Captions for INTSORMIL Four-Year Report (1 996-2000)

Photo on front:

Dr. Medson Chisi, INTSORMIL sorghum breeder from Zambia at the Workshop on Farmer Participation in Pearl Millet Breeding and Farmer-Based Seed Production Systems in Namibia, March 24-26, 1998. Dr. Chisi received his doctorate from Kansas State University and is presently a member of INTSORMIL's Technical Committee.

Photo on back:

A "master farmer" and her child at the InterCRSP workshop on weevil disinfestation and storage techniques near Tamale, Ghana on November 5, 1997. Her t-shirt serves as a means of visually identifying farmers who know the techniques and can teach them to others. This technology transfer workshop is part of the project, "Adaptive Research with InterCRSP Natural Resource Management Technologies for Regional Transfer in West Africa," a collaborative effort of two Collaborative Research Support Programs which developed the technologies - the BeanICowpea CRSP and INTSORMIL - in partnership with a non-governmental organization - World Vision International (WVI) - which transfers the technologies to farmers and farm families. The project makes technologies such as improved varieties of sorghum, pearl millet, and cowpeas, improved cultural practices, improved post-harvest seed processing and storage techniques available to farm families throughout Chad, Ghana, Mali, Niger, and Senegal. This innovative partnership in which WVI extends technologies developed by the two CRSPs to end users in several West African Countries is supported by the Africa Bureau of the U.S. Agency for International Development. INTSORMIL

2000 Annual Report

Fighting Hunger with Research. .. A Team Effort

Grain SorghumIPearl Millet Collaborative Research Support Program (CRSP)

This publication was made possible through support provided by the U.S. Agency for International Development, under the terms of Grant No. LAG-G-00-96-90009-00. The opinions expressed herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Agency for International Development.

INTSORMIL Publication 00-1

Report Coordinators John M. Yohe, Program Director Thomas Crawford, Jr., Associate Program Director

Joan Frederick and Dorothy Stoner For additional information contact the INTSORMIL Management Entity at:

INTSORMIL 113 Biochemistry Hall University of Nebraska Lincoln, Nebraska 68583.4748

Telephone (402) 472-6032 ******* Fax No. (402) 472-7978 E-Mail: [email protected] http:llwww.ianr.unl.edulintsormill

A Research Development Program of the Agency for International Development, the Board for International Food and Agricultural Development (BIFAD), Participating Land-Grant Universities, Host Country Research Agencies and Private Donors

INTSORMIL INSTITUTIONS

USDAIARSITifton, Georgia University of Illinois, Urbana - Champaign Kansas State University Mississippi State University University of Nebraska - Lincoln Purdue University Texas A&M University

INTSORMIL Institutions are affirmative actionlequal opportunity institutions. INTSORMIL Management Entity Dr. John M. Yohe, Program Director Dr. Thomas W. Crawford, Jr., Associate Program Director Ms. Joan Frederick, Administrative Technician Ms. Dorothy Stoner, Illustrator Ms. Kimberly Jones, Staff Secretary

INTSORMIL Board of Directors Dr. Bobby Eddleman, Texas A&M University Dr. Bill Herndon, Jr., Mississippi State University Dr. Robert Hudgens, Kansas State University Dr. Harold Kaufman, University of Illinois - Urbana-Champaign Dr. Darrell Nelson. University of Nebraska Dr. David Sammons, Purdue University

INTSORMIL Technical Committee Dr. John Axtell, Purdue University Dr. Gebisa Ejeta, Purdue University Dr. Medson Chisi, Zambia Dr. Bruce Hamaker, Purdue University Dr. Stephen Mason, University of Nebraska Dr. Gary Peterson, Texas A&M University Dr. Henry Pitre, Mississippi State University Dr. John Sanders, Purdue University Dr. Aboubacar Toure, Mali Contents Introduction and Program Overview ...... vii 1999 Project Reports...... 3 Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Agroecology and Biotechnology of Stalk Rot Pathogens of Sorghum and Millet - J.F. Leslie (KSU-210A)...... 3

Agroecology and Biotechnology of Fungal Pathogens of Sorghum and Millet from the Greater Horn of Africa - L.E. Claflin (KSU-2 10B) ...... 11

Low Input Ecologically Defined Management Strategies for Insect Pests on Sorghum - Henry N. Pitre (MSU-205)...... 18

Striga Biotechnology Development and Technology Transfer- Gebisa Ejeta (PRF-213) ...... 23

Disease Control Strategies for Sustainable Agricultural Systems - R.A. Frederiksen (TAM-224) ...... 32

Insect Pest Management Strategies for Sustainable Sorghum Production - George L. Teetes (TAM-225 ) ...... 36

Biological Control Tactics for Sustainable Production of Sorghum and Millet - Frank E. Gilstrap (TAM-225B) ...... 45

Development of Plant Disease Protection Systems for Millet and Sorghum in Semi-Arid Southern Africa - G.N. Odvody (TAM-228) ...... 49

Sustainable Production Systems

Economic and Sustainability Evaluation of New Technologies in Sorghum and Millet Production in INTSORMIL Priority Countries - John H. Sanders (PRF-205) ...... 63

Cropping Systems to Optimize Yield, Water and Nutrient Use Efficiency of Pearl Millet - Stephen C. Mason (UNL-2 13) ...... 69

Nutrient Use Efficiency in sorghum and Pearl Millet - Jerry W. Maranville (UNL-2 14) ...... 78

Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation

Breeding Pearl Millet with Improved Performance and Stability - Wayne W. Hanna (ARS-204) ...... 87

Breeding Sorghum for Increased Nutritional Value - John D. Axtell (PRF-203) ...... 89

Development and Enhancement of Sorghum Germplasm with Sustained Tolerance to Biotic and Abiotic Stress - Gebisa Ejeta (PRF-207)...... 95

Germplasm Enhancement for Resistance to Pathogens and Drought and Increased Genetic Diversity -Damell T. Rosenow (TAM-222) ...... 103

Germplasm Enhancement for Resistance to Insects and Improved Efficiency for Sustainable Agriculture Systems - Gary C. Peterson (TAM-223)...... 1 10

Breeding Pearl Millet and Sorghum for Stability of Performance Using Tropical Germplasm - David J. Andrews (UNL-2 18) ...... 1 18 Contents

Crop Utilization and Marketing

Chemical and Physical Aspects of Food and Nutritional Quality of Sorghum and Millet . Bruce R . Hamaker (Pl2F-2 12) ...... 129

Food and Nutritional Quality of Sorghum and Millet .L.W. Rooney (TAM-226) ...... 141

Strategic Marketing of Sorghum and Pearl Millet Food Products in West and Southern Africa .Carl H . Nelson (UNC-205) ...... 153

Host Country Program Enhancement

Central America Regional Program .Gary C . Peterson ...... 157

Horn of Africa .Gebisa Ejeta ......

Mali .Darrell Rosenow ......

Niger .John D . Axtell and Issoufou Kapran ...... 183

Southern Africa Region (Botswana. Namibia. Zambia and Zimbabwe ) .David J . Andrews ...... 196

Training

Introduction ...... 211

Year 2 1 INTSORMIL Training Participants ...... 212

Introduction to Years 18- 19-20-21 Training ...... 213

Year 20 INTSORMIL Training Participants ...... 214

Year 19 INTSORMIL Training Participants ...... 215

Year 18 INTSORMIL Training Participants ...... 216

Appendices

INTSORMIL Sponsored and Co-Sponsored Workshops 1979 .2000 ...... 219

Acronyms ...... 221 Introduction and Program Overview

Presently, worldwide, more than 800 million people are stock, particularly poultry, in developed countries. Pearl hungry and over 1 billion are desperately poor, and food de- millet is an important cereal crop which provides food en- mand is increasing rapidly. The majority of poor live in rural ergy and other nutrients to hundreds of millions of people in areas in developing countries and agricultural and food sys- areas which currently suffer from malnutrition, particularly tems development is vital to economic growth, improving Africa and southern Asia. environmental quality; strengthening nutrition, health and child survival; improving the status of women; andpromot- In October, 1999, the International Food Policy Research ing democratization. It is estimated that by 2000, the num- Institute (IFPRI) noted that in both developed and develop- ber ofpeople living in developing countries will grow from ing countries, the rate of increase in cereal yields is slowing 4.9 billion to 6.8 billion people. More than 1.3 billion people from the days of the Green Revolution, partly due to re- today live on less than one dollar per day. It is estimated that duced use of inputs like fertilizer and partly due to low lev- the number of hungry people will exceed one billion by els of investment in agricultural research and technology. In 2020. The global population ofunderweight children below World Food Prospects: Critical Isssues for the Early age five is expected to increase from 193 million in year Twenty-First Centuly, IFPRI points out that "without sub- 2000 to over 200 million in year 2020. Increased production stantial and sustained additional investment in agricultural of cereals, which are crucial sources of food energy and research and associated factors, it will become more and other nutrients, is necessary to reduce world hunger. more difficult to maintain, let alone increase, cereal yields in the longer term. The gap in average cereal yields between Sorghum and millet are two major cereal grains, particu- the developed and developing countries is slowly beginning larly in semi-arid regions ofthe world. In 1999,65.8 million to narrow, but it is widening considerably within the devel- metric tons (MT) of sorghum were produced worldwide, of oping world as Sub-Saharan Africa lags further and fiuther which 19.7 million MT were produced in Africa, mainly for behind the other regions . . . ." direct consumption by humans, and 14.7 million MT were produced in the United States, mainly for livestock feed to Agricultural research provides benefits not only to pro- produce meat for human consumption. In the crop year ducers of agricultural products but also to processors and 1997-1998, the United States exported 5.3 million MT of consumers of agricultural products. Agricultural research grain sorghum mainly for livestock feed, and in 1998, U.S. has proven itself continuously as providing improvements grain sorghum exports were worth $53 1 million. Large ar- which yield products of greater quantity and quality, as well eas are planted to sorghum each year. For example, in 1999 as improved health to consumers and broad-based eco- sorghum was produced on 44.8 million hectares (ha, or nomic growth which goes beyond producers and consum- 173,036 square miles, [sq mi]) worldwide, 23 million ha ers. In the U.S.Action Plan on Food Security -Solutions to (88,728 sq mi) in Africa, and 3.4 million ha (13,278 sq mi) Hunger, published in March 1999, the United States gov- in the United States. About 500 million people worldwide ernment states that one of the ways that the United States depend upon sorghum for food, and most ofthese people are plans to contribute to the global effort to reduce hunger is by in developing countries where droughts and famine are the United States' continuing commitment to support inter- common occurrences. Clearly, sorghumproduction and uti- national agriculturalresearch through the Collaborative Re- lization as food and feed are vitally important to developing search Support Programs. countries and to the United States. The Collaborative Research Support Program (CRSP) Millets, which include several types such as pearl millet, concept was created by the U.S. Agency for International fmger millet, and proso millet, are cereal crops even more Development (USAID) and the Board for International well adapted to arid ecosystems than is sorghum, and pearl Food and Agriculture Development (BIFAD), under the millet, like sorghum, is a staple for 300 million people auspices of Title XI1 ofthe Foreign Assistance Act, as a long worldwide. Most of these people are in countries where term mechanism for mobilizing the U.S. Land Grant Uni- malnourishment is a persistent problem In 1999, 37.2 mil- versities in the international food and agricultural research lion hectares (143,793 sq mi) of millets were harvested mandate of the U.S. Government. The CRSPs are communi- worldwide, of which 19.7 million ha (76,170 sq mi) were ties of U.S. Land Grant Universities working with USAID harvested in Africa, and 120,000 ha (463 sq mi) were har- and other U.S. Federal Agencies, strengtheningand enhanc- vested in the United States. In 1999, the amount of millets ing National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS), col- harvested worldwide was 29 millionMT, ofwhich 12.9 mil- laborating country colleges and universities. The CRSPs lion MT were harvested in Africa and 180 thousand MT also work closely with the International Agricultural Re- were harvested in the United States. Millets are crops used search Centers IARCs), private agencies, industry, and pri- mainly for direct consumption by humans in developing vate voluntary organizations (PVOs) fulfilling their countries, and the millets are used mainly for feeding live- mandate. The Sorghum and Millet Collaborative Research Introduction and Program Overview

Support Program is one of nine CRSPs currently in opera- with wheat and rice products in village and urban markets. tion. Couscous made from food quality sorghum is being market tested in Niger. The development of food sorghums and The Sorghum and Millet Collaborative Research Sup- feed sorghums with improved properties such as increased port Program (INTSORMIL CRSP) conducts collaborative digestibility and reduced tannin content has contributed to research using partnerships between U.S. university scien- sorghum becoming a major feed grain in the USA and in tists and scientists of the National Agricultural Research South America. Pearl millet is also becoming an important Systems (NARS), IARCs, PVOs and other CRSPs. feed source in poultry feeds in the southeastern USA. Im- INTSORMIL is programmatically organized for efficient proved varieties and hybrids of pearl millet, like improved and effective operation and captures most of the public re- lines of sorghum, can be grown in developing countries, as search expertise on sorghum and pearl millet in the United well as the United States, and have great potential for pro- States. The INTSORMIL mission is to use collaborative cessing into high-value food products which can be sold in research as a mechanism to develop human and institu- villages and urban markets, competing successfully with tional research capabilities to overcome constraints to imported wheat and rice products. These developments are sorghum and millet production and utilization for the results of the training and collaborative,international scien- mutual benefit of agriculture in the USA and Less De- tific research that INTSORMIL has supported both in the veloped Countries (LDCs). Collaborating scientists in United States and collaborating countries. NARS developing countries and the USA. jointly plan and execute research that mutually benefits all partici- Although significant advances have been made in im- pating countries, including the United States. provement and production of sorghum and millet in the re- gions which INTSORMIL serves, population growth rates INTSORMIL takes a regional approach to sorghum and continue to exceed rates of increase of cereal production ca- millet research in western, southern, and eastern Africa, and pacity. There remains an urgent need to continue the mo- in Central America. INTSORMIL focuses resources on mentum of our successes in crop improvement, improved prime sites in the four regions supporting the general goals processing of sorghum and millet, and strengthening the ca- ofbuilding NARS institutional capabilities, creating human pabilities of NARS scientists to do research on constraints and technological capital to solve problems constraining to production and utilization of sorghum and millet. sorghum and millet production and utilization. INTSORMIL's activities are aimed at achieving sustain- INTSORMIL has maintained a flexible approach to ac- able, global impact, promoting economic growth, enhanc- complishing its mission. ing food security, and encouraging entrepreneurial activities. The sixuniversities andUSDA currently active in The success of the INTSORML program can be attrib- the INTSORMIL CRSP are the University of Illinois, Kan- uted to the following strategies which guide the program in sas State University, Mississippi State University, Univer- its research and linkages with technology transfer entities. sity of Nebraska, Purdue University, Texas A&M University, and the USDA at the University of Georgia. Developing institutional and human capital: What were formerly referred to as "host" countries are now INTSORMIL promotes educational outcomes in referred to as "collaborating" countries to indicate the closer collaborating countries. The results include institu- and more collaborative relationships that have developed tional strengthening, development of collaborative between the United States and those countries as a result of research networks, promoting and linking to technol- all that has been accomplished during the past twenty two ogy transfer and dissemination, infrastructure devel- years of the INTSORMIL CRSP. opment, and enhancing national, regional, and global communication linkages. A major innovative aspect Because sorghum and millet are important food crops in of the INTSORMIL focus is to maintain continu- moisture-stressed regions of the world, they are staple crops ing relationships with collaborating country scien- for millions in A£iica and Asia, and, in their area of adapta- tists upon return to their research posts in their tion, sorghum and millet have a distinctly competitive ad- countries. They become members of research vantage to yield more grain than other cereals. As wheat and teams of INTSORMIL and NARS scientists who rice products have been introduced to urban populations in conduct research on applications of existing tech- developing countries, traditional types of sorghum, because nology and development of new technology. This of some quality characteristics, have not been able to effec- integrated relationship prepares them for leader- tively compete with wheat and rice products. However, as a ship roles in their national agricultural research result of research by INTSORMIL researchers and others, systems and regional networks in which they col- improved, food-quality sorghums produce grain that can be laborate. used for special ethnic and dietary products as well as for traditional food products. Special white sorghums devel- Conserving biodiversity and natural resources: oped by INTSORMIL. collaborative research in Mali have Research results of the collaborative research teams improved characteristics which allow preparation of include development and release of enhanced high-value food products which can compete successfully germplasm, development and improvement of sus- Introduction and Program Overview tainable production systems, development of sustain- save labor and time required in preparation of sor- able technologies to conserve biodiversity and natural ghum millet for food. Research products transferred resources and to enhance society's quality of life, and to the farm will seek to spur rural economic growth to enlarge the range of agriculturaland environmental and provide direct economic benefits to consumers. choices. Thus, INTSORMIL promotes conserving INTSORMIL assesses consumption shifts and socio- millet and sorghum germplasm, conserving natural economic policies for reducing effects of price col- control of arthropod pests and diseases of sorghum lapses, and addresses methods for reducing and millet, developing resource-efficient cropping processing for sorghum and millet. Research out- systems, developing integratedpest management pro- comes seek to reduce effects of price collapse in high grams, developing cultivars with improved nutrient yield years, and to create new income opportunities. and water use efficiencies, and evaluating impacts of INTSORMIL socioeconomic projects measure im- sorghdmillet technologies on natural resources and pact and diffusion and evaluate constraints to rapid biodiversity. distribution and adoption of introduced new technolo- gies. Developing research systems: Collaboration in the regional sites has been strengthened by using U.S. and The INTSORMIL program addresses the continuing NARS multi-disciplinary research teams focused on need for agricultural production technology development common objectives and unified plans. INTSORMIL for the developing world, especially the semi-arid tropics. scientists provide global leadership in biotechnology There is international recognition by the world donor com- research on sorghum and pearl millet. The output munity that the developing country agricultural research from these disciplinary areas of research are linked to systems must assume ownership of their development prob- immediate results. Molecular biology and other tools lems and move toward achieving resolution of them. The of science integrated with traditional science will con- INTS0R.MIL program is a proven model that empowers the tribute to alleviating production and utilization con- NARS to develop the capacity to assume the ownership of straints in sorghum and pearl millet within the their development strategies, while at the same time result- medium term of 5 to 10 years. New technologies are ing in significant benefits back to the U.S. agricultural sec- then extended to farmers' fields in developing coun- tor and presents a win-win situation for international tries and the United States through partnerships with agricultural development. NGOs, research networks, extension services, and the private sector. In addition, INTSORMIL plays a part Administration and Management in initiating consideration of economic policy and processing constraints to increasing the competitive- The University of Nebraska (UNL) is the Management ness of sorghum and pearl millet as a basic food sta- Entity (ME) for the SorghumIMillet CRSP and is the pri- ples. mary grantee of USAID. UNL subgrants are made to the participating U.S. Universities for the research projects be- Supporting information networking: INTSOR- tween U.S. scientists and their collaborating country coun- MIL research emphasizes working with existing sor- terparts. A portion of the project funds, managed by the ME ghum and millet networks to promote effective tech- and U.S. participating institutions, support regional re- nology transfer from research sites within the region search activities. The Board of Directors (BOD) of the to local and regional institutions. Technology transfer CRSP serves as the top management/policy body for the is strengthened by continued links with regional net- CRSP. The Technical Committee (TC), External Evalua- works, International Agricultural Research Centers, tion Panel (EEP), and USAID personnel advise and guide and local and regional institutions. Emphasis is placed the ME and the Board in areas of policy, technical aspects, on strong linkages with extension services, agricul- collaborating country coordination, budget management, tural production schemes, private and public seedpro- and review. grams, agricultural product supply businesses, and nonprofit voluntary organizations, such as NGOs and Several major decisions and accomplishments of PVOs, for efficient transfer of INTSORMIL gener- INTSORMIL during the past four years occurred in the ated technologies. Each linkage is vital to develop- United States and collaborating countries. ment, transfer, and adoption of new production and utilization technologies. USAID appointed Dr. John Swanson as Project Offi- cer for INTSORMIL. Promoting demand driven processes: Development of economic analyses for prioritization of research USAID appointed Stephen Mason as Scientific Liai- and farm-level industry evaluation and development son Officer with CIAT. of sustainable food technology, processing, and mar- keting systems, are all driven by the need for stable The 1999-2000 Technical Committee was elected. Its markets for the LDC farmer. INTSORMIL seeks al- members are Dr. Gary Peterson, Chair, Texas A&M ternate food uses and new processing technologies to University; Dr. John Sanders, Vice Chair, Purdue Introduction and Program Overview

University; Dr. Gebisa Ejeta, Purdue University; Dr. multi-CRSP research activity in the Arnhara province John Axtell, Purdue University; Dr. Stephen Mason, of Ethiopia. University of Nebraska; Dr. Henry Pitre, Mississippi State University; Dr. Aboubacar Tourk, Institut de The major publications organized and published by the Economie Rurale, Mali; and Dr. Medson Chisi, ME office during the past four years included: Golden Valley Research Station, Zambia. * Publication 97- 1: Policy and Operating Proce- INTSORMIL, INRAN, ICRISAT and other sponsors dures held a Regional Hybrid Sorghum and Pearl Millet Seed Workshop in Niger, September 28-October 1, * Publication 97-2: Directory of U.S. CRSP PIS 1998. * Publication 97-3: "Inside INTSORMIL" INTSORMIL and the Sorghum and Millet Improve- Newletter ment Program (SADC/ICRISAT/SMIP) signed a Memorandum of Understanding, providing the insti- * Publication 97-4: INTSORMIL Directory tutional framework to strengthen INTSORMIL col- laborative research in Southern Africa. * Publication 97-5: Proceedings of the International Conference on Genetic Improvement of Sorghum INTSORMIL PIS, the Program Director and Associ- and Pearl Millet ate Program Director participated in the CRSP Sym- posium at the annual meeting of the American Society * Publication 98- 1: 1997 INTSORMIL Annual Re- of Agronomy in Baltimore, MD, October 18-22, p''* 1998. * Publication 98-2: 1997 Annual Report Executive INTSORMIL and the University of Pretoria held the s-ry Sorghum Grain end Use Quality Assessment Work- * Publication 98-3: "Inside INTSORMIL" News- shop in Pretoria in Pretoria, South Afiica, December 1-4, 1998. letter * Publication 98-4: 1998 Annual Report INTSORMIL played a major role in preparing a pho- tographic exhibit on the CRSPs at USAID headquar- * Publication 98-5: 1998 Annual Report Executive ters in Washington, D.C., September through December, 1998. A virtual tour of the exhibit is avail- summary able at the CRSPs gateway web site. * Publication 98-6: "Inside INTSORMIL" News- letter The INTSORMIL EEP conducted its five-year re- view of INTSORMIL activities in West Africa, * Publication 99- 1: Proceedings of the Global Con- Southern Africa, the Horn of Africa and Central ference on Ergot of Sorghum America. * Publication 99-2: INTSORMIL Policy & Proce- INTSORMIL helped organize and participated in a dures Manual USAID-sponsored Lessons without Borders Confer- ence entitled "Global Agriculture and the American * Publication 99-3: 1998 INTSORMIL Bibliogra- Midwest: A Win-Win Exchange," in Ames, Iowa, P~Y March 18-19, 1999. * Publication 99-4: INTSORMIL CRSP Directory The Grant Renewal Proposal Committee was named update and visioning statements for INTSORMIL from 200 1 to 2006 were obtained from both inside and outside * Publication 99-5: "Inside INTSORMIL" News- INTSORMIL. letter

Principal Investigators and the Program Director par- * Publication 99-6: 1999 Annual Report ticipated in regional sorghum and millet research net- work meetings in Africa. * Publication 99-7: "Inside INTSORMIL" News- letter New initiatives were developed for a multi-CRSP training activity in Mozambique and for a * Publication 99-8: 1999 Annual Report Executive s-ry Introduction and Program Overview

* Publication 00- 1: 2000 Annual Report omy, breeding, pathology, entomology, food quality, and economics. The number of students receiving 100% fund- * Publication 00-2: 2000 Annual Report Executive ing from INTSORMIL has dropped from a high of 71 in summary 1986 down to a low of 17 in 1993-94, and now 18 in 1999-2000. The reduction in total students being trained Training from INTSORMIL funds is, in part, due to training taking place under other hnding sources, but an even more signifi- Within INTSORMIL's regions of collaborative re- cant factor is that budget flexibility for supporting training search, training of collaborating country scientists contrib- under INTSORMIL projects has been greatly diminished utes to the capability of each collaborating country research due to reductions in our overall program budget and because program to stay abreast of economic and ecological changes of inflationary pressures. which alter the balance of sustainable production systems. The strengthening of collaborating country research institu- Graduate degree programs and short-term training pro- tions contributes to their capability to predict and be pre- grams have been designed and implemented on a case by pared to meet the challenges of economic and ecological case basis to suit the needs of collaborating country scien- changes which affect production and utilization of sorghum tists. Several collaborating country scientists were provided and millet. A well-balanced agricultural research institution the opportunity to upgrade their skills in this fashion during must prioritize and blend its operational efforts to conserve this four year period. Students enrolled during these years and efficiently utilize its natural resources while meeting are listed on pages 2 11 to 2 16 of this report. economic needs of the population in general and the nutri- tional needs of both humans and livestock. To this end, Networking training is an extremely valuable component of develop- ment assistance. The SorghumiMillet CRSP Global Plan for Collabora- tive Research includes workshops and other networking ac- Training tivities such as newsletters, publications, the exchange of scientists, and the exchange of germplasm. The Year 21 Training (June 30, 1999-July 1, 2000) INTSORMIL Global Plan is designed for research coordi- nation and networking within ecogeographic zones and During 1999-2000, there were 5 1 students from 22 dif- where relevant between zones. The Global Plan: ferent countries enrolled in an INTSORMIL advanced de- gree program and advised by an INTSORMIL principal Promotes networking with IARCs, NGOPVOs, Re- investigator. This is the same number of students we had in gional networks (ROCAFREMI, ROCARS, the previous year. Approximately 73% of these students ASARECA, SADCISMINET, SADCISMIP, and oth- came from countries other than the USA. The number of ers) private industry, and government extension pro- students receiving 100% funding by INTSORMIL in grams to coordinate research and technology transfer 1999-2000 totaled 18. An additional 14 students received efforts. partial funding from INTSORMIL and the remaining 19 students were finded from other sources but are working on Supports INTSORMIL participation in regional re- INTSORMIL projects. search networks to promote professional activities of NARS scientists, to facilitate regional research activi- Years 18-19-20 and 21 Training (June 30, 1996 ties (such as multi-location testing of breeding materi- through July I, 2000) als), promote germplasm and information exchange, and facilitate impact evaluation of new technologies. During this four year period, there were 213 students from 33 different countries enrolled in an INTSORMIL ad- Develops regional research network, short-term and vanced degree program and advised by an INTSORMIL degree training plans for sorghum and pearl millet sci- principal investigator. Approximately 77% of these stu- entists. dents came from countries other than the USA, which illus- trates the emphasis placed on collaborating country Over the years, established networking activities have institutional development. INTSORMIL also places impor- been maintained with ICRISAT in India, Mali, Niger, Cen- tance on training women which is reflected in the fact that tral America and Zimbabwe; SAFGRAD, WCASRN, 22% of all INTSORMIL graduate students were women. WCAMRN, ASARECA, ECARSAM, and SMIPISMINET in Afi-ica; CLAIS and CIAT of Central and South America, The number of students receiving 100% funding by and SICNA and the U.S. National Grain Sorghum Pro- INTSORMIL during this period total 79. An additional 62 ducers Association for the purpose of coordinating research students received partial funding from INTSORMIL and activities to avoid duplication of effort and to promote the the remaining 72 were funded from other sources but most effective expenditures of research dollars. There also worked on INTSORMIL projects. These students are en- has been excellent collaboration with each of these pro- rolled in graduate programs in six disciplinary areas, agron- grams in co-sponsoring workshops and conferences, and for Introduction and Program Overview coordination of research and long term training. The announcement of the commercialization of MTSORMIL currently cooperates with the ICRISAT pro- Dali-ken, a cookie made from a mixture of 20% flour from grams in East, Southern, and West Africa, with WCASRN the tan-plant N'Tenimissa and 80% wheat flour, is a major and WCAMRN in WestICentral Africa, and with step in demonstrating the potential for commercialization of SMIPISMMETin Southern Africa. Sudanese collaborators sorghum provided a reliable source of value-added, iden- have provided leadership to the Pan African Striga Control tity-preserved-grain is available. It was slow coming, but Network. INTSORMIL collaboration with ROCAFREMI hopefully will serve as a focal point to encourage other com- in West Afkica has much potential in allowing INTSORMIL mercialization efforts. utilization scientists to collaborate regionally. ROCAFREMI is a good mechanism for promoting millet The West Africa Hybrid Seed Workshop planned for the processing at a higher level than has been seen before in past several years was conducted in the fall of 1998. This West Africa. During the last three years, INTSORMIL, the was the first focused effort to inform West African sorghum Bean/Cowpea CRSP, and World Vision International have and millet scientists about the potential for hybrids in West been working with NARS researchers and farmers in five Africa. All the pros and cons were discussed and the general countries under the West Africa Natural Resource Manage- consensus of the 150 participants was that further research ment Project, creating and using a technology-transfer net- and development should be pursued. The hybrid NAD- 1 in work in West Africa. INTSORMIL will continue to Niger is an excellent successful example for others to fol- promote free exchange of germplasm, technical informa- low. Experiences in India, Zambia, Sudan and Nigeria pro- tion, improved technology, and research techniques. vided a road map for other developingcountries to follow in the development of a private sector seed industry in West Benefits to Collaborating Countries African countries. This was the first focused effort to inform West African sorghum and millet scientists about the poten- West Afric~ tial for hybrids in W. Africa.

Research momentum has improved significantly the past One gratifying outcome from this workshop was the for- two years in Mali, as well as morale and enthusiasm among mation of a Niger Seed Producer's Association by the hy- researchers. The new Director General, Dr. Alpha Maiga, brid seed producers, independent of INRAN. The has gained a high level of confidence and support among re- association is off and running with the purchase of the gov- searchers. A number of good trained scientists, have just re- ernment seed farm at Lossa to begin private sector seed pro- cently returned to IER including Samba Traore, Minamba duction on small holdings as well as larger farms. Secondly, Bagayoko, and Moussa Sanogo, thus strengthening the IER this association recognizes INRAN as an honorary member, research program especially in pearl millet. The millet but is intent on controlling the seed association outside of breeding program is looking much stronger with the new the formal structure of the government. INTSORMIL breeder, Moussa Sanogo, and the anticipated strong collab- thinks this is an encouraging development which should be oration with the new INTSORMIL Millet PI, Dr. Wayne nurtured. Third, the demand for hybrid seed far exceeds the Hanna. The multidisciplinary team approach has made ex- supply even though the seed is sold at approximately eight cellent progress in Mali. times the price of grain. The important distinction between seed and grain is now recognized in Niger. We estimate that The Board mandate to regionalize the West African pro- 60 tons ofhybrid seed will be produced this year in Niger. A grams has progressed well but somewhat slowly, despite great deal of this seed production will be on small farms. some well intended efforts by Malian scientists. INTSORMIL PISnow have new collaboration in Ghana and The farmerproducer seed industry is going well inNiger. Burkina Faso, and a potential collaborator has been identi- The pearl millet research program within INTSORMIL fied in Senegal. Efforts are underway to formalize the col- must be strengthened. The addition of Dr. Wayne Hanna at laboration in Ghana and Senegal in the fall of 2000. Georgia is a significant resource for future pearl millet re- Scientists in Mali andNiger are communicating in regard to search. research plans and collaborative projects. The regional net- working with ROCARS and ROCAFREMI is working Horn of Africa quite well. New contacts with SG2000 show excellent promise regarding the interaction of IER breeders in getting A promising regional sorghum and millet collaborative their improved new cultivars into the extensive SG2000 research program has been put in place in the Horn of Af- field trial system. This should not only be of benefit in Mali rica. A Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) has been but throughout the region where SG2000 operates. signed with each of the five collaborating countries. A two-tier collaborative research initiative has been devel- The on-farm trials and collaboration with NGOffVOs is oped. At one level, we have identified individual collabora- very good, especially with World Vision. This has helped tive research projects between NARS scientists and their the evaluation and movement of new-promising varieties respective collaborators at an INTSORMIL institution on a on-farm. There is now extensive activities conducted bilateral basis. At a second level, based on a series of inter- on-farm. actions among those concerned, we have developed a re- Introduction and Program Overview gional research agenda with the goal of generating during the past year should lead to increased collaborative technologies that would have regional application. Re- research productivity, but at the same time will require in- search projects under the bilateral initiative have been im- creased personal support by INTSOMIL principal investi- plemented beginning with the 1997 crop season. gators and increased financial support from INTSORMIL. Disciplinary projects in breeding, agronomy, entomology, pathology, food science, economics, and extension were Regional Benefits by Te~hnf~aIThrust undertaken. Examples of research results of collaborative experiments conducted in the region in the last four years INTSORMIL provides a wide range of documented ben- are reported in this four year report. Interest in collaboration efits to collaborating countries, U.S. agriculture, and the with INTSORMIL by NARS scientists in the Horn of Africa broader scientific community. Many of these benefits have has been positive and continues to grow. reached fruition with improved sorghum and millet research programs, greater economic benefits to producers and con- Southern Africa sumers, and improvement of the environment. Others are at intermediate stages ("in the pipeline") that do not allow During the 1996-2000 time period, IWTSORIMIL activ- quantitative measurement of the benefits at present, but do ity in Southern Africa has evolved into a truly regional, col- merit identification of potential benefits in the future. The laborative research program. Research accomplishments collaborative nature of INTSORha programs has built are reported in detail in this report. positive long-term relationships between scientists, citi- zens, and governments of collaborating countries and the Regional activity has evolved to now include research United States. This has enhanced university educational projects on breeding, pathology, food quality, insect pests, programs and promoted understanding of different cultures production and marketing, and ergot. Ergot was separated enriching the lives of those involved, and hopefully making from other pathology research due to its importance to the a small contribution to world peace, in addition to improv- U.S. seed industry. Project work plans are developed be- ing sustainable sorghum and pearl millet production in de- tween host country scientists and U.S. counterparts. The veloping countries and in the United States. work plans are approved by the SMIP Steering Committee as part of the total regional activity in Southern Africa. Gemplasm Enhmcement and Consewatimt Funds are dispersed through ICRISAT/Bulawayo and ex- penditure receipts provided to INTSORMIL through the Breeding sorghum varieties and hybrids for use in devel- same facility. Project organization provides for integration oping countries requires proper recognition of the major of INTSORMIL activities into existing activities in the re- constraints limiting production, knowledge of germplasm, gion. This insures that INTSORMIL conducts research and and an appropriate physical environment for evaluation and supports institutionaldevelopment in areas of importance to testing. Successful breeding efforts also require knowledge collaborating institutions. of mode of inheritance and association of traits that contrib- ute to productivity as well as tolerance to biotic and abiotic Central America stresses. Germplasm exchange, movement of seeds in both directions between the USA and collaborating countries, in- During 1996-2000, the Central America program has volves populations, cultivars, and breeding lines which evolved from a program focused on Honduras to a more re- carry resistance to insects, diseases, Striga, drought, and gional program with increased activity in El Salvador and soil acidity. Research and germplasm development activi- Nicaragua. Concurrent with this has been increased collab- ties in INTSOWL attempt to address these essential re- orative research in plant pathology and agronomy. Memo- quirements. INTSORMILIPurdue project (PRF-207) randums of understanding have been signed with national addresses major biotic and abiotic constraints (drought, research programs in El Salvador (CENTA) and Nicaragua cold, grain mold, and other diseases) that limit productivity (INTA), and with the National Agrarian University (Nicara- of sorghum in many areas of the world. Over the years, sig- gua) and the National Autonomous University of Nicara- nificant progress has been made in some of these areas. Su- gua. Plant breeding research has emphasized development perior raw germplasm have been identified, mode of of improved maicillos criollos, but also has developed inheritance established, chemical and morphological traits grain, forage and broomcorn hybrids. Entomology research that contributeto productivity as well as to tolerance to these has focused on the "langosta" complex of lepidopterous in- stresses have been identified. Selected gene sources have sect pest of maize and sorghum, and on sorghum midge. been placed in improved germplasm background, some of Grain quality research has focused on use of sorghum to re- which have already been widely distributed. In the last four place maize in tortillas and rosquillos, and to replace wheat years, research efforts in PRF-207 have focused on a se- flour in cookies and sweet breads. INTSORMIL has had lected core of constraints that limit the productivity and uti- close ties with private industry through operation of the lization of the sorghum crop. Specific research studies were PCCMCA hybrid trials throughout Central America and the conducted in an attempt to understand the genetic and phys- Dominican Republic. This activity provides useful informa- iologic basis of drought tolerance using a mix ofboth tradi- tion to seed companies, producers, and plant breeders tional and molecular approaches. They also conducted throughout the region. The program changes put in place several studies in elucidating the basis of grain mold resis- Introduction and Program Overview tance in low and high tannin sorghums. Specific studies Several U.S. seed companies are now producing seed of were undertaken in determining the role of physical and brown midrib sorghum sudangrass commercially. The re- chemical kernel properties associated with mold resistance, sponse of livestock producers has been excellent due to im- and in assessing the nature of specific phenolic compounds proved digestibility and significantly improved palatability. that contribute to grain mold resistance. They also con- Dairy farmers are the first to see the benefits ofthe improved ducted a major study in assessing genetic diversity using nutritional quality in increased milk production. There are molecular markers. approximately five million acres of sorghum sudangrass in the United States at the present time, compared with nine INTSORMIL plant breeders also develop elite materials million acres of hybrid sorghum for grain production. The with high yield potential which can be used as cultivars per potential of brown midrib sorghum sudangrass in West Af- se or used as parents in breeding programs. Specific rica is being explored through collaboration with Dr. germplasm releases (including breeding lines) for collabo- Issoufou Kapran hi Niger. The value of forage in West Af- rating country use include the following. rica is high and there is a chronic shortage of good quality forage which we believe can be partially alleviated by Improved yield (for all collaborating countries) brown midrib sorghum sudangrass hybrids. At this point in time, there has been extensive cultivation of brown midrib Improved drought tolerance (Africa and drier areas of sorghum hybrids in Pakistan and in some Asian countries. Latin America) The potential value in India has been recognized since India is now the largest milk producer in the world and they are Acid soil tolerance heavily investing in research on brown midrib forage cere- als. As we enter the next decade of the "meat revolution" Striga resistance (West, Eastern Africa, and Southern forage crops will increase in importance. Africa) INTSORMILPurdue University have developed a rapid Midge and greenbug resistance (Latin America) screening technique for breeders to assess the new high di- gestibility trait recently discovered in sorghum germplasm. The new rapid screening technique, which measures disap- Downy mildew resistance (Latin America and pearance of alpha kafirin in sorghum grain has been devel- Botswana) oped by INTSORMIL P.I., Bruce Hamaker and his Nigerien Post Doctorate Fellow, Dr. Adam Aboubacar . The test is Anthracnose resistance (Latin America and Mali) rapid and readily distinguishes between normal sorghum and the highly digestible sorghum cultivars. Mr. Lex Charcoal rot and lodging resistance (Africa and drier Nduulu, Kenya, has tested this technique across several en- areas of Latin America) vironments and found that it is accurate and yet simple enough to be applied to large populations of breeding mate- Head smut and virus resistance (Latin America) rials. He is determining the mechanism of inheritance of the high digestibility trait. Foliar disease resistance (for all collaborating coun- tries) Plant biotechnology has become a powefil tool to com- plement the traditional methods of plant improvement. This Improved grain quality characteristics for food and in- report includes the development of a protocol for sorghum dustrial uses (for all collaborating countries). The transformation via Agrobacteriurn tumefaciens. It demon- commitment of INTSORMIL to integrated pest man- strates that Agrobacterium-mediated transformation is a agement of insect pests and pathogens has produced feasible technique for the genetic transformation of sor- new lines of sorghum useful to commercial breeders ghum. Sorghum transgenic plants were produced via and seed companies for both marketing hybrids and Agrobacterium tumefaciens, and the transformation evi- developing more advanced hybrids. Germplasm ob- denced by Southern blot analysis ofTO and T1 plants, detec- tained and evaluated for resistance to economically tion of GUS activity, and production ofTl plants resistant to important insect pests was used to combine insect re- hygromycin. Immature embryos of sorghum were very sen- sistance with other favorable plant traits. Germplasm sitive to Agrobacterium, and embryo death after was identified for advanced testing with resistance to co-cultivation was considered the limiting step to increase selected insects and diseases, and will contribute to the transformation efficiency. Key factors were the production of widely adapted, high yielding hybrids. co-cultivation medium, the use of a genotype and an explant Techniques of molecular biology are being used to with good tissue culture response, and the addition of help understand the inheritance of resistance to Pluronic F-68 to the inoculation medium. Sorghum trans- greenbug. Results from molecular mapping of sor- formation via Agrobacterium is still not a routine technique, ghum are being used in marker-assisted selection but it seems to have good potential once the protocol is fur- studies for greenbug resistance and post-flowering ther refmed and improved. drought tolerance. Introduction and Program Overview

The mutable pericarp color gene designated as and collaborative research was initiated in Burkina Faso. "candystripe" was first identified by Orrin Webster in Su- INTSORMIL also participates in the West and Central Afri- dan. Research done in collaboration with Surinder Chopra can Sorghum and Millet Research Networks. In research and Tom Peterson at Iowa State University has now identi- conducted during the past four years, it was determined that fied and cloned this mutable gene in sorghum. The high-yielding grain sorghum genotypes that are tall or have transposon is a very high molecular weight element with all high vertical leaf area distribution can be more competitive the characteristic properties of other transposable elements. with weeds and, therefore, be a useful component of inte- The unique feature ofthese elements is that they can be used grated weed management programs. Studies on manage- to identify agronomically important genes in sorghum. The ment of late-maturing Maiwa pearl millet in southern Niger probes are just now available which will allow scientists to were initiated. Because this variety of pearl millet tillers isolate important genes for such important traits as drought profusely, it provides a unique opportunity to integrate grain resistance and to study them in other plant systems and other production for human consumption and forage production gene expression systems. This is an important step forward to support livestock. Initial results, such that tillers can be in the identification of important genes fiom sorghum harvested 65 to 85 days after planting for use as livestock which can now be studied in greater depth. feed without reducing grain or stover yield, point to devel- opment of a more economically rewarding cropping system Collaborative research of an INTSORMIL research team for millet farmers in the Sahel. (INTSORMILfTexas A&M Project TAM-222) is proving useful to sorghum breeders worldwide. The use of During the four-year time frame, the INTSORMIL/Uni- DNA-based markers for genetic analysis and manipulation versity of Nebraska (UNL-2 13) project has been extremely of important agronomic traits is becoming increasingly use- productive in graduate education of West African collabo- ful in plant breeding. In a recent study, 190 sorghum acces- rating scientists agronomic research, which has led to publi- sions from the five major cultivated races, namely bicoior, cation in scientific journals, the production of extension guinea, caudatum, kafir, and durra, were.sampled from the bulletins, and the transfer of improved practices to pearl world collection maintained by ICRISAT. Genetic varia- millet producers; and strengthening the activities of the tion was detectedusing RAPD primers. Only 13% of the to- West and Central Africa Pearl Millet Research Network. In tal genetic variation was attributable to divergence across the USA, the project has documented the potential for pearl regions, but South AEcan germplasm exhibited the least millet as a new grain crop in the Great Plains, and developed amount of genetic diversity, while the genetic diversity production practice recommendations for planting date, within the West African, Central AEcan, East African and row spacing, and nitrogen fertilizer application. During this Middle Eastern regions was high among the 190 samples period, collaborative research was expanded fiom Mali and from the world collection. This research showed that molec- Niger to Burkina Faso, and in the near future, to Central ular markers can be used to help identify suitable America. germplasm for introgressioninto breeding stocks. Selecting the most divergent accessions for introgression may in- On-farm trials conducted by the WTSORMILhJniver- crease the probability of extracting suitable inbred lines to sity of Nebraska (UNL-2 14) have successfully demon- improve the yields of varieties and hybrids. strated the value of using new hybrids, inorganic fertilizer and tied ridges to conserve moisture which is now being Producing improved seed that seed companies and farm- adopted in certain regions of Niger. Contacts have been ers can use, INTSORMIL researchers collaborated with made between NARS scientists in Ghana, Mali and Niger LDC scientists to develop improved,high-yielding varieties and WVI personnel as expedited by the UNL-214 PI. Col- and hybrids. Progeny were identified that combine several laboration between and among these individuals should re- needed favorable traits into a single genotype. Advanced se- sult in greater efficiency for extending new technology. The lections are an evaluation in on-farm trials to measure per- underlying physiological mechanism for nitrogen use eff- formance. As research continues to generate new ciency (NUE) has been determined to be a key enzyme in technology, the importance of testing on-farm, and solicit- the photosynthesis pathway. This discovery will soon be ing producer input on research activities will increase. published in a major journal. Technology (germplasm) developed by this project has been adopted by private industry and used in hybridproduc- A study conducted by INTSORMILPurdue University tion or breeding programs. Impact assessment studies have project (PRF-205) in Burkina Faso which focused on the consistently shown a high rate of return on investment fiom impact of household and agricultural technologies on research conducted by this project. women in Burkina Faso showed the importance of house- hold and agricultural technologies independent of deci- Sustainable Production Systems sion-making in the household. Many new technologies, especially new seeds and inorganic fertilizers, increase the In West Africa, INTSORMIL's main collaborative demand for labor and, therefore, result in female (and male) agronomy research activities have been focused in Mali and household members working more on the commonly Niger. However, a Memorandum of Understanding was farmed area and less on their private plots. This has been signed in 1999 with W.E.R.A., the NARS of Burkina Faso, shown to reduce the income received by women. As tech- Introduction and Program Overview nology introduction proceeds, however, increasing insects and pathogens with minimal use of chemical pesti- within-family contention over the new income streams cides. INTSORMIL entomologists and plant pathologists would be expected, with an evolution towards the conflict work closely with plant breeders, agronomists, and food sci- and cooperation of bargaining household decision-making. entists to develop more effective means to manage pests of As the bargainingposition of women improved, there was a sorghum and millet in order to provide higher yields of substantial, combined effect of the two types of technology higher quality grain per unit area cultivated. Intensification on the potential income of women. With bargaining, agri- of agriculturalproduction, which can help remove pressure cultural technologies increase the income ofwomen by 29% on fragile ecosystems, depends on many factors; sustain- and the combined agricultural and household technologies able plant protection is essential to increase production of by 68%. Policy recommendations are to accelerate the intro- food and feed from sorghum and millet in economically and duction of technological change onto the commonly farmed ecologically sustainable ways. In crop protection, a wide areas while also increasing the bargaining power of women. range of sources of resistance for insects, diseases, and Striga have been identified and crossed with locally adapted Research in Mali by the West and Central African Millet germplasm. This process has been improved immensely by Network (WCAMRN) showed that pearl millet grain pro- INTSORMIL collaboratorsdeveloping effective resistance duction increased 10to 19% ofwhen millet was rotated with screening methods for sorghum head bug, sorghum long cowpea or peanut across West and Central Africa, while smut, grain mold, leaf diseases, and Striga. yield increases of pearl millet grain production due to other production practices appeared to be more site-specific. The Witchweeds (Striga spp.) are obligate parasitic weeds of highest grain yields required applicationof inorganic fertil- significant economic importance. Control methods avail- izer or combined application of inorganic and organic fertil- able to date have been costly and beyond the means of farm- izer. ers in developing countries. While combining several control measures may be necessary for eradication ofstriga, In Niger, several collaborative studies of INTSORMIL crop losses to Strig~can be effectively minimized through scientists from Niger, India, and the United States were fi- host-plant resistance. In the INTSORMILhdue Univer- nalized. The results of the research are now being written for sity project (PRF-213),the goal has been to exploit the publication by Drs. Pandey and Maranville at the University unique life cycle and parasitic traits ofStriga towards devel- of Nebraska. The on-farm trials in Niger were inconclusive oping sorghum lines that are resistant to Striga because of in 1998 due to adverse environment, but tended to show the disrupted interaction between the parasite and the host. In value of NAD- 1 and tied ridges for conserving moisture. In the last four years, significant results were obtained in both addition to preparing manuscripts, Dr. Pandey has con- the research and development efforts of PRF-2 13. They es- ducted greenhouse studies at UNL to strengthen the field re- tablished the simple inheritance of low production of the sults from Niger. Dr. Pandey has returned to India and Striga germination stimulant in sorghum. New assays were continues to work with Dr. Maranville on publication of the developed for stages in host-parasite interaction beyond manuscripts. Dr. Samuel Buah has returned to Ghana to be- Striga germination. Using these assays, unique mutants gin collaborative research under the new Memorandum of were identified that have the capacity to disrupt normal par- Understanding recently signed by INTSOMLand the Sa- asitic association. These include sorghum lines with low vannah Agricultural Research Institute (SARI) of Ghana. production of the haustorial initiation factor, mutants with a INTSORMIL has provided Dr. Buah with a new computer hypersensitive response to penetration by Striga thereby de- and chlorophyll meter, and will also provide operating laying the growth and development of the parasite, and funds for him to conduct his collaborative research. those with incompatible response to penetration where the host response results in eventual withering and death of the In Mali, studies on the effect of previous crop on sor- parasitic growth. Genetic and physiologic characterization ghum yields showed that sorghum following corn or cow- of these mutants, as well as introgression into elite cultivars pea was better than sorghum after peanuts, pearl millet or of the particular genes involved in each mutant, is currently dolichos. Sorghum following sorghum resulted in the poor- underway. As a development effort, Striga resistant sor- est yields. Responses were modified positively and linearly ghum lines developed in the past have been effectively dis- by N application up to 60 kg ha-'. Application of Malian tributed and adopted. PRF-213 collaborated with World rock phosphate also increased sorghum yield about nine Vision International in distributing large quantities of eight percent. Striga resistant sorghumvarieties into 12 African countries. Following their introduction, the project worked with na- Sustainable Plant Protection Systems tional programs in carrying out testing and demonstration of these varieties in farmers' fields. In Ethiopia, a collabora- INTSORMIL7sapproach to developing sustainable plant tive relationship with the Ethiopian Agricultural Research protection systems is integrated pest management (IPM). Organization (EARO) and the Sasakawa Global 2000 pro- Two key elements of IPM for sorghum and millet which are gram led to the evaluation, demonstration, and the eventual central to INTSORMIL plant protection research are ge- official release of two INTSORMIL varieties for cornmer- netic resistance of sorghum and millet to insect pests, patho- cia1 cultivation in the country. Seed supply is likely to be a gens, and the parasitic weed, Striga, and practices to control bottleneck in efforts to promote an expanded cultivation of Introduction and Program Overview these varieties. 1NTSOR.MIL will continue to cooperate The obvious honeydew exuded from parasitic with the NARS in efforts to put in place an effective seed sphacelia of ergot on sorghum is only one source of production and distribution mechanism to ensure reliable conidia. Any surface coated with honeydew (e.g., supply of these varieties in the future. leaves, seeds, or soil) may also be a source.

Research on the agroecology and biotechnology of stalk There is a marked effect of temperature on the sur- rot pathogens of sorghum and millet resulted in increased vival of conidia. with storage of sphacelia at higher understanding of sexual reproduction of Fusariurn, a fungal temperatures resulting in more rapid loss of viability, pathogen of both sorghum and millet. compared to storage at lower temperatures.

