SKEPTICAL PERSPECTIVES

The Unlikeliest in History

How even reason, skeptics' most powerful tool, can become the basis of a cult.

By Michael Shermer

Freudian projection is the process of considered the unlikeliest cult in his­ op what could, with hindsight, be attributing one's own ideas, feelings, tory. It is a lesson in what happens called a "cult following." The initial or attitudes to other people or when the truth becomes more print-run of 7,500 copies was fol­ objects-the guilt-laden adulterer important than the search for truth, lowed by multiples of five and 10,000 accuses his spouse of adultery, the when final results of inquiry become until by 1950 half a million copies homophobe actually harbors latent more important than the process of were circulating the country. The homosexual tendencies. A subtle inquiry, and especially when reason book was and the form of projection can be seen in the leads to an absolute certainty about author . Her commercial accusation by Christians that secular one's beliefs such that those who are success allowed her the time and humanism and evolution are "reli­ not for the group are against it. freedom to write her magnum opus, gions;" or by cultists and paranor­ The story begins in 1943 when an , published in 1957 malists that skeptics are themselves a obscure Russian immigrant pub­ after ten years in the making. It is a cult and that reason and science have lished her first successful novel after murder mystery, not about the mur­ cultic properties. For skeptics, the two consecutive failures. It was not der of a human body, but of the idea that reason can lead to a cult is an instant success. In fact, the murder of a human spirit. It is a absurd. The characteristics of a cult reviews were harsh and initial sales broad and sweeping story of a man are 180 degrees out of phase with sluggish. But slowly a following grew who said he would stop the ideologi­ reason. But as I will demonstrate, not around the novel, word of mouth cal motor of the world. When he did, only can it happen, it has happened, became the most effective marketing there was a panoramic collapse of and to a group that would have to be tool, and the author began to devel- civilization, with its flame kept burn-

74 SKEPTIC 1993 llfil

MORE THAN 'BoRSES OF A DIFFERENT COLOR"?

ing by a small handful of heroic indi­ mo us opposition!" (Branden, 1986, In other words, nature exists inde­ viduals whose reason and morals p. 298) . Such is the power of an indi­ pendent of human thought. Reason directed both the fall and the subse­ vidual hero ... and a cult-like fol­ is the only method of perceiving this quent return of culture. lowing. reality. All humans seek personal As they did to The Fountainhead, What is it about Rand's happiness and exist for their own reviewers panned Atlas with a savage that so emotionally stimulates pro­ sake, and should not sacrifice them­ brutality that, incredibly, only ponents and opponents alike? Before selves to or be sacrificed by others. seemed to reinforce followers' belief Atlas Shrugged was published, at a And laissez-faire is the in the book, its author, and her ideas. sales conference at Random House a best political-economic system for And, like The Fountainhead, sales of salesman asked Rand if she could the first three to flourish, where Atlas sputtered and clawed their way summarize the essence of her philos­ "men deal with one another, not as forward as the follo~ng grew, to the ophy, called , while victims and executioners, nor as point where the book presently sells standing on one foot. She did so as masters and slaves, but as traders, by over 300,000 copies a year. "In all my follows ( 1962): free, voluntary exchange to mutual years of publishing," recalled Ran­ 1. Metaphysics: Objective Reality benefit," and where "no man may dom House's owner, Bennett Cerf, 2. Epistemology: Reason initiate the use of physical force ''I've never seen anything like it. To 3. Ethics: Self-interest against others" (p. 1). Ringing break through against such enor- 4. Politics: Capitalism throughout Rand's works is the phi-

