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Social Stratification in a Punjabi Village of Pakistan: the Dynamics Between Caste, Gender, and Violence

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Social Stratification in a Punjabi Village of Pakistan: the Dynamics Between Caste, Gender, and Violence Social Stratification in a Punjabi Village of Pakistan: The Dynamics between Caste, Gender, and Violence Ahmed Usman Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Leeds School of Sociology and Social Policy September 2011 The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis maybe published without proper acknowledgement Acknowledgements A heartfelt thank-you to; the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan and University of the Punjab Lahore Pakistan for funding this study, my supervisors Dr. Paul Bagguley and Dr. Yasmin Hussain, friends, mentors, loved ones, family, research team and most importantly the people who participated in this study. 11 Abstract This thesis looks at the system of social stratification in Punjabi villages of Pakistan using caste as a theoretical tool and develops an analysis ofthe dynamics between caste, gender, and violence. The focus of the research is the hierarchical arrangement of two major caste based status groups in Punjabi villages i.e. landowning castes, Zamindars, and service providing castes, Kammis, their asymmetrical social interactions in the village setting, and its changing patterns. The study draws on the theory of intersectionality to explore the social relations of dominance and resistance in the paradigm of caste and gender as an interconnected system of social oppression and structural violence. It is a case study comparative research and is conducted in two villages of Punjab province in Pakistan, each village as a unit of analysis; one in the arid and other in the irrigated agricultural zone. Since the ownership of land, the nature of agricultural activity, and the agrarian economy form the basis of traditional caste system in rural Pakistan, this research compares the dynamics between caste, gender, and violence in two different agricultural contexts. The literature has mostly dealt with the caste In Muslim Pakistan as a horizontal category with no real attempts to explore the caste relations in rural Pakistan in terms of power, difference, and inequality. This research contrasts with much of the existing literature on the area of caste in Pakistan and argues that the caste system in rural Pakistan exists in the form of the indigenous categories of Quom and Zat, which divide the Zamindar Quoms and Kammi Quoms in distinct and rigid birth-ascribed status groups on the basis of their parentage occupations. Looking at the changing dynamics of caste in contemporary Punjabi villages, this research argues that the caste system still plays a significant role in organizing the village structures. The villager's rights to participate in the social, political, and economic affairs of the village are determined by their caste and memberships in kinship groups. The power relations organized around the caste memberships, caste practices, and caste organization of the village influence the gender identities of the villagers, resulting in different shades of masculinities and femininities across Zamindars and Kammis. III Table of Contents Contents Page Acknow ledgements Abstract 11 Table of Contents iii Illustrative materials VB Glossary VllI 1. Chapter One - Introduction 1 1.1. Outline of Chapters 8 2. Chapter Two - The Caste System and its Context in Pakistan 12 2.1. Introduction 12 2.2. Conceptualizing Caste 12 2.2.1. Characteristics o/Caste System 16 2.3. Caste System in the Pakistani Context 19 2.3.1. Caste System and Labour Relations 27 2.3.2. Caste and Political Organization - Roles 0/ Leadership and Patronage 31 2.3.3. Caste System and Social Exclusion 34 2.4. Conclusion 35 3. Chapter Three - Gender and Violence in Caste Society of Pakistan 38 3.1. Introduction 38 3.2. Patriarchy and Gender in a Caste Society 39 3.2.1. Patriarchy and Caste 39 3.2.2. Construction o/Gender and Gender Relations 41 3.2.2.1. Gender and Caste 44 3.2.3 Caste and Gender - Hindu Caste System 47 3.3. Violence in Caste Society 49 3.3.1. Conceptualizing Violence 49 3.3.2. Theorizing Violence in Caste Perspective 51 3.3.2.1. Theorizing Gender Based Violence 55 3.3.3. Caste, Gender Based Violence, and Women 63 3.4. Conclusion 65 IV 4. Chapter Four - Methodological Framework and Data Collection Methods 68 4.1. Introduction 68 4.2. The Qualitative Research Model and Epistemological Position 68 4.3. The Research Design 71 4.3.1. Case Study Comparative Research 71 4.3.2. Selecting Research Sites 75 4.3.2.1. The Village Demographics 77 4.4. Data Source and Sampling Strategy 79 4.5. Strategy for Entering Research Site and Conducting Fieldwork 83 