Ergot, or Claviceps africana, is a fungal pathogen of sor- Sorghum ergot caused by Claviceps africana was ob- ghum which prevents pollination of the sorghum plant's served to persist in an active phase predominantly on ovaries if the ergot enters the ovary before pollination oc- feral grain sorghum in Mexico and as far north as Cor- curs, resulting in a sticky exudate and no grain formation. pus Christi through February 1998. Feral and Ergot infestation of grain sorghum was a problem in Africa ratooned grain and forage sorghum and johnsongrass and Asia before 1996 when the disease was first detected in within fields and along roadsides were infected by Argentina and Brazil. In 1997, ergot spread to Colombia, large outbreaks of ergot in December 1998 due to a Honduras, Mexico, many islands in the Caribbean, and ma- wet, cool environment. jor sorghum-producing states in the United States (Kansas, Nebraska, and Texas). Losses due to ergot can include re- Experiments using a fungicide showed that it can be duction in grain yield, loss of export markets of seed and used to effectively prevent germination of ergot feed grains to countries where ergot has not been reported, sphacelia and sclerotia, leading to the conclusion that and loss of germplasm and hybrid seed increases in winter sclerotia and sphacelia in seed treated with the fungi- nurseries where ergot has been detected and quarantine reg- cide should not be considered a potential source of the ulations prohibit return of the grain to the United States. inoculum. INTSORMIL researchers during the past year have focused their efforts on many aspects ofthe biology and ecology of Triazole fungicides continue to be the most effective in ergot. These efforts have been collaborative and interna- controlling sorghum ergot in the field but aerial application tional, involving scientists in the United States, Central and proved ineffective due to poor contact and coverage of South America, Africa, Asia, and Europe. heads with the fungicide. Conidia of C. africana in sphacelia or on honeydew on seed surfaces do not survive Important findings include: well in storage environments. The combination of poor sur- vival of conidia and the good efficacy of contact fungicide Sorghum accessions susceptible to Claviceps seed treatments make seedborne inoculum a negligible fac- africana include S. bicolor, S. drurnmondii, S. tor especially in areas where the pathogen is already en- virgatum, S. arundinaceum, and S. halepense. Ergot demic. symptoms were not observed on S. verticillzjlorum and some accessions of S. drumrnondii. Other eco- Sorghum diseases are, and remain important factors re- nomically important plant species surveyed which ducing the potential of sorghum. Ergot continues to threaten were observed to be not affected by ergot include fii- the seed industry worldwide. Grain mold and anthracnose ger millet, pearl millet, proso millet, foxtail millet, big resistance traits have been mapped and other useful loci to bluestem, Osage indiangrass, switchgrass, maize, and aid in the pyramiding resistance genes for more durable re- Canadian wild rye. sistance is progressing. The next global conference on sor- ghum and millet diseases has been set for September 25-30, An extremely high incidence of ergot was reported in 2000 at Guanajuato, Mexico. grain sorghum over a several-week period in February 1997 on many islands of the Caribbean, probably due Acremonium wilt of sorghum has recently become a to an airborne spore shower. It is believed that Hurri- problem in the Konni area of Niger with the introduction of cane Mitch was the primary carrier of spores of ergot improvedcultivarsand hybrids. In order to determine the ef- in the Carribbean region during its existence in 1998. fect of plant pathogenic nematodes in the infection of sor- ghum by Acremonium wilt, INTSORMIL scientists In late 1998, C. africana demonstrated that it is a conducted a nematicide trial near Konni on a farmer's field well-established, recurrent pathogen of Mexico and to determine whether two nematicides would be effective in Texas with the capacity to survive under extended, controlling pathogenic nematodes, especially of unfavorable, dry environments and has the ability to Pratylenchus spp. For the susceptible hybrid, NAD-1, the quickly reach epidemic proportions over vast regions presence of nematodes is not necessary for disease develop- upon a return to favorable, wet, cool environments. ment. With the land race Mote, the level of infection in- creases as the nematode number increases. In the presence Introduction and Program Overview of nematodes, Mota becomes susceptible to A. strictum. The project has been successful because each of the above has nematicide treatments did not significantly affect the inci- been realized. dence of Acremonium wilt of sorghum either in 1997 (a droughty year) or 1998. In Southern Africa, collaborative research relationships were reestablished with Dr. Christopher Manthe in Bot- In Mali, INTSORMIL scientists from the United States swana and Dr. Johnnie van den Berg in the Republic of and Mali plan to develop IPM strategies for insect pests, es- South Africa. Research will be directed toward developing pecially panicle-feeding bugs and sorghum midge, that at- and evaluating sugarcane aphid-resistant sorghums adapted tack traditional and improved insect-resistant and to the southern African region. During this reporting period, susceptible sorghums. 50 sorghum lines were evaluated in the laboratory but not in the field because of severe drought. Sorghum and maize are important grain crops for human consumption and animal feed in developing countries in A systematic strain collection and strain identification of Central America. The crops are damaged each year by soil Fusarium species has been progressing (INTSORMILtKan- inhabiting insects, stem borers, caterpillar defoliators, and sas State University project (KSU-210A), but many of the panicle feeding insects that contribute to reduced yields of easy identifications have been made and the process is now both crops on farms in this region. The complex of defolia- much slower. Development of the AFLP technique has en- tors and sorghum midge are considered to be the most dam- abled them to group strains relatively quickly, but the for- aging to these crops in Honduras and Nicaragua, and mal descriptions still require significant effort, and annually cause extreme damage to the crops. The caterpillar additional collectionswill be needed to identify more mem- pest complex has been identified by the INTSORMILtMis- bers of relatively rare species. Adding global positioning ca- sissippi State University (MSU-205) project to consist prin- pability to localizing collection sites for repeated sampling cipally of several armyworm species and a grass looper, and shouldbe accomplished before the next major collecting ex- the impact that these insects and the sorghummidge have on pedition is conducted. The AFLP technique has been suc- sorghum production has been elucidated. Aspects of the bi- cessfully transferred to South African colleagues who are ology, ecology, behavior and population dynamics of the now trained in the use of this technique. Training a student armyworm species in Honduras and the sorghum midge in from sub-Saharan Africa in the use of these techniques Nicaragua have been identified. This information has con- needs to become a priority, if funds permit. Toxicology tributed to the successll conduct of entomological research work now needs a collaborator who can test the effects of designed to evaluate ecological relationships of the pest in- toxins in commercial animal feeds, and who can model their sects with crop and non-crop plants within various cropping effects in laboratory systems using human and animal cell systems, crop planting and management strategies, host lines as models. Screening of grain for these toxins needs to plant resistance, influence of insecticides on pest and natu- be made to determine relative levels of these toxins in ani- ral enemy populations, and roll of naturally occurring bene- mal and human food supplies. ficial agents in regulation of pest populations. Insect pest management tactics have been investigated as independent Scientific Writing and Fusarium Laboratory workshops control practices on subsistence farms in both Honduras and by KSU-2 10A have increased the visibility of this program Nicaragua. Recommendations for planting dates, weed con- significantly. These workshops need to become a more visi- trol, and insecticide applications to manage the caterpillar ble part of the INTSORMIL program, as they serve as inter- defoliators, as well as sorghum midge have been developed. disciplinary venues for scientists in developed and developing countries that work on various crops to ex- The information obtained in these MSU-205 studies on change information and to interact with one another in an in- sorghum and corn will assist subsistence farmers in Hondu- formal setting. Activities growing out of this project have ras, Nicaragua and surrounding areas with similar insect led to requests to update, along with South African collabo- pest constraints in producing grain crops with increased rator, Prof. Walter F. 0.Marasas, an introductory book on yield at minimum cost for pest control and with reduced risk mycotoxicology, and that the KSU-210A PI participate in to human health. The extension of the project into Nicara- the development of a laboratory manual for general use in gua in 1998 expanded the scope of MSU-205 activities in the identification of Fusarium species. this ecogeographic zone. Recent studies to determine mini- mum, effective rates of insecticide for control of whorl feed- INTSORMIL/Texas A&M Project (TAM-225B) has ing lepidopterous insects, stem and stalk feeding insects, made progress toward developing a "Millet Head Miner and panicle feeding insects in Mississippi will be useful (MHM) Warning System" model to forecast the probability technology for crop production in the United States and for of MHM outbreaks in areas of West Africa so that appropri- transfer to developing countries. ate measures can be implemented to control the pest before it damages pearl millet. A graduate student from Mali re- Locating quality graduate students to train and conduct ceived his Ph.D. degree in 2000. His dissertation was devel- INTSORMIL research, and active participation of collabo- oped from field studies begun in Year 17 on MHM rator scientists, administrators, and in-country coordinators immature stage mortality, adult MHM biology on alternate are significant to the success of the MSU-205 project. The hosts and fecundity, and MHM biology on alternate host Introduction and Program Overview plants. Results from the Mali and Niger students' research The Niger couscous project is advancing quickly. There will be used to construct a stage-specific life table, thus pro- is an excellent group of technologistslscientists in Niger that viding an understanding of factors that regulate the abun- are committed to the project. With procurement of the new dance of MHM. These results also can be used to develop an entrepreneurial-scaledecorticator and mill, the INRAN ce- improved plan for managing MHM on pearl millet in West real processing group are adding production of high quality Africa. Using the database available on agro-climatic con- flours andgrits and other potential products to their research ditions in the Sahel, and research data from this and other re- objectives. At this point, processing parameters have been search on MHM, improved approaches to managing MHM optimized at least to a sufficient extent to produce four high will be possible. Ultimately, these data will support devel- quality products: two couscous' of different particle sizes, oping a "Millet Head Miner Warning System" model to degue (a large particle agglomerated product used for forecast the probability of MHM outbreaks in a given area breakfast), and flour. A market study has begun with partic- so that appropriate measures can be implemented to control ipation of the INTSORMIL/UIUC/Nelson project, and the pest before it damages pearl millet. This is an example of about 1 MT of high quality couscous, degue, and flour from how research done by graduate students from developing the sorghum hybrid NAD-1 has been produced. Packaging countries can contribute significantly to long-term solutions labels for the study have been made at Purdue. The INRAN to problems of production and utilization of sorghum and Cereal Processing Lab group hopes to begin working with pearl millet. entrepreneurs/NGOs in Niamey and elsewhere to stimulate commercial processing of sorghum and millet products. Crop Utilization and Marketing Ideally, one or more processing units should probably be placed outside of INRAN to facilitate this. There continues In a study of urban consumption patterns in Mali, to be a good deal of interest both within Niger and in neigh- INTSORMIL researchers showed the substitution potential boring countries about the potential of commercializing between imported rice and the traditional cereals, sorghum couscous made from sorghum and millet. and millet. With the reduction of import tariffs and devalua- tion, the net effect was an increase in the traditional cereal A stronger collaboration is being developed with the ce- price relative to rice. Sorghum and millet were shown to be real technologist in Ethiopia. INTSORMIL is in the final substitutes for imported rice, but not for domestic rice. Tra- stages of purchasing a decorticator and hammer mill for ditional cerals are still cheaper than rice in absolute terms EARO's cereal technology laboratory located at Nazret. with devaluation, and devaluation has an income reducing With this equipment, there are plans to develop high quality effect even if cereal prices do not increase. Income effects flours from sorghum that can be used commercially in local apparently encouraged a small increase in consumption of Ethiopian industries. sorghum and millet. Work in Mali continued to demonstrate the high qualities of flour from N'Tenimissa sorghum in At INTSORMIL/Purdue project PRF-2 12, an active re- baked and other products. Progress can be made if identity search program has concentrated on improving use of sor- preserved grains of consistent quality can be obtained for ghum and millet grains through better understanding of processing. The bland flavor and light color of white food their fundamental chemistry and physical properties. We type sorghums are superior to maize in composite baked now have a good understanding of the basis for couscous products. and pomdge stickiness, which is an undesirable characteris- tic connected to some sorghum (and probably millet) INTSORMIL/Purdue University cereal chemists have cultivars. It has been shown that sorghum kafirinproteincan developed rapid screening techniques for breeders to use participate in viscoelastic fibril formation with wheat gluten which assesses the new high digestibility trait recently dis- to strengthen dough and improve loaf volume. While not covered in germplasm of sorghum. This rapid screening immediately transferable this knowledge may in the future technique, which measures disappearance of alpha kafirin become useful, perhaps even through genetic modification in sorghum grain has been developed by Bruce Hamaker of sorghum. Studies on grain chemical interactions during and Adam Aboubacar of Niger. The test is rapid and readily food processing or cooking has revealed a three-component distinguishes between normal sorghum and the highly di- interaction/complex that greatly affects cooling paste vis- gestible sorghum cultivars. Lex Nduulu, INTSORMIL col- cosities, that relates to porridge quality. laborator from Kenya, has tested this technique across several environments and found that it is accurate and yet The WCAMRNROCAFREMI participation has much simple enough to be applied to large populations of breed- potential in allowing INTSORMIL utilization scientists to ing materials. He is determining the mechanism of inheri- collaborate regionally. So far WCAMRN/ROCAFREMI tance of the high digestibility trait. This technique is being appears to be a very good mechanism for facilitating collab- used to accelerate the selection of lines of sorghum which oration in millet processing research to a greater extent than have grain of high digestibility. Further research is being has been seen before among the West African NARS. done to improve the assay by way of using microtiter plates to decrease sample size and increase sample throughput per INTSORMIL/Texas A&M Project TAM-226 reports day. This research was done with a buy-in to the that new markets for value-enhanced white food sorghums INTSORMIL project by the Texas Grain Sorghum Board. are being developed by the U.S. Grains Council from re- Introduction and Program Overview search on food sorghum processing and prototype products age map for sorghum kernel characteristics, milling proper- developed in this project. Value-enhanced white food ties, and mold resistance is nearing completion. sorghums sent to Japan made a positive impression. Sor- ghum is an excellent ingredient in extruded snacks and re- INTSORMIL research on processing of sorghum has lated food products. Sorghum flour was demonstrated yielded significant results over the past four year. Extensive effective in nearly 20 traditional Japanese foods in Tokyo. multi-location, multi-year trials to evaluate the abrasive milling properties and factors affecting dry milling of sor- A new snack from white sorghum was marketed in the ghum were conducted. Conclusions are: United States. Several mills are producing sorghum flour for niche markets. In Central America, white sorghums are The milling properties of sorghum are affected by hy- used in cookies and other products as a substitute for wheat brid and environmental conditions. or maize. Personnel in Honduras successfully conducted baking trials demonstrating the value of white food Sorghums with purple or red plant color produce sorghums. highly-colored, stained grits when the grain weathers during and after maturation; tan plant color reduces Special sorghums with high levels ofphenols and antiox- discoloration. idants produce excellent chips and baked products. The an- tioxidant level in certain bran fractions is higher than that of The food sorghums released have about the same grit blue berries. yields as cream hybrids, but the grit color is much better, especially when weathering occurs. New commercial sorghum hybrids with tan plant red and white pericarp color are nearing release from commercial The tan plant red sorghum hybrids produced about the hybrid seed companies and TAES. Several parental sor- same yields of grits; the grit color was much im- ghum lines released from programs are used in commercial proved. hybrids grown in Mexico and the United States. Atx635 hy- brids have outstanding milling properties. Waxy sorghums have slightly lower density, test weights are generally low, and milling yields are Antifungal proteins appear related to grain mold resis- lower. tance in sorghum. A molecular linkage map for sorghum kernel characteristics, milling properties, and mold resis- tance is nearing completion. ATx635 hybrids all had significantly improved yields of grits with excellent color. The density and test New markets for value-enhanced white food sorghums weights were highest for ATx635 grains at all loca- are being developed by the US Grains Council from re- tions. search and information on food sorghum processing and products developed by INTSORMIL/Texas A&M project It is possible to select for improved milling properties. TAM-226. The first value-enhanced white sorghums were sent to Japan. The Japanese have a positive impression of A workshop organized by Professor Taylor, University sorghum for extrusion in snacks and related food products. of Pretoria, Dr. Janet Dewar, CSIR, and Lloyd Rooney, They believe it is better than rice for extrusion. Sorghum Texas A&M University, was hosted by University ofPreto- flour was demonstrated effective in traditional Japanese ria. More than 36 participants from the food industry, uni- foods in Tokyo by chefs and dieticians. versity, and research institutes in Southern Africa interacted during the 3.5 day Sorghum Quality Assessment Workshop. A new snack from white sorghum has been marketed in It included tours to a Sorghum Brewery and the ARC Sum- the United States. Several mills are producing sorghum mer Grains Institute in Potchefstroom. Students at the Uni- flour for niche markets. In Central America, white versity of Pretoria enrolled in the Southern African sorghums are being used in cookies and other products as a Regional M.S. Degree program at the University of Pretoria substitute for wheat or maize. Personnel in Honduras suc- participated. cessfully conducted baking trials demonstrating the value of white food sorghums. Special sorghums have high levels of Future Directions phenols and antioxidants. They produce excellent chips and baked products with high levels of antioxidants and dietary Based on its achievements, the INTSORMIL team is fiber. White food sorghum flour can be substituted for 50% well positioned to contribute even more effectively to end- of the wheat flour in Mexican cookie formuli. New com- ing hunger and raise incomes. With its increasing strength mercial sorghum hybrids with tan plant red and white of scientific expertise in developing countries, pericarp color are nearing release form commercial hybrid INTSORMIL is now able to more effectively reduce con- seed companies and TAES. Antifungal proteins may be re- straints to production and utilization of sorghum and millet lated to grain mold resistance in sorghum. A molecular link- to the mutual benefit of developing countries and the United States. Advances in sorghum and millet research over Introduction and Program Overview

INTSORMIL's first 21 years, INTSORMIL scientists in the In the past, INTSORMIL focused a major part of its re- United States, Africa, and Central America are now able to sources on graduate student training and generating re- jointly plan and execute collaborative research which will search particularly useful within the scientific community. have increased benefits to developing counties and the The INTSORMIL agenda for the future continues to include United States. These collaborative relationships are keys to graduate student training and generation of scientific INTSORMIL's success and will continue as fundamental lcnowledge and inforamation to scientists, but will be more approaches to meeting the INTSORMIL mission. In the fu- focused and directed toward users of the technology gener- ture, INTSORMIL will target NARS collaborative ties that ated by INTSORMIL research. Future strategies of reflect regional needs for sorghum andlor millet production. INTSORMIL will maintain INTSORMIL's current, highly These ties are in the sorghum and millet agroecological productive momentum, build on its record of success, and zones of western, eastern, and southern Africa, and Central accomplish a new set ofgoals. INTSORMIL's strategies for America. By concentrating collaboration in selected sites, the future are: 1) sustainable research institutions and hu- INTSORMIL optimizes its resources, builds a finite scien- man capital development; 2) conservation of biodiversity tific capability on sorghum and millet, and creates techno- and natural resources; 3) research systems development logical and human capital that has a sustainable and global with focus on relevant technology generation; 4) informa- impact. tion and research networking; and 5) demand driven pro- cesses. Sustainable Plant Protection Systems Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Agroecology and Biotechnology of Stalk Rot Pathogens of Sorghum and Millet Project KS310A John F. Leslie Kansas State University

Principal Investigator

Dr. John F. Leslie, Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506-5502

Collaborating Scientists

Dr. Elhamy El-Assiuty, Plant Pathology Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, Giza, Egypt Dr. J. Peter Esele, Serere Agricultural and Animal Production Research Institute, NARO, Soroti, Uganda Dr. Laszlo Hornok, Agricultural Biotechnology Center, Godollo, Hungary Dr. Chagema J. Kedera, Kenyan Plant Health Inspection Service, Nairobi, Kenya Dr. Walter F. 0. Marasas, PROMEC, South African Medical Research Council, Tygerberg, South Africa Drs. M. Wingfield and B. Wingfield, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa Drs. R. L. Bowden, L. E. Claflin and D. J. Jardine, Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas Dr. J. S. Smith, Department of Animal Sciences & Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas Dr. G. Ejeta, Department of Agronomy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana Dr. M. B. Dickman, Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska Dr. R. A. Frederiksen, Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas

Summary

We tested five members from each of five different three of the five species (F. nygamai, F. thapsinum and Fusarium species for mycotoxin production, sorghum Fsp2). This pattern of toxin production, means that sorghum pathogenicity, growth rate, vegetative compatibility,sexual is much less likely to be contaminated by fiunonisin toxins fertility, and DNA fingerprint. Based on vegetative compat- than other grains, e.g., maize. Toxin production does not ap- ibility tests each of the 25 isolates examined had a unique pear to be associated with sorghum pathogenicity. Repre- genetic background, and none were clones of a common sentatives of all species were toxic to ducklings, but Fspl strain. Three of these species had been previously described strains were significantly less toxic than were those of the and could be distinguished on the basis of microscopic mor- other species. Some of the toxigenicity observed may be at- phological characters. The other two species are not distin- tributable to the fumonisin and monilifonnin toxins, but it is guishable on the basis of morphological characters, but can likely that additional, toxic secondary metabolites are syn- be identified on the basis of unique DNA fingerprints. thesized by one or more of these species and that these tox- Based on morphological characters, colony pigmentation ins play a role in the duckling toxicity we observed. and growth rates, the new species are most similar to F. nygamai. Mating type was identified in all five species us- Objectives, Production and Utilization Constraints ing previously developed PCR diagnostic techniques. No female-fertile strains were identified within either Fspl or Objectives Fsp2, and sexual cross-fertility could not be used to confi the uniqueness of these groups as separate species. Both of Increase collection of Fusarium samples from sor- the new species have been recovered from the United States ghum and millet, and identify the species recovered. and multiple locations in Afiica, and from sorghum, millet, and other agriculturally important crops. F. thapsinum and Develop characters, such as mating type, for assessing Fsp 1 are considerably more pathogenic in sorghum seedling genetic variability in fhgal populations. assays than are the other three species tested. Fsp2 may be more important as a millet pathogen than as a sorghum Provide pure cultures of fhgifrom our extensive col- pathogen. More widespread testing of the pathogenicity of lection to U.S. and LDC investigators to expedite di- these strains is required to determine the role that these spe- agnoses of fungal diseases of sorghum and millet. cies play in the stalk rot and grain mold complexes of sor- ghum Fumonisins were produced by two ofthe five species (F. verticillioida and F. nygamai), and moniliformin by Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Determine mycotoxigenic potential of Fusarium spp. similar) on Potato-Dextrose Agar (PDA) at both 25 and from sorghum and millet. 30°C and incubated in complete darkness for threedays. Measurements were made on three replicate cultures per Constraints temperature for each strain.

Fusarium spp. associated with sorghum and millet do Sexual crosses. Isolates were crossed with standard mat- obvious damage as stalk rot, grain mold and pokkah boeng. ing-type tester strains on carrot agar for Gibberella All of these diseases can cause intermittently heavy losses nygamai, Gibberella thapsina, and Gibberella fujikuroi in the United States and in developing countries. Breeding mating populations A-E and H. These testers were devel- for resistance to associated diseases with Fusarium is lim- oped by our colleagues and us, and are available to others ited, because the strains responsible for disease often can- through the Fungal Genetics Stock Center at the University not be accurately identified and used repeatedly in field of Kansas Medical School in Kansas City, Kansas. Within challenges. Correct identification of the fungi colonizing each of the two groups of strains that did not cross with an and causing disease is essential for the design of breeding already identified species or mating population, isolates and control measures. Without a thorough understanding of were intercrossed in all possible pairwise combinations, the pathogen's genetic diversity and population dynamics, with each strain serving as both the male and the female par- effective control measures are difficult to design and resis- ent in crosses with other members of the group. All crosses tant lines may have unexpectedly brief lives. were repeated at least twice. Fertile crosses produced perithecia that exuded a cirrhus of ascospores. Mycotoxin contamination limits the uses to which har- vested grain can be pu, and creates health risks for both hu- DNA manipulations and molecular diagnosis of mating mans and domestic animals. Fusarium-produced type. DNA was isolated using standard procedures and mycotoxins are among the most common mycotoxins stored in 1xTE at 4°C until used. We determined the mating found in cereal grains, yet have not been effectively evalu- type of all 25 strains following PCR amplification with pre- ated in sorghum and millet. Since contamination often oc- viously described primers. Successful amplification of a curs on apparently sound grain, merely discarding band of approximately 260 bp indicated that the strain car- obviously molded grain is not sufficient to avoid the ried the MAT-2 allele, while lack of amplification indicated mycotoxicity problems. that the strain carried MA T-I. In cases where sexual crosses were not successful, molecular diagnoses of mating type Research Approach and Project Output were taken as defmitive.

Research Methods Vegetative compatibility tests. Nitrate nonutilizing (nit) mutants were generated from all strains belonging to the Strains and Culture Conditions. We used 25 strains, five new groups and used in complementation tests to identify each from five of each different species. Three of these spe- isolates that belonged to the same vegetative compatibility cies could be distinguished on the basis of morphological group (VCG). The nit mutants were generated on a minimal characters - Fusarium thapsinum Klittich et al. (teleomorph medium containing 2.5% KC103 and assigned to one of Gibberella thapsina Klittich et al.), Fusarium verti- three classes - nitl, nit3 or NitM -based on their ability to cillioides (Sacc.) Nirenberg (synonym: Fusarium grow on media containing differential nitrogen sources (ni- moniliforme Sheldon, teleomorph Gibberella moniliformis trate, nitrite, hypoxanthine and ammonium). Complemen- Wineland), and Fusarium nygamai Burgess and Trimboli tary mutants in the same VCG could form a prototrophic (teleomorph Gibberella nygamai Klaasen and Nelson). heterokaryon when cultured together on a minimal medium Two additional sets of five strains were used as representa- containing KN03 as the sole nitrogen source. Whenever tives of species that as yet have no formal names, referred to possible, a nit1 and a NitM mutant from each strain was here as Fspl and Fsp2. Each of these new species has been used in the pairing procedure. All pairings were tested at recovered from the United States and from Africa, i.e., they least twice. are geographically dispersed. Each of these species also has been recovered from sorghum, millet and at least one other Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms (AFLPs) agriculturally important crop. For consistency, all of the and analyses of molecular relatedness. We digested ap- strains we examined for mycotoxins production and sor- proximately 100 ng of DNA with two units each of EcoRI ghum pathogenicity were from Southern Africa. and MseI, and ligated to EcoRI (an equimolar mixture of CTCGTAGACTGCCTACC and AATTGGTACGCA Strains were routinely cultured on carnation leaf agar, or GTC, 5 pmole/pI) and MseI adapters (an equimolar mixture on modified Czapek's complete medium. Strains are main- of GACGATGAGTCCTGAG and TACTCAGGACT tained as lyophilized cultures at the Medical Research CAT, 50 pmolelpl) with T4 DNA ligase. These DNA frag- Council in South Africa, or as spore suspensions in 15% ments were pre-amplified using the adapter sequences to glycerol frozen at -70°C at Kansas State University. We prime the reaction, and then amplified with more specific measured growth rates of strains from F. nygamai and the primers to reduce the number ofbands in the gel. The EcoRI two new Fusarium species (which are morphologically primers in the final amplification mixes were end-labeled Sustainable Plant Protection @stems with y33~,and fragments were separated in 6% severity and measured root length. The foliage of the seed- polyacrylamide gels. Gels were dried and exposed to lings was excised and shoot length measured. Root and autoradiography film for 2 to 5 days at room temperature to shoot dry mass were determined by weighing after drying at identify DNA bands. 60°C for three days.

To analyze AFLP profiles, we manually scored the pres- The experiment was done twice. There were three repli- ence or absence of bands. We assumed that bands of the cates (blocks) in the first experiment and 12 in the second. same molecular size in different individuals were identical. The treatment design was a 2 x 26 factorial with two For each individual, we determined the presence or absence cultivars and 26 fungal treatments (one uninoculated con- of each band. Within a species, each band was treated as a trol and five strains from each of the five species). An exper- single independent locus with two alleles and unresolved imental unit was a single plant. Factorial analysis of bands or missing data were scored as ambiguous. UPGMA variance was performed on the root and shoot length dry similarity indexes based on AFLP markers for shins be- mass data. Disease severity ratings were ranked before the longing to the same species were usually 70% or greater. data were subjected to analysis of variance. Student's t-least For strains in different species, these similarity indexes significantdifferences at the 5% significance level were cal- were usually 35% or less. Interspecies comparisons com- culated to compare means. pared only the number of bands that are shared and do not count the joint absence of a band seen in another strain or Research Findings species as a shared character. Vegetative growth rates. Growth rates for all three taxa Secondary metabolite production. Fumonisin B,, B2, (Table 1) were similar at both 25" and 30°C, ranging from a and B3 contents of cultures grown on cracked maize were mean of 25 mrn in 72 hr at either 25" or 30" C for F. determined by reversed-phase HPLC monitored by fluores- nygamai, to 32 rnm in 72 hr at 30°C for Fspl. Pigmentation cence detection of methano1:water (3: 1) extracts. was purple for Fspl and either white, peach or purple for F. Moniliformin levels were initially determined by reversed nygamai and Fsp2. The similarity of these characters and of phase HPLC with UV detection at 229 nrn. Strains that pro- the morphology of the spores produced are probably why duced little or no moniliformin in this assay were these groups have not been previously identified as separate re-examined using a more sensitive method in which ex- species. tracts were separated by paired ion chromatography in which the column eluent from C 18 and neutral alumina col- Mating type and sexual cross-fertility. We identified the umns was monitored at wavelengths between 200 and 350 MAT allele in all 25 strains following PCR amplification. nrn with diode array UV detection. We also identified strains in F. thapsinum and F. verticillioides in crosses with availabli standard tester Duckling toxicity protocol. All 25 strains were tested for strains. Strains of both mating types were observed in the toxicity to ducklings. The ducklings and their feeds were strain sets from all five species. ~s~land Fsp2 strains were weighed at the beginning of each experiment, and the total not cross-fertile with anv of the standard female-fertile feed intake value for each group of four ducklings was cal- strains previously described. Within each species, we culated from the amount of feed remaining at the end of the crossed the five strains in all possible pairwise combina- test. Mortality was recorded daily, and the mean day of tions, but no fertile crosses were observed. If female fertility death was calculated from the number of ducklings that died is as rare in these species as it can be in F. thapsinum on different days. Cultures were considered toxic if they (10-30%), then considerably more strains remain to be caused the death of three or four of the four ducklings in a tested before we can be certain that we have tested enough single group. A toxicity index was calculated by multiply- strains to have found female fertile strains. We were unable ing the amount of feed intake, in grams, by the mean day of to repeat a cross reported by other researchers in which death to obtain an inverse measure of toxicity for the cul- strain 401 1 was reported to be cross-fertile with one of the tures. G. nygamai tester strains; however, we also were unable to obtain a positive control cross between the two G. nygamai Sorghum pathogenicity assays. Pathogenicity tests were tester strains. No fertile crosses were observed in the crosses conducted using an agar test tube assay. Twenty-five strains with the testers for G. fujikuroi mating populations A, C-E were assayed for pathogenicity by inoculating seedlings of and G. thapsina. In crosses with testers from G. fujikuroi sorghum cultivars PAN 8560 and PAN 8472. Seed was mating population B, we found a few fertile perithecia in treated in a water bath at 55°C to eliminate seedborne fungi. some crosses with F. nygamai strain 4012, Fspl strains Disinfested seeds were germinated on 0.6% water agar. Af- 5993 and 6126, and with all of the Fsp2 strains. We think ter incubation for fourteen days, sterile germinated seeds these fertile perithecia are a result of occasional homothallic were transferred to test tubes (200 x 30 mm) containing 20 reproductionby the testers for this mating population, as has ml of solidified sterile Hoagland's no. 2 medium; one seed previously been reported. per tube. The tubes were plugged with sterile nonabsorbent cotton and incubated for ten days with a 14-hr photoperiod Vegetative compatibility. We tested five strains from at 25°C by day and 18°C by night. We rated roots for disease each species for vegetative compatibility with the other Sustainable Plant Protection Systems strains in that species. We found that all of the strains were are morphologically distinct. We used this approach to dis- in different VCGs, indicating that none of the strains that we tinguish the two new Fusarium species, here termed Fspl were working with were clones. and Fsp2, from each other and from other Fusarium species known to infect sorghum and millet. In addition to Fsp 1 and AFLPs and molecular relatedness. We have recently be- Fsp2, we also have single representatives of what appear to gun using AFLPs to estimate genetic variation within be additional new, but as yet undescribed, species. Con- Fusarium populations. By using only 3 to 4 primer pair fming that these species are globally distributed and are combinations, we can usually identify 40 to 70 polymorphic economically important remain important objectives for fu- bands. Bands that do not vary are candidates for develop- ture studies. The molecular diagnostics we are developing ment as species-specific markers. At present we have identi- should allow us to more quickly and accurately identify the fied PCR primer pairs that can be used to specifically detect species present in the stalk-rot and grain mold disease com- the A and D mating populations, and are testing these prim- plexes. ers to determine their utility in diagnostic settings. These populations are two ofthe three most common mating popu- Secondary metabolite production. Strains from all five lations known on agriculturally important crops in Kansas. species were screened for the ability to produce fumonisins Within a species, UPGMA estimates of similarity are usu- and moniliformin (Table 1). F. nygamai and F. ver- ally 70% or higher. In inter-specific comparisons, the level ticillioides were the only species to produce fumonisins. ofsimilarity rarely exceeds 30 to 35%. Thus, by comparing This f~ndingsuggests that sorghum grain is much less sus- banding patterns on a gel, it often is possible to assign a ceptible to be contaminated with these mycotoxins than is strain to a species if a known strain is included on the gel maize. Recent determinationsthat fumonisins are both can- with the unidentified strain. Similarly it is possible to group cer inducers and cancer promoters suggests that they will be unknown strains, and to distinguish groups of strains that legally regulated, at least in the United States, in the near fu-

Table 1. Growth rates, toxins produced, and toxicities of representative strains of Fusarium nygamai, F. thapsinum, F. verticillioides, and two new Fusarium species. Mvcotoxin IuglgP Duckling Growth rate (d72hr + s.d.) Strain1 FB 1 FB7 Mon Toxicity3 25" 30" Fusarium nygami 3997 3200 1600 2000 35 27+ 3.1 28 f 2.3

F. thapsinum 61 48 ND ND 296 43 600 1 4 3 698 35 6002 4 4 1198 18 6003 20 9 1742 18 6004 2 2 898 30 F. vertieillioides 826 3675 800 ND 95 1065 395 80 ND 120 4315 2948 647 ND 43 4317 121 20 ND 60 4321 1974 164 9 40 Fspl 5993 Tr ND ND 690 30f 1.5 31 + 1.5 5995 Tr ND ND 7600(2) 33 f 0.0 34 rt 2.6 6122 Tr ND ND 440 32 f 0.6 33 + 1.2 6123 Tr ND ND 590 29+ 3.2 31 f 0.6 6126 ND ND ND 420 28+ 1.7 29%1.0 FspZ 1240 Tr . Tr 2440 20 30 + 0.6 29f 1.5 1247 ND N D 270 18 27 f 0.6 26f 1.5 2203 Tr Tr 1070 170 25 f 0.6 24 f 0.0 4149 Tr Tr 4800 20 27 f 0.6 28 f 0.6 41 52 Tr Tr 1900 48 24 + 0.6 28 C 0.6 ' Strain number from the MRC strain collection. FBI = Fumonisin BL;FBz = Fumonisin Bz; Mon = Moniliformin. ' Toxicity index =number of grams of feed consumed x mean day of death. Values with a numerical supemript in parenthesis indicate the number of ducklings that die during the 14-day examination period if that number was less than four. r = trace. 'ND 'ND = not detected Sustainable Plant Protection Systems ture. It also suggests that consumers of a diet high in sor- significantly less pathogenic to sorghum than F. thapsinum, ghum would be less likely to have problems with with respect to all of these parameters as well as root dry esophageal cancer, -such as those associated with a high mass. maize diet in the Transkei. Seven of the eight known mating populations in the G. Moniliformin also was produced by three of the five spe- fijikuroi species complex have been associated with sor- cies, with F. verticillioides and Fsp 1producing little or none ghum, although the F mating population (F. thapsinum) is of this toxin. Moniliformin levels were especially high in usually reported to be dominant. Thus far, Fspl has not been strains of F. thapsinum and Fsp2. Moniliformin is known to widely recovered (Colorado, Nigeria, Ethiopia and South be toxic to poultry, and sorghum grain with high levels of Africa) in large numbers (only 40 isolates confmed), how- this toxin could be detrimental ifused in poultry production. ever, this shortage is probably due to a lack of an easily iden- tified morphological character rather than to its limited Fusarium nygamai is the only species to synthesize both presence. The possibility is quite good that some of the of these toxins. F. thapsinum and Fsp2 synthesize only "sterile" isolates recovered from sorghum andmillet in Tan- moniliformin and F. verticillioides synthesizes only zania, Nigeria, Lesotho, Egypt, Zimbabwe and the United fumonisins. Fspl synthesizes neither of these toxins. From States that were not cross-fertile with the testers from the these data it is clear that neither of these toxins is essential as known mating populations could be Fspl . Fsp2 we have in a cause of sorghum pathogenicity, although they may play a even more limited numbers, but many of these isolates are contributatory role in this process. This result is different from millet, and it is possible that this species is more im- from that in some other Fusarium species where mycotoxic portant in millet than it is in sorghum. compounds are known to be directly correlated with patho- genicity. The lack of production of fiunonisins by both F. In conclusion, we have identified additional species of thapsinum and Fspl means that what appear to be the two Fusarium from sorghum in both the United States and Af- most common Fusarium species on sorghum are unable to rica. Up to a few years ago all of these species would have produce this toxin. The case for moniliformin is not as clear, been identified as Fusarium monilijorme and no attempt to and more information on the relative frequency of F. differentiate them would have been made. Yet, as our stud- thapsinum and Fspl is needed to be able to evaluate the risk ies show, these species differ widely in their toxigenicity that this toxin could pose. In addition, recent work with a and pathogenicity profiles. Identifying the relative roles of number of closely related Fusarium species has suggested these species in the stalk rot and grain mold complexes re- that these fungi are capable of synthesizing significant mains a critical need, and the possibility of obtaining data quantities of a much larger spectrum of secondary metabo- that can be relatively easily interpreted is now greatly in- lites. Identification and evaluation of the potential hazards creased. posed by these compounds remain important objectives for future research on the utilization of sorghum and millet as Networking Activities both human foods and animal feeds. Editorial and Committee Service (1999) Duckling toxicity. All of the species examined were toxic to ducklings (Table I), when the ducklings were fed grain Editor of Applied and Environmental Microbiology contaminated with these fungi. Fspl was significantly less toxic than were the other four species. Although this species Member of the International Society for Plant Pathology, makes neither fumonisins nor moniliformin, it is not clear Fusarium Committee that the absence of these compoundsalone is responsible for the lack of toxigenicity observed. The other four species Research Investigator Exchange were difficult to distinguish on the basis of duckling toxigenicity, suggestingthat other compounds in addition to Dr. Leslie made the following scientific exchange visits fumonisins and monilifonnin are involved in the duckling in 1999: toxigenicity observed. This result is similar to one observed earlier when a larger group of strains of F. verticillioides Egypt - May 4-18 and F. thapsinum were compared for toxin production and South Korea - August 24 - 3 1 duckling toxicity. India - September 28 - October 5 Malaysia - October 6-9 Sorghum pathogenicity assays. Five representative Australia - October 9-26 strains of each of the five Fusarium taxa were all pathogenic Israel - November 5- 10 to sorghum seedlings, as indicated by disease severity rank Egypt - November 10-18 means that were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than the The Netherlands - November 19-2 1 uninoculated control (Table 2). Fsp 1 was significantly more South Africa - November 28 - December 15 pathogenic to the seedlings than were F. verticillioides, F. nygamai, and Fsp2 with respect to disease severity, root length, shoot length, and root dry mass. However, Fspl was Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Table 2. Disease severity, root and shoot length and dry mass of sorghum seedlings inoculated with Fusarium nygamai, F. thapsinum, F. verticillioides (=F. moniliforme), or two new species of Fusarium. Disease Shoot Root Isolate1 sever it^^.^ Dry mass (mmy Length (mm)3 I Dry mass (mmy Length (mm)3 F. nygamai 3997 170 defg 55 abcdef 290 ab 18 abcde 1 10 cdefg 3998 260 cd 52 cdef 260 de 16 bcdef 98 g 4010 200 defg 61 a 290 ab 20 a 120 abcde 401 1 100 gh 52 bcdef 280 bc 18 abcde 120 abcde 4012 130 fgh 54 abcde 280 bc 17 abcdef 100 fg Mean 170 B 55 BC F. thapsinum 6001 440 a 39h 210gh 14 fgh 66 i 6002 430 a 43 gh 220 gh 16 defg 66 i 6003 450 a 40h 190i 13 gh 68 hi 6004 440 a 39 h 190 i 13 gh 66 i 6148 460 a 39h 210 hi 12 h 67 hi Mean 440 E 40 E 210 D 13 B 67 D F. verticilIioides 826 150 efg 59 ab 300 a 18 abcde 120 ab 1065 240 cde 50 defg 280 bc 15 efg 100 efg 4315 210 def 59 abc 290 ab 19ab 120 abcde 4317 260 cd 57 abcde 290 ab 18 abcde 110 defg 432 1 210 def 56 abcde 290 ab 18 abcde 1 10 bcdef Mean 210 C 56 B 290 A 18A llOB Fspl 5993 380 ab 46 fgh 250 ef 17 bcdef 66 i 5995 330 bc 52 bcdef 270 cd 18 abcd 80 h 6122 380 ab 43 gh 240 f 18 abcde 76 hi 6123 460 a 43 gh 230 fg 16 cdefg 71 hi 6126 310 bc 50 efg 260 de 19 abc 76 hi Mean 370 D 47 D- 250 C 17 A 74C Fsp2 1240 IlOgh 51 def 280 bc 17 abcde 120 ab 1247 210 def 51 def 280 bcd 16 bcdef 100 fg 2203 140 fg 57 abcd 290 ab 19 abc 130a 4149 160 defg 50 efg 280 bcd 16 bcdef I10 defg 4152 190 defg 51 def 280 bc 16 cdefg I00 fg Mean 160 B 52 C 280 B 17A llOB

Conhol 43 h A 61 a A ------____ 290 ab A 1 17 abcde A 120 abc A ' MRC isolate number. Rankmean. ' Values within a colunln followed by the same letter are not significantly different @ = 0.05). Lower-case letters are used to compare individual isolates. Upper-case letters are used to compare means of species.

Seminar, Workshop and Invited Meeting Presentations Plant Pathology Research Institute, Agricultural Re- search Center, Giza, Egypt - 11/99 Plant Pathology Research Institute, Agricultural Re- search Center, Giza, Egypt - 5/99. Egyptian National Agricultural Library, Dokki, Egypt - 11/99. Symposium on "Biology of Fungal Secondary Metabo- lites", Seoul National University, Su-won, South Korea - Department of Genetics, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 8/99. South Africa - 12/99.

ICRISAT Asia Center, Hyderabad, India - 9/99. PROMEC, Medical Research Council, Tygerberg, South Africa - 12/99. School of Biology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia - 10199 During 1999 Standard Fusarium Cultures were Provided To: Department of Crop Protection, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia - 10199. Dr. Angela Schilling, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany. University of Tel Aviv, Tel Aviv, Israel - 1 1/99. Drs. Charles Bacon and Ida Yates, USDA Russell Re- search Center, Athens, Georgia. Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Drs. Robert L. Bowden, Lany E. Claflin & Douglas J. Drs. M. Wingfield and B. Wingfield, Forestry & Agri- Jardine, Department of Plant Pathology,Kansas State Uni- cultural Biotechnology Institute, University of Pretoria, versity, Manhattan, Kansas. Pretoria, South Africa.

Dr. Lester W. Burgess, University of Sydney, Sydney, Dr. Hanna Wolffhechel, Danish Government Institute of New South Wales, Australia. Seed Pathology for Developing Countries, Copenhagen, Denmark. Drs. Anne E. Desjardines and Ronald D. Plattner, Mycotoxin Research Unit, National Center for Agricultural Other Collaborating Scientists Utilization Research, USDAIARS, Peoria, Illinois. Dr. Sofia Chulze, Department ofMicrobiology, National Dr. S. Chulze, Universidad Nacional de Rio Cuarto, Rio University of Rio Cuarto, Rio Cuarto, Argentina. Cuarto, Argentina. Dr. Lester Burgess, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Dr. Elhamy M. El-Assiuty, Plant Pathology Research In- Sydney, Sydney, Australia stitute, Agricultural Research Center, Giza, Egypt. Drs. M. Flieger & S. Pazoutova, Institute of Microbiol- Fungal Genetics Stock Center, University of Kansas ogy, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas. Drs. Antonio Logrieco & Antonio Moretti, Istituto Dr. Bettina Tudzynski, Westfaelische Wilhelms Univer- Tossine e Micotossine da Parassiti Vegetali, CNR, Bari, It- sity, Muenster, Germany. aly

Dr. L. Hornok, Agricultural Biotechnology Center, Insti- Dr. Baharuddin Salleh, School of Biological Sciences, tute for Plant Sciences, Godollo, Hungary. Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia

Dr. Yin-Won Lee, Department of Plant Pathology, Seoul Dr. Sandra Lamprecht, Plant Protection Institute, Agri- National University, Su-Won, South Korea. cultural Research Council, Stellenbosch, South Afiica

Dr. Arnir Sharon, Department ofplant Sciences, Univer- Drs. Michael andBrenda Wingfield, FABI, University of sity of Tel Aviv, Tel Aviv, Israel. Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Drs. A. Logrieco & A. Moretti, Istituto Tossine e Dr. Yin-Won Lee, Department of Plant Pathology, Seoul Micotossine da Parassiti Vegetali, Bari, Italy. National University, Su-Won, South Korea

Dr. W. F. 0. Marasas, PROMEC, South African Medical Dr. Anaclet S. B. Mansuetus, Department of Biological Research Council, Tygerberg, South Africa. Sciences, University of Swaziland, Kwaluseni, Swaziland

Dr. H. I. Nirenberg, Biologische Bundesantsalt fiir Land- Dr. Maya Piiieiro, Mycotoxins Unit, Laboratorio und Forstwirtschaft, Berlin, Germany. Tecnologia del Uruguay, Montevideo, Uruguay

Dr. R. C. Ploetz, Tropical Research & Education Center, Drs. Charles W. Baconand IdaYates, USDA Russell Re- University of Florida, Homestead, Florida. search Center, Athens, Georgia

Dr. J. S. Smith, Department of Animal Sciences & Indus- Dr. K. K. Klein, Department of Biological Sciences, try, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas. Mankato State University, Mankato, Minnesota

Dr. Dan Ebbole, Department of Plant Pathology & Mi- Drs. A. E. Desjardins & R. D. Plattner, USDA National crobiology, Texas A & M University, College Station, Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Peoria, Illi- Texas. nois

Dr. C. Waalwijk, DL0 Institute for Plant Protection, Dr. G. Odvody, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Corpus Christi, Texas

Dr. Evelyn Muller, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Gennany. Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Publications and Presentations Kerknyi,Z.,J. F. Leslieand L. Hornok. 1998. A PCR-based method for the detection of El-Assiuty, E. M., A. M. Ismael, K. A. Zcller and J. F. Leslie. 1999. Relative colonization ability of greenhouse-grown maize Journal Articles by four lineages of Cephalosporiummaydis. Phytopathology 89: s23. Jurgenson, J. E., K.A. Zeller and J. F. Leslie. 1999. A genetic map using Bowden, R. L, and J.F. Leslie. 1999. Sexual recombination in Gibberella AFLP markers of Fusarium monil~orme(Gibberellafujikuro~]. Fungal zeae (Fusariumgraminenrum). Phytopathology 89: 182-188. Genetics Newsletter 46 (Supplement):106. Britz, H., T.A. Coutinho, M.J. Wingfield, W.F.O. Marasas, T. R Gordon Ploetz, R. C., J. L. Haynes, A. Vazquez, J. F. Leslie and A. El-Sattar. 1999. and J. F. kslie. 1999. Fusarium subglutinans f. sp. pini represents a A preliminary study on the causal agent of mango malformation in distinct mating populationin the Gibberella fiikuroi species complex. Egypt. Phytopathology 89: s60. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 65: 1 198-1201. Steenkamp, E. T., B. D. Wingfield,T. A. Coutinho, M. J. Wingfield, W. F. Jardine, D. J. and J.F. Leslie. 1999.Aggressiveness to mature maize plants 0. Marasas and J. F. Leslie. 1999. PCR-based differentiationofMAT-l of Fusarium strains differing in the ability to produce fumonisin. Plant and MAT-2 from Gibberellafujikuroi. Phytopathology 89: s75. Disease 83: 690-693. Zeller, K. A., J. E. Jurgenson and J. F. Leslie. 1999. Mapping vegetative in- Kerhvi, Z.,K. Zeller, L. Hornokand J. F. Leslie. 1999. Standardizationof compatibility (vic) loci in Gibberella fujikuroi (Fusarium mating-type terminology in the Gibberellaf'tikuroi species complex. monilqorme). Fungal Genetics Newsletter 46 (Supplement): 94. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 65: 4071-4076. Zeller, K. A., J. E. Jurgenson and J. F. Leslie. 1999. AFLP markers reveal ~eslie;~.F. 1999. Genetic status of the Gibberellafujikuroi species com- genetic variation in Egyptian populations of Cephalosporium maydis. plex. The Plant Pathology Journal 15: 259-269. Fungal Genetics Newsletter 46(Supplement): 94. Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Agroecology and Biotechnology of Fungal Pathogens of Sorghum and Millet Project KSU-210B Larry E. Claflin Kansas State University

Principal Investigator

Dr. Larry E. Claflin, Department of Plant Pathology, Throckrnorton Plant Sciences Center, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506

Collaborating Scientists

Mr. Henry Nzioki, National Dryland Farming Research Center-Katumani, P. 0. Box 340, Machakos, Kenya Dr. Mitch Tuinstra, Department of Agronomy, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506 Dr. John Leslie, Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506 Dr. Gary Peterson, Texas A&M Research and Extension Center, RR 3, Box 2 19, Lubbock, TX 7940 1 Dr. G. A. Odvody, Texas A&M Research and Extension Center, Route 2, Box 589, Corpus Christi, TX 78406 Dr. Stephen Mason, Department of Agronomy, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583- 0915 Ing. Sergio Pichardo, Universidad Nacional Agraria, Apartado Postal 453, Managua, Nicaragua Ing. Reina Guzman, CENTA, Apartado Postal 885, San Andres, La Libertad, El Salvador

Summary

Ergot (Claviceps africana) was first detected in the In the USA, determine the overseasoning survival of Western Hemisphere in 1995 (Brazil) although reported macro- and microconidia of C. africana in infected from Africa and Asia since the early 1900s. Ergot was de- sorghum panicles. tected in Central and North America in 1997. Prevailing southerly winds and hurricanes are assumed to be the princi- In the USA, Kenya, and Egypt, continue to screen for pal means of disseminating ergot spores from southern to genetic variability of sorghum germplasm to covered northern sorghum production areas. Kramer-Collins fungal kernel smut and ergot diseases. spore traps were used as a means of monitoring windblown ergot microconidia and macroconida. During the growing In the USA, Mexico, El Salvador, and Nicaragua, seasons of 1999 and 2000, spore traps were placed at screen various genera of plants, including Sorghum Crosbyton and Corpus Christi, TX; Lahorna, OK; Garden sp., Andropogon, Cenchus, etc., to ascertain potential City, Hays, Hesston, and Manhattan, KS; and Clay Center, alternate hosts of Claviceps africana. Evaluate the NE. Traps were monitored on a weekly basis. Recovery of sorghum growth modeling program, SORKAM, in spores correlated to ergot disease of sorghum that occurred conjunction with the National Weather Bureau as a in Manhattan, KS. Otherwise, recovery of spores was only means ofpredicting ergot incidence and severity. This significant in Corpus Christi with no or very limited recov- program would more closely approximate sorghum ery from other stations. Hybrid sorghum seed companies cultural practices and climatic conditions in the used the recovery data to formulate control procedures. Americas. Elimination of chemicals and cost of application in Kansas that was not warranted for control of ergot was estimated at In the USA, Kenya, and Mali, develop an effective five million dollars. screening protocol to ascertain genetic variability of various sorghum accessions to Ramulispora sorghi, Objectives, Production and Utilization Constraints causal agent of sooty stripe disease.

Objectives * In the USA, Mali, and Kenya determine the causal agents of pokkah boeng disease of sorghum and mil- In the USA, Mexico, El Salvador, and Nicaragua, de- let. termine the survivability of macro- and rnicroconidia of Claviceps apicana, causal agent of ergot disease of Constraints sorghum on various surfaces. Ergot was only a problem in grain sorghum in Africa and Asia prior to 1996, when the disease was first detected in Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Brazil and Argentina. In 1997, the disease spread to Colom- Sampling bia, Honduras, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Mexico, numerous islands in the Caribbean, and in the USA (Kansas, Ne- Disks were removed at monthly intervals from the stor- braska, and Texas). This poses profound implications for age facility and placed in 6-well tissue culture flat bottom the sorghum industry in North America. Losses due to ergot plastic plates. Four ml of PBS was added to each well. Plates may be attributable to actual reduction in grain yields, loss were then placed on a Thermolyne rotatorlshaker at a setting of export markets of seed and feed grains to those countries of 150 rpm for 45 to 60 minutes. Plates were removed and where ergot has not been reported, and loss of germplasm 250 pl from each well was added to a hemocytometer. and or hybrid seed increases in winter nurseries where ergot Counts were determined primarily with the 10X objective, was detected and quarantine regulations prohibit return of however the 40X objective was used to determine the grain into the USA. Grain sorghum is used as a human microconidia. At least 10 fields were counted in the food in numerous countries and may be the only food staple hemocytometer. available in those areas where drought is a common occur- rence and ergot contamination of such grain could result in Modeling System extensive hunger. It is unknown if the macro-, microconidia or sclerotia will survive between sorghum cropping seasons Spore traps known as the Kramer-Collins trap were uti- in temperate areas. lized in an attempt to detect wind movement of ergot spores from southern sorghum growing locations to the northern Covered kernel smut is one of the more important dis- latitudes. The trap consisted of a vacuum pump, timer, and a eases of grain sorghum in LDCs, The disease is easily con- rotating drum with a double sided adhesive tape where trolled by chemical seed treatments, but these chemicals spores are fixed. The timer is on a seven day cycle. A quan- may not be available or the cost may be prohibitive for pur- tity of air is forced through the container and particulate ma- chase by farmers. Incorporation of resistant or immune terials including pollen and fungi are trapped in the adhesive germplasm into acceptable cultivars would partially allevi- tape. Drums are sent to the laboratory by cooperators from ate concerns about covered kernel smut. the various locations at weekly intervals. During the grow- ing seasons of 1999 and 2000, spore traps were placed at Sooty stripe is a major disease of sorghum in those areas Crosbyton and Corpus Christi, TX; Lahoma, OK; Garden where the crop is primarily grown under limited or no-till City, Hays, Hesston, and Manhattan, KS; and Clay Center, cultural practices. Sooty stripe is also important in other NE. Detection of ergot spores from the drums were reported countries such as Mali where yield reductions are common. to the stations where the information was gathered. Various private seed companies utilized the data to determine if con- Research Approach and Project Output trols were necessary. In addition, the data will be incorpo- rated in development of a modeling system for predicting Ergot the incidence of ergot. In addition, the data will be incorpo- rated in a model known as "SORKAM" that is based on Overseason ing Survival growth and development of sorghum plants.

Durability of ergot conidia were determined by evaluat- Sooty Stripe ing longevity of spores under natural field conditions. The survival rate was determined on the surface of various mate- The causal agent, Ramulispora sorghi, has been difficult rials such as cotton to imitate clothing, leather to mimic to increase in culture due to finite growth conditions. Previ- shoes, and metal and rubber to simulate machinery used in ously in this project, we were able to ascertain growth media producing grain sorghum. Monel metal disks were cleaned and temperature requirements to increase inoculum for a with several changes of acetone, washed in several changes screening protocol. Conditions that enhance disease inci- of sterile distilled water, and dried. A portion of the disks dence and severity remain unknown. A misting system to were painted yellow, green and red to determine if pigments increase relative humidity was installed. The misting sys- in paint used in painting agricultural implements were toxic tem is controlled by leaf moisture sensors that are connected to ergot conidia. Other disks were from rubber, tarpaulin, to a controller regulated by a computer software program. It paper from corn seed bags, and leather. Panicles exhibiting is believed that relative humidity is an important component honeydew symptoms were collected and stored at room for disease development. In addition, a dew chamber was temperature. Individual ergot-infected florets were re- purchased to determine the optimum epidemiological pa- moved and placed in a beaker containing a solution of 10 rameters for optimum disease severity under growth cham- mM phosphate buffered saline (PBS). The final concentra- ber conditions. tion consisted of 6.6 x 1O7 cellslml of microconidia and 1.1 x lo7 cellslml of macroconidia. Disks were infested by plac- Pokkah boeng ing 250~1of the suspension on each disk and then dried overnight in a laminar flow hood. Disks were placed in per- Maize and sorghum samples with suspect pokkah boeng forated paper bags for storage in an unheated building. symptoms were collected from the USA, Costa Rica, and Kenya. Leaf and/or stalk tissues were washed with water Sustainable Plant Protection Systems and the surface sterilized by immersion in 10% NaOCl for x lo7 and 1.9 x lo7 conididml for L1, L3 and L5, respec- four minutes, rinsed three times in sterile distilled water, tively. Suspensions were also serially diluted (lo-fold) to placed on Nash-Snyder medlurn, and incubated at 28°C for concentrations of 1.0 x 10' through 1.0 x 1o6 (conidialml). one week. Fusarium isolates from each colony were sin- Plants were at the 6 to 7 leaf stage for the second and at the 7 gle-spored with a micro manipulator. Morphological char- to 8 leaf stage of growth for the third experiment. Four acteristics were determined from strains grown on carnation plants per pot were inoculated; inoculum was 2.8 x lo7, 1.8 leaf, KC1 agar, and fresh potato dextrose agar. All isolates of x lo7, and 1.8 x lo7 conididml for L1, L3 and L5, respec- F. proliferatum, F. subglutinans, and F. moniliforme were tively. A replication consisted offour pots with 4 to 5 plants identified to mating populations using the procedures de- per pot. After 22 days, plants were recorded for PB inci- scribed by Klittich and Leslie. Crosses were made on carrot dence. agar and all strains (males) were crossed with the standard mating type testers (females) (Courtesy of J. F. Leslie, Kan- Recovely of Strains from Inoculated Plants sas State University). Samples (ca. 2 mm2) from each inoculated plant were Greenhouse Experiments taken from roots, symptomless leaves, twisted whorls with ladder-like symptoms, leaf and sheath tissue with fleck Fusarium Strains and Germplasm Accessions symptoms, epidermal tissue with lesions, cortex and vascu- lar tissues with or without visible lesions. Samples were Three strains were selected for greenhouse experiments. processed and fungi identified as described previously. One L 1 was a strain of F. subglutinans (mating group E) isolated fungal colony from each sample was transferred to media from sorghum; L3 was F. proliferatum (mating group D) for generation of nit mutants. The basic protocols were from maize; and L5 was F. moniliforme (mating group A) those used by Correll except the medium contained 3% from sorghum. Preliminary experiments failed to show KC103. Each nit mutant was paired with the nit 1 and nit M specificity between the strains and their maize and sorghum from the tester strains on 24-well hybridoma plates. Mutants hosts. Eight sorghum inbreds (courtesy of D. T. Rosenow, that complemented with at least one of the two testers were Texas A & M University, Lubbock), two maize inbred lines designated as belonging to the same VCG. and two maize hybrids were disinfected by soaking in dis- tilled water at room temperature for 4 hour followed by a hot Field Experiments water (56-58°C) dip for eight minutes. Seeds were germi- nated by incubation on filter paper in petri plates at 28°C for Field experiments on maize and sorghum were con- two days. These were transplanted to plastic pots (5 ducted over a two-year period at the Rocky Ford Farm near plantslpot) containing steamed potting soil and then placed Manhattan. Seeds of eight sorghum and maize accessions ongreenhouse benches. Temperatures were 26°C (day) and were disinfected as previously described and hand-planted 20°C (night) with 12-hour periods. in single row plots. Three strains (L 1, L3 and L5) were used as inocula. Spore suspensions were adjusted to concentra- Inoculation tions of 1.0 x lo2, 1.0 x 10, and 1.0 x lo6 (conidiaJrn1) ex- cept the latter suspension was omitted the second year. Preliminary experiments revealed that inoculum applied Plants were inoculated by placing one ml of the suspension as a seed dressing, misting spore suspensions on seedlings into whorls at the 8 to 10 leaf stage of growth. Pokkah boeng or inoculated with infested toothpicks failed to induce symptoms were recorded four to five weeks after inocula- pokkah boeng symptoms. Consequently, to reliably repro- tion. duce symptoms, spore suspensions were placed into the plant whorl. Inoculurn was prepared from L 1, L3, and L5 Covered Kernel Smut strains grown on PDA for five days. Conidia were removed from the colonies by washing with sterilized 0.25% Tween Seeds of true breeding varieties and crosses used in this 20 solution. Ten-fold dilutions were made in 10 mM PO, study were supplied by Dr. P. J. Bramel-Cox and Dr. D. T. buffer (pH 7.2). Conidia were counted with a Rosenow (Texas A & M University, Lubbock). Immune ac- hemocytometer and verified by plating a sample from each cessions used were B35-6(IS 12555 Derivative), SC414 (IS strain on NS medium. Plates were incubated at 28°C over- 2508 Derivative), and Sureiio ((SC423 x CS 3541) x E night and colonies were then counted. Plants were inocu- 35-1). In all crosses, the susceptible parent was BTx623 lated by placing one rnl of a conidial suspension (150 p1) (BTx 3197 x SC170-6). Crosses were made between resis- into the plant whorl with a pipette. tant and susceptible accessions to determine the dominance or susceptibility and between resistant accessions to deter- Conidial Concentration mine if they possess the same genes. Crosses between resis- tant varieties were SC414 x Sureiio, SC414 x B35-6, and Three experiments were conducted under greenhouse Sureiio x B35-6. Crosses between resistant and susceptible conditions over a two-year period. For the first experiment, varieties consisted of B35-6 x BTx623, SC4 14 x BTx623, plants were at the 4 to 5 leaf stage ofgrowth; three plants per and Sureiio x BTx623. pot were inoculated and inoculurn consisted of 1.4 x lo7, 1.0 Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Greenhouse ment Farm of Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS. Smutted heads were threshed by hand in plastic bags. The Fl seed was increased to produce the F2 generation. To smut mass was sieved through 100 and 400 mesh screens to produce the F3 generation of crosses between resistant and eliminate debris. Teliospores were stored at 4 C prior to use. susceptible varieties, F2 seed was grown under greenhouse conditions in 1995. Shortly after the panicles of the F2plants Seeds Infested with Teliospores emerged and before anthesis they were covered with polli- nating bags to prevent outcrossing. The F3 seed was har- Dry teliospores (0.6% w/w) were added to F3 seeds in a vested in May, 1995 and stored in paper bags until sown in paper envelope. The envelope was thoroughly shaken to en- the field (June). sure uniform distribution of spores on the seedcoat. Infested seeds were sown under field conditions within 2 hr of treat- Eight seeds of each line were planted in pots (28 x 46 cm) ment. containing a sterile soil mix consisting of Baccto potting soil-sand-perlite (2:1: 1). To study inheritance of resistance Partial Vacuum (segregation) in the F2 generation, F2 seed of all crosses were grown in pots in the greenhouse during the winter of F1and F2 seeds were mixed with teliospores (0.2% w/w), 1995. The F2 seed of the crosses between resistant and sus- and a sufficient amount of water was added to wet the seed. ceptible varieties were divided into two equal portions and The mixture was then placed under partial vacuum (18,22) planted in different greenhouses ( 1 and 2). Potted plants in (180-200 mmHg) for 1 hr, and the vacuum was released at greenhouse 1 were placed on the cement floor and those in 15 min intervals. Seeds were dried at room temperature, and greenhouse 2 were placed on benches. Both greenhouses the procedure was repeated the following day. After the sec- were maintained at 27OC day, 21°C night, with a 12 hr ond application had dried, teliospores (0.2% by weight) photoperiod. Plants were thinned at the 3 to 4 leaf stage of were added to the FI and F2 seeds in a paper envelope, growth and number of plants per pot varied from 3 to 5 de- shaken vigorously and planted in the greenhouse within 2 pending on the size of the container. hr.

Field Experiments Research Findings

F3 lines were machine planted in 3 meter rows spaced 76 Ergot cm apart at the Rocky Ford Experimental Farm, Manhattan, KS, in June 1995. Amrnoniumnitrate fertilizer (34:O:O) was Recovery of C. africana macroconidia was over 95% applied pre-plant at 94.2 kg ha-'. Weeds were controlled by from surface materials infested with honeydew over the applying ramrodtatrazine {Propachlor,(2-chloro-N-isopro- six-month sampling period. Less than 1% recovery of pylacetanilide, 48%); Atrazine, [2-chloro-4-(ethy1amino)- macroconidia of the diluted honeydew suspension was ob- 6-jisopropylamino-s-tirazine,15.5961 } preemergence at tained. Over 90% of the macroconidia were recovered from 12.6 L/ha followed by hand weeding as needed. B35-6 x painted metal. In general, recovery was less from the porous BTx 623 consisted of 33 F3 lines, Sureiio x BTx 623 re- surface materials such as denim and wood. Viability of sulted in 38 F3 lines and 41 F3 lines were from SC414 x macroconidia rapidly declined over the six-month sampling BTx623. period (Table 1).

