................................................28 4.2.6 Pashai (HKIA) ........................................................................................29 4.2.7 Kashmiri (HKIA) .....................................................................................30 4.2.8 Indo-Aryan ............................................................................................30 4.2.9 Iranian .................................................................................................30 4.2.10 Nuristani .............................................................................................31 4.2.11 Tibeto-Burman .....................................................................................32 4.2.12 Turkic .................................................................................................33 4.2.13 Burushaski (isolate) ..............................................................................34 5. Discussion ......................................................................................... 35 5.1 Results discussion ........................................................................................35 5.1.1 Invisible terms in HKIA ...........................................................................35 5.1.2 The areality of three-way demonstrative contrasts in GHK ...........................36 5.1.3 The invisible term as endophoric ..............................................................37 5.1.4 Extended forms of distal terms ................................................................38 5.1.5 Anaphoric use of proximal forms for distant referents .................................38 5.2 Methods discussion ......................................................................................38 5.2.1 Shortcomings of the questionnaire ...........................................................38 5.2.2 Shortcomings of previous descriptions ......................................................39 5.3 Conclusion ..................................................................................................39 5.3.1 Summary of the study ............................................................................39 5.3.2 Suggestions for further research ..............................................................40
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Grammatical Gender in Hindukush Languages
    Grammatical gender in Hindukush languages An areal-typological study Julia Lautin Department of Linguistics Independent Project for the Degree of Bachelor 15 HEC General linguistics Bachelor's programme in Linguistics Spring term 2016 Supervisor: Henrik Liljegren Examinator: Bernhard Wälchli Expert reviewer: Emil Perder Project affiliation: “Language contact and relatedness in the Hindukush Region,” a research project supported by the Swedish Research Council (421-2014-631) Grammatical gender in Hindukush languages An areal-typological study Julia Lautin Abstract In the mountainous area of the Greater Hindukush in northern Pakistan, north-western Afghanistan and Kashmir, some fifty languages from six different genera are spoken. The languages are at the same time innovative and archaic, and are of great interest for areal-typological research. This study investigates grammatical gender in a 12-language sample in the area from an areal-typological perspective. The results show some intriguing features, including unexpected loss of gender, languages that have developed a gender system based on the semantic category of animacy, and languages where this animacy distinction is present parallel to the inherited gender system based on a masculine/feminine distinction found in many Indo-Aryan languages. Keywords Grammatical gender, areal-typology, Hindukush, animacy, nominal categories Grammatiskt genus i Hindukush-språk En areal-typologisk studie Julia Lautin Sammanfattning I den här studien undersöks grammatiskt genus i ett antal språk som talas i ett bergsområde beläget i norra Pakistan, nordvästra Afghanistan och Kashmir. I området, här kallat Greater Hindukush, talas omkring 50 olika språk från sex olika språkfamiljer. Det stora antalet språk tillsammans med den otillgängliga terrängen har gjort att språken är arkaiska i vissa hänseenden och innovativa i andra, vilket gör det till ett intressant område för arealtypologisk forskning.
    [Show full text]
  • (And Potential) Language and Linguistic Resources on South Asian Languages
    CoRSAL Symposium, University of North Texas, November 17, 2017 Existing (and Potential) Language and Linguistic Resources on South Asian Languages Elena Bashir, The University of Chicago Resources or published lists outside of South Asia Digital Dictionaries of South Asia in Digital South Asia Library (dsal), at the University of Chicago. http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/ . Some, mostly older, not under copyright dictionaries. No corpora. Digital Media Archive at University of Chicago https://dma.uchicago.edu/about/about-digital-media-archive Hock & Bashir (eds.) 2016 appendix. Lists 9 electronic corpora, 6 of which are on Sanskrit. The 3 non-Sanskrit entries are: (1) the EMILLE corpus, (2) the Nepali national corpus, and (3) the LDC-IL — Linguistic Data Consortium for Indian Languages Focus on Pakistan Urdu Most work has been done on Urdu, prioritized at government institutions like the Center for Language Engineering at the University of Engineering and Technology in Lahore (CLE). Text corpora: http://cle.org.pk/clestore/index.htm (largest is a 1 million word Urdu corpus from the Urdu Digest. Work on Essential Urdu Linguistic Resources: http://www.cle.org.pk/eulr/ Tagset for Urdu corpus: http://cle.org.pk/Publication/papers/2014/The%20CLE%20Urdu%20POS%20Tagset.pdf Urdu OCR: http://cle.org.pk/clestore/urduocr.htm Sindhi Sindhi is the medium of education in some schools in Sindh Has more institutional backing and consequent research than other languages, especially Panjabi. Sindhi-English dictionary developed jointly by Jennifer Cole at the University of Illinois Urbana- Champaign and Sarmad Hussain at CLE (http://182.180.102.251:8081/sed1/homepage.aspx).