4.5.1. Negotiation, Rapport Building, and Disclosure 83 4.5.2. Gatekeeping: Concept, Practice, and Use 85 4.6. The In-Depth Semi Structured Interviews 87 4.7. The Reflexive Voice 90 4.7.1. Standpoint and Power 91 4.7.2. Understanding the Social and Political Context 92 4.8. Recruiting and Training the Female Research Assistants 93 4.8.1. Selection Criteria and Recruitment 93 4.8.2. Training 93 4.9. Ethical Considerations 94 4.9.1. Disengaging Process and Follow up Contacts 96 4.10. Fieldwork Experiences 97 4.10.1. Problems and Limitations 97 4.11. Transcribing and Analysing Data 99 4.11.1. Translations ofthe Quotes -A Limitation ofthe Research 100 4.12. Conclusion 101 5. Chapter Five - The System of Social Stratification in Contemporary Punjabi Villages - The Dynamics of Caste System and its Changing Patterns 102 5.1. Introduction 102 5.2. Caste as an Endogamous System 102 5.2.1. Endogamy - A Clear Divide between Kammis and Zamindars 102 5.2.2. Elopement and Marriage - the Consequences 107 5.3. Caste Occupations: Changing Patterns 109 5.3.1 Newly Emerging Institutions and Changing Consumption Patterns - Decline ofCaste Occupation 114 5.3.2. Parentage Occupation - A Lifelong Identification ofKammi Biradaris 117 5.3.3. Zamindars and Zamindari as an Occupation - Changing Patterns 120 v 5.4 The Seyp System: An Institution in Decline 124 5.4.1. Seyp System in Irrigated and Arid Zone's Villages 125 5.4.2. Decline in Seyp System: Advantage and Disadvantages 130 5.4.3. Technological Advancements in Agriculture and its impact on Seyp System 132 5.5. Possession of Land and Cultivation as a Source of Livelihood- Changing Patterns 134 5.6. Biradari (Kinship) and Zat (Caste) 137 5.7. Conclusion 140 6. Chapter Six - Living on the Margins: Caste System, Biradari Memberships, and Rights to Participation in Punjabi Villages 142 6.1. Introduction 142 6.2. Ceremonial Occasions and Rights to Participation 142 6.3. The Dera System 148 6.4. The Collective Decision Making in a Punjabi Village 153 6.5. The Electoral Process - Election Campaigns and Voting Process 160 6.6. Approaching the State Institutions and Caste System 166 6.7. Conclusion 174 7. Chapter Seven - Intersectionality - Caste and Gender, Power Relations in Contemporary Punjabi Villages - Changing Patterns 176 7.1. Introduction 176 7.2. Intersectionality of Caste and Class 176 7.3. Caste, Masculinities, and Power Relations 178 7.3.1. Ability to Ensure Group's Protection - Caste. Politics ofRevenge (Competitiveness). and Masculinity 180 7.3.1.1 Changing Patterns ofMasculinity and Politics ofRevenge 189 7.3.1.2. Local Discourses ofCaste Based Masculinities 192 7.3.2. Caste System. Features ofControl and Influence. and Masculinity 194 7.3.2.1. Domestic and Public Characteristics ofMasculinity - A Relationship? 194 7.3.2.2. Caste Based Domination and Subordination in Village Sphere 197 7.3.2.3. Group Influence in Village Sphere and Masculinity 202 7.3.2.4. Zamindars as Providers - An Expression ofCaste Based Ascendency 203 7.4. Caste System and Femininities in Punjabi Villages 206 7.4.1. Emphasized Femininities vs. Caste Based Roles and Obligations 207 7.4.1.1. Paid Labour for Kammi Women- Varied Roles across Arid and Irrigated Zone 213 Vl 7.4.2. Changing Public Femininities among Kammis 214 7.4.3. Caste Membership and Safety ofa Woman in Village Sphere 217 7.5. Conclusion 220 8. Chapter Eight - Caste and Gender - An Interconnected system of Social Oppression and Structural Violence in Punjabi Villages - Changing Patterns 224 8.1. Introduction 224 8.2. Caste, Gender, and Physical Violence 225 8.2.1. Patterns ofdomination and Violence among Collaterals 225 8.2.2. Patterns ofdomination and Violence against Caste Subordinates 233 8.2.2.1. Giving as an Institutionalized Asymmetry in Caste Relationships and Violence 238 8.2.2.2. Violence against Caste Subordinated - Changing Patterns 241 8.3. Caste, Gender, and Sexual Violence in Community Sphere 249 8.3.1. Masculinity, Politics ofRevenge and Sexual Assaults against Women 250 8.3.2. Caste Based Roles, Unsafe spaces in the Village Setting, and Sexual Violence 254 8.3.3. Who Are More Involved in Sexual Violence - Zamindars or Kammis men? 256 8.3.4. Sexual Violence in Community Sphere - Changing patterns 259 8.4. Conclusion 264 9. Chapter Nine - Conclusion 266 9.1. Reviewing the Main Gaps in Literature and Other Issues Identified 266 9.2. Drawing the Analytical Themes Together - Main Findings and Observations 267 9.2.1. Rethinking Caste in Punjabi Context 267 9.2.1.1. Agricultural context and Caste Dynamics - Arid and Irrigated Zone 271 9.2.1.2. Caste or Class? - The System ofSocial Stratification in Contemporary Punjabi Village 272 9.2.2. Intersecting Inequalities and Power Dynamics 272 9.2.2.1. Caste and Gender - An Interconnected System ofSocial Oppression 276 9.3.
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