Seed Sterilization Sorghum accessions S. almum (PI 204282, PI 339704), S. arundinaceum (IS 14359, PI 302232), S. drummondii (PI Seeds were immersed in a mixture of formalin and water 196890, PI 213902), S. virgatum, S. halepense and the posi- (1:300 v/v) for 1 hour. Seeds were then washed in running tive controls, S. bicolor, were found to be susceptible to C. tap water for 30 minutes, air dried for 24 hours, and stored in africana (Table 2). Neither of the two S. aethiopicum or one paper envelopes. of the S. verticiIlzjlorum (IS 4330) developed panicles, pos- sibly due to photoperiod sensitivity. Ergot symptoms were Inoculum Preparation not observed on S. arundinaceum (PI 185574), S. drummondii (IS 1413 l), and S. verticillzf2orum (IS 14357). Inoculum consisted of a mixture of S. sorghi teliospores Ergot symptoms were not observed on the millets or grass from infected panicles of sorghum cultivars collected from entries. the covered kernel smut nursery at the Rocky Ford Experi-

Table 1. Viability (%)' of Claviceps sorghi macroconidia over a two-year sampling period. ------. -- -.. ..-

Year December Januaw -. - February . _ _ March------AEL May 1997-98 51 .O 52.0 36 9.4 0.0 0.6

' Viability determined by germination of conidia on water agar Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Table 2. Genetic variability of various Sorghum sp., cause pokkah boeng symptoms below 1.0 x lo2 conidiatrnl. Millets, and Common grasses to Claviceps Fleck symptoms occurred in plants inoculated at concentra- africana. tions between 1.0~lo2 and 1.O ~105.Ladder-like symptoms

~ Species Accession number Susceptibil~tv were observed when concentrations were 1 x 105 S. aethiopicum IS 14301 NPD conidialml. Similar symptoms occurred when F. S. aethiopicum IS 14567 NPD moniliforme was used as inoculum. PB severity was highly S. nlmum PI 204282 + related with R values of 0.83 and 0.89 for inoculurn concen- S. almum PI 339704 + S nrunrlinaceum IS 14359 + trations of the three species. PB severity was more rapid S arudinaceum PI 185574 with F. subglutinans as the slope was 0.52 relative to the two S arudinaceum PI 302232 + other species (0.25 and 0.28). S. bicolor PI 408820 + S. bicolor TX 623 + Recovery of isolates. There were no visible symptoms in S. bicolor P954063 + S. bicolor SC 414-12E + control plants with a pokkah boeng score of 1.0 although F. S. hmmondil IS 14131 moniliforme was recovered from all tissues tested. F. S. hmmondii PI 196890 + proliferatum was only recovered from sheath tissue. Plants S. drumondii PI 213902 + inoculated with F. subglutinans exhibited ladder-like symp- S. halepense PI 408820 0 S. verticiNifIorum IS 14257 NPD toms with an average rating of 3.6 to 3.8. Greatest recovery S. verticilliflorum IS 14330 was from the whorl (98%) and leaf sheath (93%) tissues. S. verficiNifIorum IS 14357 Low recovery was from root (30%) and pith tissues (33%). S. virgrrlum 12-26 + Fusarium species were recovered in low numbers from Flnger Millet NE FM leaves without visible symptoms. Plants inoculated with F. Foxtail Millet NE SNO-FOX Pearl Millet NPM-I proliferatum and F. moniliforme showed various symptoms Proso Millet from fleck to ladder-like symptoms with a PBR score of 2.3 Big Bluestem, Kaw to 3 .O. Recovery was also high in the whorl (77-1 00%) and Little Bluestem, Aldo from leaves with visible fleck symptoms (75-83%). Recov- Canadian W~ldRye ery ranged from 30 to 48% in roots which is not indicative Osage Indian Grass Shattercane + that infection was the result of pathogen ingress but was Switch Grass most likely attributable through air or water movement from tissues to roots. NPD - No panicle developme~~t Field Symptoms. In the two-year field experiments, symptoms and severity were recorded for each accession of Pokkah Boeng maize and sorghum based on the pokkah boeng scale. Gen- erally, more variation occurred in field symptoms than in Recovery of Fusarium species. Recovery of Fusarium the greenhouse. In maize, basic symptoms such as the fleck, sp. isolates fiomvarious maize and sorghum samples exhib- ladder-like and top rot remained clear cut in relation to the iting PB symptoms revealed that F. monilz~orme,F. species and inoculum concentrations. More variation in proliferatum and F. subglutinans predominated as 52 % of symptoms occurred in sorghum such as the fleck reaction the maize samples and 45% bf the sorghum samples were which was not as prominent as in maize and ladder-like positive for at least one of the three species. Recovery of F. symptoms were not observed on some genotypes. Instead, subglutinans was almost negligible as only the maize sam- there were many variations of malformed symptoms such as ple from Indiana and a sorghum sample from Kansas onion leaf, whorl with partially wrapped leaves, elongated yielded more than one isolate per sample. Seventy-two per- stalks and dwarf plants. Diseased sorghum plants, in gen- cent of the maize and 74% of the sorghum samples were eral, were noticeably stunted and excessive tillering oc- positive for at least one mating population. curred. Changes in symptomology were present among maize and sorghum genotypes although symptoms for a Effect of inoculum on disease development. No signifi- particular genotype were consistent from year to year. cant differences were found between the two lines with a mean of 2.5 for LH82 and 2.4 for LH132. However, signifi- F. subglutinans was the most aggressive to both maize cant differences were noted among the three strains with a and sorghum and results were similar to greenhouse data. mean of 3.2 for F. subglutinans, 2.1 for F. moniliforme, and The effects of inoculurn concentrations on development of 2.0 for F. proliferatum. pokkah boeng were not as defined under field conditions as they were in the greenhouse experiments which indicates F. subglutinans was the most aggressive of the species that environmental effects were another important factor. that we evaluated as a causal agent of pokkah boeng. At inoculum levels of 1.0 x lo2 conidialml, fleck symptoms Recovery from diseased plants in the field. Approxi- predominated. Suspensions of 1.0 x103 and 1.0 x 1o4 re- mately one month after inoculation, samples were collected sulted in ladder-like symptoms and higher levels (>1.0 x from each accession and VCG was used to confm identity lo4) usually resulted in death. F. proliferatum failed to of the recovered strains. For the four sorghum genotypes, Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

53% ofthe 58 samples collected fromplants inoculated with Sureiio x BTx623. B35-6 is either dominant or has the same F. subglutinans (Ll) were of the same VCG. Seventy-one gene as Sureiio (B35-6 x Sureiio). Reaction of other F1 percent of 4 1 samples were positive for strain L3 and 80% progenies to covered kernel smut could not be determined of the 84 samples recovered fromplants inoculated with L5 due to limited seed stocks. were positive. The three maize accessions yielded 72% of the 97 samples as positive for L1, 79% of the 93 samples Smut reaction of R x R F2progenies. Variability existed were L3 and 63% of the 79 isolates were L5. Three percent in smut reactions among crosses of resistant (R) by resistant of the recovered isolates from control plants were contami- (R) germplasm. Fz progenies of B35-6 x Sureiio were free nated with F. moniliforme (L5). of smut and only two plants were smutted out of a total of 47 plants in the cross of SC414 x B35-6. Although unantici- Complex of symptoms. Single spore cultures of F. pated, 26 % of the F2 progenies of Sureiio x SC414 were subglutinans, F. proliferaturn and F. monilifarme used as smutted. inoculum resulted in pokkah boeng symptoms. Based on our experiments, symptoms were differentiated as follows: Smut reaction of R x S F2 progenies. Covered kernel smut incidence varied among crosses of resistant (R) and 1. No visible symptoms. susceptible (S) varieties, depending on the greenhouse in which each cross was grown. Greenhouse 1 was located on a 2. Fleck symptoms: Chlorotic spots developed on inocu- north exposure in the complex and temperature gradients lated leaves and sheath tissue. Necrotic areas gradually de- were more severe in the winter than greenhouse 2 which was veloped and resembled a "shot hole" appearance. located on the south portion of the wing. Both greenhouses contained the same heating and cooling equipment and were 3. Ladder-like: Necrotic areas enveloped the whorl and constructed the same year. Plants in greenhouse 2 matured later the leaf tissues resembled a dried onion leaf which re- earlier than those in greenhouse 1, with a maturity differ- mained attached to one ofthe lower leaves. Other whorls de- ence oftwo to four weeks, although the time of planting was veloped and usually emerged proximal to the point of identical in both greenhouses. Because of genotype by envi- attachment to the uppermost leaf and often at a 90° angle ronmental interaction, a test for independence was per- from the leaves giving the impression of ladder rungs. Be- formed. A contingency chi-square value of 0.28, p = 0.70 to low the initial sites of inoculation, extensive translucent 0.50, and 0.022, p = 0.90 to 0.70 for the crosses, SC414 x chlorotic areas with brownish streaks developed.. Pantoea BTx623, and Sureiio x BTx623, respectively, indicated no herbicola (Syn. Erwinia herbicola) was commonly isolated significant differences between greenhouses. Therefore, the from chlorotic tissue. chi-square test was calculated using the pooled data from both greenhouses. 4. Rat tail: Leaves failed to emerge from the whorl. Leaves were seemingly entangled in an adhesive matrix, Reaction of F3 lines to smut. Conditions for smut infec- which commonly resulted in tissue death. The necrotic tis- tion were not as conducive under field conditions as shown sue resembled a dried onion leaf or rat-tail 80 to 100 mm by the low incidence (2.3%) of infection in the susceptible long which remained attached to the plant. Leaf sheaths be- parent. However, all F3 lines of the crosses were more dis- low the uppermost developed leaf collar had extensive wa- eased than the susceptible parent (BTx623) with a mean ter-soaked brownish lesions. Similar lesions were also covered kernel smut incidence of 6.2 % in 38 F3 lines of observed on the stalk surface. In some cultivars, extensive Sureiio x BTx623.3.8 % in 41 F3 lines of SC414 x BTx623, tillering from the base of the plant was common. and 3.7 % in 33 F3 lines ofB35-6 x BTx623. The chi-square and probability values indicated a close fit to a 1:3 ratio for 5. Top rot: Proximal and distal to the inoculated site, ex- the F3 families of SC4 14 x BTx623 and Sureiio x BTx623, tensive necrosis occurred in the cortex and vascular tissues respectively. and the epidermal tissue assumed a brownish hue. Necrosis usually continued throughout the internodes until reaching Networking Activities the roots. Research Investigator Exchanges Covered Kernel Smut A planning session was conducted in Tegucigalpa, Hon- Smut reaction ofparents. Resistant parents remained im- duras in October 1999 for Central America. Other planning mune to S. sorghi under field and greenhouse conditions. and strategy meetings were conducted in El Salvador and Incidence (76%) of smutted heads of BTx623 grown under Nicaragua in January and June 2000. greenhouse conditions was significantly higher than those plants grown in the field (2.3%). Research Information Exchange

Reaction of Fl progenies of the crosses Sureiio x B35-6 Books, specialty supplies and equipment were provided and Sureiio x BTx623 favored dominance of resistance. to collaborating scientists in El Salvador and Nicaragua. However, dominance was obviously incomplete in the cross Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Publications and Presentations Presentations

Journal Articles X Congreso de la Asociacion Latinoamericana de Fitopathologia in Guadalajara, Mexico. Presented on September 29, 1999 and title was, "Ergot del Sorgo." Nz~ok~,H. S., L. E. Claflin and B. A. Ramundo. 2000. Evaluation ofscreen- International Agricultural Seminar, Department of Agronomy, Kansas ing protocols to determine genetic variability of gra~nsorghum State University. January 29,1999. Topic: "A sabbat~calleave south of germplasm to Sporisorium sorghi under field and greenhouse condi- the border." tions. Int. J. Pest Manag 46:91-95. USDAIARS Foreign Disease and Weed Unit, Ft. Detrick, Maryland, Feb- Frederickson, D. E., E. S. Monyo, S. B. King, G. N. Odvody, and L. E. ruary 28,2000. "Ergot disease of sorghum. Claflin. 1999. Presumptive identification of Pseudomonasyringae,the Voice of Amenca, Washington, D.C., February 29,2000. Two presenta- cause of foliar leafspots and streaks on pearl millet in Zimbabwe. J. tions; Announcement of Global 2000: Sorghum and Pearl Millet Dis- Phytopathology 147:701-706. ease Workshop in Guanajuato, Mexico and Ergot Disease of Sorghum. Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Low Input Ecologically Defined Management Strategies for Insect Pests on Sorghum Project MSU-205 Henry N. Pitre Mississippi State University

Principal Investigator

Dr. Henry N. Pitre, Entomologist/Professor, Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station, Mississippi State University, Box 9775, Mississippi State, MS 39762

Collaborating Scientists

Dr. Ron Cave, Entomologist, Plant Protection Department, Panamerican School of Agriculture (EAP), Apartado Postal 93, Tegucigalpa, Honduras Dr. Francisco Gomez, Plant Breeder, Agronomy Department, EAP, Apartado Postal 93, Tegucigalpa, Honduras Dr. Hector Sierra, Plant Breeder, Agronomy Department, EAP, Apartado Postal 93, Tegucigalpa, Honduras Dr. Allan Hruska, Entomologist, Plant Protection Department, EAP, Apartado Postal 93, Tegucigalpa, Honduras Ing. Laureano Pineda L., Plant Breeder, Instituto Nicaraguense de Technologia Agropecuaria (INTNCNIA), Apdo: 61 10, Managua, Nicaragua Dr. Henry Pedroza, Agronomist, INTAICNIA, Apdo: 61 10, Managua, Nicaragua Dr. David Parvin, Agricultural Economist, Agricultural Economics Department, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762 Dr. Richard Brown, Entomologist, Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762

Summary

In Honduras, sorghum and maize are attacked annually during the early crop growing season in this agricultural by a complex of lepidopterous caterpillars consisting princi- ecosystem, and, may possibly relate to other areas in Central pally of four species of defoliator caterpillars and one spe- America with similar insect pest constraints to production cies of stalk borers. This complex annually damages or of these grain crops in similar agricultural environments. destroys these grain crops on subsistence farms, thus, re- Sorghum production using the published pest management quiring costly replanting if resources are available. Studies system was increased 20% and maize 35% in an on-farm on aspects of the biology, ecology, behavior and population study. In years when grain yields and market prices are high, dynamics of the three armyworm species in this complex the recommended practices could return several million have been identified and the role of each species in crop pro- dollars a year to the production area in southern Honduras, duction systems in southern Honduras has been determined. and possibly similar returns in other areas experiencing A system was developed for integrated management of this identical insect problems in Central America. Increased lepidopterous pest complex and soil inhabiting insect pests yields of both crops would improve diets and nutritional and has been published for distribution by extension and level of farm families. EAP personnel in Honduras. Recommended practices in- clude two low cost, but labor intensive cultural practices Investigations in Nicaragua concentrated on the princi- which include delayed planting and weed control after crop pal insect pest constraint to sorghum production on large emergence. Improved sorghum cultivars and early maturing commercial farms on the coastal plains. Sorghum midge maize are recommended and a single insecticide application distribution, occurrence, host plants, aspects of population may be required. Seed treatment with insecticide provides dynamics, and response to planting date, insecticides, and some protection to seedlings. Natural enemy parasitoids variety-insecticide interactions were studied. These studies and weed management practices do not appear to signifi- provide a base for developing effective, practical and eco- cantly influence infestations and crop damage by the defoli- nomical sorghum midge management systems for this re- ators. This information indicated the limited role that gion. A brochure on sorghum midge biology, and cultural naturally occurring biological control agents play in devel- and chemical control has been developed for distribution oping integrated pest management strategies for this into farm communities. lepidopterous caterpillar complex on sorghum and maize Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Objectives, Production and Utilization Constraints the sorghum harvested in southern Honduras is destined for human consumption. Objectives A lepidopterous pest complex, referred to by the local Determine ecological and biological relationships farmers as the langosta, is the principal threat to sor- among the lepidopterous pests limiting sorghum and ghum-maize intercrops during the early period of crop de- maize production, and their association with crop and velopment. Biological and ecological studies have been noncrop vegetation in Honduras. conducted with the armyworm species in this complex, namely Spodoptera frugiperda (fall armyworm), S. Study feeding preferences and performances (devel- latifascia (black armyworm), and Metaponpneumata opmental rates) of selected lepidopterous defoliators rogenhoferi,in determining the role of each species in caus- to assist in defining the population dynamics of indi- ing damage to the intercropped sorghum and maize in Hon- vidual insect species in this complex. duras. Noncrop plant habitats have been identified and crop mortality factors have been partitioned in limited studies in Investigate the role of noncrop vegetation and weed the intercropped sorghum and maize systems in this region management practices, and natural enemy parasitoid of Honduras, with insects accounting for 65% of the crop populations in the dynamics of the lepidopterous de- damage. foliators on sorghum and maize in Honduras. During the past ten years, research emphasis was princi- Conduct extensive survey of subsistence farmers in pally on S. frugiperda, S. latifascia, and M. rogenhoferi. Honduras to determine sorghum and maize produc- Their roles as economic pests in the various intercropped tion practices for utilization of information in devel- systems in southern Honduras have been determined. Dur- oping acceptable insect pest management practices. ing the past three to four years, particular attention has been give to M. rogenhoferi, since this species has been given lit- Investigate aspects of sorghum midge occurrence and tle research attention in the past and the literature is rela- tively void of information. The relationships of this little population dynamics on sorghum in Nicaragua. researched species with noncrop vegetation and crop plants in sorghum-maize production environments was investi- Determine insecticide efficacy, and effects of vari- gated. Studies were concluded on the morphology and iden- ety-insecticide relationships and planting date strate- tifying characteristics ofthis species (a taxonomic paper has gies on sorghum midge infestations on sorghum and been accepted for publication), influence of host plants on crop damage in Nicaragua. larval developmental time and adult survivorship, and influ- ence of weed control programs on pests and their parasitoid Evaluate insecticides for control of sorghum midge populations. The pest population levels and dynamics of in- and improved management programs in Mississippi. festations on the crops during the growing season for this species, and others in the lepidopterous complex, assists in Publish collaborative research in scientific journals, developing total insect pest management strategies for the as well as in popular papers and extension articles for insects in intercropped sorghum and maize in specific distribution in farm communities in Central America. agroecosysterns. Aspects of this research are transferable to other areas in Central America. Continue graduate student training, attend scientific meetings, and travel to collaborative host countries to The international significance of Spodoptera species, as plan and conduct collaborative entomological and well as M. rogenhoferi, particularly in relation to migration, other pest management research investigations. pest control, and insecticide resistance, has impact on sor- ghum production for various regions in the Latin American Constraints Ecogeographic zone, as well as potential impact on crop production in the United States (this is particularly signifi- Honduras cant for the fall armyworm, an insect that migrates through- out the Americas). Ninety percent of the sorghum acreage in southern Hon- duras is intercropped with maize because of adverse envi- Alternative insect pest management practices (limiting ronmental and agronomic conditions. In this area, tall, insecticide use) which are practical for use by the subsis- photoperiod sensitive, low yielding sorghum, called tence farmer have been evaluated in MSU-205. Investiga- "maicillo criollo" are intercropped with maize. If the maize tions have been completed elucidating specific aspects of crop is lost to drought, farmers substitute sorghum for maize lepidopterous caterpillar complex pest management tactics to feed their animals and family. Thus, sorghum is an insur- that were identified as practical for control of these insects ance crop during dry years when the maize crop fails, which that limit crop production. The sorghum breeding program occurs in about three of every five years. More than 40% of with EAP was designed to develop improved maicillo criollo varieties and photoperiod sensitive hybrids. Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

MSU-205 has been active in this program, and has assisted cial for developing effective insect pest management prac- in the identification of antibiosis resistance (harmful effects tices for specific insect pests in the United States. Thus, on insect biology) in the native land race cultivars, and re- MSU-205 project has emphasized research on defoliator search has elucidated the antibiosis mechanisms of resis- pests (fall armyworm) and panicle pests (fall armyworm, tance. sorghum webworm, corn eanvorm, and sorghum midge).

Research in MSU-205 has identified insect pest manage- Research Approach and Project Output ment tactics that are practical for use by low income subsis- tence farmers. A system of sustainable and economically Activities in Honduras feasible crop production practices has been developed for use by farmers who lack economic resources to purchase Weed Management. Influence on insect pest and natural off-farm inputs such as herbicides, fertilizers, and insecti- enemy populations. The influence of weed management cides. The publication, "La Langosta del Sorgo y el Maiz" systems and natural enemy (parasitoid) populations in (Pitre et al. 1999), has been published by EAP, Zamorano lepidopterous caterpillars on-farm studies with Academic Press and presents MSU-205 collaborative re- intercropped sorghum and maize in southern Honduras was search results on the insect pests on intercropped sorghum completed and an M.S. thesis accepted in 1999. Weed con- and maize on subsistence farms in southern Honduras and trol programs did not significantly influence weed species recommendations for limiting insect pest damage to these or insect species diversity and had no effect on levels of grain crops. This publication has been distributed within parasitization of the lepidopterous caterpillars in the crop- farm communities. ping systems investigated. A nematode parasite of the cater- pillar (as high as 68% parasitization of armyworms during Nicaragua certain periods in the growing season) was the most preva- lent of the parasitoids attacking these defoliators. At this The extension of MSU-205 into Nicaragua has expanded level of parasitization, the armyworms, predominantly fall INTSORMIL's entomological presence and collaborative armyworm, were not reduced below economically damag- participation in Central America. Sorghum production in ing levels on the sorghum and maize crops. This informa- Nicaragua is predominantly in commercial systems on large tion, on naturally occurring parasitoid population levels and farms on the coastal plains. The crop represents 16% of the parasitization mortality, indicates the limited role that these area planted to basic grains. The area with potential for sor- biological control agents might have in developing inte- ghum production is six fold greater than that planted in grated insect pest management strategies for the 1999. The principal insect pest constraint to production is lepidopterous caterpillars on sorghum or maize in this agri- sorghum midge, although chinch bugs, fall armyworm and cultural ecosystem in Honduras; and, may possibly relate to stalk borers can cause economic losses. Studies have been other areas in Central America with similar insect pest con- conducted on sorghum midge distribution, seasonal occur- straints to production of these grain crops in similar agricul- rence, host plant relationships, and cultural, chemical and tural environments. biological pest control strategies that are effective and eco- logically acceptable for this region. Studies completed in Biology and taxonomy of Metaponpneumata 1998 and 1999 indicated limited host range for this insect rogenhoferi. The taxonomic characteristics of M. pest, with only sorghum, johnsongrass and broom sorghum rogenhoferi were identified for the first time. This is an im- identified as hosts. Infestations on each of these hosts have portant consideration when identification of the particular been completed, including aspects of midge seasonal sur- pest species in a complex of species is critical in defining vival (diapause) during the dry period. The influence of control recommendations. A taxonomic study of the mor- planting date, and variety-insecticide interactions on midge phology of M. rogenhoferi was completed and a manuscript infestations was investigated. A popular article on the sor- prepared and accepted for publication in the scientific jour- ghum midge considering aspects of the insects biology and nal "Tropical Lepidoptera". The life stages of this important control has been prepared by MSU-205 and INTA for publi- insect pest were described using illustrations and scanning cation and distribution to farm communities in Nicaragua. electron microscope pictures of the egg, larva, pupa, and adult (9 and a' genitalia) stages. Comparative notes on host United States plants and geographical distribution of related species in the tribe Eustrotiin. (Noctuidae) are presented in the publica- Sorghum in many areas of the world are attacked by tion. some of the same or related insect pests. The information on biology, ecology, and behavior of these pests in one area Biology and ecology of caterpillar defoliators. Studies may be utilized in other areas when defining or refining as- were conducted on S. frugiperda, S. latifascia and M. pects of insect pest management for the sorghum crops in rogenhoferi in different environments. Pest life cycle, ecol- the United States. Agriculture crop production technology ogy, relationships with other insect pest species and sea- can often be transferred from region to region. Therefore, sonal dynamics were elucidated to identify the roles of the studies on insect relationships with the sorghum crops inde- three species in causing economic damage to sorghum and veloping countries within the Americas zone can be benefi- maize. Noncrop plant "source habitats" and crop plant "sink Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

habitats" have been identified. Crop mortality factors have Population dynamics of sorghum midge. Sorghum been partitioned, with insects accounting for 65% of the midge reproduced throughout the year on the coastal plains, mortality to the crops. utilizing johnsongrass, broomcorn and sorghum as hosts. Midge emergencepatterns from each of these hosts and host Survey of crop production systems. The survey was con- preferences for midge establishment and population ducted to collect a base of information for the development buildup were identified for the coastal plains regioa. of a practical insect pest management program on sorghum and maize in Honduras and areas with similar agricultural Management tacticsfor sorghum midge. Sorghum midge practices and insect pest constraints. The complexity of the management tactics were evaluated in 1998 and 1999 in sorghum-maize intercropped production systems in the southern Nicaragua. Early planting (immediately after the foothills and on the coastal plains was identified. Fourplant- "canicula" or dry period) was identified as an extremely im- ing methods (systems) are used, but the most commonly portant midge control method. Susceptibility (tolerance) of used in the foothills is not the same as that used on the sorghum varieties to midge was associated with agronomic coastal plains. The insect pests are similar on the two grain characteristics of the specific genotype. Early blooming va- crops in the two regions and the most commonly used insec- rieties were damaged less than varieties that bloom later. ticide is the same in both regions, but used more often during Chemical insecticides, including Decis, Lorsban, and the season in the foothills. Fertilizers and herbicides are Talstar, were effective in reducing midge infestations when used to some extent in both regions, but lackofeconomic re- applied at 10% bloom and at midge threshold. sources limits their use. Activities in United States Economic evaluation of production systems. An eco- nomic evaluation of integrated pest management tactics in The efficacy of insecticides appliedto sorghum was eval- intercropped sorghum and maize production systems in the uated for insect pest control. A select group of insecticides foothills and on the coastal plains was performed. Sorghum was evaluated for control of fall armyworm and sorghum production, using the integrated pest management practices midge on sorghum in Mississippi. Insecticides were applied identified, was increased 20% and maize 35% at the farm at various rates of application to plants in various growth level. In years when grain yields andmarket prices are high, stages. The efficacy of materials was recorded on the recommended practices could return $2.9 million a year armyworms in various instars to determine activity of the to the production area in southern Honduras, and possibly insecticides against larvae of various age classes. Insecti- similar returns in other regions experiencing identical insect cides were applied once or twice for sorghum midge con- pest problems in Central America. Increased yields of both trol, depending upon pest thresholds. This information is crops would improve diets and nutritional level of families, useful in providing recommendations for control of fall and increase income. armyworm and sorghum midge on sorghum. The data has been prepared and submitted for publication. As indicated above, the publication, "La Langosta del Sorgo y el Maiz" (Pitre et al. 1999) has been published as a Direction of graduate students in the INTSORMIL pro- collaborative effort among scientists in MSU-205 and at the gram and travel. The PI directed the INTSORMIL research agricultural institution (EAP) in Honduras. This publication activities of four graduate students (M.S. degree candi- has been distributed within farm communities and describes dates), coordinated thesis preparations, prepared papers for insect pest management tactics for the lepidopterous con- publication of INTSORMIL research in scientific journals, straints to intercropped sorghum and maize production in as well as popular articles. The PI traveled to Honduras and Honduras, and could apply to areas in Central America with Nicaragua to work with collaborators and graduate stu- similar insect pest problems on sorghum and maize. dents.

Activities in Nicaragua Networking Activities

Survey of crop production systems. This survey was con- Germplasm and Research Information Exchange . ducted to identify the current sorghum production practices on the coastal plains where 95 percent of the sorghum fields Supplies and equipment required by graduate students in (ca. 30,000 hectares) averaged greater than 50 hectares. As performance of research activities in the laboratory and in Honduras, this information is used to define acceptable field in Honduras and Nicaragua were supplied by integrated pest management practices for this region in Cen- MSU-205. Some financial support has been provided annu- tral America. ally to the graduate students for research expenses while in Honduras and Nicaragua. This support will continue with Fall armyworm was identified as the principal insect de- further INTSORMIL participation in Honduras and Nicara- foliator and sorghum midge the most important insect pest gua and other collaborating countries. A publication (popu- of panicles (seed damage). One or more chemical insecti- lar article) presenting the lepidopterous caterpillar cide sprays are applied by 50% of the farmers for each of ("langosta") pest management practices (researched by these two insect pests. MSU-205) that can be used by subsistence farmers in south- Sustainable Plant Protection Systems em Honduras was prepared by EAP Press and has been dis- Vergara, O.R. and H.N. Pitre. 1999. Complexity of intercropped sor- ghum-maize production systems in southern Honduras. Ceiba. 40: tributed into farm communities. A similar article on 2.-. (accepted). sorghum midge was prepared by CNIAmTTA for distribu- tion to farm communities in Nicaragua. Dissertations and Theses

Publications and Presentations Cordero, Roberto. 1999. Relationships of weed management and parasitoids with lepidopterous pests in intercropped sorghum and maize in southern Honduras. M.S. Thesis. Mississippi State Univ. 62 Journal Articles PP. Ching'oma, G.P. and H.N. Pitre. 1999. Oviposition by fall armyworm, Sporloptero frugiperrh (J.E. Smith): Effects of moth age and sorghum Miscellaneous Publications (Presentations) maturation stage. Ceiba. 40: 57-62. Ching'oma, G.P. and H.N. Pitre. 1999. Fall armyworm, Spodoprern Pitre, H.N., H.E. Portillo, D.H. Meckenstock, M.T. Castro, J.I. Lopez, R. frugiperrin (Lepidopterous: Noctuidae), larval development and moth Trabanino, R.D. Cave, F. Gomez,O. Vergara, and R. Cordero. 1999. La fecundity on sorghum at various stages of maturity. Ceiba. 63-67. Langosta del Sorgo y el Ma~z.Zamorano Academic Press. Tegucigal- Lopez, J.I., H.N. Pitre and D.H. Meckenstock. 1999. Changes In fall pa, H0. 13 pp. armyworm(Lepidoptera:Noctuidae) fitness over five generations after Zeledon, J., L. Pineda, and H. Pitre. 1999. Sorghum midge. lnstituto larval feeding on resistant tropical land race sorghum. Ceiba. 40:2.. Nicaraguense de Technologia Agropecuaria, Centro Nacional de (acceoted). lnvestigaciones Agricolos. 1 p. LO&Z,J.\, H.N. Pitre and D.H. Meckenstock. 1999. Influence ofnitrogen fertilizer on resistance to fall armvworm (Le~idootera:.. . Noctuidae) in tropical land race sorghum. ~eiba.40: 2. -. (accepted). Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Striga Biotec hnology Development and Technology Transfer Project PRF-213 Gebisa Ejeta Purdue University

Principal Investigator

Dr. Gebisa Ejeta, Department of Agronomy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907

Collaborating Scientists

Dr. Abdelgabar T. Babiker, Striga Specialist, ARC, Sudan Mr. Fasil Redda, Weed Scientist, IAR, Ethiopia Mr. Gebremedhin Wolde Wahid, Weed Scientist, IAR, Ethiopia Dr. Aberra Debello, Sorghum Breeder, IAR, Ethiopia Dr. Issoufou Kapran, Sorghum Breeder, INRAN, Niger Dr. B. Dembele, Weed Scientist, IER, Mali Dr. Dale Hess, Striga Specialist, ICRISAT, Mali Dr. Joel Ransom, Striga Agronomist, CIMMYT, Kenya Dr. Robert Eplee, Striga Specialist, USDA/ARS/APHIS, USA Dr. James Riopel, University of Virginia, USA Dr. H. Geiger, Univ. of Hohenheim, Germany

Summary

Witchweeds (Striga spp.) are obligate parasitic weeds of Striga resistant sorghum varieties into 12 African countries. significant economic importance. Control methods avail- Following their introduction, we worked with national pro- able to date have been costly and beyond the means of farm- grams in carrying out testing and demonstration of these va- ers in developing countries. While combining several rieties in farmers' fields. In Ethiopia, collaborative control measures may be necessary for eradication of relationship with the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Orga- Striga. crop losses to Striga can be effectively minimized nization and Sasakawa Global 2000 led to the evaluation, through host-plant. resistance. Our goal is to exploit the demonstration, and the eventual official release of two of unique life cycle and parasitic traits of Striga, especially the our varieties for commercial cultivation in the country. We chemical signals required for germination, differentiation, will continue to cooperate with the NARS in efforts to put in and establishment. place an effective seed production and distribution mecha- nism to ensure a reliable supply of these varieties in the fu- In the last four years, significant results were obtained in ture. both the research and development efforts of PRF-2 13. We established the simple inheritance of low production of the Objectives, Production and Utilization Constraints Striga germination stimulant in sorghum. We developed new assays for stages in host-parasite interaction beyond Objectives Striga germination. Using these assays, we identified unique mutants that have the capacity to disrupt normal par- The overall objectives of our research are to fixther our asitic association. These include sorghum lines with low understanding of the biological interactions between Striga production of the haustorial initiation factor, mutants with a and its hosts, and to devise control strategies based on host hypersensitive response to penetration by Striga, thereby resistance. In addressing our goal of developing sorghum delaying the growth and development of the parasite, and cultivars that are resistant to Striga, we emphasize the vital those with incompatible response to penetration where the roles of the multiple signals exchanged between the parasite host response results in eventual withering and death of the and its hosts, which coordinate their life cycles. To develop parasitic growth. Genetic and physiologic characterization control strategies based on host-plant resistance, we employ of these mutants, as well as introgression into elite cultivars integrated biotechnological approaches combining bio- of the particular genes involved in each mutant, is currently chemistry, tissue culture, plant genetics and breeding, and underway. As a development effort, Striga resistant sor- molecular biology. ghum lines that we developed in the past have been effec- tively distributed and adopted. We collaborated with World Striga spp. are economically important parasites of sor- Vision International in distributing large quantities of eight ghum, millets and other cereals in tropical Africa and Asia. Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Yield losses of sorghum due to Striga infestation, coupled The working hypothesis is that an intricate relationship with poor soil fertility, low rainfall, and lack of production between the parasite and its hosts has evolved exchange of inputs, all contribute to survival difficulties for subsistence signals, and interruption of one or more of these signals re- farmers. Eradication of Striga has been difficult to the sults in failed parasitism leading to possible development of unique adaptation of Striga to its environment and the com- a control strategy. Our general approach has been to assem- plexity of the host-parasite relationship. Suggested control ble suitable germplasm populations for potential sources of measures including mechanical or chemical weeding, soil resistance, develop simple laboratory assays for screening fumigation, and nitrogen fertilization, have been costly and these germplasm, establish correspondence of our labora- beyond the means of poor subsistence farmers. Host plant tory assay with field performance, establish mode of inheri- resistance is probably the most feasible and potentially du- tance of putative resistance traits, and transfer gene sources rable method for the control of Striga. Host resistance in- into elite adapted cultivars using a variety ofbiotechnologi- volves both physiological and physical mechanisms. Our cal means. Whenever possible, the methods developed will goal is to unravel host resistance by reducing it to compo- be simple and rapid, in order to facilitate screening large nents based on the signals exchanged and disrupt their inter- numbers of entries. actions at each stage of the Striga life cycle. The specific objective of our collaborative research project are as fol- We place major emphasis on developing control strate- lows: gies, primarily based on host-plant resistance. To hsend, we have in place a very comprehensive Striga resistance To develop effective assays for resistance-conferring breeding program in sorghum. Over the last several years, traits and screen breeding materials assembled in our we have generated and selected diverse and outstanding Striga research program for these traits. breeding progenies that combine Striga resistance with ex- cellent agronomic and grain quality characteristics. All pre- To elucidate basic mechanisms for Striga resistance viously known sources of resistance have been in crop plants. inter-crossed with elite broadly adapted improved lines. Al- most all resistant sources ever recorded have been assem- a To combine genes for different mechanisms of resis- bled and catalogued. We undoubtedly have the largest, most tance, using different biotechnological approaches, elite and diverse Striga resistance germplasm pool, un- into elite widely adapted cultivars matched by any program anywhere in the world. However, while all resistance sources have been introgressed to elite To test, demonstrate, and distribute (in cooperation and most readily usable backgrounds, the only mechanism with various public, private, and NGOs) elite Striga of resistance we have hlly exploited has been the low pro- resistant cultivars to farmers and farm communities in duction of germination signal. We have not had the ability to Striga endemic areas. screen for other mechanisms of resistance in the infection chain or the host-parasite interaction cycle. In the last four To develop integrated Striga control strategies, with years, we have placed significant emphasis on developing additional effective methods for screening host plants for our LDC partners, to achieve a more effective control Striga resistance at stages in the parasitic life cycle beyond than is presently available. germination, including low production of haustorial initia- tion signal, failure to penetrate, hypersensitive reaction, in- To assess (both ex ante and expost) of the adaptation compatibility, or general cessation of growth after anduse ofthese control strategies, in cooperation with penetration. Work is currently in progress on refining these collaborating agricultural economists. assays and integrating them into our plant breeding proce- dures for effective transfer of genes of Striga resistance into To train LDC collaborators in research methods, new and elite sorghum cultivars. breeding approaches, and use of integrated Striga control methods and approaches. The wealth of germplasm already developed in this pro- gram also needs to be shared by collaborating national pro- Research Approach and Project Output grams in Striga endemic areas of Africa. To this end, we have organized international nurseries for distribution of Research Methods our germplasm on a wider scale. This has served as an effec- tive way to network our Striga research with NARS that Field evaluation of crops for Striga resistance has been have not been actively collaborating with INTSORMIL. As slow and difficult, with only modest success. Our research we combine and confmmultiple mechanisms of resistance addresses the Striga problem as a series of interactions be- in selected genotypes, the efficiency and durability of these tween the parasite and its hosts, with potential for interven- resistance mechanisms can be better understood through tion. We recognize that successful Striga parasitism is such a wide testing scheme. dependent upon a series of chemical signals produced by its host. Furthermore, in cooperation with weed scientists and agronomists in various NARS, we plan to develop and test Sustainable Plant Protection Systems economically feasible and practicable integrated Striga Shanqui Red, IS4225, and P954063. F, progenies were control packages for testing on farmers' fields in selected selfed and also crossed back to both parents producing F2 countries in Africa. While most INTSORMIL projects have and backcross populations. Striga germination tests were been directed as bilateral collaborative ventures, focusing conducted on parental lines, F,, F2, and backcross genera- on individual NARS, this Striga project is handled as a re- tions of these crosses. For each of the three crosses, signifi- gional or more "global" program, because ofthe commonal- cant differences between the mean maximum germination ity of the Striga problem, and because no other agency has distances of the two parental cultivars were observed. No the mandate or is better suited to do the job. significant differences existed between mean germination distances of the F1 and reciprocal F1 progenies indicating Research Findings absence of maternal effects in these crosses. The germina- tion distance of the three F, populations were greater than Inheritance of low production of Striga Germination their respective midparent mean values, suggesting partial Stimulants in Sorghum (Rej Crop Science, 1996, Vol. dominance for high stimulant production. Chi-square val- 36: 1185-1191). ues for Mendellian F2 segregation ratios indicated that low stimulant production on SRN39 is inherited as a single, nu- Host plant resistance to Striga is a manifestation of one or clear, recessive gene which is largely additive in action. more potential mechanisms. Striga seeds require af- These results suggest that selection for low stimulant pro- ter-ripening, conditioning, and chemical stimulation before duction would be successful in generating Striga resistant they can successfi~llygerminate and parasitize a host. Stim- sorghum cultivars when appropriate genetic variability is ulation of the seeds to germinate initiates the potential generated. Work in our program has also demonstrated this host-parasite relationship. One of the better understood concept empirically where elite low stimulant producing mechanisms of resistance against Striga by sorghum is low Striga resistant germplasm have been produced using our production of compounds by the host roots that Striga seeds laboratory procedure. require as stimulants for germination. Minute quantities of compounds, as low as 10 to 16M, exuded by host roots stim- Evaluation of the Physiological Basis of Dormancy of ulate the conditioned Striga seeds to germinate. Sorghum Striga Seeds (Refi Weed Research, 1998, Vol. 38, cultivars differ in the amounts of stimulant compounds that 25 7-265) their roots produce. This variation is responsible in part for the resistance against Striga found in some sorghum As a noxious parasitic weed of tropical cereals and le- cultivars. A host plant that produces low amounts of stimu- gumes, Striga spp. are exquisitely adapted to the climatic lants will cause fewer Striga seeds to germinate, and thus, and edaphic conditions in the areas where they have become will be subject to less infestation. The production of germi- endemic. Because Striga seeds are small, resource depletion nation stimulants is relatively simple to assay. We devel- must be controlled during the events before host attachment oped a simple and rapid assay in which we showed a close when host resources become available. Freshly harvested correspondence between a laboratory measure of stimulant seeds of Striga will germinate in response to host-produced production and field resistance in several sorghum chemical stimuli, but only after the passage of time, an-after cultivars. This assay screens individual sorghum seedlings ripening period, and exposure to moisture at a suitable tem- for the capacity of their root exudates to stimulate the germi- perature, a conditioning period. However, dormant seeds nation of conditioned Striga seeds embedded in water agar. are often unresponsive and may remain in the soil for de- We measure capacity to stimulate germination as the maxi- cades and become sensitive to stimuli upon hydration and mum distance from the sorghum root at which Striga seeds after-ripening. A second dormancy is associated with pro- germinate. Germination distance in the agar medium, there- longed hydration and is termed "wet dormancy". Striga spe- fore, is a function of stimulant production and the interac- cie have used these two states of dormancy to time the tions between the host root and conditioned Striga seeds. events associated with germination and establishment of We also found out that there is a strong positive correlation parasitism. between maximum germination distance and percentage of germinated Striga seeds in the agar medium. Striga seeds are small, with limited energy resources; the survival strategy of the seed could, therefore, be related Among a collection of sorghumgermplasm assembled in to its moisture content. Data on moisture content of Striga our program, we have established, in field tests, that sor- seed has not been reported in the literature, so it is not clear ghum cultivar, SRN39, has the strongest expression of re- whether seed moisture content is related to dormancy. The sistance. Resistance is measured as the capacity of a host purpose of the Striga was, therefore, to establish the role of plant to support fewer emerged Striga plants, and yield seed moisture content in the regulation of the after-ripening more grain than susceptible crop variety when grown under period. To test for the effect of relative humidity on af- Striga infestation. The objective of our study, therefore, was ter-ripening, seeds were sealed into small glass containers to determine the mode of inheritance of stimulant produc- above saturated various salts selected because their vapor tion of Striga germination in SRN39. Crosses were made pressure creates a range in relative humidity that changes lit- between the Striga resistant, low stimulant producer line, tle with temperature. The moisture content and germination SRN39 and three high stimulant producer sorghum lines, percentage of the seed s were determined monthly over a Sustainable Plant Protection Systems six-month period. The effect of storage relative humidity on farming, delaying sowing dates would ensure that Striga the moisture content of Striga seeds were examined at inter- seed moisture content would increase and reduce gennina- vals after placing fresh harvested seeds in containers with tion; this could be a strategy for an integrated approach to specific relative humidity. Seeds were placed in chambers Striga control. having specific relative humidity of 6, 14,33,75, and 97% for 30, 60, 90 and 150 days. The initial seed moisture was Development of New In-vitro Assays for Post-infection 14.7%. The seeds were then conditioned and germination Striga Resistance (Re8Agron. Abst ...... ) percentage, response to tetrazolium, and seed moisture con- tents were measured. Conventional approaches to selection for resistance to Striga has involved evaluation of sorghum germplasm in Several interesting results were obtained. In general, Striga infested plots. This approach has not been widely seeds at moisture content less than 10% at the start of condi- successful because of the complexity of the biology of the tioning had germination of greater than 93%. Seeds at mois- host-parasite relationship and its interaction with other en- ture content of over 10% at the start of conditioning could vironmental factors. Striga resistance in sorghum results germinate between 60% and 3%, with germination decreas- from one or a combination of several recognized mecha- ing as seed moisture content at the start of conditioning de- nisms that influence the development of parasitism. An un- creased. The highest moisture content (17%), and lowest derstanding of these mechanisms and the gene action germination percentage (3%), occurred in seeds stored at associated with specific host plant reaction to Striga infesta- 97% relative humidity for 150 days. There was a high de- tion are essential prerequisites for efficient exploitation of gree of correlation (r2 = 0.997) between a positive host plant resistance as a Striga control measure. We have tetrazolium color test and germination percentage, indicat- stated, in the past, that lack of effective germplasm screen- ing that seeds having a positive tetrazolium response will ing techniques, based on specific mechanisms of resistance, germinate if provided with chemical stimulants. Seeds as well as the overall paucity of sorghum germplasm with a brought to a low rate of germination, or which didnot germi- strong level of Striga resistance, is a major bottleneck to nate after 30 days of storage at high relative humidity breeding for Striga resistance. Understanding specific (91%), had a much less positive response to tetrazolium, mechanisms of resistance, based on better appreciation of even though initially they had nearly a 100% positive re- the host parasite biology. can provide impetus for develop- sponse. Seeds with as little as 3% positive response to ment of efficient screening techniques that can be used for tetrazolium can be brought back to give a high percentage characterizing crop germplasm for successful exploitation positive response if they are placed in a container with 6% or through conventional and/or new breeding strategies. 13% relative humidity for 2 to 3 months. The negative tetrazolium response was not due to loss in seed viability as The agar gel assay, developed in our laboratory, has been previously reported, but we suggest that the tetrazolium test effective in screening crop germplasm with Striga resis- measure the ability to germinate in response to conditioning tance, due to low production of compounds that trigger and was not strictly an indicator of viability. Striga seed germination. The assay was also effectively uti- lized in transferring genes for low stimulant production into To examine the effect of prolonged conditioning (wet elite, broadly adapted sorghum cultivars. Recently, we de- dormancy) and its reversibility,Striga seeds with a high rate veloped new assays for screening host germplasm for mech- of germination were incubated in water for 16 weeks, and anisms of resistance beyond germination. One of these germination tests were run at 4-week intervals. Prolonged assays, the Extended Agar Gel Assay, as the name implies, conditioning was only 3% after 16 weeks of incubation in is an extension in time of incubation of the agar gel assay de- water. When these non-germinated seeds were then stored scribed above. This assay allows us to evaluate host at 13% relative humidity, gennination increased from 3% to germplasm for their capacity to produce the chemical stimu- 92% after 16 weeks. Storage at 5.5 % relative humidity, in- lants needed for haustorial initiation. The second assay, creased gennination from 3% to 9 1% in 12 weeks. In these namedthe Paper Roll Assay, allows quantification ofpoten- circumstances, wet dormancy appears to be a reversible pro- tial problems in the infection process beyond germination. cess. In addition to lack of haustorial formation, we can also ob- serve interactive responses such as the hypersensitive reac- We believe that the results presented in this study have tion where penetration of the parasite into host roots is direct relevance to Striga research and control. Our results followed by necrosis, or the incompatibility response, asso- have ramification, for instance, on the widely accepted ap- ciated with stunted growth of the parasite which may cause plication of ethylene gas in a Striga eradication program. If its eventual death following penetration. We hope to utilize seeds buried in the soil have a moisture content above the these assays in the routine screening of the large assembly of threshold, then application of ethylene will not cause sui- sorghum breeding germplasm in our Striga resistance cidal gennination. One does not need to condition the seed breeding program. Furthermore, these assays will be very to observe readiness to germinate, but only need to measure valuable in characterizing specific mechanism of resistance moisture content. This information may also be used to ma- of unique mutants as well as for pyramiding multiple nipulate the life cycle of the parasite for Striga control. sources of resistance into one elite germplasm. Pre-watering the soil in irrigated fields, or under rainfed Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Characterization of Novel Mechanisms of Resistance graded. A single infected root may show reddening around to Striga in Sorghum: (RejBreeding for Striga Resis- most haustorial attachment sites. Some sites on the host root tance in Sorghum, Haussman et al. (eds) Proc of which appeared necrotic upon attachment fade and Striga Workshop held at Ibadan, Nigeria, 18-20, 1999) grows normally. The overall character of lines possessing the hypersensitive response, however, is a greatly reduced The damage caused to cultivated sorghum by Striga spp. percentage of Striga attachments developing successful begins below ground where seeds of the parasite germinate parasitic associations relative to susceptible cultivars. The in response to a stimulatory chemical signal from their host. incompatibility response differs from hypersensitivity in In order to survive, emerged Striga radicles must quickly that there is no apparent necrosis in host root tissue sur- make their way to a host root, form an attachment organ, rounding the attachment site. However, as in the hypersen- called a haustorium, and attach to the root of a host plant. sitive response, it discourages development of Striga The parasite must then penetrate its host's root and establish beyond attachment. Incompatibility is more consistently vascular connections for host-derived water and nutrients to expressed in a given individual than the hypersensitive re- support growth and development to the point of emergence. sponse, at least among the cultivars that we have screened to All this occurs hidden below ground. Ability to monitor date. The refinement of these assays has continued. We will these early parasitic interactions of Striga to the host could also continue to characterize the large collection of Striga aid in the identification of ways in which a resistant host resistant sorghums accumulated in our program as this has cultivar avoids cooperation in the parasitic association. Sev- already produced promising results. We also plan to estab- eral years ago, we developed the agar gel assay which al- lish the mode of inheritance for each of these mechanisms in lows observation of early events in host-parasite the near future. Crosses have already been made with some interaction. Growing sorghum in an agar medium contain- promising entries, and subsequent selection efforts will fo- ing Striga seeds led to identification of sorghum lines that cus on identifying germplasm that combine more than one resist infection by Striga because they produce only very mechanism of resistance. Such a germplasm is expected to low amounts ofthe chemical compounds required for Striga have an enhanced level of protection against Striga and its germination. Recently, we developed new assays in a me- resistance is likely to be durable. Refinement of the paper dium supporting the infection process so that we could se- roll assay seems to be painstakingly slow. However, once lect sorghum genotypes that disrupt association with Striga refined, this assay should facilitate characterization of because of failure to produce the haustorial signal, or pos- mechanisms of resistance as well as pyramiding multiple sess a defense system that discourages penetration or further sources of resistance into selected sorghum germplasm. growth of the parasite. Our objective is to utilize these as- This will be a powerful and inexpensive technology for says to characterize specific mechanisms of resistance ob- breeding Striga resistant sorghums which research pro- served in unique variants of sorghum lines. grams in developing countries can readily employ or adopt. Scientists in collaborating NARS will benefit from our de- With the Agar Gel Assay and the Extended Agar Gel As- velopment and refinement efforts as they adapt the assay to say, we have been able to observe sorghum lines that pro- local resource availability. duce unusually low amounts of the chemical stimulants required for Striga germination and haustorial production, International Testing, Demonstration, and Distribu- respectively. We have fully exploited the mutants that lack tion of Striga Resistant Sorghum Selections the ability to produce the germination stimulants in our (1 996-2000) breeding program as we have developed an extensive array of elite Striga resistant sorghum lines with this mechanism. Over the last 10 years, research on Striga resistance in A mutant sorghum line that lacks the ability to produce the sorghum has been conducted at Purdue University. The haustorial signal has been identified recently. The capacity findings we have made in basic biology and genetics of to produce this signal appears to be simply inherited and is Striga resistance are continually being incorporated into our likely to be an easy trait to work with in a breeding program. sorghum breeding program to generate germplasm having We have just made several selected crosses and began gen- good agronomic qualities, combined with varied mecha- erating segregating populations to make selections. The Pa- nisms of resistance to Striga. Our breeding program is com- per Roll Assay allows the identification of mutants that prehensive and utilizes field and laboratory techniques in disrupt the penetration of host roots by Striga and retard the identifying superior genotypes with Striga resistance. Lab- growth and development of the parasite. Two kinds of re- oratory protocols developed in our laboratory are used to sponses are characterized. In the first, the hypersensitive re- routinely monitor the transfer of genes for resistance to sponse, necrotic areas appear at Striga attachment sites on Striga from donor sources into improved lines. Elite selec- the sorghum root. These necrotic lesions, generally, start as tions identified through laboratory evaluations are tested for red becoming brownish with time. They may be large, field resistance in Africa through our collaborative network spreading up to 2mm from the center of attachment but most of scientists in several NARS. remain more localized. Attached Striga most often are dis- couraged, not developing, and eventually dying while at- In December 1994, we released eight Striga resistant sor- tached to the host. Among the cultivars in which this ghum cultivars and distributed them to several Afiican phenomenon has been observed, the response appears to be countries through a collaborative partnership with World Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Vision International, an NGO with an extensive network of elite germplasm that we have accumulated in our program programs in the continent. Following this distribution, field with our collaborators. In 1997, we sent 25 entries to scien- tests were conducted in twelve countries, namely Senegal, tists in 12 African countries for field testing in Striga-sick Chad, Ghana, Mali, Eritrea, Mozambique, Sudan, Somalia, plots. A second trial ofanother set of 25 entries were sent out Rwanda, Niger, and Ethiopia. According to a subsequentre- in 1998 and 1999 to 13 African locations. Data obtained to port by Worldvision, results were obtained fromnine coun- date, indicate that many of the entries possess Striga resis- tries. The report indicated that different varieties were found tance and possess additional characteristics that are valued to be better adapted in each of these countries. In general, in these environments. The results from these tests will be these varieties were broadly adapted, earlier in maturity, summarized anddistributed to collaborators in due course. had good response to inputs, and possessed better food qual- ity characteristics. In Ethiopia, distribution of seed of the Networking Activities eight Striga resistant cultivars was initially curtailed be- cause ofbureaucratic irregularities. Seed shipment intended Workshop and Program Reviews for Eritrea was also held in the Ethiopian capital, en route to Asmara, for the same reason. However, we managed to later Year 18 send experimental quantities of seed of these eight varieties to both Ethiopia and Eritrea. Results obtained from these Served as a member of the organizing committee of both tests in 1996 convinced Ethiopian authorities that these INTSORMIL Principal Investigators Conference and the cultivars possessed, in addition to their resistance to Striga, International Sorghum and Millet Genetics Symposium the additional important characteristics of early maturity held at Lubbock, TX, September 1996. Presented joint pa- and drought tolerance making them uniquely suitable for pers with several colleagues at these meetings. cultivation in Striga endemic areas of the country. Two of the eight entries, P9401 and P9404, were found to be partic- Presented a paper at the Sixth International Parasitic ularly adapted to the conditions of the drier lowlands of Weed Symposium, Cordoba, Spain, April 1996. Ethiopia. In collaboration with Sasakawa Global 2000 and the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization, seed of Served as Visiting Faculty, University of Wisconsin, the two varieties were multiplied for large scale demonstra- Summer Institute for African Agricultural Research, June tion and dissemination of these varieties to major sorghum 1997. growing zones of the country. Several hundred one-half hectare demonstration plots of these varieties were con- Participated in African Dissertation Internship Award ducted in these areas during the 1997,1998, and 1999 crop selection, Rockefeller Foundation, November 1996, and seasons. Data collected from these demonstrationtests were April 1997. presented to the Ethiopian Crop Variety Release Committee to evaluate their merit and place in sorghum agriculture in Attended the American Society of Agronomy national the country. The Committee found these varieties uniquely meetings, Indianapolis, IN, November 1996. suited to the conditions of the Striga endemic sorghum areas of Ethiopia and approved their oficial release for cornmer- Year 19 cia1 cultivation beginning with the current crop season. However, we are uncertain about the national plan for an ex- Traveled to Eastern Africa to visit NARS in the region panded seed multiplication and quality control, as well as with INTSORMIL Director, Dr. John Yohe, and held dis- for continued testing and distribution in combination with cussions leading to the establishment of an INTSORMIL other associated Striga control strategies. Regional Collaborative Research Program in the Horn of Africa. June 1997. A major activity of PRF-2 13, in the last few years, has been the testing and monitoring of an international nursery Served as chair of the organizing committee of an for Striga resistance. In order to allow selection of new ex- INTSORMIL/Horn of Africa Traveling workshop. The perimental varieties in a field environment having Striga week long traveling workshop was attended by three scien- pressure, we rely on collaborators throughout Africa to es- tists from Kenya, two from Eritrea, one from Uganda, scien- tablish an INTSORMIL International Striga Resistance tists from the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Sorghum Nursery. We conduct this test for two important four INTSORMIL principal investigators, and the associate reasons. First, evaluation of experimental entries developed program director. in our breeding program at Purdue, under African field envi- ronments with Strzga pressure, allows us to confirm the util- Attended and participated in the 1997 World Food Prize ity of elite germplasm that we select through our established Symposium, 16-17 October 1997, Des Moines, Iowa. protocol. Secondly, in addition to providing a means of field testing resistant varieties, the INTSORMIL International Served as Visiting Faculty, University of Wisconsin, Striga Resistant SorghumNursery serves as a vehicle to dis- Summer Institute for African Agricultural Research, June tribute germplasm to areas where Striga is an endemic prob- 1998. lem. It is an effective mechanism for sharing a wealth of Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Participated in African Dissertation Internship Awards Negotiated a contract for an INTSORMIL project to un- Selection, Rockefeller Foundation, November 1997 and dertake a study on the development and diffusion of April 1998. drought tolerant crops in Eastern Africa with the Inter-Governmental Agency for Development, 7- 13 March Attended the American Society of Agronomy National 1999, Djibouti. Meetings, Anaheim, California, October 1997. Participated in African Dissertation Internship Awards Participated in Pioneer HI-Bred In-house Review of selection, Rockefeller Foundation, 4-5th May 1999, New PublicPrivate Plant Breeding Programs, April 1997, Des York. Moines, Iowa. Participated in Summer Institute for African Agricultural Year 20 Research, June 13- 17,1999, University of Wisconsin, Mad- ison. Participated in African Dissertation Internship Awards selection, Rockefeller Foundation, 18 May 1998, New Participated in Workshop on Molecular Approaches for York. the Genetic Improvement of Cereals for Stable Production in Water Limited Environments, 21-25 June 1999, Evaluated and harvested sorghum winter nursery, NC+ CIMMYT, Mexico. Research Farm, 17-22 March 1998, Ponce, Puerto Rico. Participated in Workshop on Breeding for Striga Resis- Attended the INTSORMIL International Impact Assess- tance in Cereals and Molecular Application in Crop Im- ment Workshop, Corpus Christi, Texas, 20-24 June 1998. provement, 14-2 1 August 1999, IITA, Nigeria.