Vol.2 No.2 75 losophy of , personal phy become the basis of a cult, which step for.such unreformed heretics. responsibility, the power of reason, is the antithesis of reason and indi­ If you find it hard to believe that and the importance of morality. One vidualism? A cult, however it is such a line of reasoning could lead a should think for one's self and never defined, depends on faith and dein­ rational, well-intentioned group allow an authority to dictate truth, divid ua tion-that is, remove the down the road to culthood, history especially the authority of govern­ power of reason in followers and demonstrates how it can happen. ment, religion, and other such make them dependent upon the The 1960s were years of anti-estab­ groups. Success, happiness, and group and/or the leader. The last lishment, anti-government, find­ unrestrained upward mobility will thing a cult leader wants is for fol­ yourself individualism, so Rand's accrue to those who use reason to act lowers to think for themselves and philosophy exploded across the in the highest moral fashion, and become individuals apart from the nation, particularly on college cam­ who never demand favors or hand­ group. puses. Atlas Shrugged became the outs. Objectivism is the ultimate phi­ The cultic flaw in Ayn Rand's phi- book to read. Though it is a massive losophy of unsullied reason and 1,168 pages long, readers devoured un ad ul tera ted individualism, as the characters, the plot, and most expressed by Rand through her pri­ 100-001 importantly, the philosophy. It mary character in Atlas Shrugged, stirred emotions and evoked action. : Ayn Rand clubs were founded at Man cannot survive except by hundreds of colleges. Professors gaining knowledge, and reason is taught courses in the philosophy of his only means to gain it. Reason is "The last thing a Objectivism and the literary works of the faculty that perceives, identifies cult leader wants is for Rand. Rand's inner circle of friends and integrates the material provid­ followers to think for began to grow and one of them, ed by his senses. The task of his , founded the senses is to give him the evidence themselves and become Nathaniel Branden Institute (NBI), of existence, but the task of identi­ individuals apart sponsoring lectures and courses on fying it belongs to his reason, his Objectivism, first in New York, and senses tell him only that something from the group." then nationally. is, but what it is must be learned As the seminars increased in size by his mind (p. 1012). and Rand's popularity shot skyward, In the name of the best within so too did the confidence in her phi­ you, do not sacrifice this world to losophy, both for Rand and her fol­ those who are its worst. In the 100-001 lowers. Hundreds of people attended name of the values that keep you classes, thousands of letters poured alive, do not let your vision of man losophy of Objectivism is not in the into the office, and millions of books be distorted by the ugly, the cow­ use of reason, or in the emphasis on were being sold. Movie rights for ardly, the mindless in those who individuality, or in the belief that Atlas were being negotiated (The have never achieved his title. Do humans are self motivated, or in the Fountainhead had already been made not lose your knowledge that conviction that capitalism is the into a film). Her rise to intellectual man's proper estate is an upright system. The fallacy in Objectivism is power and influence was nothing posture, an intransigent mind and the belief that absolute knowledge short of miraculous, and readers of a step that travels unlimited roads. and final Truths are attainable her novels, especially Atlas Shrugged, Do not let your fire go out, spark through reason, and therefore there told Rand it had changed their lives by irreplaceable spark, in the can be absolute right and wrong and their way of thinking. Their hopeless swamps of the approxi­ knowledge, and absolute moral and comments ring of the enthusiasm of mate, the not-quite, the not-yet, immoral thought and action. For the followers of a religious cult the not-at-all. Do not let the hero Objectivists, once a principle has (Branden, 1986, pp. 407-415): in your soul perish, in lonely frus­ been discovered through reason to -After reading Atlas a young tration for the life you deserved, be True, that is the end of the discus­ woman in the Peace Corps wrote: but have never been able to reach. sion. If you disagree with the princi­ "I had undergone the loneliest, Check your road and the nature of ple, then your reasoning is flawed . If most inspiring, and heartrending your battle. The world you desired your reasoning is flawed it can be psycho-intellectual transfor­ can be won, it exists, it is real, it is corrected, but if it is not, you remain mation, and all my plans upon possible, it's yours (p. 1069). flawed and do not belong in the returning to the United States had How, then, could such a philoso- group. Excommunication is the final changed."