    [Show full text]
  • Some Principles of the Use of Macro-Areas Language Dynamics &A
    Online Appendix for Harald Hammarstr¨om& Mark Donohue (2014) Some Principles of the Use of Macro-Areas Language Dynamics & Change Harald Hammarstr¨om& Mark Donohue The following document lists the languages of the world and their as- signment to the macro-areas described in the main body of the paper as well as the WALS macro-area for languages featured in the WALS 2005 edi- tion. 7160 languages are included, which represent all languages for which we had coordinates available1. Every language is given with its ISO-639-3 code (if it has one) for proper identification. The mapping between WALS languages and ISO-codes was done by using the mapping downloadable from the 2011 online WALS edition2 (because a number of errors in the mapping were corrected for the 2011 edition). 38 WALS languages are not given an ISO-code in the 2011 mapping, 36 of these have been assigned their appropri- ate iso-code based on the sources the WALS lists for the respective language. This was not possible for Tasmanian (WALS-code: tsm) because the WALS mixes data from very different Tasmanian languages and for Kualan (WALS- code: kua) because no source is given. 17 WALS-languages were assigned ISO-codes which have subsequently been retired { these have been assigned their appropriate updated ISO-code. In many cases, a WALS-language is mapped to several ISO-codes. As this has no bearing for the assignment to macro-areas, multiple mappings have been retained. 1There are another couple of hundred languages which are attested but for which our database currently lacks coordinates.
    [Show full text]
  • Pashto, Waneci, Ormuri. Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern
    SOCIOLINGUISTIC SURVEY OF NORTHERN PAKISTAN VOLUME 4 PASHTO, WANECI, ORMURI Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan Volume 1 Languages of Kohistan Volume 2 Languages of Northern Areas Volume 3 Hindko and Gujari Volume 4 Pashto, Waneci, Ormuri Volume 5 Languages of Chitral Series Editor Clare F. O’Leary, Ph.D. Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan Volume 4 Pashto Waneci Ormuri Daniel G. Hallberg National Institute of Summer Institute Pakistani Studies of Quaid-i-Azam University Linguistics Copyright © 1992 NIPS and SIL Published by National Institute of Pakistan Studies, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan and Summer Institute of Linguistics, West Eurasia Office Horsleys Green, High Wycombe, BUCKS HP14 3XL United Kingdom First published 1992 Reprinted 2004 ISBN 969-8023-14-3 Price, this volume: Rs.300/- Price, 5-volume set: Rs.1500/- To obtain copies of these volumes within Pakistan, contact: National Institute of Pakistan Studies Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan Phone: 92-51-2230791 Fax: 92-51-2230960 To obtain copies of these volumes outside of Pakistan, contact: International Academic Bookstore 7500 West Camp Wisdom Road Dallas, TX 75236, USA Phone: 1-972-708-7404 Fax: 1-972-708-7433 Internet: http://www.sil.org Email: [email protected] REFORMATTING FOR REPRINT BY R. CANDLIN. CONTENTS Preface.............................................................................................................vii Maps................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • New Language Resources for the Pashto Language
    New language resources for the Pashto language Djamel Mostefa 1 , Khalid Choukri 1 , Sylvie Brunessaux 2 , Karim Boudahmane 3 1 Evaluation and Language resources Distribution Agency, France 2 CASSIDIAN, France 3 Direction Générale de l'Armement, France E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] Abstract This paper reports on the development of new language resources for the Pashto language, a very low-resource language spoken in Afghanistan and Pakistan. In the scope of a multilingual data collection project, three large corpora are collected for Pashto. Firstly a monolingual text corpus of 100 million words is produced. Secondly a 100 hours speech database is recorded and manually transcribed. Finally a bilingual Pashto-French parallel corpus of around 2 million is produced by translating Pashto texts into French. These resources will be used to develop Human Language Technology systems for Pashto with a special focus on Machine Translation. Keywords: Pashto, low-resource language, speech corpus, monolingual and multilingual text corpora, web crawling. other one being Dari) and one regional language in 1. Introduction Pakistan. There are very few corpora and Human Language The code assigned to the language by the ISO 639-3 Technology (HLT) services available for Pashto. No standard is [pus]. language resources for Pashto can be found in the According to the Ethnologue.com website, it is spoken by catalogues of LDC1 and ELRA2. around 20 million people and three main dialects are to be Pashto is a very low-resource language. Google doesn't considered: support Pashto in its search engine or translation services.
