The Maritime Defence of Y.H. Teddy Sim Editor

The Maritime Defence of China Ming General Jiguang and Beyond Editor Y.H. Teddy Sim Nanyang Technological University Singapore, Singapore

ISBN 978-981-10-4162-4 ISBN 978-981-10-4163-1 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4163-1

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In terms of periodisation in Chinese history, this study examines the (1368–1644) which was situated between the two non-Han alien entities of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368) and the Manchu Qing Dynasty (1644–1911). The enigmatic nature of this imperial regime has been posing challenges to scholars and spurring a body of Ming studies with diverse interpretations. Was it an inward- looking, introverted and non-competitive state which resinicised towards neo-­ Confucian Han culture after the brief expansive, alien-privileged Mongolian governance? With the relocation of its capital from Nanjing to and the grand rebuilding of the Great Wall, was the Ming basically of a defensive continental mindset? How then would one account for the multiple sea expeditions (1405–1433) of the spectacular oceanic fleet under Admiral which sailed through the South China Seas and Indian Ocean, reaching as far as the east coast of Africa about 60 years before Vasco da Gama crossing the southern tip of the African continent? On the balance, were the Ming emperors disciplined and authoritarian rulers, or were they generally hands off and negligent, thus allowing the dynasty to lapse into long periods of no significance? By choosing Ming General and the maritime defence of China against raging coastal piracy as the dual foci, this edited volume put together by Teddy Y.H. Sim and his team of multinational historians makes an important contribution towards shedding further light on the nature and dynamics of Ming governance. General Qi was born in the northern province and began his military career there. He was later posted to and then to - to crush the Japanese-related piracy, before being reposted back to the north-east to rebuild and guard the Great Wall to contain a re-emerging Mongol military threat. He has an entrenched place in Chinese history as a great heroic figure, with statues and pictures of him prominently displayed in various localities near the Great Wall and along southern coastal China. It is difficult to think of another Chinese military commander who is widely regarded as being endowed with an almost equal appor- tionment of highly honed continental and maritime expertise. To cap it all, in line with the Confucian tradition of praising high self-cultivation in both martial and literary matters, Qi has also left behind for posterity a handsome volume of poetry

v vi Foreword and literary writings as well as some calligraphy pieces. Yet, there is no single extant volume of work in the world of English-language scholarship which centres on the man and his influence during and beyond his times. This publication addresses the biographical gap. Anchoring upon but going beyond the biographical, this volume also probes a couple of other important issues. Firstly, it furthers our understanding of the large- scale, complex Ming piracy problem in terms of its relationship with the waxing and waning of governing regimes in both China and Japan, as well as with the framing of broad state policies towards tributary relations and maritime trade. At the lower but equally important level, there would be the patron-client configuration of court officials (especially the role of the controversial leading Ming reformer in facilitating Qi Jiguang’s career) and the efficacy of local authorities in crisis response. Secondly, this study enables us to contextualise and appreciate the strategic and tactical advancements pioneered by Qi within the broader fabric of Chinese and global military development over the long duration. By dwelling into details of his military recruitment and training as well as his innovative troop forma- tion and armament as recorded in his compilation of two important military manu- als, the discussion allows for a preliminary 16th-century comparison with Western military development just at a point in time when the Western powers were rapidly advancing into the Orient with their rallying cry of God, Gold and Glory. The publication of this volume is opportune. The present 21st century has been touted by some as possibly the Asian Century, particularly with the likely rise of China as a world economic superpower and perhaps an eventual exponential increase in military capability. The recent proclamation of a global initiative of ‘One Belt One Road’ by China’s new leadership embraces accelerated advancements upon the foundation laid by both the historical overland Silk Road through Central Asia and the maritime trading route radiating out far and wide from coastal China. A reassertion of the historical experience and legacy of Qi Jiguang through not only state commemorations, statue building and television dramas but also scholarly studies with deeper reflection and critique is well-timed.