76 SKEPTIC 1993 -A 24-year old "traditional ments! I don't know what to do!" 255-256): housewife" (her own !able) read (p. 247). -Ayn Rand is the greatest human Atlas and said: "Dagny Taggart There are thousands more just like being who has ever lived. [the book's principle heroine] was these, many from people who are -Atlas Shrugged is the greatest an inspiration to me; she is a great now quite· successful and well­ human achievement in the history feminist role model. Ayn Rand's known, and give credit to Rand. But of the world. works gave me the courage to be to the inner circle surrounding and -Ayn Rand, by virtue of her and to do what I had dreamed of." protecting Rand (in ironic humor philosophical genius, is the -::-A businessman began reading they called themselves the "Collec­ supreme arbiter in any issue per­ Atlas and said "Within a few hun­ tive"), their leader soon became taining to what is rational, moral, dred pages I sensed clearly that I more than just extremely influential. or appropriate to man's life on had ventured upon a lifetime of She was venerated as their leader. earth. meaning. The philosophy of Ayn Her seemingly omniscient ideas were -Once one is acquainted with Rand nurtured growth, stability Ayn Rand and/or her work, the and integrity in my life. Her ideas measure of one's virtue is intrinsi­ permeated every aspect of my cally tied to the position one takes business, family and creative life." regarding her and/or it. -A law school graduate said of -No one can be a good Objec­ Objectivism: "Dealing with Ayn tivist who does not admire what Rand was like taking a post-doc­ Ayn Rand admires and condemn toral course in mental functioning. what Ayn Rand condemns. The universe she created in her -No one can be a fully consistent work holds out hope, and appeals individualist who disagrees with to the best in man. Her lucidity Ayn Rand on any fundamental and brilliance was a light so strong issue. I don't think anything will ever be -Since Ayn Rand has designated able to put it out." Nathaniel Branden as her "intel­ -An economics professor lectual heir," and has repeatedly recalled: "After you read Atlas proclaimed him to be an ideal Shrugged you don't look at the exponent of her philosophy, he is world with the same perspective." to be accorded only marginally less -A philosophy professor con­ reverence than Ayn Rand herself. cluded: "Ayn Rand was one of the -But it is best not to say most of most original thinkers I have ever these things explicitly (excepting, met. There is no escape from fac­ inerrant. The power of her personali­ perhaps, the first two items). One ing the issues she raised .... At a ty made her so persuasive that no must always maintain that one time in my life when I thought I one dared to challenge her. And her arrives at one's beliefs solely by had learned at least the essentials philosophy of Objectivism, since it reason. of most philosophical views, being was derived through pure reason, It is important to note that my cri­ confronted with her ... suddenly revealed final Truth and dictated tique of Rand and Objectivism as a changed the entire direction absolute morality. cult is not original. Rand and her fol­ of my intellectual life , and One of the closest to Rand was lowers were, in their time, accused of placed every other thinker in a Nathaniel Branden, a young philoso­ being a cult which, of course, they new perspective." phy student who joined the Collec­ denied. "My following is not a cult. I -Another philosophy professor, tive in the early days before Atlas am not a cult figure," Rand once told this one disliking Rand and dis­ Shrugged was published. In his auto­ an interviewer. Barbara Branden, in agreeing with Objectivism, recalled biographical memoirs entitled Judg­ her biography, The Passion of Ayn after an all-night discussion with ment Day (1989), Branden recalled: Rand, recalls: "Although the Objec­ the philosopher-novelist: "She's "There were implicit premises in our tivist movement clearly had many of found gaping holes in every philo­ world to which everyone in our cir­ the trappings of a cult-the aggran­ sophical position I've maintained cle subscribed, and which we trans­ dizement of the person of Ayn Rand, for the whole of my life-positions mitted to our students at NBI." the too ready acceptance of her per­ I teach my students, positions on Incredibly, and here is where the sonal opinions on a host of subjects, which I'm a recognized authori­ philosophical movement became a the incessant moralizing-it is nev­ ty-and I can't answer- her argu- cult, they came to believe that (pp. ertheless significant that the funda-