    [Show full text]
  • Languages of Kohistan. Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern
    SOCIOLINGUISTIC SURVEY OF NORTHERN PAKISTAN VOLUME 1 LANGUAGES OF KOHISTAN Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan Volume 1 Languages of Kohistan Volume 2 Languages of Northern Areas Volume 3 Hindko and Gujari Volume 4 Pashto, Waneci, Ormuri Volume 5 Languages of Chitral Series Editor Clare F. O’Leary, Ph.D. Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan Volume 1 Languages of Kohistan Calvin R. Rensch Sandra J. Decker Daniel G. Hallberg National Institute of Summer Institute Pakistani Studies of Quaid-i-Azam University Linguistics Copyright © 1992 NIPS and SIL Published by National Institute of Pakistan Studies, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan and Summer Institute of Linguistics, West Eurasia Office Horsleys Green, High Wycombe, BUCKS HP14 3XL United Kingdom First published 1992 Reprinted 2002 ISBN 969-8023-11-9 Price, this volume: Rs.300/- Price, 5-volume set: Rs.1500/- To obtain copies of these volumes within Pakistan, contact: National Institute of Pakistan Studies Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan Phone: 92-51-2230791 Fax: 92-51-2230960 To obtain copies of these volumes outside of Pakistan, contact: International Academic Bookstore 7500 West Camp Wisdom Road Dallas, TX 75236, USA Phone: 1-972-708-7404 Fax: 1-972-708-7433 Internet: http://www.sil.org Email: [email protected] REFORMATTING FOR REPRINT BY R. CANDLIN. CONTENTS Preface............................................................................................................viii Maps.................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Language Documentation and Description
    Language Documentation and Description ISSN 1740-6234 ___________________________________________ This article appears in: Language Documentation and Description, vol 17. Editor: Peter K. Austin Countering the challenges of globalization faced by endangered languages of North Pakistan ZUBAIR TORWALI Cite this article: Torwali, Zubair. 2020. Countering the challenges of globalization faced by endangered languages of North Pakistan. In Peter K. Austin (ed.) Language Documentation and Description 17, 44- 65. London: EL Publishing. Link to this article: http://www.elpublishing.org/PID/181 This electronic version first published: July 2020 __________________________________________________ This article is published under a Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC (Attribution-NonCommercial). The licence permits users to use, reproduce, disseminate or display the article provided that the author is attributed as the original creator and that the reuse is restricted to non-commercial purposes i.e. research or educational use. See http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ ______________________________________________________ EL Publishing For more EL Publishing articles and services: Website: http://www.elpublishing.org Submissions: http://www.elpublishing.org/submissions Countering the challenges of globalization faced by endangered languages of North Pakistan Zubair Torwali Independent Researcher Summary Indigenous communities living in the mountainous terrain and valleys of the region of Gilgit-Baltistan and upper Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, northern
    [Show full text]
  • A Micro-Typological Study of Pashai Varieties in Afghanistan
    A micro-typological study of Pashai varieties in Afghanistan Vanessa Quasnik Department of Linguistics Independent Project for a Master’s degree 30hp Master’s program (120hp) Spring term 2019 Supervisor: Henrik Liljegren En mikrotypologisk studie av Pashai varieteter i Afghanistan Sammanfattning Hindukushregionen sträcker sig från Afghanistan över Pakistan till norra Indien och hyser de van- ligtvis så kallade dardiska språken. De dardiska språken tillhör de indo-ariska språken vilka i isolation och genom kontakt utvecklade eller bevarade drag som inte längre finns i indo-ariska språk utanför regionen. I det pågående projekt “Språkkontakt och språksläktskap i Hindukushregionen” samlades data från mer än 50 språk inklusive nio varietéer av det nordvästra indo-ariska språket Pashai som talas i västra Afghanistan. En kognatanalys och en analys av fonologiska, morfologiska, syntaktiska och lexikala drag genomfördes. Kognatanalysen visar att Pashai varieteterna formar kluster, en västra grupp av de tre västra varieteterna och en östra grupp av de sex östra varieteterna. Struktruanalysen visar en mer skiftande