Department of History Huang Jianli National University of Singapore Singapore, Singapore 20 June 2016 Preface

One of the motivations for this edited book project stemmed from the need to dis- cuss agendas in a military history course as part of the repertoire of teaching I do on the early modern and colonial era. In particular, the need to discuss military con- flicts along the coast of China naturally brought Qi Jiguang and those who strove to emulate him in later periods into the centre of discussion. My attempt to survey the field of studies on Qi Jiguang and maritime military history revealed a gap that quickly provided, whether for research or teaching purposes, the additional impetus for initiating the project. This project would not have been possible without the faith and contributions of historians from several parts of the world. The reviewers who offered to provide comments on the chapters in the internal and publisher’s rounds of review deserve special mention. Many friends who were interested in the topic, for instance, Thomas Chen (a sword connoisseur), presented as avenues to bounce ideas and brought me books from their trips to China. Associate Professor Huang Jianli wrote a gracious foreword for the book and commented critically on the introductory chapter. I also would like to thank Brill (Journal of Chinese Military History), the Naval Institute Press (New Interpretations in Naval History, ed. Yu M.C.) and Xiamen Daxue Xuebao [Xiamen University Bulletin], which granted permissions for the reproduction of the articles by Professors Tonio Andrade, Kenneth Swope and Huang Shunli, respectively. Ng Eng Ping translated the main text of Chapters 9, 13 and 14, while Sandy J.C. Liu translated the citations, notes and abstracts. An exter- nal copy editor, Sunandini Arora Lal, helped to refine the writing and style. Lee Li Kheng drew the maps for the project. The Humanities and Social Studies Education Academic Group in the Institute of Education (NTU), where I teach, is supportive of the work I do. The Assistant Head, Associate Professor Ivy Maria Lim, made time to contribute a chapter despite her busy schedule. Associate Professor Wang Zhenping took the time to discuss with me aspects of China’s investiture system. The management and staff at Springer were professional and very supportive. As

vii viii Preface with all my projects, but particularly this one, my wife has been the main pillar of support; many evenings and weekends had to be spent writing chapters, coordinat- ing with contributors and reviewers and aligning the various chapters into as coher- ent a book as possible. The need to remove repetitive content or add further content and analysis was negotiated as far as possible with the various contributors.

Singapore, Singapore Y.H. Teddy Sim 30 July 2016 Contents

Part I Historiography, Biography and Doctrines of Qi Jiguang 1 Brief Introduction to Qi Jiguang and Discussion of Issues Relating to China’s Maritime Defence and Qi’s Doctrines...... 3 Y.H. Teddy Sim 1.1 Brief Literature Review and Introduction of Qi Jiguang...... 3 1.2 Direction of Book and Discussion...... 8 1.3 Conclusion...... 19  Appendix...... 20 2 Qi Jiguang and Hu Zongxian’s Anti- Campaign...... 23 Ivy Maria Lim 2.1 Introduction...... 23 2.2 Hu Zongxian, Qi Jiguang and Their Place in Wokou Historiography...... 24 2.3 Hu Zongxian...... 29 2.4 The Career of Qi Jiguang...... 32 2.5 Qi Jiguang’s Relationship with Hu Zongxian...... 34 2.6 Some Concluding Thoughts...... 39 3 ‘A Terrible Scourge’: Chinese Piracy and Coastal Defence in Broad Historical Perspective...... 43 Patrick Connolly and Robert J. Antony 3.1 Introduction...... 43 3.2 The Age of the Wokou Pirates, 1522–1574...... 44 3.3 Piracy in the Ming-Qing Transition, 1620–1684...... 47 3.4 Pirates of the Mid-Qing Period, 1780–1810...... 50 3.5 Piracy in the Late Qing Dynasty...... 55 3.6 Discussion and Conclusion...... 57

ix x Contents

4 The in Qi Jiguang’s Military Training...... 59 Peter Lorge 4.1 Introduction...... 59 4.2 Martial Arts and Military Practice...... 62 4.3 Earlier Military Training...... 64 4.4 Military Manuals and Martial Arts Manuals...... 66 4.5 Conclusion...... 69  Appendix...... 71 5 The Volley Technique in China, c. 1560: Evidence from the Writings of Qi Jiguang...... 73 Tonio Andrade 5.1 in Europe...... 75 5.2 Qi Jiguang and the Arquebus in China...... 78 5.3 Perspectives on Qi Jiguang and the Arquebus...... 85 5.4 Conclusions...... 90 6 Zeng Guofan’s Application of Qi Jiguang’s Doctrines in Crushing the Taiping Uprising...... 93 Y.H. Teddy Sim and Sandy J.C. Liu 6.1 Introduction...... 93 6.2 Qi Jiguang’s Doctrines and Wokou...... 94 6.3 Zeng Guofan’s Doctrines...... 95 6.4 Discussion of Campaigns...... 97 6.5 Conclusion...... 103 7 The Chinese People’s Liberation Army Navy and the History of Coastal Defence...... 105 Bruce A. Elleman 7.1 Introduction...... 105 7.2 The Early History of Chinese Coastal Defence...... 106 7.3 The (1839–42) and Chinese Coastal Defence...... 111 7.4 The Chinese Navy During the Sino-French War (1883–85)...... 116 7.5 The Sino-Japanese War (1894–95) Ends China’s Maritime Supremacy...... 120 7.6 Conclusions: The Contemporary Importance of Chinese Coastal Defence...... 126 Contents xi