Attended the Sorghum Ergot Conference, Corpus Participated in the Review and Evaluation of Christi, Texas, 24-26 June 1998. INTSORMIL programs by the External Evaluation Panel, West Lafayette, IN 22-24 September 1999. Participated in Summer Institute for African Agricultural Research. June 14- 19, 1998, University of Wisconsin, Mad- Attended the American Society of Agronomy national ison. meetings, 30 October - 5th November 1999.

Participated in Regional Collaborative Research and Attended the American Seed Trade Association Meet- provided technical guidance to sorghum research efforts in ing, Chicago, IL, 8-9 December 1999. Ethiopia, 19-26 September 1998. Research Investigator Exchange Attended and participated in the International Hybrid Sorghum Seed Workshop, Niamey, Niger, 27 Sept.-2 Octo- Interactions with public, private, and international sor- ber 1998. ghum research scientists continues to be an important func- tion of PRF-207. The following individuals visited our Participated in review and evaluation of INTSORMIL program or worked in our laboratory during the last four Horn of Africa program, 2-10 October 1998. years:

Attended the American Society of Agronomy National Dr. Paula Bramel-Cox, Director, Genetic Resources, Meetings, 18-22 October 1998, Baltimore, Maryland. ICRISAT, February 1996 , June 1997, and June 1999.

Participated in Afiican Dissertation Internship Awards Dr. Jill Lenne, Principal Plant Pathologist, ICRISAT, selection, Rockefeller Foundation, New York, 1 1-12 De- July 1996 cember 1998. Dr. Aberra Debello, Sorghum Breeder and Program Participated in a meeting of Board Members for the Es- Leader, Ethiopian Sorghum Improvement Project, Septem- sential Electronic Agricultural Library, Rockefeller Foun- ber 1996, May 1998, and June 2000. dation, New York, 16-17 December 1998. Dr. Abdel Gabar Babiker, Sudan National Coordinator Year 21 for Sorghum and Millets, September 1996.

Participated in the development of a Food Security pro- Dr. Abdel Moneim Bashir El Ahmadi, Director, National ject for the Amhara Region in Ethiopia at the invitation of Seed Industry, Sudan, September 1996. USAIDJEthiopia, February 22nd to March 5th, 1999, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. A large number of sorghum scientists from the USA and around the world visited our sorghum research program, Sustainable Plant Protection Systems field and laboratory facilities, on the way to and from the In- et al. (eds). Advances in Parasitic Plant Research, Sixth lnternational Palasitic Weed Symposium, Cordoba, Spain, April 16-18, 1996. ternational Sorghum and Millet Genetic Conference in Sep- Rosenow, D., G. Ejeta, L.E. Clark, M. I. Gilbert, R. G. Henzell, A. K. tember 1997. Borrell, and R.E. Muchow. 1997. Breeding for Pre-and Post-flowering Drought Stress Resistance in Sorghum. pp. 400-41 1 In Rosenow et al. (eds). Proc. lntematlonal Conference on Genetic lmprovement of Sor- We were also visited by the Director General of ghum and Millet, 22-27 September, Lubbock, Texas. ICRISAT, Dr. Shawki Barghouti, where the current state of Andrews, D.J., G. Ejeta, M. Gilbert, P. Goswamy, A. Kumr, A.B. Maun- ICRISAT and future collaborative possibilities with Purdue der,K. Porter, K.N. Rai, J.F. Rajewski, B.V. Reddy, W. Stegmeier,and B.S. Talukdar. 1997. Breeding Hybrid Parents.pp.173-187. In were discussed. Rosenow et al. (eds). Proc. International Conference on Genetic Im- provementof Sorghumand Millet, 22-27 September, Lubbock, Texas. Dr. Yilma Kebede, Sorghum Breeder, Pioneer HiBred, Tuinstra, M. R., P. Goldsbmugh, and G. Ejeta. 1997. Analysis of Drought Tolerance in Sorghum: Mapping of Quantitative Trait Loci and Their November 1996, September 1997, and November 1999. Evaluation in Near-lsogenic Lines. pp 425-428. In Rosenow et al. (eds). Proc. lnternational Conference on Genetic Improvement of Sor- Dr. Brian Hare, Advanta, Pacific Seeds, Australia, Octo- ghum and Millet, 22-27 September, Lubbock, Texas. House, L.R., B. N. Verma, G. Ejeta, B. S. Rana, 1. Kapran, A. B. Obilana, ber 1999. and B.V. S. Reddy. 1997. Developing Countries Breeding and Poten- tial of Hybrid Sorghum. pp 84-96. In Rosenow et al. (eds). Proc. Inter- Germplasm Exchange national Conference on Genetic lmprovement of Sorghum and Millet, 22-27 September, Lubbock, Texas. Ejeta, G., L.G. Butler, D.E. Hess, T. Obilana, and B.V.S. Reddy. 1997. We continue to provide an array of sorghum germplasm Breeding for Strign Resistance in Sorghum. pp504-5 16 In. Rosenow et from our breeding program to national research programs in al. (eds) Proc. lmprovement of Sorghum and Pearl Millet, 22-27 Sep- tember, Lubbock, Texas. developing countries. Our germplasm is provided in either a Butler, L.G., G. Ejeta, A.G. Babiker, and D.E. Hess. 1997. Strign - Host formally organized nursery that is uniformly distributed to Relationships and Their Role in Defining Resistance. pp 490-504 In. all collaborators that show interest, or upon request by a na- Rosenow et al. (eds) Proc. lmprovement of Sorghum and Pearl M~llet, 22-27 September, Lubbock, Texas. tional program of specific germplasm entries or groups Axtell, J.D. I. Kapran, Y. Ibrahim,G. Ejeta, L. House, B. Maunder, and D. from our germplasm pool. Germplasm was distributed to Andrews. 1999. Heterosisin Sorghum and Pearl Millet. pp.375-386.In cooperators in 25 countries in 1996,15 countries in 1997,lO Coors (ed) The Genetics and Exploitation of Heterosis in Crops, CIMMYT Press, Mexico City, Mexico. countries in 1998, and 7 counties in 1999. Ejeta,G., M. Tuinstra, E. Grote,and P. Goldsbrough. 1999. Genetic Analy- sis of pre-flowering and post-flowering drought tolerance in sorghum. Publications In Proc. Workshop on Molecular Approaches for the Genetic Improve- ment of Cereals for Stable Production in Water Limited Environments, 21-25 June 1999, CIMMYT, El Batan, Mexico. Refereed Papers Mickelbart, M., G. Ejeta, D. Rhodes, R. Jolly, and P.Goldsbrough. 1999. Assessing the contribution of glycinebetain, to environmental stress Vogler, R.K., G. Ejeta, and L. Butler. 1996. Inheritance of low production tolerance in sorghum. In Proc. Workshop on Molecular Approaches for ofStrigngermination stimulants in sorghum. Crop Sci. 36: 1 185-1 191. the Genetic lmprovement of Cereals for Stable Production in Water Vogler, R.K., G.Ejeta, and L. G. Butler. 1996. Integrating biotechnological Limited Environments. 21-25 June 1999.CIMMYT. El Batan. Mexico. approaches for the control ofStrign. Afric. Crop Sci. Joum. 3:217-222. Ejeta, G., A. Mohammed, P. Rich, A. ~elakeberhan,T. ~ousle;, and D. Menkir, A., P.B. Goldsbrough, and G. Ejeta. 1997. RAPD based assess- Hess. 1999. Selection for s~ecificmechanisms ofresistance to Stri~nin ment of genetic diversity in cultivated races of sorghum. Crop Sci. sorghum. In Proc. workshop on Breeding for Strign Resistance ii~e- 37:564-569. reals, Ibadan, Nigeria. Tuinstra, M., G. Ejeta, and P. Goldsbrough. 1997. Heterogenous Inbred Ejeta, G., P.Goldsbrough, M. Tuinstra, E. Grote, A. Menkir, Y. Ibrahim, N. Family (H1F)Analysis: A Method for Developing Near-lsogenic Lines Cisse, Y. Weerasunya, A. Melakeberhan, and C. Shaner. 1999. Molec- that Differ at Quantitat~veTrait Loci. Theor. Appl. Genet. 95: ular marker applications in sorghum. In Proc. Workshop on Applica- 1005-101 1. tion of Molecular Markers, Ibadan, Nigeria. Tuinstra, M., E. Grote, P. Goldsbrough, andG. Ejeta. 1997. Genetic Analy- Ejeta, G. 1999. Breeding for Striga Resistance in Sorghum. In Proc. Work- sis of Post-flowering Drought Toleranceand Components of Grain De- shop on Breeding for Strign Resistance in Cereals, Ibadan, Nigeria. velopment in Sorghum. Mol. Breeding.3:439-448. Ejeta, G. 1999. Solving Agricultural Problems Through Crop Science. In Mohammed, A.H.,G. Ejeta, L.G. Butler,andT.L. Housley. 1998. Moisture Proc. Symp on Diversity: A Source of Strength for the Tri-Societies, Content and Dormancy in Strign asiatica seeds. Weed research 38: AmricanSociety ofAgronomy Annual Meeting, Salt Lakecity, Utah. 257-265. Tuinstra, M., G. Ejeta, and P. Goldsbrough. 1998. Evaluation of Near-lsogenic Sorghum Lines Contrasting for QTL Markers Associ- Published Abstracts ated with Drought Tolerance. Cmp Sci 38:835-842. Mohammed, A., G. Ejeta, and T. Housley. 2000. Strign seed conditioning and 1-aminoacylopropane- 1 - carboxylate oxidase activity. Weed Re- Kapran, I., J. Axtell,G. Ejeta, and T. Tyler. 1997. Expression of Heterosis search (In press) and Prospectsfor MarketingofSorghum Hybridsin Niger. Presented at King, D., M.Z. Fan,G. Ejeta, A. Asem,andO. Adeola. 2000. Theeffectsof the lnternational Conference on the Exploitation of Heterosis and in tannins on nutrient utilization in the White Pekin duck. British Poultry Crops, CIMMYT, Mexico. Science ( In Press). Mohammed, A., PJ. Rich, A. Melakeberhan, T. Housley, and G. Ejeta. 1998. An in vitro system for evaluating sorghum germplasm for post in- fection Striga resistance mechanisms p.76. Agron. Abst. ASA, Madi- Conferenee Proceedings son, Wi. Ibrahim, Y., G. Ejeta, and W. E. Nyquist. 1998. GxE Interaction Analysis Eleta, G. and L.G. Butler. 1996. Biotechnological approaches for under- in Sorghum Using AMMI, p.79. Agron. Abst. ASA, Madison, WI. standing mechanisms of resistance to Striga p. 568-573. In M. T. Ibrahim, Y, A. Melakeberhan, Y. Weerasuriya, N. Cisse, J.Bennetzen, and Morenoetal. (eds)Advances in Parasitic Plant Research. Sixth Intema- G. Ejeta. 1998. Construction of a Sorghum Linkage Map and Identifi- tional Parasitic Weed Symposium, Cordoba, Spain, April, 16-18,1996. cation of Loci Involved in Striga Resistance., p. 156. Agron.Abst. Babiker,A.G.T.,N.E. Ahmd,G. Ejeta, L.G. Butler,A. Mohammed, M.T. ASA, Madison, WI. El Mana, S.M. El Tayeb, and B.E. Abdel Rhamman. 1996. Chemical Ejeta, G., P. Goldsbrough, M. Tuinsha, E. Gmte,and M. Mickelbart. 1999. Control ofStrign hermonthica in sorghum p. 769-776. In M. T. Moreno Drought Tolerance in Sorghum: Mapping of QTL and Analysis of Near- lsogenic Lines,p. 242. Agronomy Abstracts. ASA Madison, WI. Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Mickelbart, M., R. Jolly, D. Rhodes, P. Goldsbrough, and G. Ejeta. 1999. Ejeta, G. 1998. How Purdue Researchers Outwined Striga. Presented at Development ofnear-isogenic lines of sorghum accumulating different Workshop for Wabash Area Lifetime Learning Association, Morton concentration of glycinebetain, p. 120. Plant Phys. Abstracts. Community Center, West Lafayette, April I, 1998. Ejeta, G, J.D. Axtell, B. Hamaker,and K. Ibrahim. 1998. INTSORMIL: A win-win program for US and Developing Country Agriculture. Pres- Invited Research Lectures ented at the Dean of Agriculture Team Award Ceremony, Purdue Uni- versity, 12 May 1998. Ejeta, G. 1997. Strategies in breeding sorghum for stress tolerance. Pres- Ejeta, G. 1998. Strategies in Collaborative International Development Ef- ented at the Summer lnstitute for Agricultural Research. June 8-14. forts in Plant Breeding. Presented at the Summer lnstitute for African Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison. Agricultulal Research. 17 June 1998, University of Wisconsin, Madi- Ejeta, G. 1997. Interdisciplinary collaborative research In sorghum and son. millets. Presented at the Greater Horn of Africa-INTSORMIL Ejeta, G. 1998. Interdisciplinary Collaborative Research Towards the Con- Traveling Workshop. Sept, 22-0ct 5, Nazret, Ethiopia. trol ofStrign. Presented at the Symposiumon CRSP: A Unique USAlD Ejeta, G. 1997. Response to the Sasakawa Global 2000 Program Presenta- Partnership with Higher Education. American Society of Agronomy, tion. Presented at the 1997 World Food Prize Symposium, Food Secu- Baltimore, MD, 19 October 1998. rity and the Future of Sub-Saharan Africa. Oct. 17-18. Des Moines, Ejeta, G. 1999. Challenges to African Human Resource Development. Iowa. Presented at Workshop on Agricultural Development Challenges Fac- Ejeta, G. 1997. Agricultural Research, Population, and Global Food Pro- ing African Scientists, Summer Institute for African Agricultural Re- duction. Presented at the HOBY World leaders hi^. Conmess.- Julv 2 1. search,. 16 June, University of Wisconsin, Madison. Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana. Ejeta, G. 1999. Solving Agricultural Problems Through Crop Science. Ejeta, G. 1997. Breeding for Strign Resistance In Sorghum. Special Semi- Presented at the Symposium on Diversity: A Source ofsb-ength, Amer- nar. Purdue University. Dec. I I, Purdue University, West Lafayette, ican Society of Agronomy Annual Meeting at Salt Lake City, Utah. Indiana. Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Disease Control Strategies for Sustainable Agricultural Systems Project TAM-224 R.A. Frederiksen

Principal Investigator

Dr. R. A. Frederiksen, Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843

Collaborating Scientists

Dr. Ranajit Bandyopadhyay, Genetic Resources and Enhancement Program, ICRISAT, Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh 502 324, India Mr. Carlos R. Casela, EMBRAPAICNPMS, Caixa Postal 151, Sete Lagoas 35700, MG, Brazil Dr. Larry Claflin, Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506 Dr. Jeff Dahlberg, NGSP, P.O. Box 5309, Lubbock, TX 79408 Dr. Peter Esele, Uganda Agriculture and Forestry Research Organization, Sorghum & Millets Unit, Serere, P.O. Soroti, Uganda Dr. Debra E. Frederickson, INTSORMIL Pathologist, Ergot project, c/o ICRISAT, Box 776, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe Dr. Issoufou Kollo, INRAN, BP 429, Niamey, Niger Dr. Mamourou Diourte, IER, Bamako, Mali Dr. Sylvie Pazoutova, Institute of Microbiology CAS, Videnska 1083, 142 20 Prague 4, Czech Republic Dr. Dan Jeffers, Plant Pathologist, CIMMYT, Lisboa 27, Colonia Juarez, Apdo Postal 6-641,06600 Mexico D.F. Mexico Dr. John F. Leslie, Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506-5502 Dr. Gary Odvody, Texas A&M University Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Highway 44, Route 2, P. 0.Box 589, Corpus Christi, TX 78410 Dr. W. L. Rooney, Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, 2474TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-2474 Dr. D. T. Rosenow, Texas A&M University Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Route 3, Box 219, Lubbock, TX 7940 1-9757 Dr. Dale Hess, ICRISAT, B. P. 320, Bamako, Mali Dr. G. L. Teetes, Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843

Summary

This is the final report of this project, as R. Frederiksen was used to determine that the pathogen found in the Arner- will retire August 3 1,2000. However, the date on this report ica's came from Africa and not Asia. In addition, we learned includes the period for the Global Conference on Sorghum that C. africana is present in India and we speculate that it is and Millet Diseases to be held at Guanajuato Mexico, Sep- replacing C. sorghi. We further suggest that the disease in tember 23-30. Australia is probably caused by Asian strains. This is impor- tant because it accounts, in part, for some differences noted Dr. Issoufou Kollo finished his dissertation research and in toxicology between Australian and American isolates. returned to Niger. Specifically, his work demonstrated that The aggressiveness of the C. afiicana, is probably caused in Acremonium wilt is an important disease in Niger, some part because of its secondary sporulation which accounts for cultivars and hybrids are extremely susceptible to this dis- its rapid dissemination in Asia and the Americas. Mapping ease and he demonstrated that nematode feeding enhances of disease resistance genes has been a major objective of this wilt even on resistant land race cultivars. Host resistance ap- project over the past four years. Head smut resistance has re- pears to be the best means of control as the agronomic con- mained elusive, particularly the "non meristematic" or gen- trols evaluated had only minor affects on the disease. The eralized resistance has been stable against all races of the paper on characterization of ergot isolates globally was pub- pathogen for decades. Other mapping included finding lished, based on our collaborative work with Dr. Sylvie probes for resistance to anthracnose, leaf blight and sor- Pazoutova and Ranajit Bandyopadhyay. The data based ghum downy mildew. This work is continuing under the di- RAPD banding patterns and on sequences of the ITS region rection of collaborators. of isolates of the Claviceps africana and Claviceps sorghi Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Research Objectives Improve disease-screening methods.

Study the biology of sorghum pathogens and disease epidemiology as needed. Continue collaboration with ICRISAT on growing, distributing, and evaluating the International Sor- Organize, maintain, and distribute the international ghum Anthracnose Virulence Nursery. sorghum disease and pathogen identification nurser- ies in collaboration with ICRISAT, and with TAM- Continue collaboration on sorghum ergot with Dr. 222 and TAM-228. Bandyopadhyay. Detect, identify and catalogue Colletotrichum Transfer collaborative initiative on application of bio- graminicola and Sporisorium reilianum isolates technology for control of grain mold to Dr. Clint worldwide. Magill's program. Develop program for Global Conference on Sorghum Develop technical program for the Global Conference and Millet Diseases. on Sorghum and Millet Diseases in Mexico. Research Approach and Project Output Mali We use virtually identical approaches to domestic and in- Continue efforts to encourage collaboration with the ternational work on the control of sorghum and millet dis- National Sorghum and Millet Disease Program. eases. Th~sinvolved the identification of sorghums with excellent resistance(s) to specific pathogens and to collabo- Evaluate the Texas A&M/INTSORMIL nurseries for rate on the incorporation of the resistance(s) into useful reaction to the prevalent pathogens in Mali. cultivars. Most of this work is done in cooperation with plant breeders, biotechnologists, geneticists, and entomolo- Study the interaction of mold and insects on grain de- gists in the Texas programs, but also occasionally with terioration. breeders in other states, nations (NARS), or with Intema- tional Crop Research Centers, specifically ICRISAT and Niger CIMMYT. This includes the application of such technolo- gies to manage ergot. Continue monitoring resistance to long smut in the Niger Sorghum Improvement Program, along with CozzaborativeResearchin Niger evaluation for resistance to head smut, acremonium wilt, and anthracnose. Collaborative work with Niger was done with Issoufou Kollo both at College Station and in Niger. During this pe- Summarize data on the survival of spores of the long riod, he completed his dissertation and smarizeh dataon smut pathogen. control of pearl millet downy mildew with Apron plus@ which will be reported as part of the conference proceedings from the 3rd Global Conference on Sorghum and Millet Summarize data on a trial on the effect of different fer- Diseases in Guanajuato, Mexico. Dr. Kollo reaMed to tilization treatments on the incidence of Striga Niger on June 1st, 2000. The general accomplishments of hemonthica in pearl millet. this research included the role of nematodes in the Acremonium wilt of sorghum. In Niger, this disease can be Determine the role of nematodes in diseases of sor- serious on susceptible sorghum cultivars, particularly the ghum and pearl millet. new hybrid NAD-I. Under growing situations in which there are high numbers of plant parasitic nematodes, even Domestic wilt resistant land race cultivars will become diseased. Con- sequently, this disease must be managed with host resis- Identify sources of resistance to disease. tance and included as a component of the national crop improvement scheme. I wish to take this time to express my Assist in the incorporation of multiple sources of re- appreciation to the Rockefeller Foundation for providing sistance to disease. "in-country" support in order for Dr. Kollo to complete his work in Niger. The fieldwork was expensive, tedious and Determine inheritance of resistance. could only be done in Niger. The Foundation also made it possible for him to carry an excellent computer and appro- Genetically map disease resistance traits by both con- priate software to Niger, which he also used in analyzinghis ventional and bio-technical methods. research data. Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Collaborative Research in Mali Domestic Research

Work in Mali has been in collaboration with Dr. Fine mapping of non-meristematic head smut Mamourou Diourte who is developing a national sorghum (Sporisorium reilianum) resistant gene in Sorghum research program following his finishing his doctorate at Kansas State University. Dr. Diourte and I discussed his Ramasamy Perurnal was required to return to his position program at regional meetings in 1998 and during my visit to in India and he completed most of the research on the map- Mali in October 1999 we reviewed the research in progress ping of resistance to sorghum head smut among the parents on cultural control of anthracnose at Sikasso. This work was used in his experiments. Most of the details of this research part of a coordinate project across several West African was reported last year. Currently, Dr. Perumal will prepare sites. The designers of these experiments thought it reason- his findings for publication. Since this was continuing the able that crop rotation would be effective in reducing the on- research conducted by Dr. Jairo Osorio, Dr. Perumal and Dr. set of the disease. I concur with the hypothesis. Our work Osorio will have an opportunity to collaborate on summa- (Casela and Frederiksen, 1993) demonstrated that the rizing their data during the Conference in Mexico. pathogen is unlikely to survive longer than two years in the field. Dr. Diourte will be evaluating these same survival Mapping of anthracnose resistance will continue under structures, known as microsclerotia, of Colletotrichum the direction of Drs. Bill Rooney, Louis Prom and Clint graminicola in Mali using similar techniques. This is partic- Magill. ularly important in light of the regional experiments de- scribed earlier. Information and suggestions for a study on Disease evaluation studies are conducted primarily in the effect of plant height on anthracnose was discussed. In large research nurseries in south Texas. Several uniform the absence of having isogenic lines with different height nurseries are grown in locations where sorghdmillet dis- genes, a technique using a random breeding approach was eases are important. These include the International Sor- suggested to Dr. Diourte. Dwarf sorghum appears to need a ghum Anthracnose Virulence Nursery (ISAVN), in higher level of resistance than those sorghum cultivars that collaboration with ICRISAT, the Uniform Head Smut are very tall. Height vulnerability has been managed in other Nursery (UHSN), the Sorghum Downy Mildew Virulence crops with dwarf genes but in sorghum it would be another Nursery (SDMVN), the International Sorghum Virus Nurs- reason to avoid the shorter cultivars grown in the western ery (ISVN), and also a uniform nursery for grain mold world. Experimental evidence on this factor will be invalu- (GWT). These nurseries provide quick assessment of dis- able to the sorghum breeding programs throughout tropical ease severity and pathotype differences among locations. regions with an annual threat of anthracnose. Networking Activities Collaborative Research in Honduras Conferences Attended or Organized The program in Honduras has been in collaboration with Ing. Jorge Moran and Dr. Bill Rooney on vulnerability R. Frederiksen traveled to Hyderabad, India, Cameroon among sorghum genotypes and the relationship between and Mali in September - October 1999. In India, he was able stigma receptivity and ergot. Mr. Moran began this work in to meet and discuss several aspects of continuing collabora- Honduras and continued his evaluations at several locations tive research on sorghdmillet and reviewed sorghum in Texas. This worK constituted the data for Ing. Moran's work at both the All India Sorghum Research Program and master's thesis. In this research he determined that all of the the sorghum and millet research at ICRISAT. It was during germplasm used in his study was susceptible, however, these meetings that the idea of a joint "Futuring Confer- there are significant differences among the lines in their re- ence" between INTSORMIL and ICRISAT take place im- action to ergot. A-lines are the most vulnerable followed by mediately following the Global Conference in ~uanajuato. hybrids, R-lines and B-lines. The reason for these differ- While the number of individuals working on sorghum and ences in reaction is not always clear. In studies examining millet has been reduced, the enthusiasm and professional- genetic effects on these levels of resistance, it was learned ism on sorghum remains high. that there is a strong genotype by environment interaction. While flowering and sigma receptivity may play an impor- In Cameroon, Dr. Zachee Ngoko met me and arranged tant role in the vulnerability of sorghum to ergot, it is not the for my visit with the Director General Jacob A. only factor based on the differential seed set and ergot sever- Ayuk-Takem in Yaounde. Because of the local flights being ity among parental lines in his trials. Clearly, there is much canceled, I was unable to visit the sorghum/millet growing more work needed on mechanisms affecting severity levels regions in the north, Dr. Ngoko and I traveled in the Eastern of ergot in sorghum. Highlands and discussedhis potential for collaboration with INTSORMIL. His interests are similar with those of Dr. Leslie and they have entered into research dialogues. SustainabIe Plant Protection Systems

In Mali, (October 7- 10) Dr. Frederiksen met with Dr. Al- Other Cooperating Scientists pha Maiga, Dr. Mamourou Diourte, Dr. Aboubacar Toure of IER and Dr. Dale Hess, Plant pathologist with ICRISAT. Clint Magill, Department of Plant Pathology and Micro- biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX Finally, in May 2000, I traveled to Denmark and the 77843. Czech Republic. In Denmark, I visited with Professor Eigel de Neergaard at the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural Uni- Jesus Narro, Campo Agricola Experimental Bajio, A.P. versity at Frederiksberg, Denmark (RVL). Dr. Neergaard 113, Celaya, Guanajuato, Mexico. has developed techniques for observing early infection re- sponses using state of the art histopathological methods. Ralph Waniska, Dept. of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas Additionally, I visited with Dr. S. B. Mathur, Director of the A&M University, College Station, TX 77843. Danish Institute of Seed Pathology. This Institute is located (effective 1999) at the University but remains a separate en- Publications and Presentations tity, except in the training of students from developing countries. Additionally, I flew to Prague to visit with Dr. Boora, K. S., R. A. Frederiksen, and C.W. Magill. 1998. DNA-based markers for a recessive gene confemng anthracnose resistance in sor- Sylvie Pazoutova. Dr. Pazoutova and I have collaborated ghum. Mol. Gen. Genet. 26 1:3 17-322. over the past three years on variability in the sorghum ergot Frederiksen, R. A. 2000. Sorghum diseases. in SORGHUM. C. W. Smith fungus. and R. A. Frederiksen (eds.) Wiley Press. In Press. Frederiksen, R. A. and G. Odvody, (eds.)2000. Compendiumof Sorghum Diseases. 2nd Edition. APS Press, St. Paul Minnesota. During the year, R. Frederiksen served as a member of Osorio, J. A., and R.A. Frederiksen. 1998. Development of an infection as- the Editorial Advisory Board of the African Crop Science say for Sporisorium reilianuin, the head smut pathogen on sorghum. Plant Disease. 32: 1232-1236 Journal. Pazoutova, S., R. Bandyopadhyay, D.E. Frederickson, P.G. Mantle, and R.A. Frederiksen. 2000. RelationsamongSorghum Ergot Isolatesfrom the Americas, Africa, India and Australia. Plant Disease 84:437-442. Smith, C. W. and R.A. Frederiksen (eds.). 2000. SORGHUM. Wiley Press In Press. Tenkouano, A., F.R Miller, R.A. Frederiksen, and R.L. Nicholson. 1998. Ontogenetic characteristics of resistance to foliar anthracnose in Sor- ghum. African Crop Science Journal. 6:249-258. Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Insect Pest Management Strategies For Sustainable Sorghum Production Project TAM-225 George L. Teetes, Texas A&M University

Principal Investigator

Dr. George L. Teetes, ProfessorITAES Faculty Fellow/Entomologist,Department of Entomology, 2475 TAMU, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-2475

Collaborating Scientists

Dr. Niamoye Yaro Diarisso, Entomologist, IEWSRA/CRRA, Sotuba, B.P. 438, Bamako, Dr. Yacouba 0. Doumbia, Entomologist, IEWSRAICRRA, Sotuba, B.P. 438, Bamako, Mali Dr. Aboubacar Toure, Sorghum Breeder, IEWSWCRRA, Sotuba, B.P. 438, Bamako, Mali Dr. Alain Ratnadass, Entomologist, CIRAD-CA, ICRISATIWASIP, B.P. 320, Bamako, Mali Dr. Christopher S. Manthe, Entomologist, DAR, Private Bag 0033, Gaborone, Botswana Dr. Johnnie van den Berg, Entomologist, ARC-Grain Crops Institute, Private Bag X1252, Potchefstroom, South Africa Dr. Gary C. Peterson, ProfessorlSorghum Breeder, Texas A&M University Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Route 3, Box 219, Lubbock, TX 7940 1-9747 Dr. Frank E. Gilstrap, ProfessorIAssociate TAES Director/Entomologist, TAES Directors' Office, 2147 TAMU, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-2147 Dr. Richard A. Frederiksen, Professor/Plant Pathologist, Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, 2 132 TAMU, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-132 Dr. Darrell T. Rosenow, ProfessorISorghum BreederMali Country Coordinator, Texas A&M University Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Route 3, Box 219, Lubbock, TX 79401-9747 Dr. Lloyd W. Rooney, ProfessorICereal Chemist, Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, 2474 TAMU, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-2474 Dr. Thomas W. Fuchs, ProfessorIState IPM Coordinator, Texas A&M University Agricultural Research and Extension Center, 7887 North Highway 87, San Angelo, TX 76901 Dr. Roy D. Parker, Jr., ProfessorlExtensionEntomologist, Texas A&M University Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Highway 44 West, Route 2, Box 589, Corpus Christi, TX 78406-9704

Summary

During the four-year period covered by this report, the PI Agriculture Research (DAR), and Dr. Johnnie van den annually traveled to Mali to maintain collaborative sorghum Berg, Agriculture Research Council (ARC) entomologist, entomology research with Drs. Niamoye Diarisso and Potchefstroom, South Africa. Resistance of sorghum lines Yacouba Doumbia, both ERentomologists. In 1999, the PI and hybrids to greenbug, Schizaphis graminurn, and sor- participated in the review by the External Evaluation Panel ghum midge, Stenodiplosis sorghicola, was evaluated in of the IEWINTSORMIL collaborative research program. collaboration with Dr. Gary Peterson (TAM-223). In- The collaborative sorghum entomology research in Mali sect-resistant sorghum genotypes were advanced in crosses has contributedmethods to evaluate sorghum genotypes for with elite germplasm. Several new sorghum midge- resis- resistance to panicle-feeding bugs and provided valuable in- tant parental A- and R-lines alone and in hybrid combina- formation on bug biology, seasonal abundance, and damage tion were evaluated for release to commercial seed severity. Dr. Diarisso, a Texas A&M University graduate companies. Numerous selections to advance, cross, and whose Ph.D. program was directed by the PI, initiated re- evaluate further were made among segregating lines. Lines search to assess insect pest severity on newly developed and and hybrids for resistance to greenbug biotypes E and1 were deployed sorghum varieties in farmers' fields and as a evaluated for TAM-223 and commercial seed companies. venue for technology transfer. The PI also traveled to South These evaluations were to determine the appropriateness of Africa and Botswana during this reporting period. An the material for release or involved segregating material be- INTSORMIL collaborative research program was estab- ing phenotyped for use in mapping genes resistant to lished with the goal to manage sugarcane aphid, Melanaphis greenbug. Experiments identified insecticides effective sacchari, and develop integrated pest management (IPM) against sorghum midge and fall armyworm, Spodoptera approaches for sorghum insect pests in southern Africa. Pugiperda. QTLs for greenbug resistance in sorghum were Collaborators are Dr. Christopher Manthe, Department of identified, and progress was made on cloning and differen- Sustainable Plant Protection Systems tial expression of genes in response to greenbug infestation. determine the role of insects and pathogens in kernel Graduate education programs of six students were directed deterioration by applying different combinations of during this reporting period. Three Ph.D. and one M.S. stu- insecticides and fungicides. dents graduated. QTLs for resistance to greenbug were identified. DNA sequences from the mitochondria1genome Assess the importance of panicle-feeding bugs and were used to assess genetic diversity among populations of sorghum midge on traditional and improved sorghum greenbug. A Ph.D. student is determining fitness and viru- varieties in farmers' fields. lence of 11 greenbug biotypes to sorghum genotype differ- entials. Education programs of two African graduate Southern Africa students, one Malian and one Nigerien who conducted re- search in Niger, were co-directed with Dr. Frank Gilstrap. The long-term objective was: One of the African students graduated and one will com- plete degree requirements in August 2000. The P.I. cooper- To collaborate with southern African scientists to de- ated with extension education personnel on sorghum insect velop IPM strategies for sorghum insect pests. IPM. Also, in collaboration with extension personnel, the extent of IPM adoption by farmers and the role public IPM In collaboration with breeders, objectives during this re- specialists and private agricultural consultantsplayed in this porting period were: adoption were surveyed. Based on responses to two ques- tionnaires, it was very apparent that farmers benefit from us- To identify, evaluate, and incorporate resistance to ing IPM, and private agricultural consultants well sugarcane aphid into sorghum varieties and hybrids understand IPM is a multi-tactic approach to managing adapted to southern Africa agricultural systems. pests and recommend IPM tactics to theirclients. Risk, eco- nomics, and the environment were important considerations Develop IPM strategies for sorghum insect pests in in using IPM. This project has contributed much of the re- southern Africa. search on which IPM in sorghum is based. Most (87%) of sorghum growers use IPM, and IPM use has resulted in a 0 Identify opportunities for graduate education of 65% reduction in insecticide use. Greenbug-resistant sorghums were assessed to benefit society by $130-300 mil- southern Africans. lion per year. elucidate needs for technical assistance, technology Objectives, Production and Utilization Constraints transfer, and networking.

Objectives USA

Mali Long-term objectives were:

Long-term objectives were: c To provide the research base for IPM of sorghum in- sect pests. Emphasis was on collaborating with breed- To collaborate with IERMalian scientists to develop ers to develop, evaluate, and deploy sorghums IPM strategies for insect pests, especially pani- resistant to sorghum midge; greenbug; yellow sugar- cle-feeding bugs and sorghum midge, that attack tra- cane aphid, Siphaflava; and sugarcane aphid. In col- ditional and improved insect-resistant and susceptible laboration with molecular biologists, biotechnology sorghums. techniques were applied to increase resistance dura- bility by understanding the genetic relationship of in- Increase entomological research efforts in farmers' sects and resistant plants. Ancillary research included sorghum fields. assessing abundance/damage relationships of insect pests on resistant and susceptible sorghum genotypes and determining mechanisms and causes of resis- Direct graduate education programs, provide techno- tance. In collaboration with extension personnel, IPM logical assistance, and promote technology transfer tactics and how they hction were delivered to sor- and networking. ghum growers. Objectives for this reporting period were: Objectives during this reporting period were: * To substantiate, for use by sorghum breeders, the To evaluate sorghums resistant to greenbug, sorghum most reliable and efficient method to protect sorghum midge, and yellow sugarcane aphid in the field and panicles from bugs so resistance could be assessed by greenhouse. comparing protected with naturally infested panicles Supervise graduate student research. Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Graduate students supervised were a Ph.D. student Erom outbreaks of secondary insect pests, insect pest resurgence, Mali assessing spikelet flowering time and morphology as ecological disruption, and environmental contamination. causes of sorghum resistance to sorghummidge; U.S. Ph.D. Consequently, the researchable constraints addressed in the student assessing areawide management of Mexican corn USA by this project were yield-reducing effects of insect rootwormthrough adult suppression and crop rotation; U.S. pests and economic and ecological costs associated with Ph.D. student using RFLP technology to assess genetics of chemical control. IPM is a universally accepted approach to greenbug resistance in sorghum; U.S. Ph.D. student using dealing with insect pests. This project used the IPM ap- RFLP/RAPD technology to assess genetic variability of proach that requires developing cultural and biological tac- greenbug and its biotypes; U.S. Ph.D. student assessing fit- tics to prevent yield-reducing effects of insects and ness and virulence of greenbug biotypes to sorghum geno- determining the prerequisites for use of insecticide, when type differentials; M.S. student fromNiger researching field remedial action is needed, based on economic and ecologi- biology and laboratory life-fertility of millet head miner in cal parameters. Incollaboration with plant breeders andmo- Niger (committee co-chair); and a Ph.D. student from Mali lecular biologists, the project emphasized development and studying natural mortality of millet head miner in Niger use of insect-resistant sorghums. Insect pests given most at- (committee co-chair). The PI also participated in Entomo- tention were greenbug, sorghum midge, yellow sugarcane logical Society of America, International Plant Resistance aphid, and panicle-infesting bugs and caterpillars. to Insects Workshop, Consortium for International Crop Protection, CRSP, and other professional and scientific ac- Research Approach and Project Output tivities and meetings. Four approaches were used to achieve project output - Production Constraints collaboration/partnership with developing country scien- tists, technology development in collaboration with plant Mali breeders and molecular biologists, graduate student educa- tion, and technology transfer in cooperation with extension Deploying improved, non-photoperiod sensitive, com- education personnel. Project outputs were divided into pact-panicle sorghum varieties that yield more than tradi- these approaches. tionally grown, local varieties is constrained by insect pests, especially panicle-feeding bugs. Damage by bugs is exacer- Collaboratio~artnershipwith Developing bated by pathogen infection that significantly increases in Country Scientists damaged kernels. Damage by bugs and infection by patho- gens dramatically reduce grain yield and quality and render Collaborative Sorghum Panicle-feeding it unusable for human consumption. Resolution of the inter- Bug Research in Mali relationship of damage by bugs, infection by pathogens, and reduction in grain yield and quality requires an interdisci- The collaborative research program between IER/Mali plinary, team approach. Other insect pests might occur and 1NTSORMILN.S.scientists is one of the true successes when agronomic practices are changed and new sorghum of the Collaborative Research Support Program (CRSP) varieties used. This project is central to the interdisciplinary model. The program is an outstanding example of collabo- team of INTSORMIL and IER scientists improving sor- rative, multi-disciplinary, team research. The IERJ ghum yield and quality in West Africa. INTSORMIL association has been on-going for many years and has matured into an effective research, technology de- Southern Africa velopment, and technology transfer program. Much success is a result of long-term efforts in graduate student education, In Southern Africa (mainly Botswana, Zimbabwe, and financial support, and research partnering. South Africa), aphids, especially sugarcane aphid, com- monly infest and reduce sorghum yield. Infestation by During the four-year period covered by this report, the aphids and moisture stress often occur at the same time in collaborative sorghum entomology research program in the region and in combination are serious production con- Mali contributed significantly to sustainable sorghum pro- straints. This project contributes to a team effort to improve duction. In collaboration with Drs. Yacouba Doumbia and sorghum production and develop IPM strategies for sor- Niamoye Diarisso, a simple method was developed to as- ghum insect pests in Southern Africa. sess resistance of sorghum to panicle-feeding bugs. The method involved using plastic pollinating bags placed over USA a few sorghum panicles at the flowering stage to prevent in- festation by bugs. At maturity these panicles were compared In the USA, monoculture production of sorghum exacer- to nonprotected panicles naturally infested with bugs. A bates the severity of insect pests, leading to reduced yield comparison easily could be made between the damaged and and increased production costs. Although insecticides are non-damaged panicles to assess relative resistance within available readily and can be used to lessen the and among sorghum genotypes. This research and in collab- yield-reducing impact of insect pests, their sole use results oration with Dr. Alain Ratnadass, ICRISAT entomologist at in significantly increased production costs and can cause Samanko, led to development of a universally used damage Sustainable Plant Protection Systems rating scale. The resistance evaluation method and damage versity in small-farm sorghum and millet was 10 times rating scale were used in collaboration with Dr. Aboubacar greater than in commercial (hybrid) fields. An insect identi- Toure to evaluate new and improved sorghum varieties and fication publication for Southern Afiica would be benefi- phenotype segregating sorghum populations being used for cial. Dr. van den Berg has developed ties with extension RFLP analysis for resistance to bugs. Research on pani- specialists working with producers on small farms. cle-feeding bugs in Mali was conducted at Sotuba, Samanko, and Cinzana. Much useful information was col- Dr. Manthe conducts some entomological research in ad- lected on bug biology, seasonal distribution, and damage se- dition to numerous administrative duties. Dr. Manthe has verity. had significant responsibility in the DAR sor- ghum-breeding program because the DAR breeder is in a The TAM-225 PI participated in a collaborative technol- Ph.D. program at the University of Nebraska. Dr. Manthe ogy transfer program in Mali with personnel of World Vi- anticipated returning to more entomological research, sion International. Dr. Diarisso, the PI, and others with however, this now is questionable because he has taken a INTSORMIL and the BeanlCowpea CRSP evaluated field position at the University of Botswana. demonstrations of sorghum and cowpea rotations and intercroppings. Entomologists assessed insect pest severity Research on developing resistance to sugarcane aphid in- in these demonstrations. Collaboration with World Vision creased for 1999-2000. INTSORMIL, through the Texas is an excellent approach for technology transfer. A&M University breedinglentomology program, provided to regional scientists a replicated 50-entry test to evaluate Having two IER entomologists to conduct research on for resistance to sugarcane aphid and local adaptation at insect pests of sorghum is a luxury that needs to be ex- sites determined by regional collaborators. INTSORMIL ploited. Critical research responsibilities for each person also will develop new sorghum germplasm lines with novel must be identified and justified. Budgeting individual re- gene combinations and provide to local collaborators searchers fiomthe country budget, based on work plans,will germplasm to evaluate for resistance to sugarcane aphid. be a workable approach to resolving problems that might be NSORMIL will lead in developing a regional sorghum caused by two scientists working in similar areas. disease/insect/adaptation test for planting at numerous loca- tions. Material in the test will represent a range of diversity Collaborative Sorghum IPM Research to stress resistance, plant type, and yield. The material will in southern Africa. be available to regional scientists for use in research pro- grams. The TAM-223 and TAM-225 PIS traveled to South Af- rica and Botswana during this reporting period. The trip es- Technology Development tablished (reestablished) an INTSORMIL research program in Southern Africa directed at managing sugarcane aphid Results of research beneficial to U.S. agriculture and in and developing IPM approaches for sorghum insect pests. support of international research collaboration, especially The entomologyhreeding program in conjunction with Dr. evaluating sorghums for resistance to sorghum midge and Christopher Manthe previously conducted research on sug- aphids (greenbug and sugarcane aphid), are summarizedbe- arcane aphid in Botswana and Zimbabwe when Dr. Manthe low. Research efforts of TAM-225 are in collaboration with was a Ph.D. student at Texas A&M University. The rejuve- TAM-223, the project of Dr. Gary Peterson, Sorghum nated collaborative research program involves Dr. Manthe, Breeder at the Texas A&M University Agricultural Re- Department of Agriculture Research (DAR) entomologist, search and Extension Center at Lubbock. Gaborone, Botswana, and Dr. Johnnie van den Berg, Agri- culture Research Council (ARC) entomologist, Evaluation of Insect-resistant Sorghums Potchefstroom, South Africa. Other Southern African sci- entists will be included in the project as they are identified. Standard, annual evaluations of sorghum midge-resistant lines and hybrids were conducted at Corpus The Agriculture Research Council Grain Crops Institute, Christi and College Station. Resistance to sorghum midge Potchefstroom, has responsibility in South Africa for re- of several hundred hybrids (including resistant x resistant search on summer grains including sorghum. It is a large in- experimental hybrids, resistant x resistant checks, a resis- stitute, about 70 personnel, with excellent facilities and tant x susceptible check, and susceptible checks), several research programs. Dr. van den Berg currently is conduct- thousand elite lines (including resistant and susceptible ing many research projects on several insect pests of sor- checks), more than 700 converted sorghum lines, several ghum Most of Dr. van den Berg's research has been hundred segregating lines, and several thousand breeding directed at large commercial sorghum production. Research lines were evaluated. Susceptible sorghum planted three on sugarcane aphid will represent an expansion of his re- weeks early adjacent to the experimental area provided a search program, including activity in Botswana with Dr. source of sorghum midge to infest the experimental Manthe, and in other countries as collaborators are identi- sorghums. At Corpus Christi, seeds of the experimental fied. Dr. van den Berg proposed a survey of insect pests of sorghums were planted in mid-April in 6-m-long plots with sorghum and millet on small farms. He believes insect di- 97.6 cm between rows. Sorghum was planted at College Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Station in early May, with 76.2 cm between rows. Grain Evaluation of Insecticides for Sorghum Insects yield (kg ha-') and damage caused by sorghum midge were compared between experimental hybrids and checks. Sor- During this reporting period, insecticides were evaluated ghum at physiological maturity was rated by plot for sor- for control of fall armyworm and sorghum midge at College ghum midge damage based on a scale of 1 = 1- 10, to 9 = 8 1 Station. Results have been published. to 100% of kernels that failed to develop. Sorghum panicles from 0.0025 ha per plot were hand harvested. Threshed QTL Cloning and Differential Expression grain weight (g) was converted to kg ha-' to obtain grain of Greenbug Resistance Genes yield. ANOVA and LSDo.05were used for data analysis and mean separation, respectively. Data are provided in the re- For physical mapping of QTLs using a Sorghum port for project TAM-223. propinquurn BAC library, two approaches were used to better understand and clone greenbug resistance genes in In all evaluations during the four-year reporting period, sorghum. Greenbug-resistant QTLs previously were experimental hybrids, for the most part, and resistant x re- mapped to different linkage groups in sorghum (Katsar sistant checks, were significantly less damaged by sorghum 1998).Physical mapping ofthese QTL loci was initiated us- midge and produced significantly more grain within and ing the BAC clones. A total of 198 markers linked to various ver locations than did susceptible x susceptible checks. greenbug-resistant QTLs in sorghum (for biotypes C, E, I, Sorghum at Corpus Christi was damaged more by sorghum and K) was probed on the S. propinquum (a parent used in midge than at College Station. Hybrids that performed well the mapping population) BAC library. Gel-purified inserts under high sorghum midge abundance at Corpus Christi of the markers were isolated and five probes were pooled for also performed well under moderate abundance at College each filter set and hybridized with high-density BAC library Station. Evaluation of sorghum parental lines for resistance filters. A total of 1608 unique BAC clones was identified to sorghum midge, yield, and other agronomic qualities pro- and rearrayed in 96-well and 384-well micro-titer plates. vided strong support for release of several lines for commer- High-density filters were made with these rearrayed BAC cial use. Selections were made among the better genotypes clones and probed individually with markers associated and advanced for future evaluation, and some were crossed with the QTL for resistance to biotypes C and E on linkage with other genotypes. Several lines from the sorghum con- group E around CSU 0330. This region was chosen because version program showed significant levels of resistance to these loci accounted for more than 45% of the phenotypic sorghum midge but need further evaluation. Several lines variation. Forty-six markers were used. Based on the hy- will be used to make crosses that will be evaluated more at bridization, five contigs were assembled in this region. To Corpus Christi and College Station. Numerous selections examine gene expression after greenbug infestation, several were made from segregating breeding lines. A diversity of experiments were conducted. The genotypes of sorghum re- phenotypes was selected, but some need further evaluation. sistant and susceptible to greenbug biotypes E and I were Overall, even under very unfavorable weather conditions, grown in a greenhouse. Fourteen pots of each resistant sor- good progress was made during this reporting period in ghumgenotype, each containing about 20 plants, were used. identifying sorghum lines useful for production of commer- Ten apterous greenbugs were placed on the second true leaf cial sorghum midge-resistant hybrids. of each three-leaf-stage plant when plants were 6 to 8 inches tall. Pots of infested plants were covered with a 62 x 75 x 75 More than 1000 sorghum lines developed through pro- cm cage. At 0, 1,4, 7, and 10 days after infestation, plants ject TAM-223 and being selected as parental lines for re- were harvested and leaf tissue washed and frozen in liquid lease and use in hybrids were evaluated for resistance to nitrogen for isolation of RNA. For each pot containing in- greenbug biotypes E and I in greenhouse experiments. Sev- fested plants, a pot of noninfested plants served as a check. eral of these lines were moderately resistant to biotype I. Six Sorghum genotypes were PI550607 (resistant to biotypes E hundred forty sorghum lines from Cargill Seed Company and I) and RTx430 (susceptible), and Tx2783 (resistant to were evaluated for resistance to biotype E. Results indicated biotype E) and IS7 173C (susceptible). Two cDNA libraries that both INTSORMIL scientists and the commercial seed were constructed from greenbug-infested leaf tissue of industry are making progress in developing hybrids resis- PI550607 and Tx2783 in lambda ZAP vector and mass ex- tant to greenbug biotypes. Details of results of these evalua- cised in pBluescript (SK+) ordered in 384 micro-titer plates tions are not presented here because of space limitations. (approximately 18,000 clones per library). Also, a cDNA li- However, sufficient progress is being made to conclude that brary from biotype I greenbug was constructed and ordered sorghum lines resistant to these greenbug biotypes will be in 384 micro-titer plates. A differential hybridization ap- released soon. Agronomic data required for release and reg- proach was undertaken to isolate genes inducedor repressed istration are being collected. Greenbug biotype E- and by greenbug infestation. I-resistant lines are agronomically diverse. For example, some are tan plants with red kernels and tan glumes. These Graduate Student Research lines will be valuable to the sorghum seed industry both for these agronomic characters and for resistance to greenbug. Summaries of graduate student research projects are pre- sented below. Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Cathy Sue Katsar. This student graduated in August Microsatelliteprobes are being used to determine genetic 1998 and her research on molecular analysis of greenbug re- variation in natural populations of greenbug. sistance in sorghum and other Poaceaous host plants was Microsatellites are nuclear genomic markers used to infer summarized in previous annual reports. However, based on population structure and subdivision including estimates of her research, she formulated a new concept in IPM to be levels of gene flow, sexual reproduction, and effective pop- considered for deployment of insect-resistant sorghums. ulation size. Microsatellite primers have been developed The concept relates to correspondence among greenbug re- and screened for polymorphism. Microsatellite primers sistance loci in grain crops and implications for gene rota- were developed to evaluate field-collected greenbugs. tion strategies. Management of biotic constraints to crop production, such as insect pests, is complicated by the abil- Hame Abdou Kadi Kadi. This Nigerien M.S. student con- ity of some insects to propagate virulent biotypes rapidly. In ducted laboratory and field research on fecundity, longev- only 30 years, greenbug gave rise to eight new biotypes that ity, and oviposition of millet mead miner in Niger. He overcame plant resistance or organophosphate insecticides. graduated in December 1999 and returned to Niger as an Sorghum, wheat, and barley, distantly-related grain crops INRAN employee. Results of this student's research were often grown near each other or in rotation, contain resis- summarized in previous annual reports. tance genes at some corresponding chromosomal locations, suggesting similar resistance mechanisms may be used in Soualika Boire. This Malian Ph.D. student conducted re- each. In sorghum, some genes resistant to greenbug occur at search on the impact of natural enemies on millet head putatively-duplicated chromosomal locations, possibly miner abundance in Niger. He completed his research, suggesting Wer redundancy in the resistance mecha- courses, and preliminary exam. His dissertation is written nisms being deployed. Traditional crop rotationmerely may and is being reviewed. He will defend his dissertation re- be challenging the greenbug with a series of related resis- search in August 2000. Results ofhis research were surnma- tance genes, thereby providing only a minimal bamer to rized in previous annual reports. biotype formation. Niamoye Yaro Diarisso. This Ph.D. student from Mali Andrea B. Jensen. This Ph.D. student's research is on graduated in August 1997. Her dissertation research was to biotype-associated genetic variation in greenbug. It in- assess spikelet flowering time and morphology as causes of volves use of RFLP to characterize genetic diversity of nat- sorghum resistance to sorghum midge. Results of her re- ural populations of greenbug. Sequences from the search were summarized in previous annual reports. mitochondria1genome were used to determine the degree of divergence among greenbug biotypes and whether biotypes Scott Lingren. This U.S. Ph.D. student graduated in Au- are derived from one or several maternal lineages. Frag- gust 1999. His dissertation research was on the role of sor- ments from the 16s rRNA and cytochrome oxidase I1 ghum in rotation with corn to manage Mexican corn (COII) genes have been PCR amplified from the mitochon- rootworm. Results of his research were summarized in pre- drial genome of greenbug biotypes and isolates B, C, E, F, vious annual reports. G,H, I, K, Canada wild rye, New York, and South Carolina, and an outgroup. These fragments have been sequenced Roberto Gorena. The research objectives of this Ph.D. with forward and reverse primer sets. Forward and reverse student are to determine fitness and virulence of 11 sequences have been compared using Sequencher 3.1. greenbug biotypes to sorghum genotype differentials. Pre- Alignments have been performed using CLUSTALX. Pre- liminary data using choice procedures are provided in the liminary analyses were performed W~~~PAUP3.1 1. A third table below. mitochondria1gene fragment (COI) was PCR amplified and sequenced.

Mean Damage to Sorghum Genotypes by Eleven Greenbug Biotypes, 1999

-- --- . .. - - - Winter Data Sorarhum C E NY B F SCAR I H CWR K G TX7000 80a 6 8a 65a 63a 5 8a 55a 50a 50a 50a 40a 38a TX2737 4 3 ab 4 8 ab 15c 20bc 48a l8b 73a 43a 15a 2 5ab 2Ob TX2783 4 5 ab I 5b 3 8b 53ab 45a 40a 7 3a 15b 40a IOb 25ab PI550607 IOb 3 8 ab 1 Oc 1 Oc 40a 13b 4 0 a 25b L 3a 2 5ab 3 0ab Summer Data TX7000 70a 70a 70a 85a 781 70a 6 3a 65a 58a 78a 55a TX2737 38b 48ab 50 ab 45c 40b 65a 4 0 ab 53a 30a 43b 3 5ab TX2783 I 5b 13c 40b 65b 65ab 50a 4 3ab I Oc 43a 2 5b 4 8ab PI550607 I Ob 2Obc 2 8b 2Od 38b 488 2 8b 30b 23a 30b 33b Winter and Summer Dals Combined TX7000 75a 69a 67a 74 a 68a 63a 56a 58a 54a 59a 46a TX2737 40b 48b 33bc 3 3b 4 4ab 41ab 56a 48a 23bc 3 4b 28b TX2783 3 Obc 14c 39b 59a 55ab 45ab 58a 13b 43ab I8b 36ab PI550607 I Oc 29bc 19c 15b 39b 30b 3 4a 28c l8c 28b 31ab

Means followed by the same letter for each data set in a column are not significantly different. Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

'Technology Transfer ment as very important. At least 50% considered resistant varieties, crop rotation, harvest time, and promoting rapid Much emphasis during this reporting period was placed seed germination and seedling growth as very important. on technology transfer. For this reason, several surveys Scouting and economic thresholds were the IPM tactics were conducted to assess the extent of IPM use by sorghum considered most important for management of most sor- growers, their perceptions and private agricultural ghum insect pests. IPM specialists listed scouting, eco- consultantsperceptions of IPM. Summaries ofthe results of nomic thresholds, natural enemy conservation, and resistant those surveys are provided here. varieties as important for management of greenbug. Planting date, scouting, and economic thresholds were im- Quantifiing Texas Sorghum Growers ' portant for sorghum midge. Scouting, economic thresholds, Use of IPM for Insect Pests natural enemy conservation, and selective/biologicalinsec- ticide use were most important for caterpillars in the pani- Much valuable integrated pest management information cle. was obtained from responses to a six-page "Questionnaire on Insect IPM of Grain Sorghum" mailed to 739 members of Farmer and Agricultural Consultants' the Texas Grain Sorghum Association. Responses were re- Perceptions of Use and Contributions of IPM. ceived from 522 of the 739 (70.6%); 398 (76.2%) of the questionnaires returned were usable. Most respondents A "Questionnaire on Importance of IPM" was adminis- completed college (38.5%) or had some college education tered to Board members and Extension Agents-Pest Man- (30.2%). Usable responses were received from growers agement at the Texas Pest Management Association who farm in a total of 94 counties. Usable questionnaires Mid-year Board of Directors' Meeting held 2 October 1998 were from 184,80, and 134 growers in the northern, central, in El Paso. A "Questionnaire on Pest Management Practices and southern regions of Texas, respectively. Questionnaire by Crop Consultants" was handed out at the Texas Associa- respondents grew an average of 643.7 acres of grain sor- tion of Agricultural Consultants' Annual Conference and ghum during each of the past five years. Most growers grew Exhibition held 14-16 December 1998 in Lubbock, and re- sorghum for profit (94.0%), or as a rotation crop (65. I%), turned by mail. and desired better price (96.2%) and yield (89.4%). The most important insect pests to 84.3 and 74.2% of growers All farmers said they benefit from using IPM. were greenbug and caterpillars in the panicle. Statewide, Ninety-two percent of consultants think their clients benefit 77.4% of growers did their own scouting for sorghum insect very much from IPM. To farmers and consultants, respec- pests, and 55% said they used IPM. Growers used multiple tively, IPM means considering pesticides only when needed IPM tactics to manage sorghum insect pests. Totals of 93.7 (loo%), multiple pest management tactics (95 and 92%), and 92.4% of growers used good seedbed preparation to natural enemies (90 and 92%), and practices to pre- promote rapid seed germination and crop rotation, respec- ventlavoid pests (95 and 84%). Farmers would use more tively, whereas only 38.6,53.5, and 60.3% applied insecti- IPM if it resulted in less governmental regulation (90%), de- cides in-furrow or banded at planting, foliarly, and to seed. creased production costs (90%), or more money (79%). From 75 to 80% of growers attended chemical company-, Consultants (44%) said IPM use slightly increases their . seed company-, and Extension Service-sponsored meetings risks but slightly lessens clients' risks. Most farmers (68%) to help manage sorghum insect pests. From 82 to 94% of said IPM greatly lessens risks. Reduced farming risks growers found bulletins or other written information, Ex- (79%), less harm to the environment (79%), less trouble or tension Service advice, and shortcourses/seminars/meet- complication than current practices (79%), and making ings helphl in managing sorghum insect pests. money (74%) were very important to farmers when consid- ering implementing a new IPM practice. Making money for Responses to a three-page IPM specialists' questionnaire clients (92%) and reducing client risk (83%) were very im- mailed to 106 private agricultural consultants and 36 Texas portant when consultants recommended new practices. Agricultural Extension Service specialists and county agents-pest management were used to quantify how many To farmers and consultants, respectively, very important of the Texas sorghum growers could be considered IPM us- indicators of IPM program success were that farmers knew ers. Of the 142 IPM specialists, 85 (59.9%) returned their more IPM (95 and 96%), increased net profits (95 and96%), questionnaires. Completed, usable questionnaires were re- used a variety ofpractices (90 and 96%), more used IPM (90 ceived from 82 (57.7%). More than 70% of the specialists and 96%), increased yields (74 and 67%), and used less pes- ranked caterpillars in the panicle, sorghum midge, and ticide (79 and 46%). Farmers and consultants, respectively, greenbug very important pests of sorghum. Greenbug was thought it very important that the Extension Service demon- ranked very important by twice as many specialists in the strate and evaluate new practices and technology (94 and northern as in the southern region. Sorghum midge was very 92%), provide information and trouble shoot (83 and 80%), important to more specialists in the southern than central or be available to help decide on IPM practices year around (83 northern regions. At least 70% of specialists ranked eco- and 68%), write crop-pest status newsletters (74 and 72%), nomic thresholds, planting date, scouting, natural enemy and scout (90 and 24%). Most farmers (82%) did not want conservation, applicator calibration, and fertilizer manage- Extension IPM programs moved after a number of years. Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Most consultants (46%) thought Extension IPM programs for insect pests of sorghum. Criteria used to determine an should not be moved but that acreage scouted should be lim- IPM user were very stringent and based on quantitative as- ited. sessment. Other impact assessments showed that research, primarily from this project, r~sultedin 65% reduction in in- Most farmers (74%) think IPM can improve environ- secticide use in Texas during the past two decades. The PI mental quality, and most consultants (72%) think IPM can for this project provides technical assistance to sorghum greatly improve environmental quality. Ninety percent of seed company representatives and private agricultural con- farmers believe preserving environmental quality is very sultants. Collaborative research results in West Africa, es- important and that their farming practices do not harm the pecially Mali, provided the methodology to evaluate environment. Preserving environmental quality was very sorghums for resistance to panicle-feeding bugs. Several important to 72% of consultants. Most farmers and consul- new, improved, bug-resistant sorghum varieties were devel- tants would use less pesticide if farmers could make the oped and are being tested in on-farm experiments. same or more money (95 and 100%) or other practices were available (95 and 88%). They woulduse a less environmen- Networking Activities tally toxic pesticide if it cost the same (84 and 83%) or slightly more (74 and 63%). Workshops and Presentations

Governmental regulations of pesticides have somewhat Bonnie B. Pendleton and George L. Teetes. Introduction: hurt consultants' ability to consult (52%) and somewhat so many biotypes, so little time. ESA Section F Symposium: helped the need for their services (48%). Most farmers Greenbacks to Genebugs: the centennial celebration of the (68%) think governmental regulations have somewhat hurt greenbug's landing? Annual Meeting of the Entomological their ability to farm. Forty-two percent of consultants would Society of America, 12-16 December 1999, Atlanta, Geor- be interested or perhaps interested in being certified IPM gia. consultants, and 44% thought their clients would be inter- ested in being certified IPM users. Most farmers (63%) George L. Teetes, Gary C. Peterson, Bonnie B. would be interested in being certified IPM users, especially Pendleton, Roberto L. Gorena, Andrea B. Jensen, and if government would regulate farming less (90%) and the Catherine S. Katsar. Research program to develop and eval- public better regarded IPM products (95%). Seventy-seven uate greenbug-resistantsorghums and study interactions be- percent of consultants would be interested in being certified tween greenbug biotypes and their hosts. Annual Meeting of IPM consultants if IPM products were more regarded by the the Entomological Society of America, 12- 16 December public and worth more. 1999, Atlanta, Georgia.