bild av tre potentiella kluster, en grupp av de två mest västra varieteterna, en nordöstra grupp och en centergrupp bestående av en västra varietet och två sydöstra varieteter. Några drag som anses vara delad av språken i regionen kan också konstateras i alla Pashaivarieteter som en subjekt-objekt-verb följd och postpositioner. Nyckelord Hindu Kush, Indoariska språk, microtypology, Pashai A micro-typological study of Pashai varieties in Afghanistan Abstract The Hindu Kush region stretches from Afghanistan over Pakistan to North India and is hometowhatis commonly known as the Dardic languages. The Dardic langagues are a group of Indo-Aryan languages that have in isolation and under contact developed or retained features that can not be found in Indo- Aryan languages outside the region.
    [Show full text]
  • A Grammatical Description of Dameli
    Emil Perder A Grammatical Description of Dameli Emil Perder A Grammatical Description of Dameli A Grammatical ISBN 978-91-7447-770-2 Department of Linguistics Doctoral Thesis in Linguistics at Stockholm University, Sweden 2013 A Grammatical Description of Dameli Emil Perder A Grammatical Description of Dameli Emil Perder ©Emil Perder, Stockholm 2013 ISBN 978-91-7447-770-2 Printed in Sweden by Universitetsservice AB, Stockholm 2013 Distributor: Department of Linguistics, Stockholm University ماں َتارف تہ ِاک توحفہ، دامیاں A gift from me, Dameli people Abstract This dissertation aims to provide a grammatical description of Dameli (ISO-639-3: dml), an Indo-Aryan language spoken by approximately 5 000 people in the Domel Valley in Chitral in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province in the North-West of Pakistan. Dameli is a left-branching SOV language with considerable morphological complexity, particularly in the verb, and a complicated system of argument marking. The phonology is relatively rich, with 31 consonant and 16 vowel phonemes. This is the first extensive study of this language. The analysis presented here is based on original data collected primarily between 2003-2008 in cooperation with speakers of the language in Peshawar and Chitral, including the Domel Valley. The core of the data consists of recorded texts and word lists, but questionnaires and paradigms of word forms have also been used. The main emphasis is on describing the features of the language as they appear in texts and other material, rather than on conforming them to any theory, but the analysis is informed by functional analysis and linguistic typology, hypotheses on diachronical developments and comparisons with neighbouring and related languages.
    [Show full text]
  • Outer and Inner Indo-Aryan, and Northern India As an Ancient Linguistic Area
    Acta Orientalia 2016: 77, 71–132. Copyright © 2016 Printed in India – all rights reserved ACTA ORIENTALIA ISSN 0001-6483 Outer and Inner Indo-Aryan, and northern India as an ancient linguistic area Claus Peter Zoller University of Oslo Abstract The article presents a new approach to the old controversy concerning the veracity of a distinction between Outer and Inner Languages in Indo-Aryan. A number of arguments and data are presented which substantiate the reality of this distinction. This new approach combines this issue with a new interpretation of the history of Indo- Iranian and with the linguistic prehistory of northern India. Data are presented to show that prehistorical northern India was dominated by Munda/Austro-Asiatic languages. Keywords: Indo-Aryan, Indo-Iranian, Nuristani, Munda/Austro- Asiatic history and prehistory. Introduction This article gives a summary of the most important arguments contained in my forthcoming book on Outer and Inner languages before and after the arrival of Indo-Aryan in South Asia. The 72 Claus Peter Zoller traditional version of the hypothesis of Outer and Inner Indo-Aryan purports the idea that the Indo-Aryan Language immigration1 was not a singular event. Yet, even though it is known that the actual historical movements and processes in connection with this immigration were remarkably complex, the concerns of the hypothesis are not to reconstruct the details of these events but merely to show that the original non-singular immigrations have left revealing linguistic traces in the modern Indo-Aryan languages. Actually, this task is challenging enough, as the long-lasting controversy shows.2 Previous and present proponents of the hypothesis have tried to fix the difference between Outer and Inner Languages in terms of language geography (one graphical attempt as an example is shown below p.