Part II Maritime and Security Environment During Qi Jiguang’s Enterprise and Beyond 8 Early Ming’s Skirmishes and Clashes with the Portuguese as an Indication of Ming Military Developments and the Military Dimension of Luso-Ming Interactions...... 131 Y.H. Teddy Sim 8.1 Introduction...... 131 8.2 Ming’s Naval and Military Developments...... 132 8.3 Portugal’s Expansion in the East...... 134 8.4 Analysis of Skirmishes and Clashes...... 136 8.5 Ming-Portuguese Military Interaction After the Establishment of Macau...... 139 8.6 Conclusion...... 143 9 The Retrogression in Overseas Geographical Knowledge During the Mid-Ming Period...... 145 Yunzhong Zhou 9.1 Introduction...... 145 9.2 Errors by Top Scholars and Officials in Charge of Foreign Matters...... 146 9.3 Errors by Scholars from the Port Cities of Fujian...... 147 9.4 Reasons for the Retrogression of Overseas Geographical Knowledge in Ming China...... 150 9.5 The Exceptional Haiyu and Dongyi Tushuo...... 152 9.6 Japanese Studies Spurred by Japanese Piracy...... 155 9.7 Conclusion...... 161 10 Cutting Dwarf Pirates Down to Size: Amphibious Warfare in 16th-­Century East Asia...... 163 Kenneth M. Swope 10.1 Introduction...... 163 10.2 Piracy Along the Coast of China...... 165 10.3 Ming Responses and Qi Jiguang’s Tactics...... 167 10.4 Japanese Invasion of Korea...... 173 10.5 Conclusion...... 185 11 Rebel with a Cause: Chinese Merchant-Pirates in Southeast Asia in the 16th Century...... 187 Piyada Chonlaworn 11.1 Introduction...... 187 11.2 Wang Zhi as a Merchant-Pirate...... 189 11.3 Wang Zhi and the Trade...... 189 11.4 The End of Jiajing Pirates...... 192 11.5 Patani...... 192 11.6 Lin Daoqian...... 193 11.7 Lin Daoqian in Oral Traditions...... 195 xii Contents

11.8 Lin Daoqian in Malay and Thai Records...... 195 11.9 Pirate and Goddess...... 197 11.10 Conclusion...... 198  Appendices...... 199 12 Naval Technology, State Power and the Influence of Qi Jiguang in the Late Ming...... 201 Kenneth M. Swope 12.1 Introduction...... 201 12.2 Qi Jiguang’s Doctrines and Influence...... 203 12.3 Coastal Defence During the Late Ming...... 207 12.4 Late Ming Politics and the Strategic Environment...... 211 12.5 Conclusion...... 215 13 The Rise of Private Maritime Trading Powers in Fujian and Their Impacts on the View of the Sea During the Ming Dynasty...... 217 Shunli Huang 13.1 Introduction...... 217 13.2 Sea Prohibition and Its Effects...... 218 13.3 The Rise of Coastal Autonomous Hegemonies...... 220 13.4 Rise of Commodity Economy and Shifts in Perception...... 224 13.5 Conclusion...... 232 14 An Analysis on the Development of Ming-Qing Maritime Defence and Navy...... 233 Chi-Lin Lee 14.1 Introduction...... 233 14.2 The Maritime Defence and Navy of the Ming Dynasty...... 234 14.3 The Maritime Defence and Navy of the Qing Dynasty...... 237 14.4 Shifts in the Ming-Qing Navy...... 239 14.5 Conclusion...... 243

Glossary...... 245

Maps...... 253

Bibliography...... 255

Index...... 275 Contributors

Tonio Andrade is a professor of history at Emory University. His books include The Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History (Princeton University Press, 2016), Lost Colony: The Untold Story of China’s First Great Victory over the West (Princeton University Press, 2011) and How Taiwan Became Chinese (Columbia University Press, 2008). His writings have appeared in many publications, including The Journal of Asian Studies, The Journal of World History, Late Imperial China, Itinerario and The Journal of Early Modern History. He is also the recipient of the John Simon Guggenheim fellowship and the Gutenberg-e Prize. He lives in Decatur, Georgia, USA.