Most consultants obtain information on economic George L. Teetes and Bonnie B. Pendleton. Update on thresholds (92%) and monitoring procedures (80%) from sorghum midge management. Texas Plant Protection Con- experience and on new pesticides (88%) and technology ference, 7-8 December 1999, College Station, Texas. (96%) from workshops and conferences. Consultants pro- vided services for insect pests (loo%), weeds (88%), and George Teetes and Bonnie Pendleton. Update on sor- diseases (72%) in 41 counties. Consultants had consulted ghum midge. 1999 Entomology Science Conference, 9-1 1 for averages of 16 years on 18719 acres. Farmers had November 1999, College Station, Texas. farmed for averages of 25 years on 2621 acres. Greenbug Research Consortium, 2 1-22 September 1999, Farmers commented that IPM lowers risk and production Stillwater, Oklahoma. costs while maximizing profits and is less harmful to the en- vironment. They said IPM is the best economic solution to a Research Information Exchange pest problem and allows chemicals to remain on the market longer. A consultant commented that pest management uses The PI provided much information in different forms to all the tools available to produce the highest quality, least scientists from several developing countries. Journal re- expensive product with the least damage to hrnself, the con- prints were sent to 73 scientists. The newly revised insect suming public and the environment as possible. management guide for sorghum is extremely popular, and 35 copies were sent to scientists in developing countries. Collaboration with Extension Service The most rapidly increasing way to request information on Personnel and Others sorghum entomology is electronically. The PI receives many requests for sorghum entomology information via Research by the PI is the basis for IPM of sorghum insect e-mail. Also, he authored an Internet site on plant resistance pests in the U.S., especially Texas. The information from to insects that often is used as an information source. The PI this project is used extensively by Extension personnel, pri- is developing a sorghum entomology Internet site that con- vate agricultural consultants, and farmers. A survey con- tains information, including photos, of sorghum insects and ducted in 1997, using a questionnaire sent to 739 sorghum damage they cause. During travel to Mali in 1997, the PI and growers, showed 87.4% of Texas sorghum growers use IPM collaborator Dr. Niarnoye Diarisso interacted with World Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Vision personnel and traveled with them to on-farm sites greenbug resistant grain sorghum varieties: Texas where local farmers were using a variety of sorghum devel- Blacklands. MP-1585. oped by IER/INTSOR.MILplant breeders. This relationship with World Vision has continued. Eddleman, B. R., C. C. Chang and B. A. McCarl. 1999. Economic benefits from grain sorghum variety improve- The PI serves as Chair of the Board of Directors and Ex- ments in the United States. InB. R. Wisemanand J. A. Web- ecutive Committee of the Consortium for International ster (Eds.). Economic, Environmental, and Social Benefits Crop Protection (CICP). The goal of CICP is to provide in- of Resistance in Field Crops, Proceedings, Thomas Say formation electronically on IPM to all parts of the world. Publication in Entomology. Entomological Society of CICP's Internet site, IPMnews.org, is a popular source of America, Lanham, MD. Pp. 17-44. IPM information to scientists and practitioners in develop- ing countries. From funding sources other than Eddleman, B. R., B. A. McCarl and Chi-Chung Chen. INTSORMIL, the PI is contributing to development of a 1998. Potential economic benefit of midge resistant sor- Comprehensive Sorghum Crop Management Manual. The ghum variety improvements for Texas. Annual Report. The PI contributed to revision of the Sorghum Disease Compen- Agriculture Program, Texas A&M University. dium and wrote a chapter in a sorghum monograph. The PI continues to serve on the Editorial Board of the Journal of Ervin, R. Terry, Tieiso M. Khalema, Gary C. Peterson Insect Science and Its Application. and George L. Teetes. 1996. Costlbenefit analysis of a sor- ghum hybrid resistant to sorghum midge (Diptera: Germpfasm Cecidomyiidae). Southwestern Entomologist 21: 105-115.

PIS for projects TAM-225 and TAM-223 annually eval- Publications uate sorghum germplasm for resistance to insects. Con- verted exotic sorghums regularly are evaluated for Abstracts resistance to sorghum midge. Also, sorghum accessions regularly are evaluated for resistance to greenbug and yel- Abdou Kadi Kadi, H., F. E. Gilstrap, G. L. Teetes, 0. Youm and B. 9. Pendleton. 2000. Population reproductive statistics of millet head low sugarcane aphid. miner (Lepidoptm: Noctuidae) reared in a laboratory in Niger. Inter- national Sorghum and Millets Newsletter (in press). Each year, the TAM-225 PI receives many requests for Peterson, Gary C., Jeny W. Jones, George L. Teetes, Bonnie B. Pendleton and Kenneth Schaefer. 2000. Grain yield of sorghum midge-resistant seeds of sorghums resistant to insect pests. These requests sorghum hybrids, 1999. Arthropod Management Tests (in press). are forwarded to the TAM-223 PI Refereed Publication Impact Pendleton, Bonnie B., George L. Teetes and Roy D. Parker. 2000. Quan- Four studies have been published on the value or tifying Texas sorghum growers' use of IPM for insect pests. Southwest- costlbenefit of the development and deployment of in- em Entomologist 2539-53. sect-resistant sorghums with which this project was associ- Book Chapter ated. Greenbug-resistant sorghum hybrids, developed in collaboration with breeders, have been calculated to have a Teetes, George L. and Bonnie B. Pendleton. 2000. lnsect and mite pests of net benefit to the USA of $1 13 million, with an annual rate sorghum. In C. Wayne Smith and Richard A. Frederiksen (Eds.). Sor- ofreturn on the research investment of 33.4%. For each dol- ghum. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (in press). lar invested in research and development of a sorghum midge-resistant hybrid, the value of benefits to increased Thesis crop yields from the use of the resistant hybrid ranges from Abdou Kadi Kadi, Hame. 1999. Laboratory life-fertility table assessment $24.2 to 2.7, depending on the discount rate. Other calcula- and field biology of millet head miner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in tions indicated the value of sorghum midge-resistant hy- Niger. M .S. thesis. Texas A&M University, College Station. brids to be $9.3 million annually. The information was obtained fiom the following. Misceffaneous

Dharmaratne, Gerald S., Ronald D. Lacewell, John R. Teetes, George L. and Bonnie B. Pendleton. 2000. insect pests of sorghum. Internet site sorghumipm.tamu.edu. Stoll and George Teetes. 1986. Economic impact of Sustainable Plant Protection Systenzs

Biological Control Tactics for Sustainable Production of Sorghum and Millet Project TAM-225B Frank E. Gilstrap Texas A&M University

Principal Investigator

Dr. Frank E. Gilstrap, Associate Director, Texas A&M Agricultural Experiment Station, 113 Williams Administration Building, College Station, Texas 77843-2147

Collaborating Scientists

Mr. Soualika Boire, Millet Entomologist, Institute Economie Rurale, Mali Dr. Ouendeba Botorou, Coordinator, Reseau Ouest et Centre Africain de Recherche sur le Mil (ROCAFREMI); and Cereals Breeder, Institute Nigerien du Researche Agronomic (INRAN), Niger Mr. Ham6 Kadi Kadi, Millet Entomologist, Institute Nigerien du Researche Agronomic, Niger Dr. Ousmane Youm, Principal Scientist (Entomology), International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics- Sahelian Center, Sadore, Niger Drs. George L. Teetes and Bonnie B. Pendelton, Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station TX

Summary

Project TAM-225B addresses arthropod-insect pests of Kadi completed his thesis work initiated in Year 17 on millet. These pests are key constraints to production in West MHM immature stage development and adult biology using Africa, and require detailed ecological understanding for a four temperatures and four artificial diets. sustainable management strategy, especially during times of year when pests occupy noncrop portions of an Results from these students' research have been devel- agroecosystem. Our collaborative research program in oped into stage-specific life tables, and provide understand- Niger focuses on biological control of the millet head miner ing of factors that regulate the abundance of MHM. The (MHM). An important part of the program in the USA. has collective work will be useful for developing improved been to provide training for graduate students; develop the- management tactics for MHM on pearl millet in West Af- ory and concepts for implementing biological controls in rica. Ultimately, these data will contribute to a "Millet Head West Africa, concepts and definitions for functional Miner Warning System" model that forecasts probability of agroecosystems, methods for measuring impacts of natural MHM outbreaks in given areas so that management mea- enemies, and validate results of biological controls when sures can be implemented to prevent damage from MHM. implemented. Objectives, Production and Utilization Constraints In Year 17 (January 1996), I accepted two NARS scien- tists from West Africa to begin research programs in Niger, Objectives and they have worked at the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics-Sahelian Center (ISC) Sorghum and Millet ColIaborative in collaboration with Dr. Ousmane Youm. These students Research Objectives were S. Boire a Ph.D. candidate from Mali, completing his degree in August 2000, and H. Kadi Kadi, Niger, a M.S. Assess natural enemies for biological control of stalk candidate completing his degree in August 1999. Their re- borers and the MHM. search objectives and results, built on findings for MHM bi- ological control, were reported by this project in Implement effective biological controls. INTSORMIL Years 15 and 16. Provide graduate level training on processes and strat- In Year 20, both students completed their graduate de- egies for biological controls in sorghum and millet gree programs. Boire has been writing his dissertation on studies that began in Year l7 On MHM immaturestage . Assess biological control for on-farm pest manage- mortality, adult MHM biology and fecundity, and MHM bi- ment of sorghum and millet pests in local crop protec- ology on alternate host plants. All ofhis field work was con- tion practices. The listed objectives have been ducted at ISC or nearby farmers' fields. In Year 20, Kadi Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

pursued in the United States and in the Republic of presence, and has one generation per year. Before advocat- Niger. ing a strategy using biological controls, however, we began in 1993 assessing extant natural enemies, a particularly im- Graduate student research objectives portant step for low input and fragile Sahelian farming sys- tems. Specific objectives of our research have been to 1) o Improve methodologies for sampling and manipulat- expand aspects of MHM biology; 2) evaluate the impact of ing populations of MHM. MHM enemies; and 3) construct an age-specific life table (k-factor analysis) for MHM. o Assess the spatial distribution and mortality of all life stages of MHM. Research Results

e Conduct experiments to show age-specific mortality Soualika Boire in populations of MHM. The seasonal abundance of MHM and its life stages, and the impact and contributions of natural enemies on abun- o Identify and assess the role of alternate host plants oc- cupied by MHM. dance of MHM were assessed to determine causes of mor- tality of MHM. Partial ecological life tables were used to quantify and assess frequency and sources of MHM mortal- o Determine the optimal survival of MHM in a labora- ity. Mortality was attributed to parasitism, predation, intrin- tory environment. sic pupal mortality, and unexplained mortality.

e Conduct field cage experiments to assess MHM fe- Natural abundance of MHM was 3.0 eggs and 2.6 larvae cundity. per spike, with maximum mean numbers of 15.0 eggs and 13.5 larvae per spike. Most eggs were collected in August Constraints and larvae in September of each growing season. The over- lap of eggs and larvae generally occurred during the third Insect pests of sorghurn/milletaddressed by this project week of August and ended in mid-September. Egg abun- are key pests and constraints to production in the USA and dance decreased during the last two weeks of September, West Africa. Detailed ecologicalunderstanding of pests and and larvae decreased in abundance through mid-October. their natural enemies is integral to a sustainable manage- Most larvae collected in October were dead and dried in ment strategy for an amual crop, especially during times of their mines on spikes of pearl millet plants. Of the larvae year when pests occupy noncrop portions of an collected on spikes of pearl millet in the field in 1996, 1997, agroecosystem. Collaborative research in Niger addressed and 1998, 67.1,49.8, and 4.6% were alive in August, Sep- biological control of MHM. USA research provided train- tember, and October, respectively. Percentages of parasit- ing for graduate students on implementing biological con- ism of MHM larvae increased from 17.3 in August, to 30.5 trols in West Africa, concepts and definitions for functional in September and 7 1.1 in October. During the same period, agroecosystems, methods for measuring impacts of natural predation on larvae ranged from 12.5 to 19.2%. enemies, and validating results of biological controls when implemented. Most prepupae and pupae were found during the dry and cold months from October through January each year. Very Research Approach and Project Output few prepupae and pupae were found in May, June, or July. 'In general, distribution of prepupae and pupae in the soil Millet Head Miner Research in Niger was similar through time. However, the seasonal distribu- tion ofprepupae seemed constant while that of the pupae de- IPM of millet pests is a prominent goal of ROCAFREMI. clined slightly. In 1990, Nwanze and Sivakumar noted Early in network discussions, participants identified key abundance of diapausing pupae decreased as the dry season pests of Sahelian millet as the millet head miner (MHM) progressed fiomNovember to May, and that the decrease in [Heliocheilus albipunctella (de Joannis)], millet stalk bor- pupal abundance could be attributed to pupal mortality. ers [Coniesta ignefusalis (Hampson)] and downy mildew disease [Sclerospora graminicola (Sacc.) (Schroter)]. The In 1996, most prepupae and pupae were found at depths MHM infestations sometimes approach 95% with a collec- of 10 (0.66 prepupa and 0.9 1 live pupa, respectively) and 20 tive grain loss of 60%. Current management options are cm (0.87 prepupa and 0.89 live pupa, respectively). In 1997, mainly cultural practices (e.g., late planting and deep plow- most prepupae and pupae were collected at 10,15,20, or 25 ing), and these are generally impractical. However, MHM is cm. Most live pupae were at 10,15, or 20 cm. Abundance of a good candidate for a control strategy emphasizing effec- dead pupae increased as soil depth increased from 25 to 35 tive natural enemies, i.e., biological control. It supports a cm. Most dead pupae were collected at 25 (0.14), 30 (0.07), large guild of natural enemies (reported in previous and 35 cm (0.03). In 1998, percentages of prepupae and TAM-225B annual reports and by others), occupies a pre- dead pupae totaled 61.1% pupal mortality. There were 0.7 dictable habitat in an ecosystem with consistent annual live pupa, 0.2 dead pupa, and 0.3 prepupa per square meter. Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Few pupae were found in June or July. Pupal mortality was considered to have died of unexplained causes. Most larvae, greater from February through May, with maximums of 1.0 especially large larvae, were killed by parasitism. Dead lar- and 1.2 pupae per square meter. Abundance of live and dead vae without evidence of parasitism or predation were con- pupae decreased in April and May. sidered to have died of unexplained causes. Weather conditions such as heat during September and October All natural enemies collected from spikes of pearl millet could contribute to much unexplained mortality. in the field were brought to the laboratory, counted, identi- fied, and preserved. A total of 15 species of natural enemies MHM mortality was further studied using key-factor of MI-IM was identified. A total of 8,611 natural enemies analysis to elucidate sources of mortality. K-values were was collected in the field, including 6,933 Orius sp., obtained from ecological life tables by subtracting each log Cardiochiles sahelensis, Dolichogenidea sp., population from the previous one. Eleven key factors were Campylomma angustior, and chalcid superparasites cap- considered. These key factors provided insight into changes tured on a total of 2,883 spikes ofpearl millet. These preda- in MHM abundance during the growing season. Parasitism tors and parasites attack MHM eggs and larvae. The egg and of large larvae and predation on eggs contributed most to the larval predator Orius sp. occurred commonly throughout overall mortality of MHM and were the key factors. Preda- the growing season of the three-year of study. The parasite tion on small larvae, unexplained mortality of small larvae, C. sahelensis was abundant from early August through the predation on medium larvae, unexplained mortality of me- first three weeks of September. Dolichogenidea sp., C. dium larvae, predation on large larvae, and unexplained angustior, and Chalcidae were less abundant. mortality of large larvae contributed in minor ways to changes in MHM abundance. The hymenopterous parasites Ammophila sp., Cerceris sp., Rhynchium sp., Synagris sp., Belonogaster sp., and Intra-age specific mortalities of MHM eggs exposed to Polistes sp. were observed frequently extracting MHM lar- natural enemies were assessed. Unexplained mortality and vae, especially large larvae, from their mines. Cotesia sp. predation of eggs and larvae were the most important causes occasionally was collected on spikes of pearl millet. Some of mortality of MHM exposed to natural enemies. Unex- species of this parasitoid such as Cotesia sesamiae plained mortalities of eggs were 63.9, 66.9, and 71.1% in (Cameron) attack stem borers. 1996, 1997, 1998, respectively, and averaged 67.3%. Para- sitism ranged from only 6.0 to 13.3% and, thus, was not an Several natural enemies were reared from MHM larvae. important cause of mortality of small larvae of MHM. These included the primary egg-larval parasitoid Chelonus curvimaculatus, ectoparasite B. hebetor, polyembryonic Assessment of survival of pupae placed at different parasitoid C. obscu,rum, Dolichogenidea sp. (probably depths in the soil showed that fewer pupae survived at polaszeki), koinobiont endoparasitoid Meteorus sp., pri- deeper soil depths such as 235 cm in 1997-1998.Most sur- mary or secondary parasite Pediobius sp., Pristomerus sp., vival (63.3%) was of pupae at a depth of 20 cm. Survival of and the parasitoid tachinid fly, Goniophthalmus halli. pupae at 35 cm was only 13.3%. Most pupal cases were at 20 cm deep, followed by those at 15 or 25 cm. Pupal survival Observations at night in the field revealed many preda- was 60.0% at 20 cm deep in 1998-1999. Also, many pupae tors and parasites of MHM. Flashlights were used to detect survived at depths of 5- 15 cm where pupal mortality was feeding predators by inspectmg entire spikes of pearl millet. only 15.0%. Pupal mortality was 70.0, 85.0, and 90.0% at Predators such as Orius sp., Chiracanthium sp., Peucetia 30, 35, and 40 cm, respectively. Few pupal cases, only gerhardi, tree crickets, and the earwig Forficula 5.0%, were at 35 or 40 cm deep. Pupal survival was greatest senegalensis were the most important nocturnal predators at depths of 5-25 cm. Survival decreased from 25.0% at 5 of MHM. The predators Orius sp., Chiracanthium sp., and cm to only 2.5% at 40 cm. Conversely, mortality increased tree crickets frequently preyed on MHM eggs and were at deeper soil depths such as 40 cm (95.0%). most active between 2000 and 2200 h. Daily soil temperatures during 1996-1997 were cooler Analysis of partial ecological life tables constructed for (3 1.6O C) at 20 cm than at shallower or deeper depths. Tem- MHM indicated that mortality was attributed to parasitism, perature differed among months and ranged from 3 1.5O C in predation, intrinsic pupal mortality, and unexplained mor- September to 33.3O C in October. Soil moisture was not sig- tality. Total cohort mortality of MHM was 94.3, 99.8, and nificantly different in November (0.014%) and December 99.6% in 1996, 1997, and 1998,respectively. Average mor- (0.0 17%) and the minimum significant difference was tality was 97.9%. Survivorship curves for each of the 3 yr 0.012%. were Type 11, in which more mortality occurred during im- mature than later stages of development of MHM. During 1997-1998, soil temperatures at the upper levels of 5-10 cm were slightly warmer than at deeper depths. Soil Mortality of MHM eggs was attributed to predation and temperature at 40 cm deep was cooler (3 1.3O C) than at other unexplained causes. Unexplained mortality included brown depths. A Pearson coefficient of correlation of -0.1 indi- and 'blackhead' eggs (unhatched) from which predation or cated a negative correlation between soil temperature and parasitism could not be confirmed. Missing eggs also were depth. Also, a correlation coefficient of -0.25 indicated neg- Sustainable Plant Protection Systems ative correlation between month and soil temperature. Tem- was 4.3, but ranged from 1.0 to 10.5 depending on the avail- peratures were warmest in April (35.1° C), May (35.3O C), ability of MHM eggs per earwig. The number of larvae and June 1998 (32.9O C). Soil moisture differed signifi- killed per earwig averaged 8.2 in 24 h. cantly among soil depths. Pearson correlation coefficients of 0.04 and 0.09 indicated slight positive correlation be- In brief, results of these studies showed natural mortality tween soil temperature and soil depth and moisture. Pearson of MHM was important in all stages of development. Sev- correlation indicated positive correlation between soil depth eral predators and parasites attack MHM. Also, weather and moisture. Soil moisture increased from 0.6% at 10cm to such as soil temperature and moisture contributed substan- 4.9% at 40 cm. A correlation coefficient of -0.5 indicated tially to pupal mortality during diapause and emergence of negative correlation between soil moisture and month. adult moths. Some predators and parasitoids identified dur- ing this study may be useful to target and reduce abundance During 1998-1999, soil temperatures at upper soil depths of MHM eggs and larvae in August and September, respec- were not significantly different. Temperatures at 10,15, and tively. Other tactics such as tillage in December or January 20 cm were almost equal (29.3, 29.4, and 29.3O C, respec- could expose diapausing pupae to predators. Existing pred- tively). Temperatures were cooler at deeper soil depths. A ators and parasitoids could be conserved andlor augmented. Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.9 indicated positive cor- Plowing to a depth of 10-25 cm could be effective in pre- relation between soil depth and temperature. Temperatures venting increases in abundance of MHM in June or July of were warmest from February (32.0° C) to May 1999 (34.3O each growing season. Improved IPM programs can be im- C) and cooler from November 1998 (28.8O C) to January plemented at regional and national levels by farmers' coop- 1999 (25.2O C). Average amounts of soil moisture differed eration. for each soil depth but was low (0.5%) in upper soil levels (10 cm) and high (3.4%) at deeper levels (40 cm). There was Networking Activities a positive correlation between soil depth and moisture based on a correlation coefficient of 0.7. Networking activities consisted of Hame Kadi Kadi sharing his research results with his colleagues at INRAN. A total of 116 MHM larvae was collected on a total of See country report for Niger. 156 spikes of Chibra millets. These included particularly Pennisetum violaceum and P. sieberianum. A total of 62 lar- Publications and Presentations vae was collected on 89 spikes of an unidentified Pennisetum subspecies. Unidentified plant species (88 Dissertations and Theses spikes) were infested by 38 MHM larvae. Of a total of 10 species of Poaceae, 7 including P. sieberianum, were in- Ph. D. fested by MHM. Boire, Soualika. 1999. Assessment of mortality and life tables for m~llet head miner (Lepidoetera:Noctuidae) in Niger. Ph.D. Diss. Texas A&M The perception of some authorities that earwigs are agri- University, College Station, TX. cultural pests needs to be clarified. Night observations in the field and experiments on predation showed that earwigs were not feeding on flowers of pearl millet spikes, but were predators of MHM eggs and larvae. Thus, predation by ear- AbdouKadi Kadi, Hame. 1999. Laboratory life-fertility table assessment wigs on eggs showed an average of 99% egg consumption and field biology of millet head miner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in Niger. M.S. thesis. Texas A&M University, College Station, TX in 24 h. The average number of eggs consumed per earwig Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Development of Plant Disease Protection Systems for Millet and Sorghum in Semi-Arid Southern Africa Project TAM-228 Gary Odvody Texas A&M University

Principal Investigator

Gary Odvody, Texas A&M Research and Extension Center, Route 2, Box 589, Corpus Christi, TX 78406

Collaborating Scientists

R. Bandyopadhyay, Genetic Resources and Enhancement Program, ICRISAT, Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh 502 324, India (Currently a Visiting Scientist, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX) 77843 C. R. Casela, EMBRAPAtCNPMS, Caixa Postal 15 1, Sete Lagoas 35700, MG, Brazil M. Chisi, Golden Valley Research Station, Golden Valley, Zambia L. E. Claflin, KSU-108, Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506-5502 J. Dahlberg, USDA-ARS-TARS, Box 70, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico 0068 1 P. Ditshipi, Agricultural Research Station, Private Bag 0033, Gaborone, Botswana D. Frederickson, Visiting Scientist at Texas A&M University, College Station, TX R. A. Frederiksen, TAM-224, Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843 T. Isakeit, Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843 S. G. Jensen, USDA-ARS, 422 Plant Science, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-0722 G. M. Kaula, Private Bag 7, Mt. Makulu Research Station, Chilanga, Zambia J. F. Leslie, KSU 108, Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506-5502 N. Mangombe, Plant Breeding Institute, c/o SADCIICRISAT, Sorghum Millet Improvement Program, P.O. Box 776, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe C. Manthe, Agricultural Research Station, Private Bag 0033, Gaborone, Botswana B. Matilo, Agricultural Research Station, Private Bag 0033, Gaborone, Botswana N. McLaren, ARC-Grain Crops Institute, Private Bag X125 1, Potchefstroom 2520, Republic of South Africa L. Mpofu, Plant Breeding Institute, c/o SADChCRISAT, Sorghum Millet Improvement Program, P.O. Box 776, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe E. Mtisi, Plant Protection Research Institute, RSS Box 8 108, Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe T. Obilana, SADCACRISAT, Sorghum Millet Improvement Program, P.O. Box 776, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe

G. C. Peterson, TAM-223, Texas A&M Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Route 3, Box 2 19, ' Lubbock, TX 7940 1 B. Rooney, Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843 D. T. Rosenow, TAM-222, Texas A&M Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Route 3, Box 219, Lubbock, TX 7940 1 N. Montes, NFAP/Mexico, visiting scientist atTexas A&M Research and Extension Center, Rt. 2, Box 589, Corpus Christi, TX 78406

Summary

In the 1999-2000 season, a 100-entry two replicate Grown over several years, the nursery of genetically diverse multilocational nursery, initially dubbed the Southern Af- sorghums will identify cultivars adapted to individual loca- rica Breeding Nursery, was developed from the disease, tions, determine relative importance of specific pest con- drought, and sugarcane aphid nurseries of previous years to straints, determine needed types of pest resistance, and identify cultivars that have both broad adaptation to the identify potential cultivars with adequate individual and SADC region, and resistance to major disease and insect multiple pest resistance. TAM-228 was instrumental in pests. This initial nursery was planted at locations in Zimba- tracking the spread of sorghum ergot from Brazil across the bwe, Zambia, Botswana, and South Africa. The eventual Western Hemisphere beginning in 1996 and, especially, goal is a more space efficient 50 entry two replicate test through Mexico and the USA beginning in early 1997. re-named as the SADC Regional All Disease and Insect TAM-228 helped establish a global network of scientists Nursery for widespread deployment in the SADC region. working together on various aspects of the epidemiology Sustainable Plant Protection Systems and spread of sorghum ergot, its biology, and its potential (Zimbabwe, Zambia, South Africa, Botswana, Puerto immediate and continuing impact on the international sor- Rico, Mexico, and the United States) ghum industry. TAM-228 developed extensive collabora- tion with INIFAP of Mexico to conduct ergot research in Determine the level 0fhost:parasite compatibilitythat Mexico and the USA during 1997-2000. In 1998-99 a spe- exists for C, africana and several previously reported cial INTSORMIL sorghum ergot project allowed world sor- alternate hosts includingpearl millet. (Mexico and the ghum ergot expert, Dr. D. Frederickson, to work on the United States) biology of sorghum ergot in collaboration with TAM-228. Contact fungicides, thirarn andcaptan, at standard treatment Research Approach and Project Output rates completely prevented conidial germination and pro- duction of conidia of C, africana present in honeydew on Foliar Diseases (Anthracnose, Leaf Blight, Sooty Stripe) seed surfaces, but triazole fungicides had no apparent effect. Captan seed treatments greatly reduced germination of From 1996-2000, several sorghum disease nurseries conidia of C. africana on external surfaces of fresh were planted at one ormore locations in Zambia, and two lo- sphacelia but only slightly reduced their germination on in- cations in Zimbabwe to evaluate response to anthracnose, ternal sphacelial tissue cores. Low temperature (6OC) and leaf blight, and sooty stripe. Two or three new locations in low relative humidity (6%) provided the greatest survival of South Africa were added during the 1999-2000 growing conidia of Claviceps africana. Conidia of C. africana in season. During the last two years the Anthracnose Resistant sphacelia or on honeydew on seed surfaces do not survive Germplasm Nurseries (ARGN- 1 and ARGN-2) were con- well in storage environments. The combination of poor sur- solidated from two separate nurseries into a single nursery vival of conidia and the good efficacy of contact fungicide (ARGN, 61 entries, 2 reps). Several entries were new to the seed treatments make seedborne inoculum a negligible fac- ARGN during the last two years because they were being tor, especially in areas where the pathogen is already en- evaluated elsewhere for sugarcane aphid resistance, or they demic. Triazole fungicides were the most effective in had parents (SC326-6 or 86E0361) previously associated controlling sorghum ergot in the field, but aerial application with progeny having good adaptation and foliar disease re- proved ineffective due to poor contact and coverage of sistance in the SADC region. Unfortunately, most of these heads with the fungicide. TAM-228 participated in publica- new materials had a high susceptibility to either or both tion of an ergot training manual and a sclerotia identifica- sooty stripe and anthracnose. Some of these materials may tion pamphlet, utilized in several workshops that trained still have value in other SADC locations where foliar patho- personnel involved in identifying and detecting sorghum er- gens are not consistently a problem. The adaptation of got in seed. TAM-228 participation in workshops in SC326-6 derived material like 86EON 361 and 86 EON362 1999-2000 was intended to increase accuracy of ergot de- continued to be very good across Zimbabwe and Zambia; tection, reduce misidentification, and promote seed import however, even some of these materials developed higher and export regulations based on readily available scientific than normal levels of sooty stripe at Golden Valley, Zambia data. under heavy sooty stripe pressure.

Objectives, Production and Utilization Constraints Cultivar Evaluations for Drought Tolerance, Sugar- cane Aphid, and Disease in Botswana, Zimbabwe, Zam- Evaluate the ecology and economic importance of bia, and South Africa Exserohilum turcicum and Rarnulispora sorghi, and evaluate specific versus general leaf disease resis- Several drought resistant materials were tested yearly at tance.(Zambia and Zimbabwe) the Sebele station and, occasionally, at the Pandamatenga station in Botswana. Yearly response to drought stress and a Identify adapted sources ofdrought tolerance with ad- agronomic appearance was utilized to identify those equate charcoal rot and other disease resistance. (Bot- cultivars for continued and expanded evaluation, and to tar- swana, Zimbabwe, and South Africa) get potential new cultivars for inclusion in drought resis- tance nurseries. Beginning in 1998, cultivars previously * Assist national programs in identification of adapted tested in Botswana or closely related cultivars were selected foliar disease resistant cultivars that have stable dis- for expanded evaluation at the Matopos station in Zirnba- ease resistance reactions in strategic multilocational bwe and the Golden Valley station in Zambia. Derivatives nurseries over several years. (Botswana, Zambia, of E0366 were susceptible to sooty stripe at Golden Valley Zimbabwe, and South Africa) and did not appear to have good adaptation at that location. In a previous season some E0366 x WSV387(Kuyuma) de- a Develop controls for sorghum ergot (Claviceps rivatives had shown good drought tolerance and agronomic africana) through chemical control, identification of characteristicsat Sebele. Derivatives of SRN39 had bothac- host plant resistance, and other means as determined ceptable adaptation and at least moderate or good resistance through biological investigations of C. africana. to sooty stripe. Macia derivatives had both resistant and sus- ceptible representatives, but those of Macia x Dorado and ICSV1089 x Macia commonly had both excellent sooty Sustainable Plant Protection Systems stripe response and good agronomic characteristics at tists working together on various aspects of the epidemiol- Golden Valley. These derivatives also had good to excellent ogy and spread of sorghum ergot, its biology, and its poten- drought tolerance at the Sebele station in Botswana over tial immediate and continuing impact on the international more than one season. sorghum industry. USDA-ARS hding allowed extensive collaboration of TAM-228 with INIFAP of Mexico, who Sugarcane aphid resistant sorghums were concurrently provided a scientist based at Corpus Christi, to conduct er- evaluated with drought tolerant sorghums at the Sebele sta- got research studies in both Mexico and the USA during tion. From these and related materials, a sugarcane aphid re- 1997-2000 (R. Velsaquez-Valle,May 1997to May 1998, N. sistance nursery (50 entries, 2 reps) was initiated in 1998 in Montes, Feb 1999 to current). In 1998-99 a special collaboration with TAM-223, TAM-225, TAM-222, and INTSORMIL sorghum ergot project provided the basic sup- other MARS scientists and planted in two seasons at several port which allowed world sorghum ergot expert, Dr. Debra SADC locations including Matopos, Zimbabwe; Golden Frederiksen, to work on the biology of sorghum ergot at Valley, Zambia; and other locations in South Africa. Most Texas A&M in collaboration with TAM-228. Dr. entries were susceptible to sooty stripe at Golden Valley but Frederiksen is now at SADCIICRISAT where, as a consul- may be useful elsewhere in the SADC region where sooty tant research scientist supported by TAM-228, she is inves- stripe is not a production problem. tigating various aspects of sorghum ergot in Zimbabwe and the SADC region. Virus Identification Geographical Spread of Sorghum Ergot Across the Virus reactions in the International Sorghum Virus Nurs- Western Hemisphere and into the USA ery (ISVN) at the Sebele and Pandamatenga Research Sta- tions in Botswana were typical of previous years, but do not Sorghum ergot caused by Claviceps africana spread to appear to adequately fit host differential response patterns Tamaulipas and surrounding states of Mexico in February for SCMV-B. Live virus specimens, collected two years ago 1997. In Southern Tamaulipas and surrounding areas in ad- in Botswana and Zambia, were identified as being similar to jacent states of Mexico, sorghum ergot was a problem in hy- SCMV-B by S. Jensen. Mahube, an early maturing released brid seed production nurseries and commercial grain variety in Botswana, was identified as being vulnerable to sorghum fields during the winter months where fields were the virus at both the Sebele and Pandamatenga locations exposed to cool temperatures that induced some sterility. where it sometimes showed extensive Red Leaf Necrosis Cool temperature sterility also appeared to increase inci- (RLN) when virus-infected plants were exposed to cool dence of ergot in johnsongrass. By late March 1997, sor- night temperatures. ghum ergot was observed by T. Isakeit in the Lower Rio Grande Valley (LRGV) of Texas. The initial reports of ergot SADC Regional All Disease and Insect Nursery in northern Tamaulipas, Mexico and in the LRGV were on ratooned or "volunteer" sorghum plants from seed of the In the 1999-2000 season, a 100-entry two replicate previous crop growing inabandoned fields. This was an ini- multilocational nursery, initially dubbed the Southern Af- tial observation of what was to be a recumng pattern of sur- rica Breeding Nursery, was developed from the disease, vival and re-occurrence of sorghum ergot. As the 1997 drought, and sugarcane aphid nurseries to identify cultivars season progressed in the LRGV, sorghum ergot was ob- that have both broad adaptation to the SADC region and re- served at low levels on the commercial grain sorghum crop sistance to major disease and insect pests. This initial nurs- and on some populations ofjohnsongrass. The incidence of ery was planted at the following research stations: Matopos, ergot in the commercial grain sorghum crop in south Texas Zimbabwe; Golden Valley, Zambia; Sebele, Botswana; and was minimal, generally one to several florets on less than Potchefstroom and Cedera, South Africa. The eventual goal 1% of the heads, and sometimes non-detectable. However, is a more space efficient 50-entry two replicate test this incidence was higher than expected for grain sorghum re-named as the SADC Regional All Disease and Insect hybrids because their self-fertility usually gives them a high Nursery for widespread deployment in the SADC region. level of post-fertilization acquired resistance to the disease. Grown over several years, the nursery of genetically diverse Commercial hybrid seed production fields of sorghum in sorghums will identify cultivars adapted to individual loca- Tamaulipas and in the LRGV had some low levels of ergot, tions, determine relative importance of specific pest con- primarily, in late-season axillary tillers of the seed straints, determine needed types of pest resistance, and ~ollowin~the progressive maturity of the sorghum crop identify potential cultivars with adequate individual and across Texas and weather patterns that sporadically favored multiple pest resistance. development, sorghum ergot continued its spread across the state and reached the hybrid seed production region of the Sorghum Ergot Texas High Plains in August 1997. By October 1997, sor- ghum ergot was reported as far North as Kansas and Ne- TAM-228 was instrumental in tracking the spread of sor- braska but was not reported in Kansas again until 1999 and ghum ergot from Brazil across the Western Hemisphere and has not again been reported in Nebraska. In 1997, ergot was especially through Mexico and the USA beginning in early also reported in New Mexico, Mississippi, and Georgia; 1997. TAM-228 helped establish a global network of scien- and, in 1999 in Missouri and Florida. Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

TAM-228 promoted the use of male-sterile forage far north as Corpus Christi, Texas through February 1998. sorghums as a trap or indicator crop to detect the presence of In Mexico, sorghum ergot was observed in Tamaulipas state ergot. In collal3oration with several U.S. scientists and sor- only in early January 1998 at the INIFAP San Fernando Ex- ghum workers, we successfully utilized these sorghums perimental Station. In the Pacific Coast states of Sonora, across many areas of the Texas and U.S. sorghum produc- Sinaloa, and Nayarit, the El Nino storms provided rainy, tion region to detect spread of C. afiicana. These forages are cloudy, cool conditions which favored ergot development very susceptible to ergot because they have no pollen from February through May of 1998. During September, source, and prolonged tillering produces a relatively contin- sorghum ergot was observed in several states in the Bajio uous, proximal source of susceptible ovaries. This allows a and High Plains regions of Mexico. Cool temperatures fa- rapid cycling and buildup of ergot so the disease becomes vored ergot expression in sorghum hybrid seed production easily observable in a short period of time. The vulnerability fields where incidence was sometimes severe, despite appli- of tillers to a high incidence and rapid build up of ergot was cation of preventative fungicides. Incidence of ergot in also evident on late-season stem or axillary tillers (side some commercial grain sorghum fields averaged 1% with branches) of specific female seed parents. The tillers slightly higher incidence in commercial fields of forage sor- emerged prior to harvest, but well after the male pollinator ghum. Despite active C. aft-icana through February 1998, had ceased pollen production which allowed a high inci- season-long drought and heat stress prevented observation dence of ergot. Some of these hybrid seed production fields of any naturally-occurring sorghum ergot across South in south Texas had a significantproblem in 1997 during har- Texas and northern Mexico during the normal 1998 grow- vest, either with ergot honeydew hindering harvest through ing season. However, sorghum ergot was observed at low clogging of the combine and creating other grain handling levels at a limited number of hybrid seed production fields difficulties, or through seed contaminated with the honey- in the Texas High Plains in 1998. dew and ergot sphacelia. Similar but less serious problems also occurred in 1997on the Texas High Plains in the pri- In Tamaulipas and surrounding states in Mexico, sor- mary hybrid seed production areas. ghum ergot began to be observed again in September 1998. During September 1998, high rainfall and extensive flood- Survival of Claviceps africana in ing across South Central Texas produced a flush of sorghum Mexico and Texas, 1997-2000 growth that bloomed into increasingly cool temperatures from October through December 1998. The wet, cool envi- Winter survival of C. africana in northern regions of the ronment and extended bloom period promoted a rapid in- USA in 1997-98 was questioned because of the extended crease and spread of sorghum ergot on feral and ratooned exposure to freezing conditions and freeze:thaw cycles. grain and forage sorghum and johnsongrass within fields Winter environments in South Texas are extremely mild adalong roadsides. Increased incidence and severity of and freezing conditions are either limited or absent. Ergot sorghum ergot was related to cooler temperatures that pro- surveys were conducted throughout the winter months be- gressively reduced pollen fertility on later blooming sor- cause cool and near freezing temperatures might actually in- ghum heads. In November 1998, male-steriles in some crease likelihood of ergot through induced sterility in commercial hybrid seed production fields in the LRGV had normally fertile sorghums. Cool temperatures during a No- a high incidence of ergot despite aerial applications of vember bloom period contributed to a high incidence of er- propiconazole (Tilt). Commercial grain sorghum fields and got in a few commercial grain sorghum fields near Corpus a test of commercial grain sorghum hybrids in the LRGV Christi in late 1997. Ratooned and feral sorghum in aban- also had an increased incidence of ergot at this same time. doned fields, along roadsides, and near grain storage facili- By mid-December 1998, sorghum ergot was easily ob- ties developed relatively high levels of ergot under cool served in every surveyed area of Texas where a sorghum temperatures throughout south Texas. This ergot persisted crop was at a growth stage capable of infection by C. in an active phase until plants were killed by frost. Some re- africana. It is unknown whether the sources of initial gions ofthe Rio Grande valley and areas near Corpus Christi inoculum for this late season epidemic of sorghum ergot escaped frost damage and ergot continued to develop came from local or distal sources or both. throughout the winter months as new tillers emerged. Some ergot-infected plants had above ground foliage and stalks In 1999 and 2000, the pathogen was again present across killed by frost, but ergot later re-occurred on heads of new several areas of Mexico at various levels, including winter basal tillers. In the Corpus Christi area, ergot was not seen nurseries in the Pacific Coast states. In Texas, the pathogen on johnsongrass until cool temperature sterility occurred in continues to be routinely observed at minimal levels in the the fall of 1997 in a manner similar to grain sorghum. Persis- commercial grain sorghum fields during the growing season tence of ergot on feral sorghum and johnsongrass through- with increased observation on feral sorghums during cooler out the winter months of 1997-98 was similar to the initial temperatures in the fall and winter. Winter nurseries of sor- observations of ergot in the LRGV and portions of northern ghum in the LRGV and northern Mexico can develop prob- Mexico in early 1997. lems with ergot, especially, if cool temperatures contribute to male-sterility. Volunteer and ratoon sorghum appear to Sorghum ergot caused by Claviceps afiicana persisted in be major factors contributing to survival of C. africana as an active phase, predominantly, on feral grain sorghum as Sustainable Plant Protection Systems far north as Corpus Christi, TX. Occurrence of ergot in the that contact and coverage of the head, at or prior to bloom, hybrid seed production regions of Texas has been minimal. were the most important factors in protecting ovaries from infection by C. africana. Several fungicides had minimal or Low level or epidemic occurrence of sorghum ergot in no activity in preventing sorghum ergot. Benomyl provided planted and feral sorghum outside of the normal growing some but unacceptable activity against ergot at high concen- season may have minimal or no economic impact, but it trations. The strobilurin fungicides azoxystrobin (Quadris) demonstrates that C. apicana is a well-established, recur- and trifloxystrobin (CGA279202, Flint) were ineffective rent pathogen of Mexico and Texas. Claviceps africana has when applied at or prior to bloom initiation. The anilinopy- continuously demonstrated its capacity for survival under rimidine fungicide cyprodinil (Vanguard), and thiaben- extended unfavorable dry environments and its ability to dazole (Mertect) provided no protection against sorghum quickly reach epidemic proportions over vast regions upon ergot when applied at bloom initiation in concentrations of a return to favorable wet, cool environments. Its occurrence, 2000 ppm. in an active phase, can perhaps be demonstrated in almost any month of the year somewhere in Mexico or south Texas. Actigard, an SAR (systemic acquired resistance) chemi- cal from Novartis that stimulates host plant defense mecha- Hosts of C. africana in Puerto Rico, nisms, provided apparent control of sorghum ergot that was Mexico and the USA similar to the best triazole (triadimefon, Bayleton) when ap- plied at bloom initiation; however, phytotoxicity was usu- Despite extensive surveys over several years in Puerto ally present in the form of reduced or complete prevention Rico, Mexico and the USA, and the evaluation of ergot ofseed set. Seed set was sometimes completedprevented by from several grasses, only Sorghum spp. were observed to concentrations as low as 12 pprn when application was be naturally infected by C. africana. Pearl millet made until runoffon individual heads at bloom initiation. At (Pennisetum glaucum) remained uninfected at Corpus Actigard concentrations above 50 pprn foliar and head tis- Christi despite being grown among sorghum plants of a sues often had a slight reddening or bronzing symptom of male-sterile sorghum heavily infected with C. africana. phytotoxicity. Actigard is thought to rapidly elicit a physio- logical response that makes the ovary nonreceptive and in- Chemical Control of Ergot in the Field capable of either fertilization by pollen or infection by C. africana. Application of Actigard to plants with unexposed In 1997, an evaluation of 100 A-lines and 40 R-lines, heads prior to bloom initiation provided no control of sor- provided by commercial seed companies, was conducted at ghum ergot. Corpus Christi to determine potential phytotoxicity of propiconazole (Tilt) and triadimefon (Bayleton). Both fun- The triazoles propiconazole (Tilt), tebuconazole gicides, at concentrations of 500 and 1000 ppm, were ap- (Folicur), and triadimefon (Bayleton) effectively controlled plied three times at weekly intervals to sorghum heads sorghum ergot when applied by hand sprayer to heads at beginning at initiation of bloom. There was no observable bloom initiation using concentrations as low as 125 to 250 phytotoxicity on head or plant tissue with any fungicide ppm. In 1999, field tests utilizing different blooming treatment. In comparisons of treated (1000 ppm) versus male-steriles at Corpus Christi, TX (ATX623) and Rio non-treated seed, there were no apparent effects on seed Bravo (AVar), triadimefon was at least three times more ef- weight or viability on any sorghum producing enough seed fective than propiconazole or folicur in control of C. for comparison. africana when data was analyzed using exponential decay regression models (Figure 1). Fungicide trials were conducted in south Texas and northern Mexico from 1997 through 2000, primarily utiliz- Machine application tests done in 2000 at Corpus Christi, ing male-sterile sorghums, pathogen inoculation, and ab- utilized propiconazole and triadimefon at 3 1,62, and 125 g sence of pollen to maximize the ergot potential in all a.i./ha (1,2, and 4 oz of Tilt or Bayleton equivalentlac) in a available ovaries. Application methods from best contact spray volume of 187 1/ha (20 gallac) of water. All applica- and coverage to worst included hand sprayer to individual tions were made to heads of ATX623 that had completed heads, row applications with a C02 hand sprayer, ground bloom (Completed) after being bagged at bloom initiation application equipment with head directed spray, and aerial to prevent seed set and infection by C. aji-icana. One group applications. A few trials were conducted with multiple ap- of heads received the ground machine application using a plications, but most tests utilized single applications to head-directed fungicide spray and the other received the heads at bloom initiation and later tests included completely same fungicide concentrations using a hand sprayer. Hand bloomed heads protected from pollination and C. africana sprayer fungicide concentrations calculated from the spray infection until treatment. volume and fimgicide rates of 3 1,62, and 125 g a.i./ha were 168, 336, and 671 ppm, respectively. All plots were inocu- In fungicide tests conducted in 1997 through 2000, it was lated with a macroconidia suspension of C. africana after determined that triazole hngicides were the most effective fungicide treatments. At eight days after treatment, ground ones for control of sorghum ergot in the field. However, application control of sorghum ergot was excellent at all even with the most effective fungicides, it was determined treatment rates of both fungicides with 2 to 1 1 % ergot se- Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Folicur --- Tilt ...... ,. Bayleton - . -. - . Actigard

Figure 1. Exponential decay regression models showing the effect of fungicide rate on ergot severity on male-sterile sorghum heads. Ergot severity is average percent of florets infected per head. ------verity compared to 42 % in the controls (Table 1). At 14 evaluated 1 1 days after treatment to allow full expression of days, all treatments had dramatically increased ergot sever- ergot in the control treatment heads. The individualized ity with Control heads at 90 to 91% and fungicide-treated controls within treatment plots had an ergot severity of 8 1 to heads at 38% and 59% for the 125 g a.i./ha high rate and 90% (Table 2). Heads receiving any aerial application of 72% for the 3 1 g a.i./harate. Heads hand sprayed with fungi- fungicides had significantly lower ergot severity from 44 to cide had 0 to 0.1 % and 0 to 2 % ergot severity at 8 days and 66%. However, this lower level of ergot control was much 14 days after treatment, respectively. higher than the ergot severity of hand sprayed fungicide heads which was 0.1 to 2.5%. At 14 days after treatment, Triadimefon was also the most effective triazole when there was little change in ergot severity in heads of any hand aerial applicationswere made to heads at bloom initiation in sprayed treatment or the Completed heads receiving aerial 1999 at rates of 125 g a.i./ha (4 oz of Tilt or equivalentlac) in application of either fungicide at 125 g a.i./ha(Table 2). The 47 lka (5 gallac) of water. However, the 5 to 12 % ergot se- ergot severity in Completed heads receiving the lower aerial verity and 49 to 77% reduction in ergot provided by these application rate of triadimefon (62 g a.i./ha) and Initiation triazole fungicides at 12 days after aerial application and in- heads of all aerial application treatments increased to near oculation disintegrated to 85% ergot severity and only 5 % control treatment levels of 95 to 96 % (Table 2). The field re- disease reduction by 19 days after treatment. Even poorer sults from 1999 and 2000, indicate that aerial application results were obtained in 2000 with aerial applications of provided poor fungicide contact and coverage of the head propiconazole and triadimefon at Corpus Christi in 2000. and the ensuing control of sorghum ergot was minimal and Prior to aerial application of fungicides and inoculation at transitory. Corpus Christi sorghum heads of male-sterile ATX623 were selected that had either just initiated (Initiation) or Our tests maximized the potential for sorghum ergot in completed (Completed) bloom. One group of heads were male-sterile sorghums through inoculation and absence of sprayed by hand at 168-672 ppm w'hich had also been used pollen. The ergot potential is likely to be much less in hybrid in the ground application tests. The other heads and the re- seed production fields. However, our results indicate the mainder of the plots received aerial applications of probable protection from ergot that could be expected with propiconazole (125 g a.i./ha) and triadimefon (62 and 125 g aerial application of these triazole fungicides at these rates. a.i./ha) in 47 l/ha. After treatment all plots were inoculated Multiple applications done to protect later-emerging heads with a macroconidia suspension of C. afiicaa The initial might also increase efficacy on previously-sprayed heads, ergot observations were made eight days later for but probably not significantly. Costly aerial applications of Completed heads which had synchronous ergot expression triazole hngicides might provide inadequate control of er- across the control treatment heads. Initiation heads were got just when it may be most needed. Head-directed spray Sustainable Plant Protection Systems

Table 1. Effect of fungicide rate and hand-spray versus ground machine application on average percent severity of sorghum ergot on a male-sterile sorghum at Corpus Christi, TX in 2000.' 8 Days after Treatment Propiconazole Triadimefon Rate (P a.i./ha) Hand Machine Hand Machine 0 42.00 a 42.00 a 41.88 a 41.88 a 31 (168 ppm) 0.09 b 10.74 b 0.02 b 5.62 b 62 (336 ppm) 0.03 b 6.36 c 0.00 b 1.68 c 125 (671 ppm) 0.00 b 2.33 d 0.00 b 1.31 c 14 Days after Treatment 0 90.63 a 90.63 a 91.12 a 91.12a 31 (168ppm) 2.09 b 2.50 b 0.26 b 71.63 b 62 (336 ppm) 0.31 c 63.00 c 0.02 b 50.88 c 125 (671 ppm) 0.04 c 59.12 c 0.00 b 38.22 d ' Percent severity of sorghum ergot (percent of infected floretslhead) was determ~nedfrom 40 heads in each of four replicate plots of ATX623 that had completed bloom at the hme of fungicide treatment and inoculation with C. africana. Treatments followed by the same letter in the same column are not significantly different according to Tukey P < 0.05.