    [Show full text]
  • The Socioeconomics of State Formation in Medieval Afghanistan
    The Socioeconomics of State Formation in Medieval Afghanistan George Fiske Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 2012 © 2012 George Fiske All rights reserved ABSTRACT The Socioeconomics of State Formation in Medieval Afghanistan George Fiske This study examines the socioeconomics of state formation in medieval Afghanistan in historical and historiographic terms. It outlines the thousand year history of Ghaznavid historiography by treating primary and secondary sources as a continuum of perspectives, demonstrating the persistent problems of dynastic and political thinking across periods and cultures. It conceptualizes the geography of Ghaznavid origins by framing their rise within specific landscapes and histories of state formation, favoring time over space as much as possible and reintegrating their experience with the general histories of Iran, Central Asia, and India. Once the grand narrative is illustrated, the scope narrows to the dual process of monetization and urbanization in Samanid territory in order to approach Ghaznavid obstacles to state formation. The socioeconomic narrative then shifts to political and military specifics to demythologize the rise of the Ghaznavids in terms of the framing contexts described in the previous chapters. Finally, the study specifies the exact combination of culture and history which the Ghaznavids exemplified to show their particular and universal character and suggest future paths for research. The Socioeconomics of State Formation in Medieval Afghanistan I. General Introduction II. Perspectives on the Ghaznavid Age History of the literature Entrance into western European discourse Reevaluations of the last century Historiographic rethinking Synopsis III.
    [Show full text]
  • Map by Steve Huffman; Data from World Language Mapping System
    Svalbard Greenland Jan Mayen Norwegian Norwegian Icelandic Iceland Finland Norway Swedish Sweden Swedish Faroese FaroeseFaroese Faroese Faroese Norwegian Russia Swedish Swedish Swedish Estonia Scottish Gaelic Russian Scottish Gaelic Scottish Gaelic Latvia Latvian Scots Denmark Scottish Gaelic Danish Scottish Gaelic Scottish Gaelic Danish Danish Lithuania Lithuanian Standard German Swedish Irish Gaelic Northern Frisian English Danish Isle of Man Northern FrisianNorthern Frisian Irish Gaelic English United Kingdom Kashubian Irish Gaelic English Belarusan Irish Gaelic Belarus Welsh English Western FrisianGronings Ireland DrentsEastern Frisian Dutch Sallands Irish Gaelic VeluwsTwents Poland Polish Irish Gaelic Welsh Achterhoeks Irish Gaelic Zeeuws Dutch Upper Sorbian Russian Zeeuws Netherlands Vlaams Upper Sorbian Vlaams Dutch Germany Standard German Vlaams Limburgish Limburgish PicardBelgium Standard German Standard German WalloonFrench Standard German Picard Picard Polish FrenchLuxembourgeois Russian French Czech Republic Czech Ukrainian Polish French Luxembourgeois Polish Polish Luxembourgeois Polish Ukrainian French Rusyn Ukraine Swiss German Czech Slovakia Slovak Ukrainian Slovak Rusyn Breton Croatian Romanian Carpathian Romani Kazakhstan Balkan Romani Ukrainian Croatian Moldova Standard German Hungary Switzerland Standard German Romanian Austria Greek Swiss GermanWalser CroatianStandard German Mongolia RomanschWalser Standard German Bulgarian Russian France French Slovene Bulgarian Russian French LombardRomansch Ladin Slovene Standard
    [Show full text]