Vol.2 No.2 77 mental attraction of Objectivism ... leader and/or the group have Rand's pronounced judgements on was the precise opposite of religious developed a system of right and her followers of even the most trivial worship" (p. 371). And Nathaniel wrong thought and action applica­ things. Rand had argued, for exam­ Branden addressed the issue this ble to members and nonmembers ple, that musical taste could not be way: "We were not a cult in the liter­ alike. Those who strictly follow the objectively defined, yet, as Barbara al, dictionary sense of the word, but moral code may become and Branden observed, "if one of her certainly there was a cultish aspect to remain members, those who do young friends responded as she did our world .... We were a group not are dismissed or punished. to Rachmaninoff ... she attached organized around a charismatic The ultimate statement of Rand's deep significance to their affinity." leader, whose members judged one absolute morality heads the title page By contrast, if a friend did not another's character chiefly by loyalty of Nathaniel Brandon's book. Says respond as she did to a certain piece to that leader and to her ideas" (p. Rand: or composer, Rand "left no doubt 256). The precept: "Judge not, that ye that she considered that person But if you leave the "religious" morally and psychologically repre­ component out of the definition, hensible." Branden recalled an thus broadening the word's usage, it l@l-@11 evening when a friend of Rand's becomes clear that Objectivism was remarked that he enjoyed the music (and is ) a cult, as are many other, "The precept: 'Judge not, of Richard Strauss. "When he left at non-religious groups. In this context, the end of the evening, Ayn said, in a then, a cult may be characterized by: that ye be not judged' . .. reaction becoming increasingly typi­ -Veneration of the Leader: Exces­ is an abdication of moral cal, 'Now I understand why he and I sive glorification to the point of can never be real soul mates. The virtual sainthood or divinity. responsibility. distance in our sense of life is too -Inerrancy of the Leader: Belief The moral principle to great.' Often, she did not wait that he or she cannot be wrong. adopt ... is: until a friend had left to make such -Omniscience of the Leader: remarks" (p. 268). Acceptance of beliefs and pro­ 'Judge, and be prepared to With this set of criteria it becomes nouncements on virtually all sub­ be judged.'" possible to see that a rational philos­ jects, from the philosophical to the ophy can become a cult when most trivial. -Ayn Rand or all of these are met. This is true -Persuasive Techniques: Methods not only for philosophical move­ used to renuit new followers and ments, but in some scientific schools reinforce current beliefs. [@l-@11 of thought as well. Many founding -Hidden Agendas: Potential scientists have become almost deified recruits and the public are not be not judged" ... is an abdication in their own time, to the point where given a full disclosure of the true of moral responsibility: it is a apprentices dare not challenge the nature of the group's beliefs and moral blank check one gives to master. As Max Planck observed plans. others in exchange for a moral about science in general, only after -Deceit: Recruits and followers blank check one expects for the founders and elder statesmen of a are not told everything about the oneself. discipline are dead and gone can real leader and the group's inner circle, There is no escape from the fact change occur and revolutionary new particularly flaws or potentially that men have to make choices; so ideas be accepted. embarrassing events or circum­ long as men have to make choices, In both Barbara's and Nathaniel stances. there is no escape from moral val­ Branden's assessment, then, we see -Financial and/or Sexual ues; so long as moral values are at all the characteristics of a cult. But Exploitation: Recruits and follow­ stake, no moral neutrality is possi­ what about deceit and sexual ers are persuaded to invest in the ble. To abstain from condemning exploitation? In this case, "exploita­ group, and the leader may develop a torturer, is to become an acces­ tion" may be too strong of a word, sexual relations with one or more sory to the torture and murder of but the act was present nonetheless, of the followers. his victims. and deceit was rampant. In what has -Absolute Truth: Belief that the The moral principle to adopt ... become the most scandalous (and leader and/or group has a method is: "Judge, and be prepared to be now oft-told) story in the brief histo­ of discovering final knowledge on judged." ry of the , any number of subjects. The absurd lengths to which such starting in 1953 and lasting until -Absolute Morality: Belief that the thinking can go is demonstrated by 1958 (and on and off for another