Table 2. Effect of bloom stage, fungicide rate, and aerial versus hand-spray application on average percent severity of sorghum ergot on heads of a male-sterile sorghum at Corpus Christi, TX in 2000.' Pro iconazole Triadimefon Triadimefon (145 g a.iJhal --- (125 g a.i.lha) (62 g a.i./hal Application Method - - Application Method Application Method Bloom Control Hand Aerial Control Hand Aerial Control Hand Aerial

8 and I I Days after Treatment Initiation 81 .OO a 1.96 a 52.89 b 90.00 a 0.05 a 43.79 b 88.77 a 0.21 a 48.61 a Completed 83.25 a 0.80 a 66.13 a 86.38 a 0.02 a 61.00 a 86.06 a 0.04 a 59.38 a 14 Days after Treatment Initiation 98.50 a 2.42 a 95.75 a 97.50 a 0.09 a 96.00 a 97.50 a 0.30 a 96.00 a Completed 98.00 a 1.57 a 68.89 b 98.00 a 0.10a 70.75 b 98.00 a 0.14 a 94.00 a ' Percent severity of sorghum ergot (percent of infected floretshead) was detemned from 40 heads in each of four replicate plots of ATX623 that were at bloom initiation or had completed bloom at the timeof fungicide treatment and inoculation with C. africana. Initial ergot readings were taken at 8 and 11 days after treatment of Completed bloom and Initiation heads, respectively. * Treatments followed by the same letter in the same column are not significantlydifferent according toTukey P c 0.05.

with ground application equipment may be impractical for The apparently contrasting activities of triazole fungi- most producers, but it provides the fungicide contact and cides and contact fungicides, regarding ergot control in the coverage of heads needed for adequate control of sorghum sorghum ovary versus conidia in honeydew, on mature seed ergot. is probably related to the mode of action of the fungicides and their ability to directly interact with the pathogenat spe- Seed Treatments to Control Sorghum Ergot cific sites. In the field, triazole fungicides can prevent infec- tion of ovaries because of their svstemic translocation In early 1997, the sorghum industry was concerned about within plant tissues. Contact fungicides are ineffective in the safe movement of seed fiom ergot-affected production preventing infection in the field due to their lack of systemic areas so they could assure there was no introduction or activity. On the seed surface, the contact fungicides have re-introduction of ergot to other areas. J. Dahlberg et al. de- good activity because they are in direct contact with the termined that the contact fungicides thiram (42-S Thiram) conidia of the fungal pathogen. Triazole hngicides prevent and captan (Captan 400), at standard treatment rates, com- synthesis of sterols by the pathogen, but they apparently do pletely prevented conidial germination and production of not prevent the conidia from utilizing their own endogenous conidia of C. afi-icana present in honeydew on seed sur- reserve of sterols which appear to be sufficient to complete faces. Maxim 4FS (4-(2,2-difluoro- 1,3-benzodioxol- the entire sporulation process in less than 24 hours. 4-yl)-1H-py~ole-3-carbonitrile)allowed a trace of conidial germination and production of conidia at the lowest treat- The need for seed treatments to control sorghum ergot ment rate, but allowed only a sparse segmented mycelial was questioned when it became apparent that conidia in sur- growth at the higher treatment rate. Neither of the triazole face honeydew apparently had a short life span in seed stor- fungicides, triadimenol (Baytan 30), or difenoconazole age environments. Seed treatment efficacy studies were (Dividend 3MG), had any apparent effect on conidial ger- somewhat difficult to conduct on seed naturally coated with mination or production of secondary conidia as they were honeydew during harvesting operations because viability of indistinguishable from the control seed coated only with er- conidia in surface honeydew tended to decline so rapidly got honeydew. Results were similar when the germination within the first one to three months. Standard contact fungi- tests were conducted on the surface of nonsterile soil. cide treatments should easily control any residual conidia surviving in surface honeydew on seeds or sphacelia that Sustainable Plant Protection Systems somehow remained in seed after conditioning operations. unlikely to survive travel over 100s to 1000s of Km like the Despite their almost nondetectable numbers, in most cases, pigmentedrust spores. Disease spread over a large continent there was concern about survival of conidia within like North America would, therefore, be due to inoculum sphacelia and the possibility that contact fungicides might dispersal in a series ofmoderate "leaps" rather than one long not penetrate sufficiently into the sphacelia to kill them. In distance dispersal event. It also negates the possibility of the work done by D. Frederiksen, in collaboration with initial origin in the western hemisphere as being due to TAM-228, fresh sphacelia/sclerotia of C. africana were windborne spread from Africa to Brazil. mixed with sorghum seed and the mixture treated with captan fungicide (Captan 400 at 3.0 fl oz1100 wt). After Sclerotia of C. africana develop from within, and to the treatments had completely dried (24-48 hr), base of, sphacelia. The ergot fungal body may, thus, range sphacelia/sclerotiawere manually removed for viability as- from being entirely sphacelial to having a large proportion sessments of conidia. Compared to controls (95-1 00%), ex- of sclerotial tissue present. However, sclerotia always have ternal sphacelial surfaces of intact sphacelia and internal residual sphacelial tissue attached. Therefore, the sphacelia tissue cores of fresh sphacelia treated with captan had visi- and sclerotia of C. africana should be thought of as different ble conidial germination that was greatly (39%) and slightly tissues of the same structure rather than entirely independ- reduced (85%). Of the sphacelia that did have visible ent structures. A four-page pamphlet in both English and conidial sporulation, the amount was near non-detectable Spanish versions was published outlining the prominent levels on the external surfaces of intact captan-treated features of sphacelia and sclerotia. sphacelia, but very abundant from the internal cores of captan-treated sphacelia and both controls. Host Plant Resistance

Seed is subject to a rigorous cleaning process and TAM-228 and Noe Montes are collaborating with T. sclerotia/sphacelia are removed at many stages, e.g., fol- Isakeit, J. Dahlberg, and others in evaluating commercial lowing the screen-cutting (sieving) and air-blowing stages sorghum hybrids from Mexico and the U SA for susceptibil- and the gravity table. With good cleanup, very few are in- ity to sorghum ergot at several locations in Mexico and the corporated into seed, and captan seed treatment would coat USA. At some of the locations, sorghum heads were inocu- them and any ergot-contaminated seed. The percentage ger- lated with C. africana at bloom initiation to provide a uni- mination of conidia from those few remaining form level of inoculum for sorghums with different sclerotia/sphacelia is negligible compared to the fresh maturities. In 2000 tests at Corpus Christi, inoculum was sphacelia used in our tests, and is reduced by captan beyond provided to each hybrid until all primary heads had com- the threshold of detection. Furthermore, seed and sphacelia pleted bloom. Even under this heavy inoculum pressure, are destined to be buried below the soil surface where, in the only a few commercial hybrids, out of the 60 tested, devel- improbable event of any spores being produced, they would oped any significant amount of ergot and these were the have no potential as inoculum below the soil surface. If same hybrids that had shown vulnerability at this and other some conidia are formed at the soil surface there must be a locations in previous years' tests. Late planted trials were susceptibleblooming host in the vicinity. When seed is to be also conducted at some locations to evaluate cool tempera- planted in an areakegion where C. afiicana is already en- ture pollen sterility and its effects on incidence and severity demic, disease outbreaks, following windborne spread of of ergot. A greater number of hybrids showed vulnerability inoculum from already present sources, are almost certain to under these conditions and information from at least two of occur provide conditions are favorable for disease develop- these locations are being used to develop a more ment. Therefore, captan-treated seed should not be consid- regionalized ergot prediction model. This model assumes ered as a potential source of inoculum, especially in those the presence of inoculum and, thus, predicts or assesses the regions where the pathogen is already endemic. susceptibility of the host crop to infection by C. afiicana rather than predicting specific times of occurrence and Biology of C. africana spread of the pathogen.

In other collaborative work, D. Frederiksen determined Susceptibility to other naturally-occurring diseases is that temperature and relative humidity clearly interacted to also being evaluated concurrently if they occur at sufficient affect survival of conidia of Claviceps afiicana with great- severity at these locations. est survival associated with low temperature (6°C) and low relative humidity (6%). Seed storage environments would Networking Activities be unfavorable for survival of conidia in sphacelia mixed with seed with most conidia expected to be dead within 15 to Chronology of Networking Activities 20 weeks. (Primarily Sorghum Ergot-related)

Susceptibility of macroconidia and secondary conidia of September 23, 1996 - TAM-228 and TAM-224 were C. afiicana to UVB irradiation are similar and suggest that co-coordinators and co-moderators of an Ergot Awareness the windborne hyaline secondary conidia may remain via- session held in conjunction with the International Confer- ble over distances of 10s to 100s of Km.However, they are ence on Genetic Improvement of Sorghum and Millet held Sustainable Plant Protection Systems in Lubbock, Texas. TAM-228 also made a presentation on Chemical control and alternate hosts (R. Velasquez) were Chemical Control of Sorghum Ergot. presented at the I1 International INIFAP-TAMU- USDAIARS Planning Conference on Sorghum Ergot. Rio Feb 19,1997 - Continued Spread of Sorghum Ergot in the Bravo, MX. Appointed to INIFAP/TAMU/USDA Steering Western Hemisphere presented at Grain Sorghum Research Committee to develop collaborative sorghum ergot research and Utilization Conference in New Orleans, LA. between the USA and Mexico.

Feb 28, 1997 - Odvody, G. 1997. Chemical control of September 12,1997 - Presentation on biology and spread sorghum ergot presented at GSPA-sponsored ergot discus- of sorghum ergot in the Western Hemisphere and the USA sion session for industry, commodity and regulatory groups, at a Sorghum Ergot Review and Strategy meeting in and public scientists at Lubbock, TX. Colwich, Kansas.

March 15-16,1997 - Biology and spread of sorghum er- Nov 10- 12,1997 - Spread of sorghum ergot in the U.S.A. got and opportunities for international collaboration pre- and Mexico (R. Velasquez) presented at APS Caribbean Di- sented to INIFAP scientists at Rio Bravo Experiment vision Meetings, in San Jose, Costa Rica. Station, Rio Bravo, MX. Sorghum ergot survey in Texas Department of Agriculture grow outs near Tampico, Mex- November 20, 1997 - Spread and Importance of Sor- ico and enroute through northern Tarnaulipas state. ghum Ergot in the Western Hemisphere presented at the Conference on Grain Sorghum for the 21St Century: April 7, 1997 - Appointed as member of Texas A&M Working Together as an Industry at Corpus Christi, TX. University Sorghum Ergot Extension and Research Task Force. December 9,1997 - Sorghum Ergot inthe U.S. and Mex- ico (R. Velasquez) presented at the 9thAnnual Texas Plant May 1, 1997 - R.Velasquez-Valle initial INIFAP, Mex- Protection Conference in College Station, TX. ico scientist based at Corpus Christi May 1997-98 to con- duct sorghum ergot research in Mexico and the U.S. December 11,1997 - Ergot - A New Threat to Comrner- Funding provided by USDA-ARS. cia1 Sorghum Seed Production. presented at the 52nd An- nual Corn and Sorghum Research Conference of the ASTA May 9,1997 - Sorghum ergot survey and interaction with in Chicago, IL. area farmers near San Fernando, MX. January 27, 1998 - Ergot of Sorghum - Update at the May to June, 1997 - Ex-officio member of all subcom- Texas Seed Trade Association Production and Research mittees of the American Seed Trade Organization Ad Hoc Conference in Dallas, TX. committee on sorghum ergot. February 5, 1998 - Sorghum Ergot. presented to lStAn- May 16, 1997 - Sorghum Ergot in the United States pre- nual South Texas Crop Management Technical Seminar sented at South Texas Country Elevators Association Con- ference, South Padre Island, Texas. May 1, 1998 to July 1,1999 - Special INTSORMIL sor- ghum ergot project provided base funds for Dr. D. . June 1-7,1997 - Presented a paper, chaired the Country Frederiksen to conduct research on the biology of sorghum reports session, and chaired the Working Group on Control ergot at Texas A&M in collaboration with TAM-228. and Management of Sorghum Ergot, and was appointed as INTSORMIL representative and chairman of the Global June 23-24,1998 - Local arrangements chairman for the Steering Committee at the Global Conference on Ergot of INTSORMIL Principal Investigators Meeting and Impact Sorghum. Sete Lagaos, Brazil. Assessment Workshop held in Corpus Christi, TX.

June 11, 1997 - Chemical control of Ergot in Sorghum June 24-26,1998 - Local arrangements chairman, mem- Hybrid Seed presented at the U.S. Conference on Sorghum ber of conference organizing committee, and oral presenta- Ergot in Amarillo, TX. tion made in the control session of the Conference on the Status of Sorghum Ergot in North America held in Corpus July 2, 1997 - Presentations on the epidemiology and Christi, TX. spread of sorghum ergot (R. Velasquez) and Chemical Con- trol of Sorghum Ergot (TAM-228) were made at the sympo- June 24, 1998 - Ergot of Sorghum-A Global View. D. sium "Ergot (Cornezuelo), Situacion Actual y Problematica Frederiksen, Keynote address. In: Conference on the status en Sorgo" held during the 24th National Congress of the of sorghum ergot in North America. Corpus Christi, TX. Mexican Society of Plant Pathology, Obregon, MX June 26,1998 - Organizer for SICNA South Texas Sor- August 26, 1997 - Spread of Sorghum Ergot and Pro- ghum Nursery Field Day and Tour held in conjunction with jected Research Areas (TAM-228) and Research Progress: Sustainable Plant Protection Systems the Conference on the Status of Sorghum Ergot in North October 14,1999 - Sorghum ergot training workshop at America. Rio Bravo Experiment Station, Rio Bravo, Mexico. TAM-228 and N. Montes. June 27 to July 5,1998 - Hosted Medson Chisi, sorghum breeder and sorghum team leader from Zambia, to interact October 26,1999 - A web page was developed to display with other sorghum scientists in South Texas sorghum nurs- approximately 90 diverse images of ergot taken primarily eries following INTSORMIL and Ergot conferences and to by TAM-228. Images may also be saved offline for use in collaboratively evaluate sorghum cultivars in South Texas documents and related purposes. Many ergot images from nurseries for future testing in Zambia. this project continue to be used on several web sites.

July 27-28,1998 - Member of a Texas Seed Trade Asso- January 25-27,2000 - Sorghum ergot ?raining workshop, ciation delegation that visited Sanidad Vegetale officials in N. Montes, Managua, Nicaragua sponsored by Monsanto, Mexico City to discuss Mexican seed import restrictions re- Inc. lated to sorghum ergot in commercial sorghum seed from the USA. April 1,2000 - Dr. Debra Frederiksen established as con- sultant research scientist (TAM-228 support) stationed at September 10, 1998 - Participated in meeting ofNC-501 the SADCIICRISAT facilities on the Matopos Experiment project, Ergot: A New Disease of U.S. Grain Sorghum, Station, Zimbabwe. Manhattan, KS. Plant pathology discipline chairman of the Sorghum Im- October 18-22, 1998 - Odvody, G. N. and R. A. provement Conference of North America 1997-2001. Frederiksen. INTSORMIL: Integrated Disease Manage- ment for Sorghum. Poster at National meetings of Member of USDA-ARS Sorghum Germplasm Commit- ASA,CCSA, and SSSA Baltimore, MD. tee, First appointed February 1997.

February 2, 1999 - Current Research on Sorghum Ergot Member of organizing committee for the Global Review of Special Relevance to the Sorghum Seed Trade (Including of Sorghum and Millet Diseases conference to be held in how to recognize sclerotia). D. Frederiksen, Invited Mexico in September 2000. Speaker at the Texas Seed Trade Association Production and Research Conference, Dallas, TX. Co-editor along with R. Frederiksen, TAM224, Com- pendium of Sorghum Diseases. Revised with expected pub- April 19-20, 1999 - Sorghum ergot training workshop at lication by September 2000. Sanidad Vegetale Headquarters in Mexico City. Noe Mon- tes presented the sorghum ergot information at the work- Member TAES Grain Sorghum Research Task Force, shop and provided translation for the other speakers. November 1998.

April 29-30,1999 - TAM-228 participated in a review of International Travel current and projected sorghum ergot research activities at a USDA-ARS sponsored review (S. Jensen) at Kansas City, TAM-228 PI traveled to Southern Africa for three weeks MO. yearly in late March-April 1997-99 to evaluate nurseries and determine future collaborative research activities in the June 1999 - Prepared slide text descriptions and patho- region. Locations visited included SMIP scientists and Zim- gen summary for eight project slide images that became part babwe national sorghum breeder in Bulawayo (Matopos), of a new American Phytopathological Society slide set of Zimbabwe; and collaborating scientists at PPRVRSS in emerging diseases that was released in mid-1999. Harare, Zimbabwe; Mt. Makulu and Golden Valley Stations in Zambia; DAR in Sebele and Pandamatenga Stations, Bot- September 1,1999 - Report of Texas A&M sorghum er- swana; and the sorghum pathologist and sorghum entomol- got research activities and progress for NC-501 (NC-227 af- ogist at Grain Crops Institute in Potchefstroom, South ter October 1, 1999) meeting in Lincoln, NE. Elected Africa. secretary of NC-227 September 1999-2000. Through Southern Africa Regional Program funds, October 4-6, 1999 - Participated in USDA Review, Plant TAM-228 sponsored N. McLaren of South Africa to travel Diseases National Program Workshop, Beltsville, MD. with him during April 1999 through Zimbabwe and Zambia to establish collaborative linkages with scientistsparticipat- October 7, 1999 - Presented sorghum ergot seminar at ing in the SADC regional ergot research project being led by USDA-ARS Research Lab, Ft Dietrick MD. McLaren. Similar travel was arranged for April 2000 but TAM-228 was unable to travel to SouthernAfrica. McLaren visited scientists and collaborators and evaluated collabora- Sustainable Plant Protection Systems tive disease nurseries at all locations in Zimbabwe, Zambia, buffelgrass blight caused by Pyricuiaria grisea. Plant Disease 83 (4):398. and Botswana. Velasquez-Valle, R., J. Narro-Sanchez, R., Mora-Noasco, and G. N. Odvody. 1998. Spread of ergot of sorghum (Ciaviceps africana) in Germplasm Exchange Central Mexico. Plant Disease 82: 447. Velasquez-Valle, R, F. San Martin, G. Odvody, y J. Narro. 1999 (1998). Reporte preliminar sobre especies del genero Claviceps asociadas a Over 500 lines and cultivars were evaluated yearly for re- pastos en algunos estados de Mexico y Texas, EUA. Revista Mexicana sponse to various diseases, adaptation, drought response, de Fitopatologia 16(1): 42-45. and sugarcane aphid resistance in the SADC region (collab- orative with TAM-222, B. Rooney, TAM-223, and Proceedings TAM-224). Frederickson, D. E. and G. N. Odvody. 1999. Survival of sorghum ergot, Ciaviceps africana. p. 54 In Proceedings of the 21 Biennial Research Publications and Utilization Conference. Tucson, AZ, Feb 21-24, 1999. Isakeit, T., R. Bandyopadhyay, G. N. Odvody, J. Dahlberg, and J. Nairo-Sanchez. 1999. Reaction of sorghum hybrids to ergot in South Journal Articles and Central Texas, Puerto Rico and Guanajuato, Mexico T. p. 63 In Proceedings of the 21 Biennial Research and Utilization Conference. Bailey,C. A., J. J. Fazzino,Jr., M. S. Ziehr, A. U. Haq, G. Odvody,and J. K. Tucson, AZ, Feb 21 -24, 1999. Porter, 1999. Evaluation of Sorghum Ergot Toxicity in Broilers. Poul- Odvody,G.N., D. E. Frederickson,T. Isakeit,J .A. DahlbergandG. L. Pe- hy Sci. 78:1391-1397. terson. 1999. The role of seedborne inoculum in sorghum ergot. Pro- Bandyopadhyay, R., D. E. Frederiksen, N. W. McLaren, G. N. Odvody, ceedings of 3d International Seed Testing Associat~on-PDC, Seed and M. J. Ryley. 1998. Ergot: A New Disease Threat to Sorghum in the Health Symposium, August 16-19, 1999. Ames, IA. p. 136-140. Americas and Australia. Plant Disease 82:356-367. Odvody, G. N., T. Isakeit, N. Montes, J. Narro-Sanchez, and H. Kaufman. Dahlberg, J. A.,G.. L. Peterson, G. N. Odvody, and M. Bonde. 1999. Inhi- 1999. Occurrence of Sorghum Ergot in Texas and Mexico in 1998. p. bition of germination and sporulation of Ciaviceps africana fmm hon- 62 In Proceedingsofthe 21'' Biennial Researchand UtilizationConfer- eydew encrusted sorghum with seed treatment fungicides. Crop ence. Tucson, AZ, Feb 2 1-24, 1999. Protection 18: 235-238. Frederiksen, D. E., E. S. Monyo, S. B. King, G. N. Odvody, and L.E. Claflin. 1999. Presumptive identification of Pseudomonas syringae, Miscellaneous Publications the cause of foliar leaf spots and streaks on pearl millet in Zimbabwe. Journal of Phytopathology 147:701-706 Frederickson, D., G. Odvody, and N. Montes. 1999. El ergot del sorgo, Isakeit, T., G. N. Odvody,and R. A. Shelby. 1998. First report ofsorghum Diferenciacion de 10s esfacelios y 10s esclerocios de Ciaviceps ajricana ergot caused by Ciaviceps africana in the United States. Plant Dis. en la semilla. L-5315S, 7-99 5 p. Texas Agric. Ext. Svce. 82592. Odvody, G., R. Bandyopadhyay, R. Frederiksen, T. Isakeit, D. R0driguez.J. Gonzalez-Dominguez, J. P. Krausz,G. N. Odvody,J. P. Wil- Frederickson, H. Kaufman, J. Dahlberg, R. Velasquez, and H. Torres. son, W. W. Hanna, and M. Levy. 1999. First report and epidemics of 1998. Sorghum Ergot Goes Global in Less Than Three Years. APSNET feature article for June 1998 published online. Sustainable Production Systems

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Economic and Sustainability Evaluation of New Technologies in Sorghum and Millet Production in INTSORMIL Priority Countries Project PRF-205 John H. Sanders Purdue University

Principal Investigator

John H. Sanders, Departrrnent of Agricultural Economics, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907

Collaborating Scientists

Tahirou Abdoulaye, INRAN, B.P. 429, Niamey, Niger (presently at Purdue) Mohamed M. Ahrned, ILRI, P.O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Harounan Kazianga, University of Ouagadougou, B.P. 7064, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso (presently at Purdue) Barry I. Shapiro, ICRISAT, B.P. 320, Bamako, Mali Mamadou SidibC, ISRA, 3 1 10 Whispering Pines Dr., Apt. 34, Silver Springs, MD Jeffrey Vitale, Department of Agricultural Economics, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-1 145 Nega G. Wubeneh, ILRI, P.O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (presently at Purdue)

Summary

Programs for food crops in semiarid Sub-Saharan Africa To recommend complementary policies to accelerate often focus on one-input, low farmer-expenditure solutions. the introduction process. Miracle varieties, manure, rock phosphate, and compost heaps are some of the recent recommendations. Across Af- In this condensation of activity from July 1996 until July rican countries only, where new sorghum/millet cultivars 2000, we report on five of our principal research themes: a) were combined with increased water availability and mod- impact of new cultivars and associated technologies in erate levels of inorganic fertilizers, did the successful diffu- Sub-Saharan Africa, b) alternative water-retention1 sion of new cultivars lead to increased aggregate yields. soil-fertility increasing technologies on different types of There are substantial differences in the types of wa- soils, c) technologies and other determinants of the income ter-retentionlsoil-fertility strategies in different soil types and welfare of women, d) consumption and production con- from the sandy dune soils to the soils with some clay, and sequences for sorghum-millet of the devaluation of 1994, hence crusting, to the heavy vertisols with drainage prob- and e) evolution of the input markets. lems. On the heavier soils, substantial yield increases are possible with water-retention techniques done within the Research Approach and Project Output crop season, such as ridging, tied ridging, improved land preparations, combined with inorganic fertilizers. The other New Sorghum/Millet Cultivars and Associated approaches to soil fertility (especially manure, crop resi- Technologies dues, and rotations of cereal/legumes) are useful comple- ments to the inorganic fertilizers, but cannot substitute for With growing expertise in national and international them in providing sufficient quantities of the two basic nu- breeding programs, a large number of new cultivars have trients of N and P. been successfully released in Sub-Saharan Africa. In the mid-'90s, ICRISAT estimated that 40 sorghum cultivars Objectives, Production, and Utilization Constraints had been released in 23 countries and 16 millet cultivars in 12 countries (1998 Annual Report of INTSORMIL, p. 60). Objectives So the breeders have been doing their job.

The general objectives of this research are: Two important questions are the extent of diffusion and, therefore, the rate of return to the research and then the over- * To estimate the potential effects of new technologies all effects on aggregate yields. To respond, we reviewed the performance of new sorghurn/millet cultivars in seven To identify the constraints to their introduction Sub-Saharan countries over the last decade.

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The focus has been on open-pollinated, short-season of new technologies with purchased inputs, there has been cultivars. Rainfall has been approximately one standard de- little substitution for the disappearing fallow system with viation below the long-term normal from 1967 to the pres- increased input purchases. Hence, nutrients have been ent. One problem with short-season cultivars is that this mined, soils depleted, and cultivation of the basic cereals risk-reduction technique also leads to lower potential to re- pushed into former grazing areas even more marginal for spond to higher input levels in normal or good rainfall years. agriculture. The short-season cultivars were generally utilized as part of portfolio diversification, so they did not entirely displace For these seven countries, where there has been signifi- traditional cultivars. cant introduction of the new sorghum-/millet cultivars, what has happened to aggregate yields? In the Sudan, mech- Ofthe seven cases of new cultivar introduction, five were anized dryland sorghum yields (with some new cultivars but short-season cultivars (Table 1). Sorghum area diffusion for without fertilization) have fallen from approximately 1 t these cultivars ranged from 26 to 37%. Rates of return onre- ha-l to 600 kg ha-l. In contrast in the irrigated area, yields search were marginal in most of these cases, except in Zim- have increased from 1.3 -1.5 t ha-' to 2 t ha-' over the same babwe. The costs of the research were not high. However, period (Ahmed, Sanders, and Nell, 2000, p. 60). On the the benefits of cultivar alone, generally without fertiliza- drylands of the other countries evaluated only South Africa tion, were not great either. has substantially increased its aggregate yields. Yields in these countries stagnate at less than 1 t ha-l while yields in In the two other cases in the irrigated regions of Sudan South Africa thoughvery erratic range from 1.5 to 3 t ha-'. and drylands in South Africa, medium-length cultivars were introduced and fertilization levels increased. In Sudan, in In conclusion, cultivar-alone strategies may give tempo- spite of the low total area of diffbsion due to the lack of suffi- rary yield increases or be useful in portfolio diversification cient seed supply and inadequate access to inorganic fertil- to reduce the risk of poor crop seasons. However, they do izer, returns to research were reasonably high. Here the not provide large yield gains in most years and they mine the combination of moderate levels of inorganic fertilizer and soil nutrients, so they are not sustainable. Combining new the new cultivar approximately tripled yields. In South Af- cultivars with water-retention techniques of some type and rica, farmers take advantage of a sub-surface crust at 1 to 2 with moderate fertilization did make a significant difference meters depth. By controlling weeds and cultivating in the in yield increases in both South Africa and the Sudan. These off season, they store water and then use moderate fertiliza- improved systems are also more sustainable as major soil tion to get yields with substantial variability but generally nutrients are being replaced. between 2 to 3 t ha-'. Governments in Sub-Saharan Africa need to move away The bottom line for new cultivar introduction is what from a focus on maintaining low urban food prices, and be happens to aggregate yields. During the past two decades, more concerned with the profitability of food production, sorghum and millet output expansion have been dependent and with conserving their natural resources from nutrient upon area expansion in Sub-Saharan Africa as aggregate depletion and other soil degradation effects of the yields have been declining. Over the 1980 to 1996 period, extensification process (area expansion while mining soil yield declines were -0.8% for sorghum and -0.7% for millet. nutrients). (Ahmed, Sanders, and Nell, 2000, p. 59). Water Retentionfioil Fertility With increasing population density, fallow systems have been breaking down. Due to governmental price distortions The principal constraint to increasing yields in semiarid to keep food prices low for urban consumers and the failure regions is implied by the description of the region: lack of to utilize demonstration trials to show farmers the potential water at the appropriate times. A series of techniques are

Table 1. Selected characteristics of the successful new sorghum and millet cultivar introductions. cultivar' Country Year of Season length Current adoption2 Internal rate Change in input use release of return HD-I (S) Sudan 1983 Medium 17% (1 993) 36% (low Fertilization (inigated area fert~llzatlon) S-35 (S) Cameroon 1986 Short 33% (1 997) 2% (1994) No change observed Chad 1989 27% (1 997) SV-2 (S) Zimbabwe 1987 Short 36% (1 995) 18% No change observed Zambian cultivars3 (S) Zambia 1987-1993 Short, med~um, 35% (1996) 12% Fertilized only on large farms and long PMV-2 (M) Zimbabwe 1991 Short 26% (1 995) 31% No change repom Okashana-1 (M) Namibia 1990 Short 35% (1 993) 13% No change reported NK-283 (S) South Africa Unknown Medium to- 50-70% (1 998) NA Fertilization and water retention ' Sorghum and millet. respectively, are identified by the letters S and M in parentheses. Latest available information with the year in parentheses. ' Include two hybrids and three open-pollinated cultivars of which Kuyuma and Sima (released in 1989) and MMSH-928 (released in 1993) are the most widely adopted. Sources: Anandajayasekeram et al.. 1995; Ahmed, 1996; Ahmed and Sanders, 1992; Chisi et al., 1997; Sanderset al., 1994; and Yapi et al., 1997. Sustainable Production Systems utilized to make more water available on the heavier (some for sorghum-millet technology diffusion have been identi- clay) crusting soils, including the traditional A,bunds or fied: the between-year price variability, the seasonal price dikes, the higher-yielding tied ridges, better land prepara- fluctuation, and the liquidity problem. Most food staples tion, and watershed management methods. On the sandy face inelastic demands (with respect to price) so in years soils, where infiltration is the principal problem, there is an with normal or good weather, prices rapidly decline or col- even wider range of methods to slow the flow of water lapse. Technology introduction can accelerate this price de- within the soil. On very heavy soils, such as vertisols, wa- cline process. Technology development for food staples ter-retention techniques can lead to excessive water and the then needs to be accompanied with research on processing consequent need to knock down these devices. Neverthe- and alternative uses. less, whether the problem is infiltration, crusting and exces- sive runoff, or drainage, the initial problem of regions with Much of the technology developed for wheat and rice can insufficient rainfall (the definition of semi-arid) is increas- be adapted to millet and sorghum in the Sahelian countries. ing the availability of water at the critical periods of plant Notable examples are the couscous of millet and the par- growth. boiling technique for sorghum. The former technique for couscous is principally used for wheat and the latter for rice. Once more water is made available, the return to fertil- Processing equipment and small-scale cereal processors ization is increased and its riskiness reduced. As with water have been increasing rapidly in Senegal and interest is availability, there are a wide range of techniques. Manure, spreading to other Sahelian countries. The big demand crop rotation, and local rock phosphates are widely recom- shifter for the cereals will be their use in feed. The poultry mended especially for crops primarily grown for home con- revolution is just getting underway in Sub-Saharan Afnca sumption. When the subsidies were taken off inorganic and has led to very rapid demand growth for cereals for feed fertilizers in the '80s, techniques for increasing organic mat- in other developing countries. African countries need to be ter from crop residues and for maintaining the quality of ma- anticipating these demand shifts or they will require large nure (covered compost heaps) were diffused across the feed imports in the near future (next five to ten years). Sahel. Unfortunately, basic nutrient levels ofN andP are too low in manure and the rock phosphate is too insoluble (ex- Another price problem is the post-harvest price collapse. cept in acidic, higher rainfall regions). So these intermediate Farmers'often have a pressing cash requirement for family solutions to soil fertility improvement have not been very emergencies, ceremonies, marriages, educational expenses, effective and detract attention from the need to utilize inor- and loan repayments, forcing them to sell at the seasonal ganic fertilizers to provide the principal plant nutrients. low prices after harvest. Farmers also have a requirement to Without these basic nutrients (N and P) on a sustained basis, put aside grain reserves for family consumption and will any cropping system is unsustainable. pay a fairly high risk premium to avoid being dependent upon grain purchases later in the season (unpublished field Combining the organic with inorganic fertilizers can in- data from Mali, Senegal, and Niger). Also, there are village crease the water and nutrient-holding capacity of the soil, pressures to share grain stocks in excess of anticipated fam- increase the biological activity, and provide other nutrients. ily requirements with the needy. For all these reasons, fm- However, there is no substitute for the soluble inorganic fer- ers find it difficult to hold their cereals to take advantage of tilizers. Poor countries and food crop producers need to be the within-season price recovery. This price variability is using them or yields stay low and soils continue to degrade. often substantial and can mean the difference between Low inputs result in low outputs and the continuation of higher input use being profitable or not. Over the last decade poverty and malnutrition. in Mali, a 35% seasonal price variation for sorghum has been estimated (Jeffrey D. Vitale, unpublished data). Presently, fieldwork and modeling are being undertaken in Mali, Senegal, and Niger to evaluate the potential profit- To develop policy alternatives, our field research in ability of inorganic fertilizers often combined with new Niger has been studying the income sources and consump- cultivars. This research focuses on identifying constraints to tion patterns of farmers, including the performance of a re- a more rapid diffusion of these technologies. In Mali, the cent FA0 pilot project, which has been pooling part of the water-retention device of ridging (without the tying) is farmers' grain production in a community stock, selling widely practiced. In Niger, millet producers in several re- them when the price recovers and buying fertilizers for sale gions have begun mixing small quantities of inorganic fer- in the village at profit. tilizers with their seed before putting both in the holes. In Senegal, there is domestic, inefficient production of inor- Finally, the most frequent hypothesis to explain the fail- ganic fertilizers. Removing the protection decreases the fer- ure to intensify production of cereals with higher input lev- tilizer price and increase farmers' incomes in the peanut els is the lack of credit. The assertion that farmers do not zone by 14% (Mamadou Sidibe, thesis research). have capital to invest in divisible inputs, such as fertilizer and new cultivars, is not consistent with our data on con- Another central component of this research is the identi- sumption, income, and capital stocks ofthe small farmers in fication of agricultursll and economic policies to accelerate Niger, Senegal, and Mali. Farmers put their capital in ani- the introduction process. Three central economic problems mals, which they then cash in for pressing expenditures. Sustainable Production Systems

They have many sources of family income. Unfortunately, tional changes underway in the region to contest the in- farmers are often not convinced that the new technologies creased income flows resulting from these new are sufficiently profitable at the levels of risk they are will- technologies. First, the movement from extended to nuclear ing to take. Hence, the problem is not the supply of credit but families is one response to the income concentration for the the demand for the new technologies based upon farmers' household heads. This movement to nuclear families is perceptions of the returns and riskiness of the new technolo- more advanced in East and Southern Africa but is getting gies. underway in West Afi-ica. This family organization shift does not necessarily benefit women but would affect male In summary, the principal barriers to the adoption of new household members. cereal technologies appear to be the opportunity of seeing them in the field, reducing the seasonal price variability, and Secondly, traditional gender workgroups have been expanding the demand for cereals. Appropriate policy rec- changing their methods of operation. These groups perform ommendations are then farm-level demonstrations, village seasonal agricultural operations for a fee and benefit from storage programs for the cereals, and public and private in- the increased value of output and the higher seasonal labor vestments in processing of cereal food and feeds. demands with technological change. Previously, these workgroups would accumulate funds to pay for a village so- Technologies and Other Determinants cial function. Now members are demanding individual of Income of Women wage payments from the group fees.

A major concern in technology development was raised Shifting attention to the within-household decision mak- in the Women in Development literature. Are women in Af- ing based upon the Burkina Faso research: In societies at the rican agriculture made worse off by the introduction ofnew subsistence level, very authoritarian decision-making to technologies? After substantial fieldwork in southern Mali produce and save a cereal surplus would be expected. Over and the continuation of modeling in Burkina Faso, three time with new income streams, increased competition for Ph.D. theses in this project have been completed, specifi- income and for making decisions would be expected within cally focusing on technology and other factors influencing the family. Where bargaining occurs in within-house deci- the incomes of women. sion-making, agricultural technologies increase the income of women by 29% and the combined agricultural and house- A predominant belief is that with the traditional social hold technologies increase income by 68%, according to patterns, the household head can exploit his wives and cap- model results (1999 Annual Report of INTSORMIL, p. 57). ture all the gains of new technologies. In Mali in five vil- Nevertheless, the introduction of household technologies lages with three ethnic groups, the within-family economic benefitted women even where there were exploitative organization functioned as in any other labor market. When household heads. In these cases, the women did not obtain higher levels of new technology were introduced on the income increases from the introduction of agricultural tech- plots collectively farmed by the family, the household head nologies. had to pay higher wages to the wives. However, these wage increases were small compared to the time reduction on the The econometric results from Mali also give some guide- private plots of the females. Reduced time on these plots re- lines for policies to increase the bargaining power ofwomen sults in a lower value of output, which the women can sell. and, thereby, push faster toward family decision-making of So the net effect of these two changes was a welfare reduc- the bargaining type. Measures to increase the opportunity tion for the women. costs of women, such as increased education and job oppor- tunities, have been shown to significantly increase the There is a third change of the welfare effect on women within-household wages paid to women. from the increased household income. In the calculation of wage gains to women, the value of gifts of food and clothing In summary, extended families function internally as any were included as wages. Nevertheless, the increased income other economic unit but as yet the wives have very little bar- to the household head may have resulted in other expendi- gaining power. This is in a process of change as institutions tures by him benefitting women and children. Further analy- evolve to contest the new income streams from technologi- sis of income sources and consumption expenditures by cal change. Meanwhile, priority measures identified to in- various family members is presently underway in Niger. crease the income of women are 1) raising their opportunity costs and thereby their bargaining power, 2) introducing Technological change results in increased income household technologies, and 3) continuing the rapid intro- streams; those with greater bargaining power have advan- duction of technological change in agriculture for the tages in capturing a larger share. There are several institu- households.

' In the second halfof the '80s. there was a sharp decline of the world prices of cocoa, coffee, cotton. and petroleum. Sustainable Production Systems

Consumption and Production Effects of the Evolution of the Input Markets I994 Devaluation on the SorghumLMillet Sector One principal effect of the privatization process of struc- The 14 African members of the French monetary union tural adjustment programs of the last two decades has been (CFA zone) had a fixed exchange rate with France for al- the elimination of public-sector seed production. In some most 50 years. On Jan. 12, 1994 after a decline of 50% in cases, as in Ethiopia, these agencies survive but are in- their terms of trade1 since the mid-'80s, they devalued the structed to maximize profits and they imitate the private CFA by 50%. Devaluation makes imports more expensive sector. As a consequence, an important barrier to new tech- and exports more profitable. nology introduction for the traditional cereals is often the availability of sufficient quality seed, especially as the dif- production effects2of devaluation are on input andprod- fusion process accelerates. This was especially clear with uct prices. For some time, many Sub-Saharan countries introduction of Hageen Dura- 1 in the irrigated zones of Su- have overvalued exchange rates and implemented other pol- dan in the early '90s. There, 52% ofthe farmers interviewed icies to subsidize imported cereals and maintain low do- (including adopters and non-adopters) said that they either mestic prices for their basic cereals. Devaluation first could not get enough seed (2 1%) or not get as much as they increases the prices of agricultural inputs, including inor- wanted (31%) (Nichola Tennassie and John H. Sanders, ganic fertilizers and pesticides. The favorable effect for ag- "The Seed Industry and the Diffusion of a Sorghum Hy- riculture is that it will also increase the prices of imported brid," Science, Technology, and Development, 15 cereals, especially rice and wheat. To the extent that the tra- (Aug./Dec. 1997), p. 262). ditional cereals are substitutes for imported cereals, the prices of traditional cereals will increase. Since cereals are To fill this vacuum, the predominant approach has been bulky, hence expensive to import, there shouldbe a compar- to utilize NGOs to undertake communi@seed production. ative advantage for local cereal production once domestic This approach neglects the skill and quality-control ele- subsidies are rem~ved.~With a lag, the price of traditional ments needed in the long run for maintaining high-quality cereals has increased faster than inorganic fertilizer prices seed production. Incentives for new private activities in in southern Mali. By 1996, there was an increased economic seed production, trademarking to make producers responsi- incentive to farmers for more intensive production. ble for quality, and the public-sector production of orphan Modeling results indicated that at these relative prices, crops are all alternatives and perhaps complementary opera- farmers would fertilize small areas of sorghum (see tions to improve the performance of the seed sector. INTSORMIL Annual Report 18). Once the diffusion pro- cess is started, it is expected to accelerate as farmers observe Networking Activities the gains from improving soil fertility. Support to Students from African Organizations On the consumption side, the changes in household con- sumption of cereals before and after devaluation were eval- The main networking of this project is the support of stu- uated in urban Bamako. When rice was seaarated into dents from African institutions for long-term graduate imported and domestically produced, the econometric re- study. From July 1996 to July 2000, this project and associ- sults clearly showed substitution between importedrice and ated funding have always been supporting four or five grad- domestically produced sorghum. There were only small uate students. These grad students are selected principally changes in actual consumption patterns as the removal of from the agricultural research institutes of their countries the tariffs on rice offset the devaluation effect. Rice tariffs and do their thesis research in their own countries. Theirre- were reduced from 100% to 11% over the period so the rice search topics are developed in collaboration with their insti- price relative to the traditional cereals actually declined (see tutes and with other regional and international organizations INTSORMIL Annual Reports 19 and 20). The next round of working in the area. Principal benefits are their degrees and devaluation would be expected to have a much larger effect the long-term working relationships with these groups. To on these relative cereal prices, resulting in larger increases date most of our students have gone into international orga- in traditional cereal consumption. nizations, especially the IARCs, but they are still predomi- nantly working in Africa. Program graduates are presently In summary, devaluation offers more favorable opportu- in Zimbabwe (Rockefeller Foundation), Mali (ICRISAT, nities to the traditional cereals by increasing the incentives IER), Benin (IITA),Ethiopia (ILRI), and Colombia (CIAT). for intensive production (inorganic fertilizers), and remov- A higher proportion of the next generation of students is ex- ing some of the price distortions that encourage the substitu- pected to return to their national agricultural research insti- tion of imported cereals for the traditional cereals. tution.

There is a need to intensify traditional cereal (sorghunl and millet) production as the soil exhaustion process accelerates in traditional production zones with the break- down of the fallow system. Rather than increased purchase of inputs to improve soil fertility, the predominant farmer response has been further movement into more marginal zones for crop production. So the nutrient-mining and soil degradation process is being extended into even more marginal soil regions. ' Removing the subsidies of developing countries on imported cereals is only half of the process. In developed countries, the predominant form of competing for trade shares is with expolt subsidies. Having foreign countries subsidize your food consumption is a good thing if you can anticipate how long they will do that and be prepared for the shock when the cereal war is over. Sustainable Production Systems

Participation in Networks, Conferences and Publications and Presentations Other African Activities Journal Article During the past four years we have been participating in conferences and workshops. We presented papers from our Ahmed, M.M., J.H. Sanders, and W.T. Nell, 2000. New Sorghumand Mil- let Cultivar Introduction in Sub-Saharan Africa: Impacts and Research research in workshops of the West African Sorghum Net- Agenda. Agricultural Systems 64(1):55-65. work, the Millet Network, the University of Hohenheim conference in Niger, IFDC-West Africa, the African Farm Published Proceedings Management Association, the seed workshop in Niger, and IFAD. All of the above were held in Africa. Other presenta- Sanders, John H., 2000. The Economic Potential ofthe Agricultural Sector tions of our work were made for IFPRI and for the Ambassa- in the Sahel. In Energy Supply, Economic Pillars of Rural Sahelian Communities, Need for Revised Development Shiategies,proceedings, dor-Designate to Burkina Faso and his team (both in 12th Danish Sahel Workshop, Jan. 3-5, Hanne Adriansen, Anette Washington, DC), the International Association of Agricul- Reenberg, and Ivan Nielsen (eds.). Copenhagen, Denmark: SERIEN tural Economists (Sacramento), the American Agricultural (Sahel-Sudan Environmental Research Initiative), Occasional paper No. 1 1. vv. 39-52. Economists Association (San Antonio), the European Agri- Sanders, JOGH.,and Jeffrey D. Vitale, 1999. Developing Technology for cultural Economics Association (Edinburgh, Scotland), a Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa: Evolution of Ideas and Some Criti- conference on Global Agriculture (Iowa), a World cal Questions. In Farm and Farmer Organisation for Sustainable Agn- culture in Africa, proceedings of fourth biennial conference of the Bank-American Society of Agronomy Symposium (Balti- African Farm ~ana~ementAssociation, Jan. 26-30, 1998, University more) and for two Universities in South Africa (in of Stellenbosch, South Africa, pp. 102-1 15, Johann Laubscher (ed.) Bloemfontein and Pietennaritzburg). Harare, Zimbabwe, African Farm Management Association (AFMA). Sanders, John H., 1999. Availability and Adoption of Improved Technol- ogies in the Semiarid and Subhumid Zones of West Africa. In Linking Research Investigator Exchanges Soil Fertility Management to Agricultural Input and Output Market De- velopment: The Key to Sustainable Agriculture in West Afnca, Miscel- laneous Fertilizer Studies No. 16, Siegfried K. Debrah and Willem G. Sanders spent time in Senegal in training ISRA staff in Koster (eds.). LomB, Togo: IFDC. undertaking impact studies and participating in the Techni- Sanders, John H., and Jeffrey D. Vitale, 1999. Structural Adjustment and cal Committee's review of the performance of the national Technological Change in West African Cereal Production. In Linking Soil Fertility Management to Agricultural InputandOutput Market De- research agency, ISRA. Sanders and Jeff Vitale taught a velopment: The Key to Sustainable Agriculture in West Africa, Miscel- one-week course in Impact Assessment in Ghana. Vitale laneous Fertilizer Studies No. 16, Siegfried K. Debrah and Willem G. spent two summers at IER working on his research and do- Koster (eds.). Lome, Togo: IFDC. ing training programs for them in programming. During much of the fall of 1999 and the winter of 2000, Sanders di- Miscellaneous Publications rected a multi-disciplinary team in a study for IGAD of the Sanders, John H., and Ridley Nelson, 1999. Burkina Faso Agricultural Re- potential impact of new technologies in the semiarid regions search Project and Agricultural Services Project, Performance Audit of six countries in the Horn. Report, World Bank, Operations Evaluation Dept., June 24. Sanders, John H., and Mohamed Ahrned, 1999. Developing a Fertilizer Strategy for Sub-Saharan Africa. World Vision Food Security Pro- We have continued distributing copies of our 1996 book, gram Newsletter, Jan.-Apr., 1 1-16. The Economics of Agricultural Technology in Semiarid Sub-Saharan Africa, to African professionals. At the pres- Presentations ent time 243 have been sent. Sanders. John H.. and Mohamed Ahmed. New Sorghum and Millet ~ultivarintroduction in Sub-Saharan Africa: lmp&ts and Research Agenda. resented to the West African SornhumNetwork- Workshov in LG~B,Tbgo, April 1999. Sanders, John H., Burkina Faso Agriculture: Problems and Prospects, pre- sented to the Ambassador-Designate to Burkina Faso and his support staff at the Mission and in the State Department, Washington, DC.Au- gust 1999. Sustainable Production Systems

Cropping Systems to Optimize Yield, Water and Nutrient Use Efficiency of Pearl Millet Project UNL-213 Stephen C. Mason University of Nebraska

Principal Investigators

Dr. Stephen C. Mason, 229 Keim Hall, Department. of Agronomy, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-0915 Mr. Adama Coulibaly, Cinzana Research Station, IER, B.P. 214, Segou, Mali Mr. Nouri Maman, INTARNA Research Station, B.P. 429, Maradi, Niger Mr. Minamba Bagayoko, IER, Sikasso, Mali Mr. Samba Traore, IER, B.P. 214, Segou, Mali Dr. Taonda Sibiri Jean Baptiste, IN.E.R.A., Koudougou, Burkina Faso

Collaborating Scientists

Prof. David Andrews, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE Dr. Ouendeba Botorou, ROCAFREMI, Niamey, Niger Dr. Max Clegg, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE Dr. Bruce Hamaker, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN Dr. Wayne Hanna, USDA-ARS, Tifton, GA Prof. R. Klein, West Central Research and Extension Center, University of Nebraska, North Platte, NE Mr. Zoumana Kouyate, Antime Sagara, Oumar Coulibaly, and Diakalia Sogodogo, IER, Cinzana Research Station, Segou, Mali Dr. Drew Lyon, Panhandle Research and Extension Center, University of Nebraska, Scottsbluff, NE Dr. Jeny Maranville, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE Dr. Alex Martin, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE Mr. Moustapha Moussa, INRAN Food Quality Lab, Niamey, Niger Dr. Salvador Fernandez-Rivera, ILRVICRISAT, Niamey, Niger Mr. Seyni Sirifi, NRAN, Kollo, Niger Mr. Pale Siebou, IN.E.R.A., Koudougou, Burkina Faso

Summary

Research in Mali and by the West and Central Africa Pearl millet shows potential as an alternate grain crop in Pearl Millet Research Network (ROCAFREMI) indicates 3 the dry, short growing season regions of the Great Plains. to 3 1% grain and stover yields increase to crop rotation with Planting date studies indicate a recommended date of June cowpea or peanut across the region, while other production 1, but that it has a large window for planting from May 1 un- practices appeared to be more site specific. Crop rotation in- til June 17 without large decreases in grain yield, making it a crease ofpearl millet stover yields increases the potential for viable alternative for an emergency crop or to use as a dou- soil maintenance through crop residue management. This ble crop. Narrowing row spacing from 76 to 38 cm increases research also showed grain yield increases to application of grain yield by 13 to 15% in both eastern and western Ne- both organic and inorganic fertilizers, but inorganic fertil- braska, and increases the crop competitiveness with weeds. izer by itself, or preferably in combination with organic fer- Except in very dry years, pearl millet requires approxi- tilizer, was essential to produce the highest grain yields. mately 78 kg ha-] nitrogen fertilizer application to produce optimum grain yields. Studies on management ofprofusely tillering, late matur- ing Maiwa pearl millet in southern Niger indicated that al- Since 1996, graduate education has been provided for tering the plant population or harvesting tillers at 65 and 85 students from Burkina Faso, Mali, Mexico, Niger and the days after planting had no effect on grain yield. Harvesting USA., increasing the human research capital in each coun- tillers at 65 days after planting provides about 250 kg ha-] try. This has been supplemented with mentoring of former of quality livestock feed near the beginning of the cropping students upon return to their countries, short-term training, season when feed is normally in short supply. and support of the West and Central Africa Pearl Millet Re- search Network through workshop presentation and active Sustainable Production Systems participation in agronomy research, data analysis, and re- Determine the planting date and row spacing recom- port/publication preparation. mendation for dwarf pearl millet hybrid production in eastern and western Nebraska. Project scientists have been active participants in exten- sion/technology transfer in collaborating countries along Determine the relative competitive ability of grain with national extension programs and NGO/PVOs, espe- sorghum and pearl millet with velvetleaf and the ef- cially in Mali and Burkina Faso. This includes adoption of fect of velvetleaf competition on growth of grain sor- improved cultivars, intercropping practices, fertilizer appli- ghum genotypes. cation, and use of manure. Eight extension bulletins have been released. Determine the role of ethylene in grain sorghum emergence problems under stress inducing tempera- Research indicated that plant breeding efforts to produce tures, identify bioassays for emergence under cold high yielding grain sorghum genotypes that are tall, or have and hot temperatures, and identify germplasm usell high vertical leaf area distribution, would result in plants for plant breeders to use in developing improved better able to compete with weeds, and be a usell compo- cultivars for emergence under cold and hot soil condi- nent of integrated weed management programs. tions.

Research also determined that ethylene is essential for Initiate grain sorghum and maize hybrid comparisons early grain sorghum seedling vigor and growth. The geno- for hybrids from the 1950s, 1970s and 1990s under types Naga White, CE 145-66, PI 550590, and San Chi San low and high water holding capacity soils, wide and are either tolerant or resistant to temperature stress during narrow rows, anddryland and irrigatedenvironments. germination and emergence, and would be useful in plant breeding programs to improve temperature stress tolerance. Increase research human capital in West African An ethylene inhibitor bioassay using 2,5-Norbornadiene countries where pearl millet is an important crop was developed that should be a useful genotype screening through graduate education, short-term training, tool for seedling vigor response to temperature stress. mentoring former students upon return to their home country, and active participation in the West and Cen- Objectives, Production and Utilization Constraints tral Africa Pearl Millet Network.

Objectives Collaborate with national extension services and NGOIPVOs in transferring improved pearl millet Conduct long-term studies to determine pearl mil- agronomy practices. letlcowpea cropping systems (monoculture, intercropping, rotation) by nitrogen rate interaction Constraints effects on grain and stover yields, and nitrogen use ef- ficiency at Cinzana and Koporo, Mali, and This project has focused primarily on crop production KamboinsC, Burkina Faso. systems which increase the probability of obtaining higher pearl millet grain and stover yields. This involves systems Conduct long-term studies to determine the influence which increase nutrient and water availability to growing of crop residue removal, incorporation, and retaining crops, and produces desired uniform stands. Present efforts on the surface on grain and stover yield ofpearl millet, emphasize crop rotation, intercropping, inorganic and or- and the long-term effects on soil nutrient levels. ganic fertilizer, and residue management interactions with traditional and improved cultivars. These cropping systems Initiate research on adaptation, production practices, research efforts require long-term investments of and grain quality for population hybrids in West Af- well-trained, interested scientists and stable fimding. Edu- rica. cation of additional scientists in crop production and contin- ued support oftheir work after return to their home countries Actively participate in the West and Central Africa is needed to improve productivity of cropping systems and Pearl Millet Research Network (ROCAFREMI) agro- to maintain the soillland resource. nomic research and annual meetings in West Africa. Research Approach and Project Output Develop production practice recommendation for long-season Maiwa pearl millet production for grain Pearl millet is usually grown in stressful environments yield while harvesting tillers for livestock feed in with high temperatures, lack of predictable water supply, southern Niger. fragile soils with low nutrient status, and limited growing season length. Lack of water is usually considered to be the most critical environmental factor controlling growth and limiting yield in Africa, but a source of nitrogen and/or SustainabIe Production Systems phosphorus often is more critical. This is especially true for terlg of nitrogen. Environmental variability due to years had intensive cropping systems using improved cultivars on de- a greater effect on pearl millet yield, growth and nitrogen graded land. Nutrient use and water use efficiencies are concentrations than did hybrid and applied nitrogen. closely interwoven with higher yields possible with im- proved cropping systems utilizing improved cultivars. Grain Sorghum and Pearl Millet Since human capital for research and extension activities Competitiveness with Velvetleaf, and Effects on are very limited for pearl millet producing areas in West Af- Interception of Photosynthetically Active Radiation rica, project activities are generally conducted either as (PAR) and Growth of Grain Sorghum graduate education programs for scientists from this region, (Augustin Limon Ortega, M.S. Thesis and mentoring collaborative activities upon return of former Samba Traore, Ph.D. Dissertation Research) graduate students, or collaborating with the pearl millet re- search network (ROCAFREMI). In the U.S. Great Plains, Research Methods production practice recommendations for high yielding, dwarf hybrids, and development of markets are important Studies of weed interference in grain sorghum and pearl to adoption as a grain crop. This complex interaction of wa- millet are limited and have focused primarily on proportion ter, nitrogen, phosphorus, cultivars and yield enhancing of species, spatial arrangement of the crop, and timing of production practices is the focus of Project UNL-213's re- weed removal. Improved knowledge of competitive ability search efforts. Since grain sorghum is important in many and crop growth in response to weed interference could con- pearl millet grain producing areas, additional research on tribute to selection of cultivars with greater competitiveness temperature stress effects on grain sorghum emergence, with weeds. Competitive ability of pearl millet hybrid weed competitiveness, and comparison to potential produc- 79-2068AhJPM-1 and grain sorghum hybrid DK28 with tion of dryland maize has been or is being conducted. velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti Medic.) was studied in 1994 and 1995 at Mead, NE at row spacings of 38 and 76 cm Domestic (Nebraska) and nitrogen levels of zero and 78 kg ha-l. Differences in grain sorghum hybrid grain yields, growth, and velvetleaf Hybrid and Nitrogen Influence on Pearl Millet growth and seed production were evaluated in field experi- Production in Nebraska: Yield, Growth and Nitrogen ments at Mead and Lincoln in 1996 and 1997. Sorghum hy- Uptake and Nitrogen Use Efficiency brids used were FS2 (tall), and DK54 and X260 (medium (Nouri Maman, M.S. Thesis) height). Weed treatments included grain sorghum in mono- culture, sorghum kept weed-free for two weeks afier emer- Research Methods gence, and sorghum and velvetleaf grown in mixture for the entire season. A two-year field study was conducted in 1995 and 1996 at Mead, NE with a factorial combination of the pearl millet Research Results dwarfhybrids 59022A x 89-0083,1011A x 086R, and 1361 x 6Rrn and nitrogen rates of zero and 78 kg ha-I. Two plants Yield losses of grain sorghum in 1994 and 1995, and were sampled bi-weekly, partitioned into plant parts, dried, pearl millet in 1995 were described by a nonlinear model weighed, and analyzed for N and P concentration. From based on a rectangular hyperbola. As weed biomass ap- these measurements growth, N and P uptake, and N use effi- proached zero, grain yield reduction ofboth crops was simi- ciency were calculated. In addition, studies were initiated in lar and they were equally competitive. Narrow rows the Year 2000 to determine the effect of water stress at dif- increased yield by 0.8 to 1.1 Mg ha-'over wide rows and in- ferent growth stages on grain yield and yield components, creased competitiveness of both crops with weeds. Weed and to determine dryland nitrogen fertilizer application rate competition decreased all yield components, especially the recommendations. number of kernels per panicle. Nitrogen fertilizer increased pearl millet grain yield by 1.2 Mg ha-l in 1994, but did not Research Results affect yield in the dry 1995 growing season.