Robert J. Antony who earned his Ph.D at the University of Hawaii, is distinguished professor and head of the research unit on China’s maritime history at Canton’s Thirteen Hongs Research Center, Guangzhou University. His research focuses on the social, legal and maritime history of South China in the early modern period. His publications include Like Froth Floating on the Sea (University of California IEAS, 2003), Pirates in the Age of Sail (W.W. Norton & Co, 2008) and Unruly People: Crime, Community, and State in Late Imperial South China (Hong Kong University Press, 2016). His current research focuses on piracy and maritime vio- lence in the Gulf of Tonkin in the Ming-Qing transition.

Chi-Lin Lee is an assistant professor at Tamkang University, Taiwan, with a Ph.D from the university. He specialises in the study of history in the Qing period, mari- time as well as military. His research has focused on China’s junks, navy and ship- building. Lee has published works on China’s maritime and military history, including Jianfeng zhuanduo: Qingdai qianqi yanhai de shuishi yu zhanchuan [Sailing with the waves: Coastal navy and warships of the early Qing period] (Wunan Publishing, 2014) and Qingdai taiwan jungong zhanchuan yu jungongjiang [Shipbuilders of and warships in Taiwan of the Qing period] (Hua Mulan chuban- she, 2013). He also participates in government-sponsored archaeology projects.

xiii xiv Contributors

Piyada Chonlaworn is an assistant professor at the Faculty of International Studies, Tenri University, Japan. Her research focuses on the historical interaction between East and Southeast Asia and the political history of Thailand. Her key works include “Ayuttaya and Ming’s Tributary Relations: A Study from Formal Correspondence” (2001, in Japanese), History of Pattani in the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century: A study from Chinese, Ryukyuan and Japanese Sources (Silkworm Books, 2011, in Thai) and “Contesting law and order: legal and judicial reform in southern Thailand in the late nineteenth to early 20th century” (Southeast Asian Studies 3, 3, 2014).

Patrick Connolly earned his Ph.D at the University of Macau. His dissertation focuses on piracy and pirate suppression in the lower Pearl River Delta during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He has participated in various conferences, including the Spring History Symposium for History Research Postgraduate Students organised by the University of Hong Kong in 2014, where he presented on “Macau’s Role in the Pirate World of the 1850s”.

Bruce A. Elleman is William V. Pratt professor of international history in the Center for Naval Warfare Studies, US Naval War College. He holds a Ph.D. in his- tory from Columbia University (1993). His specialisation includes Chinese, Japanese and Russian history; East Asian international relations; Sino-Soviet diplo- matic history; and Chinese military history. He is the author of Diplomacy and Deception: The Secret History of Sino-Soviet Diplomatic Relations, 1917–1927 (M.E. Sharpe, 1997); Modern Chinese Warfare, 1795–1989 (Routledge, 2001, translated into Chinese); Wilson and China: A Revised History of the Shandong Question (Routledge, 2002); Japanese-American Civilian Prisoner Exchanges and Detention Camps, 1941–1945 (Routledge, 2006); and Moscow and the Emergence of Communist Power in China, 1925–1930: The Nanchang Uprising and the Birth of the Red Army (Routledge, 2009). He is a coeditor, along with Stephen Kotkin and Clive Schofield, of Beijing’s Power and China’s Border: Twenty Neighbors in Asia (Routledge, 2013).

Ivy Maria Lim is an associate professor and assistant head in the Humanities and Social Studies Education Academic Group in the Institute of Education at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Her research interests focus on 16th-century maritime China and coastal society. She is the author of Lineage Society on the Southeastern Coast of China (Cambrai, 2010) and coeditor of Controversial History Education in Asian Contexts (Routledge, 2013).