78 SKEPTIC 1993 decade after), Ayn Rand and her me. You won't have the career I gave excommunication was followed by a "intellectual heir" Nathaniel Bran­ you, or the name, or the wealth, or reinforcing barrage from NBI's Asso­ den, 25 years her junior, carried on a the prestige. You'll have nothing . ..." ciate Lecturers that sounds all too secret love affair known only to their The barrage continued for several ecclesiastical in its denouncement respective spouses. The falling in minutes until she pronounced her (and written out of complete igno­ love was not planned, but it was ulti­ final curse: "If you have an ounce of rance of what really happened): mately "reasonable" since the two of morality left in you, an ounce of psy­ "Because Nathaniel Branden and them were, de facto, the two greatest chological health-you'll be impo­ Barbara Branden, in a series of humans on the planet. "By the total tent for the next twenty years!" (pp. actions, have betrayed fundamental logic of who we are-by the total 345-347). principles of Objectivism, we con­ logic of what love and sex mean-we Rand's verbal attack was followed demn and repudiate these two per­ had to love each other," Rand' told by a six-page open letter to her fol­ sons irrevocably, and have Barbara Branden and her own hus­ lowers in her publication The Objec- terminated all association with them band, Frank O'Connor. It was a clas­ .... "(Branden, 1986, pp. 353-354). sic display of a brilliant mind Confusion reigned supreme in intellectualizing a purely emotional both the Collective and in the rank­ response, and another example of and-file membership. Mail poured reason carried to absurd heights. into the office, most of it supporting "Whatever the two of you may be Rand (naturally, since they knew feeling," Rand rationalized, "I know nothing of the first affair). Nathaniel your intelligence, I know you recog­ received angry responses and even nize the rationality of what we feel Barbara's broker, an Objectivist, ter­ for each other, and that you hold no minated her as his client. The group value higher than reason" (B. Bran­ was in turmoil over the incident. don, p. 258). What were they to think with such a Unbelievably, both Barbara and formidable condemnation of Frank accepted the affair, and agreed unnamed sins? The ultimate extreme to allow Ayn and Nathaniel an after­ of such absolutist thinking was noon and evening of sex and love revealed several months later when, once a week. "And so," Barbara in the words of Barbara, "a half­ explained, "we all careened toward demented former student ofNBI had disaster." The "rational" justification raised the question of whether or not and its consequences continued year it would be morally appropriate to after year, as the tale of interpersonal assassinate Nathaniel because of the and group deceit grew broader and tivist (May, 1968). It was entitled "To suffering he had caused Ayn; the deeper. The disaster finally came in Whom It May Concern." After man concluded that it should not be 1968 when it became known to Rand explaining that she had completely done on practical grounds, but that Branden had fallen in love with broken with the Brandens, Rand would be morally legitimate. Fortu­ yet another woman, and had begun continued the deceit through lies of nately, he was shouted down at once an affair with her. Even though the omission: "About two months ago ... by a group of appalled students" (p. affair between Rand and Branden Mr. Branden presented me with a 356n). had long since dwindled, the master written statement which was so irra­ It was the beginning of the long of the absolutist moral double-stan­ tional and so offensive to me that I decline and fall of Rand's tight grip dard would not tolerate such a had to break my personal association over the Collective. One by one they breach of ethical conduct. "Get that with him." Without so much as a sinned, the transgressions becoming bastard down here!," Rand screamed hint of the nature of the offense more minor as the condemnations upon hearing the news, "or I'll drag Rand continued: "About two months grew in fierceness. And one by one him here myself]" Branden, accord­ later Mrs. Branden suddenly con­ they left, or were asked to leave. In ing to Barba:&a, slunk into Rand's fessed that Mr. Branden had been the end (Rand died in 1982) there apartment to face the judgment day. concealing from me certain ugly remained only a handful of friends, "It's finished, your whole act!" she actions and irrational behavii r in his and the designated executor of told him. ''I'll tear down your facade private life, which was grossly con­ her estate, (who as I built it up! I'll denounce you tradictory to Objectivist morality .. . . presently carries on the cause publicly, I'll destroy you as I created " Branden's second affair was judged through the Southern California you! I don't even care what it does to immoral, his first was not. This based , "The Cen-