Applied nitrogen increased grain yield by 0.4 to 0.5 Mg Medium height hybrids had greater leaf area indices ha-', but had only a small effect on dry matter accumulation (LAIs) and leaf area ratios (LARS) throughout the growing and partitioning. Hybrid differences were small for grain season than the tall hybrid, and intercepted more PAR dur- yield. Pearl millet dry matter accumulation increased cubi- ing the early part of the growing season. However, the tall cally in both years, with maximum crop growth rates rang- hybrid had a greater carbon exchange rate during the early ing from 0.48 to 0.57 g m2 growing degree day in 1995 and growing season. Interception of PAR was different among 1.9 to 3.1 g m2 growing degree day in 1996. The relative hybrids from anthesis until maturity, likely due to the 30 to growth rate among hybrids declined from 0.012 to 0.020 g 70 cm greater height and 20 to 40 cm higher vertical leaf Iglgrowing degree day in both years to near zero at physio- area distribution of the tall hybrid compensating for the logical maturity. Applied nitrogen decreased the biomass lower LA1 (Figure 1). Grain sorghum hybrids intercepted nitrogen use efficiency by 18 to 23 g dry rnatterlg of nitro- more PAR and produced more biomass in absence of gen, and grain nitrogen use efficiency by 7 to 12 g dry mat- velvetleaf than in mixture, but the reduction in growth in Sustainable Production Systems

Sorghum monocuiture Sorghum in mixture Havelock 1997

-*-,-- -8. -,.- -* -3---r-...,-. --.,",, em. =::F-':7. .- - -- '-

@I

240 - .Sorghum monocutture Sorghum in mixture Mead 1997

Ic) (dl 0.00 OD2 0.04 OD6 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 016 0.18 ODD 0.02 OD4 0.06 OD8 0.10 012 0.14 0.16 018 240

----- Mix with FS2 ----- Mx with FS2 .-...- Mix with DM4 *-a - MXwith OM4 Havelock 1997 (4

Leaf area density Leaf area density

Figure 1. Leaf area densities of grain sorghum and velvetleaf in monoculture and mixture at Mead and Havelock, NE in 1997. presence of velvetleaf was less for the tall hybrid. Correla- Ethylene Involvement in Grain Sorghum tion analysis over the growing season indicated that grain Germination and Early Seedling Growth sorghum height, LAI, LAR, interception of PAR, relative (Roger Stockton, Ph.D. Dissertation) growth rate and net assimilation rate were highly correlated with dry matter accumulation, but the relationship was com- Research Methods plex and changed with growth stage. Correlations between plant height, LAI, relative growth rate and net assimilation Grain sorghum is a major feed grain in the USA and a ma- rate with dry matter production decreased with progressing jor food grain in much of the world's arid and semi-arid re- growth stage. The tall grain sorghum hybrid had the most gions. Colder or warmer than optimal soil temperatures stable grain yield and the greatest suppressive effect on often hmder germination and emergence of this crop. The velvetleaf growth and seed production. This research indi- gaseous hormone, ethylene is frequently produced in re- cates that the use of tall grain sorghum hybrids with high sponse to plant stress and has been correlated with germina- vertical leaf area distribution would be a useful component tion and release from dormancy in many plant species. The of an integrated weed management program. objectives of this research were to: 1) identify heat andlor cold tolerant grain sorghum genotypes for germination and emergence; 2) quantify ethylene and 1-aminocyclopropane Sustainable Production Systems

1-carboxylate oxidase (ACCO) production during the first Research Results week of seedling growth; and 3) determine if ethylene was necessary for normal germination or early growth. Thirty- Averaged over eight environments (years and location five grain sorghum genotypes were screened for percent combination), narrowing row spacing increased yield of germination and early seedling growth at 14, 19, 28, and both pearl millet andgrain sorghum by 13 to 15%. Pearl mil- 35°C. Nine selected genotypes were grown in the field at let produced the higher yield when planted on June l until Lincoln, NE in 1996 and 1997 for laboratory tests at 23 and 17 depending on the environment, but yield declines were 35"C, and for ethylene inhibitor bioassays using small with planting as early as May 1 and as late as July 6. 2,5-Norbornadiene (NEiD) in varying concentration to ex- Pearl millet produced greater yield than grain sorghum for amine ethylene's effect on sorghum seedling growth. planting dates after June 17. Grain sorghum had a narrower window for planting. Averaged over environments, grain Research Results sorghum produced approximately 0.35 Mg ha-I more grain than pearl millet, but at planting dates after June 17, pearl Average ethylene production was 0.21, 0.22, and 0.27 millet often produced higher yield. Since pearl millet has a pmol/seed/hr at 14,23, and 35 "C ,while ACCO activity was lower base temperature than grain sorghum, further study of 93,2 13, and 43 1 pmol ethylenelseedlhr.ACCO activity cor- planting dates in early May is merited. Pearl millet yields related negatively R~ = -0.78) to percent germination at produced with late planting dates suggests its adaptation to 35°C. Genotypes Naga White. CE 145-66, and PI 550590 short growing season, emergency replant crop andlor dou- had 19% higher germination, 80% better vigor, 14% less ble crop situations. ACCO activity, and similar ethylene production as other ge- notypes, and were thus classified as temperature stress resis- Grain Sorghum - Maize Hybrid Comparisons tant. San Chi San had 28% less ACCO activity, produced in Dryland and Irrigated Environments 34% less ethylene, had 50% better vigor rating and similar (Suzanne Cimino, M.S. Thesis) germination thanother genotypes, and was thus classified as temperature stress tolerant. These four genotypes should be Research Methods utilized in future breeding efforts to improve temperature stress response for germination and early seedling growth. A three-year study was initiated in 1999 to determine the Germination was not affected by NBD until the concentra- importance and physiological basis for shift in dryland sor- tion became toxic at 11.8 to 23.7 ml/L. Increasing NBD con- ghum production to maize production in eastern Nebraska. centration from 0 to 6 mYL decreased root and shoot Best hybrids were identified from the 1950s, 1970s and growth, while increasing ethylene production. This 1990s and produced in four environments each year. The bioassay should be a useful tool for screening genotypes for environments are sandy loam and silty clay loam soil types, seedling vigor response to temperature stress. 76 and 38 cm row spacing, and irrigated and dryland. Grain yield and yield components, dry matter and leaf area, lodg- Planting Date and Row Spacing of Pearl ing and climatic data are being collected. Path correlation Millet in Nebraska analysis will be used to identify relationships between grain (Pale Siebou, M.S. Thesis) yield and yield components, and stability analysis used to help identify croplhybrid responses. Research Methods Research Results An ongoing study to determine recommended planting date and row spacing for dwarf pearl millet hybrids was con- The seasonal rainfall was very good and lead to high tinued on sandy soil site in Ogallala and a silty clay loam site yields of both crops (Table 1). Maize out yielded grain sor- in Mead, NE, and expanded to a loam soil in Sidney, NE in ghum under both dryland and irrigated conditions, with the 1999. Sidney has low rainfall, short growing season. and ef- grain yield differences being greater for hybrids from the forts are being made to intensify wheat-fallow production 1970s and 1990s. Large differences in grain yield were systems by incorporating pearl millet as a summer annual found between hybrids from the 1950s and 1970s, but were crop. The pearl millet hybrids 68A x 89-0083 and 68A x similar for hybrids from the 1970s and 1990s. Grain sor- 086R responses to planting date, and narrow (38 to 50 cm) ghum potential yield increase, as indicated by irrigated con- and wide (76 cm) row spacing were compared to the grain ditions, was only 0.1 Mg ha-I per decade since the 1950s, sorghum check DK28. while maize increase was 0.4 Mg ha-I with most of this in-

-. -- . .- - -. .-.--- -- Table 1. Irrigated and dryland yields in 1999 for grain sorghum and maize hybrids developed in different decades. Dryland lmgated Decade Sorghum Maize -- Difference Sorghum Maize Difference Sustainable Production Systems crease occurring between 1950 and 1970. The lack of water Effect of Plant Population and Tiller stress in 1999 limits the usefblness of these results, but Pre-Harvest of Late Maturity Pearl Millet hopefully the addition of a low soil water holding capacity on Grain and Stover Yield, and Feeding Value environment and normal to dry climatic conditions in 2000 (Nouri Maman) and 200 1 will provide adequate variation in environments to better understand the basis for producers shifting from Research Methods dryland grain sorghum to maize. A randomized complete block designed experiment was International conducted with plant spacing of lm x lm and 1.5m x lm plant spacings with three treatments: plots thinned to 2 Niger plantshill at 14 days after planting (B1), B plus tillers har- vested 65 days after planting, and B1 plus tillers harvested Influence of Variety and Management Level on 85 days after planting. Tillers were harvested, dried, Pearl Millet Grain Yield, Dry Matter weighed and analyzed for protein, phosphorus, lignin, fiber, Accumulation, and N and P Concentration and digestibility. Grain and stover were harvested at the end and Accumulation of the growing season. (Nouri Maman, M.S. Thesis) Research Results Research Methods Plant population and thinning treatments hadno effect on This study was conducted as a factorial combination of pearl millet grain or stover yield in 1998 or 1999.Therefore, the pearl millet varieties 'Zatib' (improved, tall), '3/4HK1 it is possible for farmers to harvest tillers for forage without (improved, short), and 'Heini Kirei' (land race, tall) under adversely effecting grain yield or stover production. The re- high and low management levels in 1994 and 1995. Low search indicates that harvested tillers could provide approx- management levels consisted of 10,000 hillsha with no fer- imately 250 kg ha-' forage which has high protein and tilizer, and high management of 20,000 hillstha with ma- phosphorus content (Table 2). Harvesting tillers 65 days af- nure (5 t ha-'), 18 kg ha-l P, and 23 kg ha-I N. Two plants ter planting resulted in higher protein and phosphorus con- were sampled bi-weekly, partitioned into plant parts, dried, tent was much higher while the fiber content did not change weighed, and analyzed for N and P concentration. From this greatly. This was due to the pearl millet tillers harvested at measurements growth, N and P uptake, and N use efficiency 65 days after harvest having a greater leaflstem ratio that at were calculated. 85 days after planting. Harvesting tillers 65 days after plant- ing affords the opportunity to provide high quality livestock Research Results feed during the early portion of the growing season when feed is in short supply. Pearl millet under high management produced 0.5 Mg ha-l more grain yield, 200 to 300 g m2 more dry matter, and Mali had mean crop growth rates of 4.7 (1995) to 16.5 (1994) g m2 day than under low management. The shorter 314HK va- Cropping System and Residue Management Influence riety produced lower yield and dry matter than the other va- on Pearl Millet Grain Yield and Soil Nutrient Levels rieties, especially in the dry 1995 growing season. (Adama Coulibaly, Minamba Bagayoko Management level had no effect on N and P concentration of and Samba Traore) plant parts, but N and P accumulation was greater under high management due to higher dry matter production. Bio- Research Methods mass N use efficiency was not influenced by management level. Environment (year) had the greatest effect on pearl Long-term cropping system and crop residue manage- millet yield and growth, followed by management level, and ment studies were conducted at Cinzana from 1990 until variety which had the least effect. This research indicates 1999. The cropping systems study included continuous that pearl millet producers in Niger should increase plant pearl millet and cowpea, pearl millet-cowpea intercropping, population and apply fertilizer to optimize pearl millet grain pearl millet-cowpea rotation, and fallow cropping systems and stover yield. with zero, 20, and40 kg ha-I annual nitrogen fertilizer appli- cations. Grain and stover yields, and soil nutrient levels were collected, and a multi-year analysis was conducted.

The crop residue management system study had a facto- rial combination of continuous pearl millet and pearl mil- let-cowpea rotational systems with three residue management treatments. Crop residue management treat- ments included total removal, incorporation using animal traction, and retaining the residues on the soil surface. Grain Sustainable Production Systems

Table 2. Pre-harvest pearl millet tiller yield and feed quality in 1998 in Niger. Days after planting Parameter - - 65 85 Final harvest % of Dry matter --- Protein Leaf 19.0 8.2 4.4 Stem 13.5 4.3 2.9 Phosphorus Leaf 0.27 0.17 0.10 Stem 0.21 0.14 0.09 Lignin Leaf 5.4 4.1 5.00 Stem 4.6 4.3 10.1 Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) Leaf 66.9 63.0 62.1 Stem 63.7 65.3 69.0 Acid detergent fiber (ADF) Leaf 34.5 32.6 35.1 Stem 36.4 - 37.2 49.0 In v~trodry matter disappearance Leaf 93.7 93.1 93.6 Stem 92.2 92.4 92.7 Organic matter Leaf 87.7 86.1 86.3 Stem 86.1 87.1 94.4 Harvested tiller dry matter kg ha-' Leaf 164 123 Stem 86 126 Total 250 249 10330

and stover yields, and soil nutrient levels were collected, confirm other studies that in sites with non-degraded soils and multi-year analysis was conducted. andlor sites with adequate P levels, crop residue manage- ment has only small effects on pearl millet yields. In con- Research Results trast, either surface crop residue application or incorporation increased cowpea grain yield by 150 to 197 Nitrogen fertilizer application increased pearl millet kg ha-l per year (21 to 31%), and cowpea stover yield by grain and stover yield linearly each year, but had no effect 358 to 442 kg ha-I per year (46 to 65%). Rotation with cow- on cowpea yield. Rotation with cowpea increased pearl mil- pea increased pearl millet grain yields by 138 kg ha-' per let grain yield by 142 to 482 kg ha-l (3 to 31%) each year, year (8%) and stover yields by 691 kg ha-l per year (22%). but had little effect on cowpea grain yield. Rotation in- Retention of crop residues on the soil surface resulted in creased pearl millet stover yield in a similar manner. higher soil P levels than other residue treatments, and incor- Intercropping reduced yield of both crops in each year, but porating or retaining residues on the soil surface resulted in the Land Equivalent Ratio indicated a 14% average increase bgher soil K levels than with crop residue removal. The in- in land use efficiency. After four years, soil from plots with creases in crop and stover yield over time, and the better different cropping systems had similar levels of nutrients, maintenance of soil nutrient levels, indicated that leaving except phosphorus which was highest in continuous cowpea crop residues in the field and using crop rotation increased plots. Nitrogen fertilizer application increased yields in the sustainability and productivity of pearl millet cropping sys- seven years with greatest rainfall, and produced similar tems. yields in the two drier years. Soil from plots with all crop- ping systems had lower levels of pH, K, Ca, Mg and cation Burkina Faso exchange capacity than fallow plots, indicating that all crop- ping systems were mining the soil of nutrients. This re- Long-Term Tillage and Cropping Systems Research search indicated that nitrogen fertilizer application of at (Taonda Sibiri Jean Baptiste) least 40 kg ha-I and crop rotation with cowpea (or other le- gume) were necessary to optimize pearl millet grain and Research Methods stover yield in most years. A five-year study (Table 3) was conducted at Crop residue management treatments had no statistically Kamboinse, Burkina Faso on a sandy clay textured soil. The significant influence on pearl millet grain or stover yields study consisted of a factorial arrangement of soil tillage (flat from 1991- 1999, except for grain yield in 1993 when plots versus tied ridges), variety (landrace versus improved), fer- with incorporated crop residues yielded more than those tilizer application (zero versus 2.5 t ha-l manure plus 13 kg with residues left on the soil surface. However, the ha-' P as rock phosphate), and continuous pearl millet and nine-year average grain yields for plots with incorporated pearl millet - cowpea rotation cropping systems in a ran- crop residues was 157 kg ha-I per year (1 2%) greater than domized complete block design and three replications. plots with residue removed (significant at p = 0.07), and Grain and stover yield of both crops were collected annu- pearl millet stover yield in plots with crop residue incorpo- ally, and the soil analyzed at the end of the experiment. Soil rated was 130 to 343 kg ha-1 per year greater than plots with analysis are not yet available at time ofpreparingthis report. other crop residue management treatments. These results Sustainable Production Systems

Table 3. Pearl millet grain yield as influenced by fertilizer application in Burkina Faso, 1994 - 1999. Fertilizer 1994 1995 1997 1998 1999 Mean kdha Grain yield: Zero 1067 269 669 565 1361 786 2 tha-1 manure plus 13 kg ha-' rock phosphate 1320 197 701 636 1635 898 Percent yield increase (%) 24 (27%) 5 13 20 14

Table 4. Effect of soil tillage method on grain and stover yield of pearl millet in Burkina Faso, 1994 - 1999. Tillage Method 1994 1995 1997 1998 1999 Mean kgha Grain Yield: Flat 1137 188 496 363 1674 772 Tied Ridge 1249 276 873 837 1467 940 Stover Yield: Flat 6230 2993 2022 1783 2767 3159 Tied Ridge 7022 5063 2180 1416 2623 3661

tion) except crop rotation with either cowpea or peanut Research Results which consistently increased grain yield by 10 to 19% in Ivory Coast, Mali and Niger. However, no yield increase Crop rotation and variety had little influence on pearl was found on a heavier soil in Burkina Faso. Tied ridges in- millet grain and stover yields. The crop rotation results were creased pearl millet grain yield by 0.4 Mg ha-l in dry years in contrast to other studies on sandier soils in West Africa. in heavy textured soils in Burkina Faso, but tillage had no ef- Tied ridges increased grain yield four years out of five, fect on yield at other locations. Both organic and inorganic while it increased stover yield two years out of five (Table fertilizers increased pearl millet grain yields with the best 4). Averaged over years, use of tied ridges increased grain yields requiring application of inorganic fertilizers. Al- yield by 168 kg ha-l per year (22%) and stover yield by 502 though the treatment combinations used did not allow for kg ha-I per year (16%). Fertilizer application increased definitive conclusions, organic and inorganic fertilizers grain yield two out of five years and stover yield four out of generally increased yields most when applied together. five years. Averaged over years fertilizer application in- creased grain yield by 112 kg ha-l per year ( 14%). Tied Technology Transfer in Mali and Burkina Faso ridges and fertilizer application are important for pearl mil- let grain and stover production on the medium textured soils Technology Transfer Methods of Burkina Faso. During the past decade, IER scientists in Mali collaborat- ROCAFREMI Agronomy Project ing with INTSORMIL Project UNL-213 have interacted with the Malian Agricultural Extension Service (PNVA) Identification of Principal Constraints and Private Voluntary Organizations to extend improved and Fertilizer Response Studies technologies to producers in the Segou region. In 1997, two farmer adoption surveys were conducted to determine adop- Research Methods tion rates of improved technologies. One survey was con- ducted by PNVA while the other was conducted by IER Between 1994 and 1998, the West and Central Africa jointly with ICRISAT. Extension publications have been Pearl Millet Research Network (ROCAFREMI) conducted prepared in both Burkina Faso and Mali. studies inBurkinaFaso, Ivory Coast, Mali, Niger, and Sene- gal on principal constraints of pearl millet production: till- Technology Transfer Results age, crop rotation, organic and inorganic fertilizer application, crop residue management, and use of improved In both surveys, the technology adopted to the greatest pearl millet varieties. Regional studies were also conducted extent was use of the seed treatment Apron Plus which im- on pearl millet grain yield response to application of or- proves stand establishment and reduces downy mildew ganic and inorganic fertilizer. Specific treatment levels var- problems. In the ICRISAT - IER survey, the communities ied among countries, but could be summarized. surveyed were using improved techniques to produce and collect quality animal manure for application to fields. In Research Results both surveys, only 16 - 17 % of the farmers indicated use of improved pearl millet cultivars. In Mali, extension bulletins The principal constraints research produced inconsistent on pearl millet production (Fertilization of Pearl Millet results for crop residue management and use of improved Based Cropping Systems, Date and Density of Legumes in varieties. Constraints were site specific (year andlor loca- Rotation with Cereals, Pearl Millet Based Cropping Sys- Sustainable Production Systems tems, Intercropping Pearl Millet and Cowpea, Intercropping Publications and Presentations Pearl Millet and Peanut, Intercropping Pearl Millet and Maize, and Cultivars for Pearl Millet Based Cropping Sys- Abstracts tems) were released in 2000. Also in 2000, the extension bulletin "Improving Pearl Millet Based Cropping Systems" Taonda, J.B., M. Nouri, A. Coulibaly, R. Akanvou,C. Ari and S.C. Mason. West African principal constraints research for pearl millet. Agron. was released in Burkina Faso. Future success in technology Absts., p. 53. adoption would be promoted by proposing a technology Mason, S.C. and J.W. Maranville. 1999. Collaborative research programs package that includes improved cultivars, appropriate man- enhance graduate education. Agron. Absts., p. 53. agement practices, and use of organic andtinorganicfertiliz- ers for specific end-uses. Journal Articles Maman, N., S.C. Mason and T. Galusha. 1999. Hybrid and nitrogen influ- Networking Activities ence on pearl millet production in Nebraska: yield, growth, and niho- gen uptake and efticiency. Agron. J. 91 : 737 - 743. Workshops Maman, N., S.C. Mason and S. Sirifi. 2000. Variety and management level influence on pearl millet production in Niger: I. Grain yield and dry matter accumulation. Afri. Crop. Sci. J. 8: 25 - 34. American Society of Agronomy Meetings. Oct Manian, N., S.C. Mason and S. Sirifi. 2000. Variety and management level 31-November 4, 1999. Salt Lake City, UT. influence on pearl millet production in Niger: 11. N and Pconcentration and accumulation. Afri. Crop. Sci. J. 8: 35 - 48. Coulibaly, A., M. Bagayoko, S. Traore and S.C. Mason. 2000. Effect of ROCAFREMI (West and Central Africa Pearl Millet Re- crop residue management and cropping system on pearl millet and search Network) Annual Meeting, 22-24 March 2000, cowpea yield. Afri. Crop Sci. J. 8: (In Press). Niamey, Niger. Extension Bulletins KansasNebraska Conference, September 1-2, 1999. Taonda, S.J.B., A. Sohom and B. Ilboudo. 2000. Amelioration des Lincoln, NE. systemes de culture a base de mil [Improving pearl millet based crop- ping system]. lnstitut de I'Environnement et de Recherches Agricoles Research Investigator Exchange (IN.E.R.A.), Ougadougou, Burkina Faso. Coulibaly, A., S. Traok, M. Bagayokoand S.C. Mason. 2000. Fertilisation d'un system deculture a base demil [Fertilization ofpearl millet based Visited research collaborators from Burkina Faso, Mali, cropping systems]. lnstitut d'Economie Rurale, Bamako, Mali. (In and Niger during March 15 -24,2000 trip to West Africa. Press). Coulibaly, A., S. Traork, M. Bagayoko and S.C. Mason. 2000. Date et This included on-site visits of research in Mali and Niger. densite de semis des ltgumineuses en rotation avec des cereales [Planting date and density of legumes in rotation wth pearl millet]. Pale Siebou (Burkina Faso), Suzanne Cimino (USA.), Institut d'Economie Rurale, Bamako, Mali. (In Press). Coulibaly, A., S. Traok, M. Bagayokoand S.C. Mason. 2000. Systtme de and Nouri Maman (Niger) started graduate degree studies in culture B base de mil [Pearl millet cropping systems]. lnstitut January 2000. d'honomie Rurale, Bamako, Mali. (In Press). Coulrbaly, A., S. Traork, M. Bagayokoand S.C. Mason. 2000. Association mil niebi [Pearl millet - cowpea intercropping]. lnstitut d'Economie Research Information Exchange Rurale. Bamako, Mali. Iln Press). ~oulibal~,-A.,S.~raok, ~..~a~a~okoand S.C. Mason. 2000. Association Funds passed through to Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger to mil arachide [Pearl millet - Deanut intercrov~inrrl.. . -- Institut d'Economie Rurale, ~a&ko, Mali. (In Press). assist with collaborative research efforts. Coulibaly, A,, S. Traori, M. Bagayokoand S.C. Mason. 2000. Association mil mi's [Pearl millet - maize intercropping]. lnstitut d'honomie Assisted with the Central America Regional Research Rurale, Bamako, Mali. (In Press). Coulibaly, A., S. Traore, M. Bagayoko and S.C. Mason. 2000. Fiche des Planning Meeting Oct. 4-6, 1999 at Zamorano, Honduras. cultivars utilisables dans les systkmes de culture A base de mil [Cultivars for pearl millet based cropping systems]. Institut Visited INTSORMIL research efforts in El Salvador and d'Economie Rurale, Bamako, Mali. (In Press). Nicaragua June 18 - 23,2000. Miscellaneous publications Scientific Liaison Officer to the Centro Intemacional de Bagayoko, M., S.C. Mason, A. Buerkert, N. Maman and A. Coulibaly. Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) which included visit to CIAT 2000. Sustainable pearl millet based cropping systems in West Africa: Central America Regional Project June 23 - 29,2000. Crop rotation, residue management and production practices. Invited paper, ROCAFREMl Annual Meeting, March 22 - 24,2000, Niamey, Coordinated the Kansasmebraska Sorghum Conference, Niger. Sept. 23 - 29, 1999. Lincoln, NE. Sustainable Production Systems

Nutrient Use Efficiency in Sorghum and Pearl Millet Project UNL-214 Jerry W. Maranville University of Nebraska

Principal Investigator

Dr. Jerry W. Maranville, Department of Agronomy, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-0915

Collaborating Scientists

Professor David Andrews, Department of Agronomy, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-09 15 Dr. Steve Mason, Department of Agronomy, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-09 15 Dr. Darrell Rosenow, Texas A&M Agricultural Experiment Station, Route 3 Box 219, Lubbock, TX 79401 Dr. S. Madhavan, Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE Dr. R. K. Pandey, World Bank, Former Visiting Scientist, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE Dr. Ismail Dweikat, Department of Agronomy, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE Mr. Abdoul Toure, Sorghum Agronomist, IER, B.P. 258, Bamako, Mali Mr. Sogodogo Diakalidia - IER Cropping Systems, B.P. 258, Bamako, Mali Dr. Damba Traore, Sorghum Agronomist, IER, B.P. 258, Bamako, Mali Mr. Seyni Serifi, Agronomy Division, INRAN, B.P. 60, Kollo, Niger Dr. Samuel Buah, Sorghum Agronomist, SARI, Wa, Ghana Dr. I.D.K. Atokple Sorghum Breeder, SARI, Tamale, Ghana

Summary

On-farm trials in Niger reconfiied the advantage of us- Determine the physiological and tnorphological ing improved culture to increase yields of sorghum. The in- mechanisms which allow genotypes to be nutrient use corporation of the new hybrids NAD-1 or NAD-3 in efficient. combination with fertilizer and the moisture concerning soil management practice ofridging and/or "tying" the ridges to Determine optimum nutrient (particularly nitrogen) prevent runoff produced yields, 10 times traditional culture management practices for arid and semi-arid environ- in one location. Farmers of the region are rapidly adopting ments. this improvedpractice as resources allow. Research in Mali substantiated the practice of sorghum culture in rotation Conduct on-farm trials to test improved management with other crops as a yield enhancement method. The use of recommendations for sorghum production. the forage legume crop, dolichos, appeared to be the best ro- tation, and this practice can now be extended to on-farm tri- e Provide long- and short-term training experiences for als. Trials in Ghana established the advantage of using both students and scientists of collaborating institutions, as N and P fertilizer to increase yields in the Wa region even well as certain technical expertise for collaborative ef- when sorghum is grown in rotation with a legume. Even forts related to overall INTSOMIL objectives. though this is a fact accepted in many areas of the world, it still needs to be demonstrated in Ghana as many producers Constraints are not willing to use this input which can be economically beneficial to them. On-farm trials are planned for next sea- Soil nutrient deficiency stresses. son to test and demonstrate these improved production prac- tices. Lack of adequate nutrient use efficiency in current sor- ghum and pearl millet cultivars. Objectives, Production and Utilization Constraints Inadequate knowledge of proper management practices Objectives to help cope with nutrient stresses.

Identi6' sorghum and pearl millet genotypes which Lack of technically trained personnel who can devise and are superior in nutrient use efficiency (primarily nitro- carry out sound research programs. gen). Sustainable Production Systems

Research Approach and Project Output The season was characterized by drought and the normal season was shortened due to lack of rain. In addition, midge International Research problems occurred at Konni which severely affected grain filling. Summary of Research from 1996 in Niger There was no significant difference between tied ridges, Upon release of the new hybrid NAD- 1, comparative ag- continuous ridges and traditional culture at Konni. Differ- ronomic assessments were continually made of its perfor- ences in grain yield between NAD-1 and NAD-3 (Table 1) mance in both research station and on-farm trials. were not significant although NAD-3 was numerically Incorporated into these traits were improved soil prepara- higher (635.5 kg ha-l)than~~D-l(436.6kg ha-I). Biomass tion methods and use of organic and inorganic fertilizers production for NAD-1 was slightly higher. At Tillakaina, with emphasis onN. The research station trails conducted at tied ridges were significantly better than continuous ridg- Bengou and Tillakaina locations clearly demonstrated that ing, and both were markedly superior to traditional practices NAD-1 yield potential is two to six times greater than the lo- (Table 1). Grain yields were improved by 10-fold using cal or improved varieties such as IR-204 or SEPON-82. Soil NAD-1, tied ridges and fertilizer over the traditional prac- preparation methods, such as firrowing and use of tied tice in this dry region. ridges which conserve moisture and present runoff, clearly increased yields of all sorghum genotypes. When 2 to 5 t Summary of Research from 1996 in Mali ha-1 of manure and 50 kg ha-I N were added as amendments, yields could be increased another 1.5 to 2 fold in some in- Yield assessments were made for sorghum response to stances. nitrogen and other amendments in research station and on-farm trials. New experimental lines were tested exten- Based on the results of the research station trials, on-farm sively. In addition, long-term management trials were es- studies were initiated. In 1997, from two to four farmer par- tablished to determine which crop rotationslfertilizer ticipants at three locations collaborated in trials where the combinations are best suited for various locations in Mali. improved culture and genotypes (especially NAD-1) were tested. NAD-I with improved culture (including fertilizer Several new lines were derived by chemical mutations and tied ridges) yielded an average of 1190 kg ha-l grain from popular local and improved sorghums at the Univer- compared to 475 kg ha-I when grown in the traditional cul- sity of Katibougou by Dr. Alhousseini Bretoudeau. Mutants ture (no fertilizers). In 1998, the performance of NAD-l derived from CSM388 were generally superior in perfor- with improved culture was less consistent. Collaboration mance to other mutants. Overall, the average mutant yield with a World Bank project showed that soil type influenced was 13 13 kg ha-1 compared to 1056 kg ha-I for the parents. performance. When comparing "partial factor productivity" Added N produced a grain y ield increase of 27% at one loca- to estimate economic return to farmers, it was found that tion. This was primarily due to greater tillering resulting in NAD-1 had a higher return from investment in N fertilizer increased panicle numbers per unit area. Mutants resembled when grown on a loam soil compared to a sandy soil. This their parents in that they had open panicles and were tall (4 was most likely due to greater N availability and less water m+) with good grain quality. They were markedly superior stress in the loam soil. for stalk strength which resulted in much less lodging. This is especially important when N fertilizer is added. Sorghum It appeared that farmers in these regions are willing and varieties appear to vary in grain yields relative to their N re- ready to accept the new technology, but there is often a lack sponsiveness depending on the previous crop grown. of ready capital for the purchase of the inputs necessary. A long-term trial was established to test sorghum pro- Results of the 1999 Niger Trials - Seyni -Serifi duction when grown in rotation with millet, corn, peanut, cowpea, dolichos (a forage legume) or as the sole crop. In On-farm trials were continued in 1999 at two locations, addition, N rates up to 60 kg ha-1 farm yard manure, and Ma- Tillakaina (low rainfall) and Konni (intermediate rainfall). lian rock phosphate were used as amendments. Results to

Table 1. Grain and biomass yields and grain: stover ratios of NAD-1 and NAD-3 at Konni, and NAD-1 at Tillakaina in the 1999 season. ~reatmentswere TI: tied ridges + fertilizer, T2: continuous ridges + fertilizer, and T3: tradi- tional culture (no ridging or fertilizer). Location Konni Tillakaina Hybrid NAD-I NAD-3 NAD-I Treatment Grain Stover Ratio Grain Stover Ratio Grain Stover Ratio kg ha-' kg ha-1 kg ha-' “-I 490 8950 0.42 333 8200 0.49 1920 6584 0.58 T2 420 9200 0.43 853 9400 0.54 1116 4079 0.56 T3 400 7500 0.33 720 6867 0.46 190 1073 0.55 Mean 437 8550 0.39 636 8156 0.50 1075 3912 0.57 LSD 501 3887 0.20 574 -- 947 0.25 665 679 Sustainable Production Systems date show that sorghum following corn had the highest The results showed that Pdid not affect sorghum bloom yields and sorghum following sorghum, the lowest. The ge- date, early plant growth, or harvest index. However, higher notype CSM388 out yielded N'Tenimissa by 449 kg hael P rates increased dry matter, seeds head-l, and plant height over all treatments. There was a linear increase in yield up to (Table 2). Only the 90 kg ha-' P rate increased sorghum 60 kg ha-l applied N, and application of rock phosphate in- yields significantly although there was linear numerical in- creased overall yield by 9%. crease with each higher rate. Yield increases were a function of seed number rather than seed size. Similarly, increased P The on-farm trials initiated in 1996 were conducted at rates numerically increased cowpea yield. Both the 60 and three locations (six farms) and consisted of five sorghum 90 kg ha-l rates were significantly better than zero P. Seed varieties (local, 3 mutants and CSM388), and NIP fertility numbers were also the determinate for yield increases. The amendments compared to traditional culture. Results to experiment will continue in the following year with a treat- date, have shown that grain yields average about 770 kg ment left unfertilized to observe the residual P effects. ha-'. When N and P are added, yields were increased to 896 kg ha-'. Improved genotypes out yielded the local signifi- A second experiment was conducted to determine the cantly, but local genotypes have large amounts of stover previous crop effect on sorghum response to N fertilizer. which is a desirable resource for animal feed and construc- The previous crops tested in rotation are cowpea, soybean, tion material. Some farms had very low yields with little fer- peanut and sorghum. Four N levels tested were 0, 40, 80, tilizer response. It appears that soil preparation methods and 120kg ha-l as urea. Plots receiveda uniform application such as tied ridges must also be tested similar to the trials in of 30 kg ha-I P. Niger so that water can be conserved resulting in better fer- tility response. Since the experiment was just initiated, the rotation ef- fect cannot be determined. Table 3 shows that grain yield Results of 1999 Mali Trials - Abdoul Toure was significantly increased by N application for 40 kg ha-' with no fbrther increase at higher rates. Total dry matter Rotation trials were continued in 1999, comprised of sor- yield followed a similar pattern. Unfertilized sorghum had ghum following the six crops previously listed. Fertilizer heavier seeds, but this was most likely due to the inverse re- treatments included zero fertilizer, 200 kg ha-I rock phos- lationship that occurs with fewer seeds panicle-1 . Seed num- phate (PNT), variable rates of N (0,20,40,60 kg ha-'), and bers accounted for the total increase in grain yield due to N manure at 1000kg ha-I in alternating years. Two genotypes, fertilizer. CSM388 and N'Tenimissa were used. Results showed that CSM388 performed better than N'Tenimissa regardless of Domestic Research the previous crop, but the magnitude of difference was greatest with peanut, corn, cowpea, and dolichos as the pre- Summary of Research from 1996 in the USA vious crop compared to millet or sorghum. Grain yield of sorghum was.not affected by PTN when grown after cow- Most of the research conducted in the USA was oriented pea, corn or millet. However, when grown after cowpea, to the determination of physiological factors associated dolichos or sorghum, yields were increased by PNT from with high N use efficiency in sorghum. The majority of this 40% to over 100%. Nitrogen rates produced a linear in- research was conducted by international students working crease in yield in sorghum grown after all crops except doli- on graduate degrees. Many of these have since become col- chos, the forage legume. Similar responses were seen for laborators with project UNL-2 14. stover production within the treatments. The genotype CSM388 appeared to respond better than N'TENIMISSA to Field experiments were used to evaluate sorghum geno- N, especially at the higher rates. The lack ofN effect on sor- type differences in N metabolism. Nitrogen uptake, parti- ghum grown after dolichos may reflect a greater contribu- tioning, nitrate reductase activity (NRA), and N use tion of that legume crop to soil N compared to other crops in efficiency were measured. Genotypes used were from West the test. The best rotation effect (determinedat zero fertility) Africa, ICRISAT, and the USA. The results showed that to- was sorghum following dolichos, cowpea, corn, millet, and tal N uptake and its partitioning varied among genotypes, peanut from highest to lowest dry matter response. and that total uptake was dependent on the total biomass produced. The taller African genotypes took up high Results of 1999 Ghana trials - Dr. Samuel Buah amounts of N, but failed to partition this to grain compared to more advanced U.S. materials. The high N uptake re- Collaborative research with SARI has just been initiated sulted in African types having high WEfor biomass pro- and these are the first results from that research. The fist ex- duction. In our studies, NRA was not a factor prominent in periment was a comparison of cowpea and sorghum re- obtaining higher yields, and it was not related to a genotype sponse to P fertilizer with a primary objective to determine rank for NUE. Another study showed that source of N (ei- if annual applications are necessary to maintain yield. Plots ther NO3 or NH4+) influenced NUE at maturity. When sor- received 0,30,60, and 90 kg ha-l P and a uniform 60 kg haa1 ghum was provided 100% N in the NO3- form, the greatest N to sorghum only. values for NUE were obtained. As the NH4+ concentration was increased, WEvalues declined. Sustainable Production Systems

Table 2. The effect of P levels on selected sorghum parameters. Wa, Ghana, 1999. N level Plant height 100-seed weight Seedshead Dry matter1 kg P ha-1 g no. kg ha-l 0 217b 2.49a 2.137b 5.094b 30 214b 2.64a 2.272b 6.360ab 60 229a 2.65a 2.108b 6.993a 90 225a 2.65a 2.649a 6.247ab Mean 22 1 2.6 1 2.291 6.173

Total dry matter (straw) production at physiological maturity.

Table 3. The effect of fertilizer N levels on sorghum yield parameters, Busa 1999. N level Dry matter'? 100-seed weight Seedsthead Gram yield kg N ha-1 kg ha-' !2 no kg ha-I 0 918b 2.57a 692b 926b 40 1413a 2.29b lllla 1565a 80 1413a 2.30b 1277a 1614a 120 1538a 2.36b 1312a . 1657a Mean 1321 2.38 1098 1440 CV (%) 23.8 9.4 26.2 33.8 Dry matter yield at vegetative stage (8-10 leaf growth stage).

Studies on sorghum root systems showedthat genotypes remained in a non-stressed condition. The method created a developed in Africa, or other areas under stress conditions, good contrasting moisture gradient for the time it was ap- had root systems more highly branched thanU.S. developed plied. For those plots where plastic was applied, significant genotypes. Root systems of the African types were also difference in soil moisture was detected as determined by larger, had a greater affinity for NO3-, and were capable of gravimetric moisture. Our observation from this experiment extracting N from a lower concentrahon in the soil solution. showed that moisture deficit can be created, with reasonable It was concluded that this is an adaptive strategy to low or precision in this manner, to study the interaction of moisture dwindling nutrient supplies. andN under fieldconditions. Table 4 shows the main effects of the three treatments on measured crop parameters at two Two lines from China, identified in collaboration with growth stages. Kansas State University, were found to have 25% or more higher NUE than traditional U.S. breeding lines. These were No significant effect of moisture was observed. How- studied to determine the physiologicaVbiochemical factors ever, the method established a trend for some of the impor- responsible for high NUE in sorghum. Our investigations tant parameters such as dry matter, grain yield, and N use inhcatedthat these lines maintain high photosynthesis rates efficiency. Statistically significant (ps0.001) differences under moderate to extreme N deficiencies. Further studies were observed between the two cultivars for most of the im- showed that the mechanism responsible was one of the C02 portant parameters measured. Chlorophyll (measured using fixing enzymes, PEP carboxylase. By maintaining the in- Minolta SPAD-52 meter) was higher for CK-60 at both tegrity and activity of this enzyme under extreme N stress, growth stages. This is in agreement to leaf N content of genotypes could continue to grow and accumulate biomass CK-60, which was significantly higher for this cultivar at and grain. This resulted in very high NUE values in these both growth stages. Female N was, however, lower for China lines, China 17 and San Chi San. CK-60 at heading while grain N was higher. Dry matter and grain yield was significantly higher for San Chi San, which Results of 1999 Domestic trials - Teshome Regasse may be a reflection of its highN use efficiency. This variety had the highest N use efficiency both in terms ofbiomass or A field experiment was conducted in 1999 to compare grain. Higher N concentration was in the leaves of CK-60 the response of two sorghum cultivars to a combined effect than San Shi San, and it remained high at both measured of moisture and N. Two cultivars, San Chi San and CK 60, growth stages. San Chi San had comparable N in all plant with contrasting moisture andN requirements, were planted parts to that of CK-60 at heading, but there was a complete under two moisture conditions and four N levels in a split shift in the relative amount to N percent in the panicle at the split-plot design. expense of leaf N. This was reflected in the difference in N use efficiency between the two cultivars at maturity. All Moisture treatments were applied by covering plots with measured parameters increased up to a maximum in re- clear plastic to drain away incoming rain to avoid moisture sponse to added N, and then dropped off with a further in- after treatment application, so that the crop will exhaust crease of added N. Increased N, in general, reduced N use moisture in the soil, resulting in moisture stress as the crop efficiency. season progressed. The part of the treatment, which was not covered by plastics, had continuos moisture input as rain, so Sustainable Production Systems

Table 4. Chlorophyll, dry matter, grain yield, plant part nitrogen content and nitrogen use efficiencies of two sor- ghum cultivars at two growth stages.

Total Total Grain Cultivar DM NUEl I DM yield NU21 NUE2 Chlor. (dplant) Nitrogen (Oh) -- I Chlor. (glplant) (dplant) Nitrogen (%) Leaf Stem Head 1 Leaf Stem Grain CK-60 51.43 72.58 2.85 2.46 0.77 1.70 19.42 7.93 San Chi San 44.56 76.68 2.76 1.89 0.50 1.52 32.36 17.80 * ** ns ns ns *** I** *** 111 *** Moisture I Stress 48.22 73.56 2.78 2.19 0.66 No stress 47.78 75.70 2.82 2.16 0.61 Nitrogen (kglha) 0 44.81 74.44 2.42 1.95 0.53 40 48.38 73.29 2.82 2.19 0.62 80 49.88 75.98 2.95 2.21 0.66 120 48.94 74.80 3.02 2.35 0.72 *I* ns *** *** ***

***Significant at P 5 0.001 ns Statistically nonsignificant a P 10.05

No statistically significant interactions were observed, SARI. Funds were also expended in Niger to enhance the mainly, because the moisture treatments were not imposed on-farm research/demonstration trials on improved man- soon enough. SignificantN by variety interaction was found agement systems. for N concentration in the panicle and total plant N. The in- teraction (Figure 1) showed that CK-60 accumulated N as Collaboration with World Vision International is still in the N rate was increased. San Chi San increased N accumu- progress. The UNL-214 PI is expediting the roles ofthe col- lation up to a certain point, and additional application of N laborating NARS scientists in Niger, Mali and Ghana with did not increase accumulation of N in either panicle or other WVI personnel in the field in these countries. parts. This resulted in the difference in N use efficiency ob- served between the cultivars. Publications

Networking Activities Maranville, J.W. and S. Madhavan. 2000. Physiological adaptations form- trogen useefficiency in sorghum. Plant and Soil (in press). Invitational paper presented at International Workshop on "Food Security in Nutri- Project UNL-214 is continuing collaboration with Dr. ent-Stressed Environments: Exploiting Plants Genetic Capabilities". R.K. Pandey, formerly of the World Bank, who is currently 27-30 Sept. 1999, ICRISAT - Patanchem, India Regassa, T.H. and J.W. Maranville. 2000. Morphological performance of inDehli, India writing manuscripts from collaborative stud- two contrasting sorghum cultivars under moisture and N stress. Agron. ies in Niger. Maranville will travel to India in September ~bstr.(poster at ASA meetings). 2000 to complete manuscripts in progress and review Regassa, T.H. and J.W. Maranville. 2000. Trad~tionalsorghum manage- ment practices to mitigate moisture stress. Agron. Abstr. (special oral ICRISAT research. presentation representing CRSPs at ASA meetings). Funds were transferred to Ghana to initiate the collabora- tive research from the recently established MOU with Sustainable Production Systems

0 40 80 120

Nllrooen Levels

-CK.HN .. ..= ..CK-TN +SAM-HN ....A .... SAN-TN

Figure 1. Effect of Nitrogen on biomass and head % nitrogen of two cultivars. Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation

PrevEou Page Blank - ad Germplasm Enhancement and Conseration

Breeding Pearl Millet with Improved Performance and Stability Project AIRS 2864 Wayne W. Hsnna

Principal Investigator

Wayne Hanna, USDAIARS, Crop Genetics and Breeding, P.O. Box 748, Tifton, Georgia

Collaborating Scientists

Moussa Sonogo, Millet Breeder, Cinzana Agricultural Experiment Station, B.P. 214, Segou, Mall Jada Gonda, INRAN, Maradi, c/o Botorou Ouendeba, ICRISAT Sahelian Center, J3.P 12404, Niamey, Niger Anand Kumar, ICRISAT Sahelian Center, Sadore B.P. 12404, Niamey, Niger Samba Traore, Cinzana Agricultural Experiment Station, B.P. 2 14, Segou, Mali Hamadou Mossi, INFMNIKOLO, B.P. 60, Kollo, Niger S.C. Gupta, ICRISAT, IITA Office, Sabon Bakin Zuwa Road, P.M.B. 3491, Kano, Nigeria Roger Gates, USDAIARS, Crop Genetics and Breeding, P.O. Box 748, Tifton, GA 3 1793 Jeff Wilson, USDAIARS, Crop Genetics and Breeding,, P.O. Box 748, Tifton, GA 3 1793 Steve Mason, University of Nebraska, Department of Agronomy, 229 Keim Hall, Lincoln, NE 68583-0915 Jean Bapitste Taonda, INERA, 03 B.P. 7192, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso

Summary Research Approach and Project Output

Cooperators were identified in Niger, Mali, Nigeria, and This project started January 1,2000 and this report cov- Burkina Faso for testing and evaluation of pearl millet hy- ers only the fxst six months of the project. brids. Two sites in each Niger and Mali and one site in Burkina Faso were identified for a regional study (in coop- Key land races from West Africa have been assembled eration with project UNL- 213) to compare a landrace and and grown under quarantine. Land races were intercrossed population hybrid at two fertility levels. Seeds were sent to and also used to pollinate pearl millet inbreds with two stan- all cooperators. dard cytoplasms and seven new experimental cytoplasms.

The major accomplishment at this time is the develop- Networking Activities ment of a regional experiment across Nigeria, Niger, Mali, and Burkina Faso. Attended the ROCAFREMI meetings in Niger- March 22-24,2000 Olbj ectives Met with scientists in Niger, Mali, and Burkina Faso to West Afiica discuss cooperative research, March 15-24,2000.

B Improve the productivity and stability of pearl millet Received pearl millet landraces and inbreds from Niger cultivars in West Africa. and Nigeria.

s provide short- and long-term training for pearl millet Sent 13population hybrids each to Mali, ~i~erand Nige- breeders. ria.

USA Sent 99 crosses resulting from 8 cytoplasms x 7 land races and 4 inbreds to Niger. e Use West African germplasm to improve germplasm and productivity of U.S. hybrids. Plans have been made to bring Moussa Sonogo, pearl millet breeder in Mali, to work for six weeks in the Tifton,GA program.

Received germplasm from David Andrews. Germplasm Enhancement and Conseration

Other cooperating scientists

Bruce Hamaker, Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN K.N. Rai, ICRISAT, India Botorou Ouendeba, ROCAFREMI Coordinator, ICRISAT Sahelian Center, Niamey, Niger Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation

Breeding Sorghum for Increased Nutritional Value Project PRF-203 John D. Axtell Purdue University

Principal Investigator

Dr. John D. Axtell, Department of Agronomy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47906

Collaborating Scientists:

Dr. Gebisa Ejeta, Sorghum Breeder, Department of Agronomy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 Dr. Lee House, Sorghum Breeder, Rt. 2, Box 136A-1, Bakersville, NC 28705 Dr. Issoufou Kapran, INRANIINTSORMIL Coordinator for Niger, Sorghum Breeder, INRAN, B.P. 429, Niamey, Niger Dr. Bruce Hamaker, Cereal Chemistry, Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47905 Mr. Adam Aboubacar, Cereal Chemist, Postdoc, Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN47905 Dr. Ouendeba Botorou, Millet Coordinator, ROCAFREMI, Niamey, Niger Dr. Jeff Bennetzen, Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN Dr. Wayne Hanna, Millet Breeder, USDAIARS, Tifton, GA 3 1793

Summary

Seed Production of NAD-1 in Niger some of this being done privately. Pearl millet is grown on over 3 million hectares and sorghum on over 1.5 million Sorghum hybrids being produced by participatory seed hectares in the country, providing ample marketing oppor- producers on small farms in Niger increases yield by 40 to tunity. The successful establishment of a seed industry in 65% compared to the best local varieties. The sorghum hy- Niger would stimulate the establishment of industries in brid, NAD- 1, was released in Niger in 1992. The hybrid was other West African countries, particularly Mali andBurkina developed from collaborative research between the Faso. Nigerien sorghum breeders and INTSORMIL breeders at Purdue University. In Niger, the hybrid was involved in Brown Midrib (BMR) Sorghum-Sudangrass on-farm demonstrations where it raised excitement among farmers. In 1995, INRAN (Institut National de Recherches Thls is a value-added trait, introduced through Purduel Agronomiques du Niger) and INTSORMIL-Purdue (Inter- 1NTSOR.MIL research, which currently provides $40-45 national Sorghum and Millet CRSP) expressed interest in million U.S. dollars additional value to U.S. dairy and beef using this hybrid to launch a seed production and marketing producers, with the potential to provide over $100 million activity in the private sector. Seed production in the private U.S. dollars annually to animal producers. Several years sector is now widely accepted in Niger. ago, PurdueDNTSORMIL produced several brown midrib mutants in sorghum by chemical mutagenesis. These mu- Testing indicated a 40 to 65% increase in yield compared tants were evaluated for their reduction in lignin content and to the best local varieties. Yield results from on-farm dem- for improved dry matter digestibility. Three of these mu- onstrations have ranged from 3000 to 4500 kg ha-' with ade- tants were fully characterized and released to the seed indus- quate moisture to 1200 to 1500 kg ha-l on dryland (the try for incorporation into commercial forage varieties. national average is around 270 kg ha-' ). Farmer enthusiasm Several companies have backcrossed the low lignin genes and interest is strong. into sudangrass so that sorghum sudangrass hybrids can be produced. Sorghum sudangrass hybrids are a very Production and marketing of seed in the private sector is high-yielding forage grown on several million acres in the not new in Niger. Rice seed used in the country is produced United States alone. The forage yields are very high, but the by a Co-op. Seed of onions is privately produced and mar- forage quality is generally lower than other forage grass spe- keted. A private company, Agrimex, markets vegetable cies. This can now be remedied by the incorporation of the seed through a well organized marketing program and their brown midrib gene in sorghum sudangrass hybrids. They seed comes from Holland. ICRISAT expects to have hybrid are also extensively utilized in Asian countries as a forage pearl millet ready for seed production in 1999. They cur- crop. rently are involved with experimental seed production. There is some use of hybrid maize seed coming from Nige- Several seed companies are now producing seed of ria, but hybrid maize is currently being developed in Niger, brown midrib sorghum sudangrass commercially. Re- Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation sponse of livestock producers has been excellent due to im- lines and hybrids with good food grain quality. An addi- proved digestibility and significantly improved palatability. tional constraint addressed is the lack of a viable private Dairy farmers are the frrst to see the benefits of the improved seed industry in West Africa, which would allow the exploi- nutritional quality in increased milk production. There are tation of heterosis or hybrid vigor for the benefit of agricul- approximately five million acres of sorghum sudangrass in ture in West Africa. Experience in the rest of the world has the United States at the present time, compared with nine shown that pure lines have a significantrole to play, but also million acres of hybrid sorghum for grain production. The that there are opportunities for utilization ofhybrid cultivars potential of brown midrib sorghum sudangrass in West Af- of sorghum and millet with benefits for both increased stress rica is being explored through collaboration with Dr. tolerance and high yield potential under appropriate man- Issoufou Kapran. The value of forage in West Africa is high agement. Both sorghum and pearl millet are usually grown and there is a chronic shortage of good quality forage which, under stress conditions (particularly moisture and tempera- we believe, can be partially alleviated by brown midrib sor- ture) in semi-arid environments. Most cereal breeders ac- ghum sudangrass hybrids. At this point in time, there has knowledge the benefits of heterosis in providing superior been extensive cultivation of brown midrib sorghum hy- performance of hybrids when grown under stress conditions brids in Pakistan and in some Asian countries. The potential (see Axtell review article in CIMMYT heterosis sympo- value in India has been recognized since India is now the sium published in 1999 by the Crop Science Society of largest milk producer in the world and they are heavily in- America). vesting in research on brown midrib forage cereals. Utilization of sorghum grain has been limited by poor Objectives, Production and Utilizatiasn Constraints protein digestibility in humans and other monogastric ani- mals. Sorghum germplasm with protein digestibility as Objectives high, or higher than maize, or other staple cereals has been identified through Purdue/INTSORMIL research. Studies B 1) Collaboration with Issoufou Kapran to develop the on the genetics of this trait indicate that it is a simply inher- hybrid seed production potential in Niger so that this ited trait whichcan be transferred to other genotypes for uti- well adapted and well accepted sorghum hybrid lization in sorghum producing regions throughout the WAD-1 can be produced for utilization in Niger. world. One limitation, which has now been substantially overcome, is the food grain quality of these highly digest- e 2) Collaborate with Bruce Hamaker to develop rapid ible cultivars. New research demonstrates that vitreous ker- screening techniques for breeders to assess the new nels with good food grain and processing properties have high digestibility trait recently discovered by Dr. been identified and are now available for breeding pro- Hamaker in germplasm from our program grams.