Sandy J.C. Liu is an independent scholar with a master’s degree in strategic mar- keting. Liu’s professional work in private firms involving logistical services in China and Southeast Asia has led her to develop a deep interest in the trade/business activities and networks of coastal China and the Nanyang during the 19th century. She has written a chapter on the subject in an edited volume and co-authored three articles (Journal of Overseas Chinese and Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society). Liu was also involved in museum guiding at the Peranakan Museum of Singapore. Contributors xv

Peter Lorge is an assistant professor of Chinese and military history at Vanderbilt University, specialising in 10th- and 11th-century Chinese military history and thought. He is the author, most recently, of The Reunification of China: Peace Through War Under the Song Dynasty (Cambridge, 2015) and coeditor with Kaushik Roy of Chinese and Indian Warfare: From Classical Times Until 1870 (Routledge, 2014). His earlier books include : From Antiquity to the 21st Century (Cambridge, 2011); War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900– 1795 (Routledge, 2005); and The Asian Military Revolution: From Gunpowder to the Bomb (Cambridge, 2008). He is also the editor of a book series by Routledge, Asian States and Empires. He is currently working on a history of Chinese military thought from the 3rd to 13th centuries.

Shunli Huang is a professor of modern at Xiamen University who has published extensively on the history of maritime civilisations and early modern and modern intellectual history. He is the author of Haiyang misi: zhongguo hai- yang guan de chuantong yu bianqian [Lost in the sea of thoughts: Tradition and change in China’s view of the sea] (Jiangxi Gaoxiao chubanshe, 1999) and Zhongguo jindai sixiang wenhua shi tanlun [An exploration of the history of China’s thought culture] (Yuelu shushe, 2005) as well as editor of more than 10 books.

Y.H. Teddy Sim lectures at the Institute of Education in Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. He has published on Portuguese involvement in the East and Far East in the 18th and 19th centuries. He is the author of Portuguese Enterprise in the East: Survival in the Years 1707–1757 (Brill, 2011) and editor of Piracy and Surreptitious Activities in the Malay Archipelago and Adjacent Seas, 1600–1840 (Springer, 2014). Sim is also interested in issues involving security and activities of diaspora Chinese operating in the sea space and network extending from Macau and the southern coastal provinces of China.

Kenneth M. Swope received his master’s degree in Chinese studies and Ph.D. in history from the University of Michigan. He previously taught at Marist College and Ball State University and is currently a professor of history and fellow of the Dale Center for the Study of War and Society at the University of Southern Mississippi. In addition to writing numerous articles on Ming-Qing history, Swope is the author of Warfare in China Since 1600 (Ashgate, 2004); A ’s Head and a Serpent’s Tail: Ming China and the First Great East Asian War, 1592–1600 (University of Oklahoma Press, 2009); and The Military Collapse of China’s Ming Dynasty, 1618–1644 (Routledge, 2014). He is currently writing a book titled On the Trail of the Yellow Tiger: War, Trauma and Social Dislocation in Southwest China During the Ming-Qing Transition (University of Nebraska Press). xvi Contributors

Yunzhong Zhou received his bachelor’s degree in history from Nanjing University in 2005 and his Ph.D. in historical geography from Fudan University in 2010. Currently, he is an assistant professor in the Department of History at Xiamen University. He has published many academic articles in addition to a book, New Research on Zheng He (Chinese Social Sciences Press, 2013). A Note on Citation and Transliteration

The Chinese sources used in this edited book are listed under their authors’ names where possible. The characters for the Chinese and Japanese authors, sources and terms are provided in the bibliography and glossary. The characters for titles before the 20th century are supplied in traditional Chinese script, and those in the 20th century and after are supplied in simplified script. This is to avoid rendering that may affect the meaning of the text. The Chinese names and terms in the work are transliterated using Hanyu except in cases/titles where the Wade-Giles or localised Romanised system is more commonly accepted or already provided. The names of authors of Asian sources are largely provided in their family name—first name form as they are encountered in the essays. In the bibliography, Springer’s convention presents the names in their abbreviated form beyond the family name.

xvii Abbreviations

CXSL Chaoxian shiliao DMB Dictionary of Ming biography ECCP Eminent Chinese of the Ch’ing period FGYB (Jinglue) fuguo yaobian GQ Guoque HLYZY Hulinyi zhouyi IWSC Imjin Waeran saryo ch’ongso JXXS, JXXS14, JXXS18 (14-, 18-chapter version) LBSJ Lianbing shiji MS Mingshi Mss Manuscript MSJSBM “Mingshi jishi benmo” by Gu Yingtai, in Lidai jishi benmo PPJ “Ping pan ” by Mao Bin, in Ming-Qing shiliao con- gshu xubian WBZ WKSL (Mingdai) wokou shiliao WLDC Wanli dichao YZXP Yongzhuang xiaopin ZWZGZG Zengwen zhenggong zhougao

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