Vol.2 No.2 79 ter for the Advancement of Objec­ church and be obedient to their hus­ have attacked Atlas without ever tivism"). While the cultic qualities of bands. One may disavow Rand's reading it, and Objectivism, without the group sabotaged the inner circle, absolute morality, while accepting ever knowing anything about it. I there remained (and remains) a huge her metaphysics of objective reality, have encountered many of these following of those who choose to her epistemology of reason, and her myself. Even the pompously intellec­ ignore the indiscretions, infidelities, political philosophy of capitalism tual William Buckley spoke of the and moral inconsistencies of the (though Objectivists would say they "desiccated philosophy" of Atlas, founder, and focus instead on the all follow from her metaphysics). "the essential aridity of Miss Rand's positive aspects of the philosophy. Which leads me to the third caveat. philosophy," and the tone of Atlas as There is much in it from which to 3. The critic of part of a philosophy "over-riding arrogance," yet later choose, if you do not have to accept does not necessarily repudiate the confessed: "I never read the book. the whole package. In this analysis, whole philosophy. This is a personal When I read the review of it and saw then, there are three important caveat to Objectivists and readers of the length of the book, I never picked caveats about , skepticism, and it up." Nothing could be more irra­ reason: tional.) I accept most of Rand's phi­ 1. Criticism of the founder of a phi­ losophy, but not all of it. And despite losophy does not, by itself, constitute a my life-long commitment to many negation of any part of the philosophy. of Rand's most important beliefs, The fact that Christians have been Objectivists would no doubt reject some of the worst violators of their me from their group for not accept­ own moral system does not mean ing all of her precepts. This is that the ethical axioms of "thou shalt ultimately what makes Objectivism not kill," or "due unto others as you a cult. would have them do unto you," are I believe (and here I speak strictly negated. The components of a phi­ for myself and not for the Skeptics losophy must stand or fall on their Society or any of its members) that own internal consistency or empiri­ reality exists and that reason and sci­ cal support, regardless of the ence are the best tools we have for founder's personality quirks or understanding causality in the real moral inconsistencies. By most world. We can achieve an ever­ accounts Newton was a cantanker­ greater understanding of reality but ous and relatively unpleasant person we can never know if we have final to be around. This fact has nothing Truth with regard to nature. Since at all to do with his principles of nat­ reason and science are human activi­ ural philosophy. With thinkers who Skeptic alike. Rand critics come from ties, they will always be flawed and proffer moral principles, as in the all political positions-left, right, biased. I believe that humans are pri­ case of Rand, this caveat is more dif­ and middle. Professional novelists marily driven to seek greater happi­ ficult to apply, but it is true nonethe­ generally disdain her style. Profes­ ness, but the definition of such is less. It is good to know these things sional philosophers generally refuse completely personal and cannot be about Rand, but it does not nullify to take her work seriously (both dictated and should not be con­ her philosophy. I reject her princi­ because she wrote for popular audi­ trolled by any group. (Even so-called ples of final Truth and absolute ences and because her work is not selfless acts of charity can be per­ morality not because Rand had feet considered a complete philosophy). ceived as directed toward self-fulfill­ of clay, but because I do not believe There are more Rand critics than fol­ ment~the act of making someone they are either logically or empirical­ lowers. I am not one of them. Ayn else feel good, makes us feel good. ly tenable. Rand has probably influenced my This is not a falsifiable statement, but 2. Criticism of part of a philosophy thinking more than any other it is observable in people's actions does not gainsay the whole. In a simi­ author. I have read all of her works, and feelings.) I believe that the free lar analogy as above, one may reject including her newsletters, early market-and the freer the better-is parts of the Christian philosophy works, and the two major biogra­ the best system yet devised for allow­ while embracing others. I might, for phies. I have even read the Brobding­ ing all individuals to achieve greater example, attempt to treat others as I nagian Atlas Shrugged no less than levels of happiness. (This is not a would have them treat me, while at three times, plus once on audio tape defensible statement in this forum. I the same time renounce the belief for good measure. Thus I am not a am just setting the stage for my cri­ that women should remain silent in blind critic. (Some of Rand's critics tique of Rand.) I believe that individ-

80 SKEPTIC 1993 uals should take personal responsi­ codes require. in as morally intolerable because his bility for their actions, buck up and Does this mean that all human goal is the confiscation of human quit whining when facing the usual actions are morally equal? No. Not life, without which one can have no array of life's problems, and cease any more than all human music is happiness. this endless disease-of-the-month equal. We create standards of what As long as it is understood that victimization. Finally, I wholeheart­ we like and dislike, desire or not, and morality is a human construction edly embrace Rand's passionate love make judgments against these stan­ influenced by human cultures, one of the heroic nature of humanity and dards. But the standards are them­ can become more tolerant of other of the ability of the human spirit to selves human creations and not human belief systems, and thus triumph over nature. discovered in nature. One group other humans. But as soon as a So far so good. I might have even prefers classical music, and so judges group sets itself up to be the final made it into the Rand inner circle. Mozart to be superior to the Moody moral arbiter of other people's But I would have been promptly Blues. Similarly, one group prefers actions, especially when its members excommunicated as an unreformed believe they have discovered absolute heretic (the worst kind, since standards of right and wrong, it is reformed heretics can at least be the beginning of the end of tolerance retrained and forgiven), with my and thus, reason and rationality. It is belief that no absolute morality is this characteristic more than any scientifically or rationally tenable, "Science is not the other that makes a cult, a religion, a even that which claims to have been nation, or any other group, danger­ derived through pure reason, as in affirmation of a set of ous to individual freedom. This was the case of Rand. The reason is beliefs but a process of (and is) the biggest flaw in Ayn straightforward. Morals do not exist inquiry aimed at building Rand's Objectivism, the unlikeliest in nature and thus cannot be discov­ cult in history. The historical devel­ ered. In nature there are just a testable body opment and ultimate destruction of actions-physical actions, biological of knowledge constantly her group and philosophy is the actions, and human actions. Human empirical evidence to support this actors act to increase their happiness, open to rejection logical analysis. however they personally define it. or confirmation." What separates science from all Their actions become moral or other human activities (and morality immoral when someone else judges has never been successfully placed them as such. Thus, morality is a on a scientific basis), is its belief in strictly human creation, subject to all the tentative nature of all conclu­ the cultural influences and social sions. There are no final absolutes in constructions as other such human patriarchal dominance, and so science, only varying degrees of creations. Since virtually everyone judges male privileges to be morally probability. Even scientific "facts" and every group claims they know honorable. Neither Mozart nor are just conclusions confirmed to what right and wrong human action males are absolutely better, only so such an extent it would be reason­ is, and since virtually all of these when compared to the group's stan­ able to offer temporary agreement, moralities are different from all dards. Thus, male ownership of but never final assent. Science is not others to a greater or lesser extent, females was once moral and is now the affirmation of a set of beliefs but then reason alone tells us they immoral, not because we have dis­ a process of inquiry aimed at build­ cannot all be correct Just as there is covered it as such, but because our ing a testable body of knowledge no absolute right type of human society has realized that women also constantly open to rejection or con­ music, there is no absolute right type seek greater happiness and that they firmation. In science, knowledge is of human action. The broad can achieve this more easily without fluid and certainty fleeting. That is range of human action is a rich con­ being in bondage to males .. A society the heart of its limitation. It is also tinuum that precludes its pigeonhol­ that seeks greater happiness for its its greatest strength. ing into the unambiguous yeses and members by giving them greater noes that political laws and moral freedom, will judge a Hitler or a Stal- • Bibliography Branden, B. 1986. Th e Passion of Ayn Houghton Mifflin. York: Random House. Rand. New York: Doubleday. Rand, A. 1943. The Fountainhead. __ . 1962. "Introducing Branden, N. 1989. JudgmentDay: My New York: Bobbs-Merrill. Objectivism." Los Angeles Times, Years With Ayn Rand. Boston: __ . 1957. Atlas Shrugged. New Junel7.

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