3) To determine the inheritance ofthe recently discov- Research Approach and Project Output ered sorghum cultivars with very high digestibility and to incoqorate this trait into improved African and Objective I - Sorghum hybrids in Niger. The following U.S. sorghum germplasm. update will demonstrate significant progress in the produc- tion of NAD-1 seed. First, a private seed company has pur- c 4) Improve forage quality of sorghum stover for better chasedthe government seed fann at Lossa. Dr. Salifou, who &ant animal nutrition. was trained at Mississippi State in seed technology several years ago, is leading the development of a private sector seed industry for Niger. INRAN and the Government of e, 5) Train EDC andU.S. scientists in plant breeding and Niger are supportive of this private seed sector activity. genetics with special emphasis on exposure of gradu- NAD-1 will be the frrst hybrid seed produced and marketed ate students to the U.S. seed industry. All graduate by this company. Second, several hybrid sorghum seed pro- training at Wlrdue involves active involvement for ev- ducers in Niger have formed a seed producers association. ery graduate student in plant breeding with hands-on This association recognizes INRAN as an honorary mem- experience with new technologies, including sor- ber, but is intent on controlling the seed association outside ghum transformation and molecular marker studies of the formal structure of the government. We think this is through collaboration of PRF-203A with other an encouraging development which we will nurture. Third, Purdue University scientists. the demand for hybrid seed far exceeds the supply even though the seed is sold at approximately eight times the price of grain. The important distinction between seed and grain is now recognized in Niger. We estimate that 60 tons Sorghum and millet production in West Africa is limited of hybrid seed will be produced this year in Niger. A great by the lack of high yielding cultivars with superior grain deal ofthis seed production will be on small farms. One irn- quality for utilization as a subsistence cereal by people in portant observation should be noted which has made this a West Africa. 'x-hk project adchesses impmvement of sor- successful enterprise. The male parent of the hybrid is ,in it- ghum yield potential through utilization of elite sorghum self, a very popular variety among farmers in Niger. MR732 Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation has good grain quality, excellent forage quality, and good West Lafayette in the summer of 1998. The F2 seeds were yield potential which appropriate management. This allows bulked and sent to the Mexico winter nursery to be grown. the small farmers to buffer their hybrid production fields Five hundred randomly selected F2 plants were with an ample quantity of the male parent so that isolation self-pollinated and harvested when mature to produce F2 from local varieties can be achieved, even though these are derived F3 families. Out of the 500 selected F3 families, 80 small production units of less than 1 hectare. This is impor- -to 300 will be used for QTL analyses depending on the tant because the farmers don't hesitate to get adequate isola- heritability results. Data for protein digestibility and kernel tion for pure hybrid seed by using wide borders of the male hardness will be collected on the F3 seeds of all the selected parent, which in fact they like very much as a variety. This F2 plants, including theirparents to determine heritability of may seem a small point, but it is important in a situation the digestibility trait. where many small fanner seed producers are involved. Polymorphic markers will be selected using SSR tech- Objective 2 - Develop rapid screening techniques for niques. The frequency of high protein digestibility (HPD) breeders to assess the new high digestibility trait recently and kernel hardness (KH) alleles for each family will be cal- discovered in germplasm fiom our program. A new rapid culated and a distribution obtained. The observed polymor- screening technique, which measures disappearance of al- phic markers will be used to construct a linkage map using pha kafirin in sorghum grain, has been developed by Bruce Mapmaker. Map distances will be estimated according to Hamaker and Adam Aboubacar. The test is rapid and Kosambi function. readily distinguishes between normal sorghum and the highly digestible sorghum cultivars. Lex Nduulu has tested Objective 4 - Improve forage quality of sorghum stover this technique across several environments and found that it for better ruminant animal nutrition. Chemically induced is accurate and yet simple enough to be applied to large pop- brown midrib (bmr) mutants of sorghum [Sorghum bicolor ulations of breeding materials. (L.) Moench] were characterized with regard to phenotype, fiber composition, and in vitro dry matter disappearance The endosperm of a sorghum mutant cultivar, with high (IVDMD) several years ago. The recessive bmr genes pro- in vitro uncooked and cooked protein digestibilities, was ex- duced brown pigmentation in the leaf midrib and stem of amined by transmission electron microscopy and a-, P-, and mature plants. Pigmentation varied among mutants in inten- y-kafirins (storage proteins) were localized within its pro- sity, time of appearance, and degree of fading as plants ma- tein bodies. Transmissionelectronmicroscopy micrographs tured. Ten of the 13 mutants had significantly less stem revealed that these protein bodies had a unique lignin than their normal counterparts. Reductions in lignin microstructure related high protein digestibility. They ranged from 5 to 5 1% in stems and from 5 to 25% in leaves. were irregular in shape and had numerous invaginations, of- Increases in IVDMD and IVCWCD of as much as 33 and ten reaching to the central area of the protein body. Protein 43%, respectively, were associated with the presence ofbmr bodies from normal cultivars, such as P72 1N studied here, genes. Seed company researchers have now incorporated with much lower uncooked and cooked digestibilities are one of our low lignin brown midrib genes (bmr-6) into both spherical and contain no invaginations. Immuno- parents of a sorghum x sudangrass hybrid. Results on im- cytochemistry results showed that the relative location of a- proved palatability and performance of the brown midrib and P-kafirins within the protein bodies of the highly digest- cultivar have been excellent and commercial studies have ible genotype were similar to the normal cultivar, P72 IN. shown the brown midrib hybrid seed is producible on a com- However, y-Kafirin was concentrated in dark staining re- mercial scale. Currently, in vivo studies confm the higher gions at the base of the folds instead of at the protein body digestibility for dairy and beef animals that were seen in our periphery, as is typical of normal cultivars. The resulting earlier studies using in vitro tests. Pacific Seeds, a subsid- easy accessibility of digestive enzymes to a-kafirin, the ma- iary of Zeneca, has an extensive research program on brown jor storage protein, in addition to the increased surface area midrib for forage quality in Argentina, Australia, and India. of the protein bodies of the highly digestiblecultivar, appear Pakistan has now widely adopted the brown midrib trait in to account for its high in vitro protein digestibility. their dairy operations and is reporting gains of 8 to 10 pounds of milk per day per cow. In the USA there are cur- Objective 3 - Identification of molecular markers linked rently five million acres of sorghum sudangrass compared to high protein digestibility andor high lysine in high lysine to 9 million acres of hybrid grain sorghum. So the forage sorghum lines. Sorghum genotypes with high protein di- component of sorghum research is frequently underesti- gestibility and others with hard kernels have been reported. mated and will play an increasing role in the world as we ap- A population derived from a cross between P85 117 1 and proach the next era which many call "the meat revolution". P72 1N has been used to construct a genetic map and evalu- ate phenotypic traits. P851171 is high in protein digestibil- Many important forage grasses used in Africa have poor ity and has soft kernel endosperm, whereas, P72 1N is low in forage digestibility. A new technique, from biotechnology protein digestibility and has hard kernel endosperm. studies by Purdue/INTSORMIL scientists,has presented an P85 117 1 x P72 1N crosses were made in the Mexico winter opportunity to identify and tag the brown midrib genes from nursery in February 1998. A total of 5 to 10 crosses were sorghum and insert them into the genomes of other tropical made. FI plants were grown and selfed at the PU-ARC at forage grasses. The technique involves utilization of a mo- Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation lecular characterization of a mutable pigmentation pheno- transformed plants. This has great advantages over the use type and isolation of the first active transposable element of a herbicide resistance marker, which runs the risk of from Sorghum bicolor. Accumulation of red phlobaphene spreading herbicide resistance among weedy sorghum rela- pigments in sorghum grain pericarp is under the control of tives. In our estimation, this research means that sorghum the Y gene. A mutable allele of Y, designated as y-cs can join the new biology in terms of opportunities for im- Cy-candystripe), produces a variegated pericarp phenotype. . proving sorghum in the future. Using probes from the maize pl gene that cross-hybridize with the sorghum Y gene, we isolated the y-cs allele con- Objective 5 - Train LDC and U.S. scientists in plant taining a large insertion element. Our results show that the Y breeding andgenetics with special emphasis on exposure of gene is a member of the MYB-transcription factor family. graduate students to the U.S. seed industry. Graduate stu- The insertion element, named Candystripel (Csl), is pres- dent education continues to be an important and vital activ- ent in the second intron of the Y gene and shares features of ity of our INTSORMIL program. A partial list of graduate the CACTA superfamily of transposons. Csl is 23,O 18 bp in students who have completed degrees with Purduel size and is bordered by 20-bp terminal inverted repeat se- INTSORMIL is presented by category of employment. quences. It generated a 3-bp target site duplication upon in- sertion within the Y gene and excised from y-cs, leaving a Academic Appointments (6 students) 2-bp footprint in two cases analyzed. Reinsertion of the ex- cised copy of Csl was identified by Southern hybridization Dr. Mitch Tuinstra, Sorghum Breeder, Kansas in the genome of each of seven red pericarp revertant lines State University tested. Csl is the fust active transposable element isolated Dr. Gebisa Ejeta, Sorghum BreedingIGenetics, from sorghum. Our analysis suggests that Csl-homologous Purdue University sequences are present in low copy number in sorghum and Dr. Bruce Hamaker, Cereal Chemist, Purdue other grasses, including sudangrass, maize, rice, teosinte, University and sugarcane. The low copy number and high transposition Dr. Nora Mason, Popcorn Breeder, University frequency of Csl imply that this transposon could prove to of Nebraska be an efficient gene isolation tool in sorghum. Mr. Tom Tyler, Urban Gardening, Washington, D.C. Agrobacterium-mediated Transformation of Sorghum Dr. Robert Bacon, Wheat Breeder, Arkansas and other Tropical Grasses. Utilization of the identified and State University cloned bmr genes requires that a transformation system be available for sorghum and other tropical grasses. Plant bio- National Program Scientists (17 students) technology has become a powefil tool to complement the traditional methods ofplant improvement. Several method- Dr. Osman Ibrahim, Sorghum Breeder, Sudan ologies have been developed to identify and clone National Research Program (ARC) agronomically important genes and to transfer genes from Dr. Joe Mushonga, Sorghum Breeder, Zimbabwe any living organism to plants. This report includes the de- National Crops Research Program velopment of a protocol for sorghum transformation via Dr. Carlos Carvalho, Sorghum Molecular, Agrobacterium tumefaciens. It demonstrates that Biologist, EMBRAPA, Corn and Sorghum Agrobacterium-mediated transformation is a feasible tech- Research Center, Brazil nique for the genetic transformation of sorghum. Sorghum Dr. Ouendeba Botorou, Millet Breeder, Niger transgenic plants were produced via Agrobacterium National Program (MRAN) tumefaciens, and the transformation evidenced by Southern Dr. Issoufou Kapran, Sorghum Breeder, Niger blot analysis of To and TIplants, detection of GUS activity, National Program (INRAN) and production of T, plants resistant to hygromycin. Imma- Dr. Yahia Ibrahim, Sorghum Breeder, Sudan ture embryos of sorghum were very sensitive to National Research Program (ARC) Agrobacterium, and embryo death after co-cultivation was Dr. John Clark, Sorghum Breeder, Niger National considered the limiting step to increase the transformation Program (INRAN, Retired) efficiency. Key factors were the co-cultivation medium, the Dr. Moussa Adamou, Sorghum Breeder, Niger use of a genotype and an explant with good tissue culture re- National Program (INRAN, Retired) sponse, and the addition of Pluronic F-68 to the inoculation Dr. Lexington Ndulu, Sorghum Breeder, Kenya medium. Sorghum transformation via Agrobacterium is National Program (KARI) still not a routine technique, but it seems to have goodpoten- Mr. Tadesse Mulatu, Sorghum Breeder, Ethiopian tial once the protocol is further refined and improved. The National Program (deceased) significance of this research means that sorghum can now Dr. Rameshwar Singh, Sorghum Breeder, benefit from the rapid advances in crop molecular biology Pantnagar University, India utilized by other cereal grains. A significant part of this re- Dr. Robert Schaffert, Sorghum Breeder, search is that the selectable marker used was not a herbicide. EMBRAPA, Brazil The selectable marker used was the antibiotic hygromycin, Dr. Chris Nwasike, Millet Breeder, Nigeria which worked very well and is a feasible marker to select (deceased) Germplasm Enhanct merit and Conservation

Dr. Lichuan Tu, SorghumlSesame Breeder, Networking Activities People's Republic of China Dr. Adam Aboubacar, Sorghum Biochemist, Niger Workshops National Cereal Program (INRAN) Dr. Laila Monawar, Sorghum Food Chemist, A Hybrid Seed Workshop for West Africa, was held in Sudan National Program (ARC) Niamey, Niger September 28 through October 2,1998. The Mr. Zenon Kabiro, Sorghum Breeder, Burundi purpose of the workshop was to acquaint West African sor- National Program ghum and millet research scientists about the benefits of hy- brid seed for West Africa. Speakers discussed relevant Seed Industry Scientists (13 students) hybrid seed experiences in their own developing countries, including India, Zambia, Sudan, and Brazil. The goal was to Dr. Ed Grote, Corn Breeder, Pioneer Hybrid explore opportunities for development of sorghum and International pearl millet hybrids for West Africa and to assist the devel- Dr. Kay Porter, Sorghum Director, Pioneer Hybrid opment ofa private sector seed industry which brings many International benefits to farmers in West Africa. Dr. Yilma Kebede, Sorghum Breeder, Pioneer Hybrid International The workshop consisted of approximately 150 partici- Dr. Joe Keaschall, Corn Breeder, Pioneer Hybrid pants from 14 countries including: United States, Niger, International Ghana, Mali, Cote dYIvoire,India, Burkina Faso, Kenya, Dr. Paul Christensen, International Division, Chad, Egypt, Senegal, France, Nigeria, Zimbabwe, and DeKalb Zambia. The following organizations participated: Dr. Tom Prest, Corn Breeder, Northrup King Seed company (Novartis) Winrock International (SenegallMali) Dr. D.P. Mohan, Sorghum Breeder, Pioneer PROCELOS-CILSS (Burkina Faso) Hybrid, Sudan (Retired) World Bank Dr. Gloria Cagampang, Sorghum Biochemist, ONAHA (Niamey) Kellogg Cereal Company USAIDNashington Dr. Billy Woodruff, Corn Breeder, DeKalb ITRA (Chad) Ms. Rebecca Hartigan, Corn Breeder, Becks Seed INTSORMIL Co. (Private Business) ARCIFCRI (Egypt) Dr. Paul Peter, OwnerManager, Garden Classics, INRAN Landscape Tree Nursery (Private Business) CIRAD-CA (France) Dr. Kevin Cavanaugh, Corn Breeder, Becks Seed IERIMali Company ISRA (Senegal) Mr. Xiaokun Yang, Corn Biotechnician, Asgrow WCASNWROCARS (Mali) Seed Company DDEIAICUN (Niamey) IDESSA (Cote d'Ivoire) International Center Scientists (9 students) Premier Seed Nigeria Ltd. (Nigeria) Mahyco Seed Ltd. (India) Dr. Emmanuel Monyo, Millet Breeder, ICRISAT Sahelian CenterNiger SADCIICRISAT Sorghum and Millet C.TRA.P.A. (Burkina Faso) Improvement Program ICRISATNCA (Nigeria) Dr. Sam Mukuru, Sorghum Breeder, ICRISAT ROCAFREMI (Niger) (Retired) Ministry of Food and Agriculture (Ghana) Dr. Dallas Oswalt, Chief Training Officer, Mahindra Hybrid Seed Co. (India) ICRISAT (Retired) PASP (Niamey) Dr. Dale Hess, SorghumlStriga Breeder, ICRISAT IN.E.R.A. (Burkina Faso) Mali Program Ministry of Agriculture (Namibia) Dr. Vartan Guiragossian, Sorghum Breeder, Care Intl. (Niamey) ICRISAT (deceased) SADCIICRISATISMIP (Bulawayo) Dr. R. Janibunathan, Sorghum Biochemist, World Vision Int. (Ghana, Mali) ICRISAT (Retired) AGRIMEX (Niamey) Dr. Bantayehue Gelaw, Corn Breeder, CIMMYT, Rockefeller Foundation (Kenya) Maize Program, Zimbabwe USAID/REDSO/ESA (Nairobi) Dr. Ronald Cantsell, Director General, IRRI (International Rice Research Institute) A second workshop activity during 1999 was a training Dr. Laurie Kitch, Cowpea Breeder, FA0 UN prograk conducted at the ICRISAT Sahelian Center in the Food-Agric Organization spring of 1999 by Lee House and Issoufou Kapran. Training was on elements of hybrid seed production for INRAN and Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation

World Bank technicians in Niger. This activity was verj Asia, and Latin America. Former students are constantlv in useful and productive during the growing season and will contact to receive germplasm which they learned about definitely be repeated in the spring of 2000. A practical while graduate students in the PurdueIINTSORMIL sor- training manual on hybrid seed production in Niger was pre- ghum project. Cultivars with improved protein quality have pared in English and French. been widely distributed throughout the world as lines and populations. The brown midrib mutant genes for improved Research Investigator Exchanges forage quality have been distributed throughout the world over the past four years to researchers interested in im- A number of sorghum scientists from the USA and proved forage quality. Collaborating scientists have re- throughout the world were involved in exchanges during quested basic supplies from the project including 1996-2000. Dr. Robert Schaffert from the EMBRAPA pro- pollinating bags, staplers, marking pencils, etc. Many of gram in Brazil spent a one-year sabbatical leave as a visiting these researchers work in areas where even the basic sup- professor at Purdue University. Support was provided by plies are not available and so we provide them until they can EMBRAPA, INTSORMIL, IPIA and the Department of identify a domestic source in their own country. A training Agronomy. Main activities included a conference, on the manual on hybrid seed production in English and French development of sorghum hybrids which are tolerant to the has been widelv distributed in West Africa. This manual is acid high aluminum savannas in Brazil, which was held dur- used to conduct short-term training courses for technicians ing the spring of 1998. A major topic of discussion was how and scientists, many of whom are with PVOs and NGOs. to transfer the very successful experience in Brazil to many problem soil areas in Africa, including Niger. Publications and Presentations

Many other scientists participated in the INTSORMIL Oria, M.P., B.R. Hamaker, and J.D. Axtell. 2000. A highly digestible sor- ghum cultivar exhibits a unique folded structure of endosperm protein Plant Breeding Workshop and visited Purdue while in the bodies. Proc. National Academy of Sciences USA 97(10):5065-5070. USA. One exchange occurred with the new Director Gen- Chopra, S., V. Brendel, J. Zhang, J.D. Axtell, and T. Peterson. 1999. Mo- eral of ICRISAT, Dr. Shawki Barghouti, to discuss West lecular characterization of a mutable pigmentation phenotype and iso- lation of the first active transposable element from Sorghum bicolor. African sorghum research. Dr. M.V. Rao who was, accord- Proc. National Academy of Sci. 96(26):15330-15335. ing to Dr. Norman Borlaug, the most influential wheat Jenks, Matthew A., D. Rhodes, C. Ding, E.N. Ashworth, J.D. Axtell, and breeder during the Green Revolution ~aysin India, spent a P.J. Rich. 2000. A novel class of very-long-chain free carboxylic fatty acid mutants in Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench. Plant Phys~ology(In week with our faculty and graduate students on the sorghum preparation). project-. in 1997. Kapran, Issoufou. 1998. Quantitative trait loci for sorghum maturitv and -their influence on agronomic traits in diverse gmwing environments. Germplasm and Research Information Exchange Ph.D. Thesis. Purdue University, W. Lafayette, IN.

Numerous requests for germplasm and information were received and distributed to collaborators in Afiica, South Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation

Development and Enhancement of Sorghum Germplasm with Sustained Tolerance to Biotic and Abiotic Stress Project PRF-207 Gebisa Ejeta Purdue University

Principal Investigator

Dr. Gebisa Ejeta, Department of Agronomy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907

Collaborating Scientists

Dr. Abdel Latif Nour, Sorghum Breeder, ARC, Sudan Dr. Mohamed El Hilu Omer, Sorghum Pathologist, ARC, Sudan Dr. Aboubacar Toure, Sorghum Breeder, IER, Bamako, Mali Dr. Issoufou Kapran, Sorghum Breeder, INRAN, Niamey, Niger Dr. Ouendeba Botorou, Millet Breeder, INRAN, Niamey, Niger Dr. Aberra Debello, Sorghum Breeder, IAR, Ethiopia Dr. Ketema Belete, Sorghum Breeder, IAR, Ethiopia Dr. Aberra Deressa, Agronomist, IAR, Ethiopia Mr. C.K. Kamau, Sorghum Breeder, KARI, Kenya Dr. Peter Esele, Plant Pathologist, NARO, Uganda Mr. Tesfamichael Abraha, Agronomist, DARE, Eritrea Dr. John Axtell, Agronomy Department, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN47907 Dr. Peter Goldsbrough, Department of Horticulture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 Dr. Mitchell Tuinstra, Department of Agronomy, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66056 Dr. Darrell Rosenow, Texas A&M University Agricultural Experiment Station, Route 3 Box 2 19, Lubbock, TX 7940 1 Professor David Andrews, Department of Agronomy, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-09 15 Dr. Kay Porter, Pioneer HiBred International, Plainview, TX

Summary

Breeding sorghum varieties and hybrids for use in devel- ductivity andutilization of the sorghum crop. We conducted oping countries requires proper recognition of the major specific studies in attempting to understand the genetic and constraints limiting production, knowledge of germplasm, physiologic basis of drought tolerance using a mix of both and an appropriate physical e'nvironment for evaluation and traditional and molecular approaches. We also conducted testing. Successful breeding efforts also require knowledge several studies in elucidating the basis of grain mold resis- of mode of inheritance and association of traits that contrib- tance in low and high tannin sorghums. Specific studies ute to productivity as well as tolerance to biotic and abiotic were undertaken in determining the role of physical and stresses. Research andgermplasm development activities in chemical kernel properties associated with mold resistance, PRF-207 attempt to address these essential requirements. and in assessing the nature of specific phenolic compounds that contribute to grain mold resistance. We also conducted PRF-207 addresses major biotic and abiotic constraints a major study in assessing genetic diversity using molecular drought, cold, grain mold, and other diseases )that limit pro- markers. The results of several of these experiments are ductivity of sorghum in many areas of the world. Over the summarized in our Year 2 1 report for PRF-207. years significant progress has been made in some of these areas. Superior raw germplasm have been identified, mode Objectives, Production and Utilization Constraints of inheritance established, chemical and morphological traits that contribute to productivity, as well as to tolerance Objectives to these stresses, have been identified. Selected gene sources have been placed in improved germplasm back- Research ground, some of which have already been widely distrib- uted. To study the inheritance oftraits associated withresis- tance to biotic and abiotic stesses in sorghum and/or In the last four years, research efforts in PRF-207 have . millets. focused on a selected core of constraints that limit the pro- Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation

To elucidate mechanisms of resistance to these Africa where field evaluation of joint experiments are con- stresses in sorghum andlor millets. ducted.

To evaluate and adapt new biotechnological tech- Our germplasm development and enhancement program niques and approaches in addressing sorghum and utilizes the wealth of sorghum and millet germplasm we millet constraints for which conventional approaches have accumulated in the program. Intercrosses are made in have not been successfU1. specific combinations and populations generated via con- ventional hybridization techniques, through mutagenesis, Geriplasm Development, Conservation, or through tissue culture in vitro. Conventional progenies and Diversity derived from these populations are evaluated both in the laboratory and in the field at West Lafayette, Indiana for an To develop sorghum varieties and hybrids with im- array of traits, including high yield potential, grain quality, proved yield potential and broader environmental ad- as well as certain chemical constituents that we have found aptation. to correlate well with field resistance to pests and diseases. We, also, evaluate our germplasm for tropical adaptation To develop and enhance sorghum germplasm with in- and disease resistance during the off-season at the USDA creased levels of resistance to drought, cold, diseases, Tropical Agricultural ~eseaichCenter at Isabella, Puerto and improved grain quality characteristics. Rico. Selectedprogenies fromrelevant populations are then sampled for evaluation of specific adaptation and useful- To assemble unique sorghum germplasm, and to en- ness to collaborative programs in Sudan, Niger, and more recently Mali. Evaluation of the drought tolerance of our courage and facilitate free exchange of germplasm be- breeding materials have been conducted at Lubbock, Texas tween U.S. and LDC scientists and institutions. in collaboration with Dr. Darrell Rosenow, in a winter nurs- ery at Puerto Vallarta, Mexico, as well as the University of To assess applicability of various statistical and DNA Arizona Dryland Station at Yuma, Arizona. Over the years, fingerprinting technologies for evaluating genomic assistance in field evaluation of nurseries has also been pro- similarity, or for discerning genetic diversity of sor- vided by industry colleagues particularly at Pioneer HiBred ghum and millet germplasm pools. and DeKalb Genetics.

Training, Networking, and Institutional Development The training, networking and institutional development efforts of PRF-207 have been provided through graduate To provide graduate and non-graduate education of education, organization of special workshops, and syrnpo- U.S. and LDC scientists in the area of plant breeding sia as well as direct and closer interaction with research sci- and genetics. entists and program leaders of NARS and associated programs. Much of the effort in this area has been primarily To develop liaison and facilitate effective collabora- in Sudan and Niger, with limited activity in Mali, and some tionbetween LDC andU.S. sorghum and millet scien- in Southern Africa through SADCtICRISAT. tists. Research Findings To encourage and facilitate positive institutional changes in research, extension and seed programs of In the last five years, research in PRF-207 has focused in collaborating countries involved in sorghum and mil- the following three major areas, namely drought tolerance, let research and development. grain mold resistance, and assessment of genetic diversity using a mix of biotechnological approaches: Research Approach and Project Output Using an empirical plant breeding approach, we made Research Methods slow but significant progress in breeding of soighum for drought tolerance by breaking the trait of drought tolerance The research efforts of PRF-207 are entirely interdisci- into specific phenological stages. Our approach has been to plinary. The on-campus research at Purdue is in close col- breakdown the complex trait of drought tolerance into sim- laboration with colleagues in several departments. We pler components by studying drought stress expressions at undertake basic research in the areas of biotic and abiotic specific stages of plant development. We have been particu- stresses where a concerted effort is underway in elucidating larly interested in midseason (pre-flowering) and the biochemical and genetic mechanism of resistance to late-season (post-flowering) drought expressions in sor- these constraints. Field and laboratory evaluations of sor- ghum germplasm. Our rationale is that if individual compo- ghum and millet germplasm are coordinated, the results nents associated with a complex trait can be identified, we from one often complimenting the other. In addition, there can measure the contribution of each of the factors or mech- have been collaborative research efforts with colleagues in anisms independently without the confounding effect of bther factors. Using this approach, we have identified sor- Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation ghum germplasm that are uniquely pre-flowering or land races from a collection of sorghum germplasm main- post-flowering drought tolerant and few that combine toler- tained at Purdue University. However, whereas there is a ance at both stages. We have developed new improved strong association between mold resistance and levels of drought tolerant sorghum lines in diverse and elite flavan-4-ols, certain genotypes have high levels of germplasm background. Some of these lines have been offi- flavan-4-01s but are susceptible to grain mold, and some are cially released and distributed to both public and private low in flavan-4-01s yet resistant to grain mold. This discrep- sorghum research concerns. Several more await release and ancy suggested that other mechanisms are the basis for grain distribution following further characterization and cata- mold resistance in those genotypes, or that the concentration loguing to facilitate specific mode of utility. Our breeding of flavan-4-01s at certain stages of kernel development is and selection effort was based on reliable phenotypic mark- more critical, or that flavan-4-01s are merely indicators of ers associated with morphological and yield related symp- other chemical factors that better determine genetic resis- toms that occur at pre-flowering and post-flowering stages tance to grain mold infection. We conducted a study to as- of crop development. Some ofthese marker traits are simply sess changes in concentration of major phenolic compounds inherited, and others appear quantitative rendering them during seed development, and to determine if these changes amenable to QTL marker analysis and introgression. The are associated with shifts in fungal population ,or if a de- development of molecular genetic markers and the use of cline in flavan-4-01s concentration in certain genotypes dur- these markers in quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis is, in- ing seed development renders them susceptible to grain creasingly, becoming a common approach for evaluating mold infection. Ten sorghum genotypes with differences in the inheritance, and evaluating the feasibility of accelerat- phenolic compound concentration and grain mold resis- ing gains from selection for complex quantitative traits in tance were evaluated over three crop seasons to make these crop plants. Drought tolerance is one such trait for which assessments. Samples were collected for nine weeks at QTL analysis holds great promise. The genetic and physio- seven-day intervals starting seven days after anthesis. Acid- logical mechanisms that condition the expression of ified methanol extracts of the seeds were assayed to deter- drought tolerance in crops are poorly understood. Con- mine concentrations of 3-deoxyanthocyanidins, flavan-4- trolled by many genes and dependent on the timing and se- ols, and proanthocyanidins. verity of moisture stress, drought is one of the more difficult traits to study and characterize. Sorghum is one of the most Analysis of the extent and distribution of genetic varia- drought tolerant graincrops and its rich genetic diversity for tion in a crop are essential in understanding the evolutionary stress tolerance makes it an excellent crop model and choice relationships between accessions and to sample genetic re- for studying the genetic and physiologic mechanisms of sources in a more systematic fashion for breeding and con- drought tolerance. Nonetheless, even in sorghum, direct se- servation purposes. Traditionally, genetic resources in lection for drought tolerance using conventional approaches sorghum are classified by taxonomists based on morpholog- has been slow and difficult. A number of physiological and ical markers. However, these morphologica traits, used in biochemical traits have been implicated to enhance drought classification of sorghum to different races, are conditioned tolerance. Yet, only a few of these mechanisms has been by a relatively small number of genes. On the other hand, demonstrated to be causally related to the expression of tol- important traits which are related to habitat adaptation and erance to drought under field conditions. We believe the use exhibit enormous variability among sorghum germplasm of molecular markers and QTL analysis, based on carefully are complex and quantitatively inherited. Hence, classify- managed replicated tests, has the potential to alleviate the ing germplasm accessions, based solely on a few discrete problems associated with inconsistent and unpredictable morphological characters, may not provide an accurate in- onset of moisture stress or the confounding effect of other dication of the genetic divergence among the cultivated ge- stresses such as heat. To this end, we conducted several ex- notypes of sorghum. We hypothesize that both natural and periments on both phenotypic selection for drought toler- human selection efforts have contributed to current genetic ance as well as QTL analysis of drought tolerance in differences in sorghum, and, hence, land races of the same sorghum. race grown in different habitats may have greater genetic dissimilarity than those of different races from the same Grain mold resistance in sorghum is a fairly complex trait habitat. that is affected by a number of genes that control physiologi- cal and morphological characteristics in the crop. Physical The results of each of the above three studies will be sum- kernel hardiness, maturity of the genotype, morphology of marized in the following series ofenumerated research fmd- the inflorescence and chemical compounds, accumulated in ings: the inflorescence of the plant, all control susceptibility to mold. We conducted several studies to assess the role of Identification of Quantitative Trait Loci Associated physical and chemical kernel characteristics as well as eval- with Pre-Flowering Drought Tolerance in Sorghum uating selection strategies for mold resistance in sorghum. (Ref. Crop Science 1996.Vo136: 1337-1344) High concentration of certain phenolic compounds, particu- larly flavan-4-ols, have been found to correlate strongly Drought tolerance is an important agronomic trait, but with grain mold resistance. We confirmed this strong asso- the genetic and physiological mechanisms that condition its ciation, in another study, by screening 240 diverse sorghum expression are poorly understood. Molecular genetics and Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation quantitative trait loci analysis provide a new and powerful Heterogeneous Inbred Family (HIF) Analysis: a approach to understand better the inheritance and expres- Method for Developing Near-isogenic Lines that Differ sion of this trait. The purpose of this study was to use molec- at Quantitative Trait Loci (Ref. Theor. App. ular markers to identify genetic loci associated with the Genetic 1997. Vol. 95: 1005-1011) expression of pre-flowering drought tolerance in sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench]. Two genotypes with con- Analysis of near-isogenic lines (NILs) that differ at trasting drought reactions, TX7078 (pre-flowering tolerant, quantitativetrait loci (QTL) canbe aneffective approach for post-flowering susceptible) and B35 (pre-floweringsuscep- the detailed mapping and characterization of individual tible, post-floweringtolerant), were selected as parents for a loci. AlthoughNILs are useful for genetic and physiological sample of recombinant inbred (RI) lines. Ninety-eight RI studies, the time and effort required to develop these lines lines were evaluated in two different years under conditions have limited their use. Here we describe aprocedure to iden- of pre-flowering drought and full irrigation. This informa- tify NILs for any region of the genome that can be analyzed tion was used to quantify the drought tolerance of each line. with molecular or other genetic markers. The procedure uti- The population was also genotyped with 150 RAPD and 20 lizes molecular markers to identify heterogenous inbred RFLP markers that mapped to 17 linkage groups. By means families (HIFs) that segregate for a genomic region of inter- of these markers, six regions of the genome were found to be est. Each HIF is isogenic at the majority of loci in the ge- specifically associated with pre-flowering drought toler- nome, but NILs differing for markers linked to QTL of ance. Eight additional regions were more generally associ- interest can be extracted from segregating families. The ap- ated with yield or yield components under fully irrigated plication of this procedure is described for two QTLs asso- conditions. Several loci were associated with the expression ciated with seed weight in sorghum. A population of 98 of drought tolerance under both mild and severe drought HIFs was screened with two RAPD markers from different stress conditions. linkage groups that were associated with seed weight. Three segregating families were identified for each marker. The Genetic Analysis of Post-flowering Drought progeny of these HIFs were characterized for the segrega- Tolerance and Components of Grain Development tion of seed weight and other yield components, and for in Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench (Reg. Molecular markers flanking each QTL. NILs derived fiom each HIF Breeding 1997. Vol. 3: 439-448) had significantly different seed weights confirming the presence of at least two loci that influence seed weight in Drought is a serious agronomic problem and the single sorghum. greatest factor contributing to crop yield loss in the world to- day. This problem may be alleviated by developing crops Evaluation of Near-Isogenic Sorghum Lines Con- that are well adapted to dry-land environments. Sorghum trasting for QTL Markers Associated with Drought [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] is one of the most Tolerance (Reg. Crop Science 1998. drought-tolerant grain crops and is an excellent crop model Vol. 38 : 835-842) for evaluating mechanisms of drought tolerance. In this study, a set of 98 recombinant inbred (RI) sorghum lines Drought is the most important constraint on crop produc- was developed from a cross between two genotypes with tion in the world today. Although selection for genotypes contrasting drought reactions, TX7078 @re-flowering- tol- with increased productivity in drought environments has erant, post-flowering susceptible) and B35 (pre-flowering been an important aspect of many plant breeding programs, susceptible, post-flowering-tolerant). The RI population the biological basis for drought tolerance is still poorly un- was characterized under drought and non-drought condi- derstood. We have been conducting a genetic research pro- tions foi the inheritance of traits associated with gram directed at developing a better understanding of post-flowering drought tolerance and for potentially related drought tolerance in sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) components of grain development. Quantitative trait loci Moench]. Several quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated (QTL) analysis identified 13 regions of the genome associ- with pre-flowering and post-flowering drought tolerance ated with one or more measures of post-flowering drought were previously identified in a recombinant inbred mapping tolerance. Two QTLs were identified with major effects on population. The process of identifying linkage between yield and 'stay green' under post-flowering drought. These markers and traits in a mapping population followed by test loci were also associated with yield under fully irrigated of marker effects in NILs can be powefil and useful to re- conditions suggesting that these tolerance loci have solve several issues. First, marker linkage to a QTL can be pleiotropic effects on yield under non-drought conditions. confirmed by examining the phenotype on NILS that only Loci associated with rate andfor duration of grain develop- differ for individual QTL. Initial QTL analysis indicates re- ment werealso identified.QTL analysis indicated many loci gions of the genome that may contain QTL but the particular that were associated with both rate and duration of grain de- phenotypic effects of these loci need to be confirmed. Sec- velopment. High rate and short duration of grain develop- ond, NILs can be used for fine mapping of QTL. Evaluation ment were generally associated with larger seed size, but of a series of NILs that contrast at a specific locus can be only two of these loci were associated with differences in used to narrow the genetic interval known to contain the stability of performance under drought. QTL. Third, NILs that differ at a QTL can be used to charac- terize the expression and function of a specific locus. In our GermpIasm Enhancement and Conservation case, we reasoned that NILs differing for QTL associated Fungal Invasion of Kernels and Grain Mold Damage with drought tolerance can be used to identify the specific Assessment in Diverse Sorghum Germplasm (Ref. mechanism of drought tolerance controlled by each QTL. Plant Disease 1996. Vol. 80: 1399-1402) We focused on the analysis of NILs contrasting at three loci and evaluated differences in the size of the genomic region Use ofresistant cultivars in the most feasible way to min- differentiating each set of NILS by testing markers flanking imize crop damage fiom grain mold when sorghum (Sor- each target QTL. In the current study, near-isogenic lines ghum bicolor) is grown in a climate conducive to fungal (NILs) were developed and used to test the phenotypic ef- invasion. An experiment was conducted to assess relative fects of three different genomic regions associated with var- contribution of fungal species to grain mold damage and to ious measures of agronomic performance in drought and/or evaluate extent of variation in sorghum for resistance to non-drought environments. In most cases, NILs contrasting grain mold. A large and diverse set of land races were evalu- for a specific locu differed in phenotype as predicted by ated for grain mold resistance at different stages of grain QTL analysis. Nils contrasting at QTL marker tM5/75 indi- maturity. Fungal species infecting sorghum kernels were cated large differences in yield across a range of environ- isolated and counted. Significant differences in the percent- ments. Further analysis indicated that differences in age and severity of kernel infection were observed among agronomic performance may be associated with a drought accessions at all stages of kernel development. The predom- tolerance mechanism that also influences heat tolerance. inant fungal species, isolated from sorghum kernels col- NILs contrasting at QTL marker tH19/50 also differed in lected from field-grown panicles, did not change across yield under drought and non-drought conditions. The analy- different sampling dates and years. Although visual rating sis of these NILs indicated that these differences may be in- identified highly susceptible accessions as early as 40 days fluenced by a drought tolerance mechanism that conditions after flowering, rating a few weeks after physiological ma- plant water status and the expression of stay green. NILs turity more reliably identified genotypes with higher levels contrasting at QTL marker t329/132 differed in yield and of resistance to kernel damage. A multiple regression seed weight. These differences appear to be the result of two model, involving all the fungal species isolated from sor- QTL that are closely linked in repulsion. These findings can ghum kernels accounted for 64% of the variation in the final further be corroborated with carell physiological studies visual grain mold damage rating. Gibberella zeae and that can be more readily undertaken using NILS than ran- Fusarium moniliforme each accounted for 46 and 16%, re- dom and nonrelated genotypes. We plan to conduct these spectively, of the variation in the final visual grain mold studies to identify and define the specific mechanisms of damage rating. Sorghum accessions free from colonization drought tolerance mediated by these loci. We believe that by one or more fungal species across three sampling dates the approach of narrowly focusing on specific genomic re- were identified. Thus, it should be possible to establish dif- gions associated with drought tolerance holds promise for ferentials for each fungus or group of fungi to facilitate developing a clearer understanding of the specific biologi- screening of germplasm for resistance to grain mold. cal basis of this complex trait. Grain Mold Resistance and Polyphenol Accumulation Physical and Chemical Kernel Properties Associated in Sorghum (Ref. 1996. Vol. 44: 2428-2434) with Resistance to Grain Mold in Sorghum (Ref. Cereal Chemistry 1996. Vol. 73 (5): 613-617) Ten sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L) Moench] genotypes with differences in phenolic compound concentrationsand Identification of kernel properties associated with resis- grain mold resistance were evaluated at West Lafayette, IN, tance to grain mold would be useful in screening germplasm over three crop seasons (1989, 1990, and 1992) to assess in a breeding program. We screened and characterized a changes in phenolic compounds during seed development large and diverse collection of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor and how these changes influence grain molding. Samples (L.) Moench) accessions for physical and chemical kernel were collected for nine weeks at seven-day intervals starting properties, as well as for resistance to grain mold in the filed. seven days after anthesis. Acidified methanol extracts of the We identified sorghum accessions with a high level of grain seeds were assayed to determine concentrations of mold resistance originating fiom diverse geographical areas 3-deoxyanthocyanidins, flavan-4-ols, and proantho- and belonging to different botanical races. We found that re- cyanidins. Seeds were also plated on biological media to ob- sistance to grain mold in these sorghums was strongly asso- serve the level of seed infection by mold-causing fungi. ciated with high concentration of phenolic compounds Flavan-4-01 concentrations were high and similar for both (apigeninidin, flavan-4-ols, and tannin), kernel hardness, the mold-resistant and mold-susceptible genotypes at early and pericarp color. Each of these kernel properties contrib- stages of seed development. In susceptible genotypes, the uted to grain mold resistance differently in white, red, and flavan-4-01 concentration dropped by 67% between the brown pericarp sorghum accessions. We developed a nu- third and the last sampling dates compared with a 20% de- merical index effectively differentiated resistant and sus- cline for the resistant genotypes in the same period. In addi- ceptible sorghum genotypes. tion, the resistant genotypes (P954255, P932062, IS15346, IS7822, P013931) had high concentrations of proanthocyanidins throughout the season compared with susceptible lines, which lacked or had negligible amounts of Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation this material. Although significant differences occurred Served as Visiting Faculty, University of Wisconsin, among genotypes for 3-deoxyantho- cyanidins, the pres- Summer Institute for African Agricultural Research, June ence of these pigments did not differentiate mold-resistant 1997. and mold-susceptible genotypes. The results also showed that the highest incidence of seed infection by fungi oc- Participated in African Dissertation Internship Award curred between 25 and 35 days after anthesis. Alternaria, selection, Rockefeller Foundation, November 1996 and Fusarium (especially F. moniliforme), Cladosporium, and April 1997. Epicoccum species were the major fungi isolated from the seeds. Attended the American Society of Agronomy national meetings, Indianapolis, IN, November 1996. RAPD Based Assessment of Genetic Diversity in Cultivated Races of Sorghum (Ref. Crop Year 19 Science 1997. Vol. 37 : 564-569) Traveled to Eastern Africa to visit NARS in the region Analysis of the extent and distribution of genetic diver- with INTSORMIL Director, Dr. John Yohe and held discus- sity in crop plants is essential for optimizing sampling and sions leading to the establishment of an INTSORMIL Re- breeding strategies. We used random amplified polymor- gional Collaborative Research Program in the Horn of phic DNA (RAPD) markers to assess genetic diversity and Africa, June 1997. taxonomic relationships in 190 accessions sampled to repre- sent the cultivated races of sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Served as chair of the organizing committee of an Moench]. A high level of variation was detected among cul- INTSORMIL/Horn of Africa Traveling Workshop. The tivated genotypes. Partitioning the genetic variation in culti- week long traveling workshop was attended by three scien- vated sorghum with Shannon's diversity index revealed that tists from Kenya, two from Eritrea, one from Uganda, scien- 86% of the total genetic variation occurred among acces- tists from the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, sions and 14% among races. We also examined the degree four INTSORMIL principal investigators, and the associate of association of accessions with their geographic areas of program director. origin by using Shannon's diversity index. The results indi- cated that only 13% of the total genetic variation was attrib- Attended and participated in the 1997 World Food Prize utable to divergence among regions. Further tests using Symposium, 16-17 October 1997, Des Moines, Iowa. principal component analysis also failed to show separation of accessions into discrete racial or geographic groups. De- Served as Visiting Faculty, University of Wisconsin, spite such limited differentiation among races or regions, Summer Institute for African Agricultural Research, June RAPD markers successfully identified races and regions 1998. with maximum genetic diversity. For example, accessions within races bicolor and guinea had greater genetic diversity Participated in African Dissertation Internship Awards than accessions from race kafir. Accessions from Southern Selection, Rockefeller Foundation, November 1997, and Africa had a lower level of genetic diversity than accessions April 1998. from Far and Middle East, Central and Eastern Africa, and Western Africa. Thus, use of RAPD markers may optimize Attended the American Society of Agronomy National sampling of genetically divergent accessions for Meetings, Anaheim, California, October 1997. introgression into breeding pools. Participated in Pioneer HI-Bred In-house Review of Networking Activities PublicfPrivate Plant Breeding Programs, April 1997, Des Moines, Iowa. Workshop and Program Reviews Year 20 Year 18 Participated in African Dissertation Internship Awards Served as a member of the organizing committee of both selection, Rockefeller Foundation, 18 May 1998, New INTSORMIL Principal Investigators Conference and the York. International Sorghum and Millet Genetics Symposium held at Lubbock, Texas, September 1996. Presented joint Evaluated and harvested sorghum winter nursery, NC+ papers with several colleagues at these meetings. Research Farm, 17-22 March 1998, Ponce, Puerto Rico.

Presented a paper at the Sixth International Parasitic Attended the INTSORMIL International Impact Assess- Weed Symposium, Cordoba, Spain, April 1996. ment Workshop, Corpus Christi, Texas, 20-24 June 1998.

Attended the Sorghum Ergot Conference, Corpus Christi, Texas, 24-26 June 1998. Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation

Participated in Summer Institute for African Agricultural Attended the American Society of Agronomy national Research. June 14- 19,1998 University of Wisconsin, Madi- meetings, 30th of October to 5th of November 1999. son. Attended the American Seed Trade Association Meet- Participated in Regional Collaborative Research and ing, Chicago, IL, 8-9 December 1999. provided technical guidance to sorghum research efforts in Ethiopia, 19-26 September 1998. Research Investigator Exchange

Attended and participated in the International Hybrid Interactions with public, private, and international sor- Sorghum Seed Workshop, Niamey, Niger, 27 Sept.-2 Octo- ghum research scientists continues to be an important func- ber 1998. tion of PRF-207. The following individuals visited our program or worked in our laboratory during the last four Participated in review and evaluation of INTSORMIL years: Horn of Africa program, 2-10 October 1998. Dr. Paula Bramel-Cox, Director, Genetic Resources, Attended the American Society of Agronomy National ICRISAT, February 1996 ,June 1997, and June 1999. Meetings, 18-22 October 1998, Baltimore, Maryland. Dr. Jill Lenne, Principal Plant Pathologist, ICRISAT, Participated in Afiican Dissertation Internship Awards July 1996. selection, Rockefeller Foundation, New York, 11-12 De- cember 1998. Dr. Aberra Debello, Sorghum Breeder and Program Leader, Ethiopian Sorghum Improvement Project, Septem- Participated in a meeting of Board Members for the Es- ber, 1996, May 1998 and June 2000. sential Electronic Agricultural Library, Rockefeller Foun- dation, New York, 16-17 December 1998. Dr. Abdel Gabar Babiker, Sudan National Coordinator for Sorghum and Millets, September 1996. Year 21 Dr. Abdel MoneimBashir El Ahrnadi, Director, National Participated in the development of a Food Security pro- Seed Industry, Sudan, September 1996. ject for the Amhara Region in Ethiopia at the invitation of USAIDJEthiopia, 22nd of February to the 5th of March A large number of sorghum scientists from the USA and 1999, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. around the world visited our sorghum research program, field, and laboratory facilities, on the way to and from the Negotiated a contract for an INTSORMIL project to un- International Sorghum and Millet Genetic Conference in dertake a study on the development and diffkion of September 1997. drought tolerant crops in Eastern Africa with the Inter-Governmental Agency for Development, 7- 13 March We were also visited by the then new Director General of 1999, Djibouti. ICRISAT, Dr. Shawlu Barghouti, where current state of ICRISAT and future collaborative possibilities with Purdue Participated in Afiican Dissertation Internship Awards were discussed. selection, Rockefeller Foundation, 4-5th May 1999, New York. Dr. Yilma Kebede, Sorghum Breeder, Pioneer HiBred, November 1996, September 1997, and November 1999. Participated in Summer Institute for African Agricultural Research, June 13- 17,1999, University of Wisconsin, Mad- Dr. Brian Hare, Advanta, Pacific Seeds, Australia, Octo- ison. ber, 1999.

Participated in Workshop on Molecular Approaches for Germplasm Exchange the Genetic Improvement of Cereals for Stable Production in Water Limited Environments, 21-25 June 1999, We continue to provide an array of sorghum germplasm CIMMYT, Mexico. from our breeding program to national research programs in developing countries. Our germplasm is provided in either a Participated in Workshop on Breeding for Striga Resis- formally organized nursery that is uniformly distributed to tance in Cereals and Molecular Application in Crop Im- all collaborators that show interest, or upon request by a na- provement, 14-2 1 August 1999, IITA, Nigeria. tional program of specific germplasm entries or groups from our germplasm pool. Germplasm was distributed to Participated in the Review and Evaluation of cooperators in 25 countries in 1996,15 countries in 1997,lO INTSORMIL programs by the External Evaluation Panel, countries in 1998, and 7 countries in 1999. West Lafayette, IN 22-24 September 1999. Gemplasm Enhancement and Conservation

Publications Published Abstracts

Refereed Papers Ejeta,G., P. Goldsbrough, M. Tuinstra, E. Grote,and M. Mickelbart. 1999. Droueht Tolerance in Sorehum: Mauuine of QTL and Analysis of ~ear~lso~enicLines,p. 245 ~gronomy~tkrac6. ASA ~adisk,W 1 Vogler, R.K., G. Ejeta, and L. Butler. 1996. Inheritance of low production Mickelbart. M.. R. Jollv... D. Rhodes, P. Goldsbrouah,and G. Eieta. 1999. ofStrigagermination stimulants in sorghum. Crop Sci. 36: 1185-1 191. ~evelopmentof near-isogenic lines of sorghurn~ccurnuiati~gdifferent Vogler, RK.,G.Ejeta,and L. G. Butler. 1996. lntegratingbiotechnological concentration of glycinebetaine,p. 120. Plant Phys. Abstracts. approaches for thecontrol ofStriga. Afric. Crop Sci. Joum. 3:217-222. Mohammed, A., G. Ejeta, and T. Housley. 2000. Striga seed conditioning and 1-aminoacylopropane-1- carboxylate oxidase activity. Weed Re- Invited Research Lectures search ( In press) King, D., M.Z. Fan,, G. Ejeta, A. Asem, and 0. Adeola. 2000. The effects Ejeta, G. 1997. Strategies in breeding sorghum for stress tolerance. Pres- of tannins on nutrient utilization in the White Pekin duck. British Poul- ented at the Summer Institute for Agricultural Research. June 8-14. try Science ( In Press). Univ. of Wisconsin; Madison. Ejeta, G. 1997. Interdisciplinary collaborative research in sorghum and Conference Proceedings millets. Presented at the Greater Horn of Africa-INTSORMIL Traveline Workshon. Sent. 22-0ct 5. Nazret. Ethio~ia. ~jeta,G.-1 9F7. ~es~onseto ihk ~asakawa~lobal2000 Program Presenta- Axtell, J.D. I. Kapran, Y. Ibrahim,G. Ejeta, L. House, B. Maunder, and D. tion. Presented at the 1997 World Food Prize Symposium, Food Secu- Andrews. 1999. Hetersosis in Sorghum and Pearl Millet p.375-386. In rity and the Future of Sub-Saharan Africa. Oct. 17-18. DeMoines, Coors (ed) The Genetics and Exploitation of Heterosis in Crops, Iowa. CIMMYT Press, Mexico City, Mexico. Ejeta, G. 1997. Agricultural Research, Population, and Global Food Pro- Ejeta, G., M. Tuinstra, E. Grote, and P. Goldsbrough. 1999. Genetic Analy- duction. Presented at the HOBY World Leadershipcongress. July 21 , sis of pre-flowering and post-flowering drought tolerance in sorghum. Purdue University, West Lafayelte, Indiana in Proc. Workshop on Molecular Approaches for the Genetic Improve- Ejeta, G. 1997. Breeding for Striga Resistance in Sorghum. Special Semi- ment of Cereals for Stable Production in Water Limited Environments, nar. Purdue University. Dec. 11, Purdue University, West Lafayette, 21-25 June, 1999,CIMMYT, El Batan, Mexico. Indiana. Mickelbart, M., G. Ejeta, D. Rhodes, R. Jolly, and P.Goldsbrough. 1999. Ejeta, G. 1998. How Purdue Researchers Outwitted Striga. Presented at Assessing the contribution of glycinebetaine, to environmental stress Workshop for Wabash Area Lifetime Learning Association, Morton tolerance in sorghum. In Proc. Workshop on Molecular Approaches for Community Center, West Lafayette, April 1, 1998. the Genetic Improvement of Cereals for Stable Production in Water Ejeta, G, J.D. Axtell, B. Hamaker, and K. Ibrahim. 1998. INTSORMIL: A Limited Environments, 21-25 June, 1999, CIMMYT, El Batan, Mex- win-win program for US and Developing Country Agriculture. Pres- ico. ented at the Dean of Agriculture Team Award Ceremony, Purdue Uni- Ejeta, G., A. Mohammed, P. Rich, A. Melakeberhan, T. Housley, and D. versity, 12 May, 1998. Hess. 1999. Selection for specificmechanisms ofresistance to Striga in Ejeta, G. 1998. Strategies in Collaborative International Development Ef- sorghum. in Proc. Workshop on Breeding for Strign Resistance in Ce- forts in Plant Breeding. Presented at the Summer Institute for African reals, Ibadan, Nigeria. Agricultural Research. 17 June, 1998, Universityof Wisconsin, Madi- Ejeta, G., P. Goldsbrough,M. Tuinstra, E. Grote, A. Menkir,Y. Ibrahim, N. son. Cisse, Y. Weerasuriya, A. Melakeberhan, and C. Shaner. 1999. Molec- Ejeta, G. 1998. InterdisciplinaryCollaborative Research Towards the Con- ular marker applications in sorghum. In Proc. Workshop on Applica- trol ofStriga. Presented at the Symposiumon CUP:A Unique USA1 D tion of Molecular Markers, Ibadan, Nigeria. Parhership with Higher Education. American Society of Agronomy, Ejeta, G. 1999. Breeding for Striga Resistance in Sorghum.In Proc. Work- Baltimore, MD, 19 October, 1998. shop on Breeding for Striga Resistance in Cereals, Ibadan, Nigeria. Ejeta, G. 1999. Challenges to African Human Resource Development. Ejeta, G. 1999. Solving Agricultural Problems Through Crop Science. In Presented at Workshop on Agricultural Development Challenges Fac- Proc. Symp on Diversity: A Source of Strength for the Tri-Societies, ing African Scientists, Summer Institute for African Agricultural Re- American Societyof Agronomy Annual Meeting, Salt Lake City, Utah. search,. 16 June, University of Wisconsin, Madison. Ejeta, G. 1999. Solving Agricultural Problems Through Crop Science. Presented at the Symposium on Diversity: A Source of Strength, Amer- ican Society of Agronomy Annual Meeting at Salt Lake City, Utah. Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation

Germplasm Enhancement for Resistance to Pathogens and Drought and Increased Genetic Diversity Project TAM-222 Darrell T. Rosenow Texas A&M University Principal Investigator

Darrell T. Rosenow, Sorghum Breeder, Texas A&M University Agricultural Experiment Station, Route 3, Box 219, Lubbock, TX 79403-9757

Collaborating Scientists

Dr. Aboubacar Tourk, Sorghum Breeder, INTSORMIL Host Country Coordinator, IER, B.P. 438, Sotuba, Bamako, Mali Dr. Medson Chisi, Sorghum Breeder, Golden Valley Research Station, Golden Valley, Zambia Ing. Rene Clara, CENTA, El Salvador Ing. Laureano Pineda, INTA, Nicaragua Dr. Aberra Debello, Ethiopia Country Coordinator, IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Dr. R.A. Frederiksen, Plant Pathologist, TAM-224, Department of Plant Pathology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843 Dr. G. C. Peterson, Sorghum Breeder, TAM-223, Texas A&M University Research and Extension Center, Lubbock, TX 79401-9757 Dr. W.L. Rooney, Sorghum Breeder, Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843 Dr. L.W. Rooney, Cereal Chemist, TAM-226, Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843 Dr. R. D. Waniska, Cereal Chemist, TAM-226, Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843 Dr. G. N. Odvody, Plant Pathologist, TAM-228, Texas A&M University Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Corpus Christi, TX 78406 Dr. G. L. Teetes, Entomologist, TAM-225, Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843 Dr. Gebisa Ejeta, Sorghum Breeder, PRF-207, Department of Agronomy,Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 Dr. H.T. Nguyen, Molecular Biologist, Department of Plant and Soil Science, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409-2 122

Summary

The principal objectives of TAM-222 are to identify and portion was prepared at NSSL and grown out under quaran- develop disease resistant and drought resistant sorghum tine in St. Croix in the winter of 1999-2000, with the germplasm in genetically diverse backgrounds for use by growout of the remainder scheduled for winter 2000-2001. host country and U.S. scientists, to identify, evaluate, and utilize new elite exotic germplasm, and to collaborate with Performance of stay green hybrids under severe host country scientists in all aspects of their crop improve- post-flowering moisture stress has shown that the stay green ment programs. The disease and drought resistance breed- trait dramatically reduced lodging and produced higher ing program continued to develop germplasm for use in the yields than non-stay green hybrids, and also provides resis- USA and host countries. Twenty-seven new lllyconverted tance to charcoal rot. exotic lines and 70 partially converted lines from the coop- erative TAMU-TAESNSDA-ARS Sorghum Conversion Sterilization of a large number of new B-lines is essen- Program were identified for release in 2000 and 20 more for tially completed, and most show lodging resistance and pre- late 2000. andlor post-flowering drought resistance.

Seed of over 2,000 entries of Malian indigenous Selected breeding progenies looked very good in the sorghums from the Mali Sorghum Collection were assem- Southern Africa region, combining drought resistance, bled, grown out in Mali, and introduced into the USA. A Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation grain quality, sugarcane aphid resistance, and high yield. Horn of AJi-ica and SADC Region Many Macia derivative lines looked excellent. Enhance drought resistance and disease resistance GAM, the largest baker and marketer ofbread and cook- with the development of improved high yielding, ies in the Bamako area is now marketing cookies using a adapted germplasm and elite lines. blend of wheat and sorghum (N'Tenimissa) flour. Constraints The white-seeded, tan-plant, guinea type breeding cultivar named N'Tenimissa continued to look promising Drought is the major constraint to sorghum and millet for yield and adaptation in on-farm trials in Mali. Grain production around the world. west Texas has a semi-arid quality evaluations indicate that the grain has good food environment ideal for large scale field screening for both quality traits for various commercial food products. Several pre- and post-flow-ering drought response, and breeding for new N'Tenirnissa derivatives looked outstanding in 1999 improved resistance to drought. and did not show the stem breakage problem of N'Tenimissa. These lines should be useful in Mali and West Diseases are important worldwide and most internation- Africa as an improved guineense type sorghum with grain ally important diseases are present and are also serious con- that has improved quality for use in value-added commer- straints in Texas, especially downy mildew, charcoal rot, cial food products. grain moldlweathering, head smut, and head blight. The Texas environment, particularly south Texas, is ideal for Objectives, Production and Utilization Constraints screening and breeding sorghums with high levels of resis- tance to most internationally important diseases. Year 21 Project Objectives Poor grain quality is a major problem in Mali and much USA of West Africa and is, primarily, due to the head buglgrain mold complex, Head bugs are a major constraint to the use Develop agronomically improved disease and of improved high yielding nonguineense type sorghums in drought resistant lines and germplasm and identify much of West Africa with head bug damage often com- new genetic sources of desirable traits. Select for pounded by grain mold resulting in a soft, discolored endo- drought resistance with molecular markers. Evaluate sperm, which is unfit for decortication and traditional food new germplasm and introgress useful traits into use- products. Early maturity of introduced types also increases able lines or germplasm. the grain deterioration problem. In southern Mali, late ma- turing, photoperiod sensitive sorghums are needed to assure grain maturity after the rainy season.

Assist breeders in developing agronomically accept- Mali and Niger, especially the more northern areas, are able white-seeded, tan-plant Guinea type sorghum both drought prone areas where drought tolerance is impor- cultivars, to enhance the commercial value and de- tant. Foliar diseases, such as anthracnose and sooty stripe, mand for improved value, high quality sorghum grain. are important in the central and southern parts of Mali and in certain areas of Southern Africa. In Sudan, and much of East Characterize and describe the indigenous Mali origin Africa, the major constraint is drought, and related produc- sorghum collection and evaluate for useful traits and tion problems. Moisture-stress related charcoal rot and sub- breeding potential, and introduce into the USA. sequent lodging are serious problems. Striga is a major constraint in Mali, Niger, and Sudan. Identify and assist in developing new germplasm with resistance to grain mold, drought, headbug, In Central America, diseases and grain quality are major anthracnose, and Striga. constraints, withdrought also important in the drier portions of the region. Improvement in the photoperiod sensitive, Identify molecular markers for head bug resistance to food-type maicillos criollos grown in association with develop improved sorghums for West Africa. maize on small, hillside farms is a unique challenge.

Central America There is a constant need in both host countries and the USA to conserve genetic diversity and utilize new diverse germplasm sources with resistance to pests, diseases, and Enhance germplasm base with sources ofresistance to environmentalstress. Many developing countries are an im- grain foliar and drought?and type portant source germplasm sorghum and millet. sorghums, and lines for adapted commercial hybrids. The collection,. preservation- and utilization ofgenetic- diver- sity in sorghum is important to long-term, sustainable sor- ghum improvement programs needed to insure sufficient food for increasing populations of the future. Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation

Research Approach and Project Output version Program. An additional 20 fully converted lines from the 1999 increase will be ready for release in late 2000, Research Methods which will bring the total released fully converted lines to 700 since the inception of the program. That will include Introductions from various countries withdrought or dis- 117 during the last four years. Five new female parental ease resistance, or specific desirable grain or plant traits, are lines (Al, A2-2(b), A35, A803, and A807 are being pre- crossed in Texas to appropriate elite U.S. lines or elite pared for release. Several other A-B pairs and R lines have breeding materials. Seed of the early generations are sent to been selected for release as germplasm stocks. These lines host countries for selection of appropriate traits and adapta- contain various desirable traits, including resistance to tion. Technical assistance is provided, as time and travel downy mildew, head smut, grain moldtweathering, permits, in the selection, evaluation, and use of such breed- anthracnose, charcoal rot, both pre- and post-flowering ing material in the host country. drought resistance, food type grain quality, and lodging re- sistance. Disease resistant breeding material is generated from crosses among various disease resistant sources, A large group of new B lines, many developed coopera- agronomically elite lines, and new sources of resistance. tively with Dr. L.E. Clark (retired) at Chillicothe/Vemon, Initial screening is primarily in large disease screening nurs- are in the final stages of sterilization, with many to have eries utilizing natural infection in south Texas. Selected ad- their first evaluation in hybrid combination in 2000. Some vanced materials are sent to host countries, as appropriate, are white-seeded, tan-plant lines and some have waxy endo- for evaluation and are, also, incorporated into various stan- sperm. Most have good resistance to lodging, and many dard replicated trials for extensive evaluation at several lo- have some stay green (post-flowering drought resistance), cations in Texas and host countries. and/or pre-flowering drought resistance. Most show wide adaptation as lines from Puerto Rico to west Texas, with Breeding crosses, involving sources of drought resis- some having good head smut resistance and good foliage tance, are selected under field conditions for pre- and post disease resistance. Some also show improved grain mold re- flowering drought resistance, yield, and adaptation at sev- sistance and thresh easily and clean. A few have shown ex- eral locations in west Texas. Molecular markers for the stay cellent potential in hybrids inNiger. Plans are to release this green trait are used in a marker assisted selection program. set primarily as germplasm stocks, but a few may be re- Selected advanced materials are incorporated into standard leased as parental lines. Pedigrees represented include replicated trials for evaluation at several locations in Texas (B1 *BTx635), (BTx635*B4), (B 1*B9501), (B35 *B9501), and sent to host countries for evaluation and use. (B2- 1*B9501), (B 1*Segaolane), and (B.BON34*B9502), where B950 1=(B7904*(SC748*SC630)) and B9502= Converted and partially converted lines from the Sor- (BTx3042*(BTx625*B35)). ghumconversion Program, exotic lines, new introductions, and breeding materials are screened and evaluated in Texas Some grain quality analyses by Dr. Lloyd Rooney ofnew for new sources of resistance to internationally important white, tan-plant, waxy endosperm B-lines indicated that diseases and resistance to drought. they were superior to existing B-line waxy endosperm lines in decortication yield anddensity (Table 1). These new lines New sorghum germplasm is assembled or collected as may produce waxy endosperm hybrids with improved grain opportunities exist, introduced into the USA through the density, weathering resistance, and grain yield. quarantine greenhouse or the USDA Plant Quarantine Sta- tion in St. Croix, and evaluated in Puerto Rico and Texas for Breeding, selection, and screening for drought resistance useful traits. Selected photoperiod sensitive cultivars are and disease resistance continued using disease screening entered into the cooperative TAES-USDA Sorghum Con- field nurseries in south Texas and field drought screening version Program. Cooperative work with NARS assures nurseries at Lubbock, Halfway, Lamesa, and Chillicothe. their country's indigenous sorghum cultivars are preserved The growing seasons vary over years, due to rainfall, but in long-term permanent storage, as well as evaluated and good pre-flowering drought stress was obtained in 1999 at used in germplasm enhancement programs. Growouts of Lubbock, Lamesa, and Chillicothe with some entire collections have been grown in their country of origin post-flowering stress under limited irrigation at Lubbock for characterization, seed increase, and evaluation prior to and Halfway. Severe late season moisture stress develops introduction into the USA. Assistance is provided in devel- sometimes in south Texas, as it did in 1998 and 1999. oping smaller working or core collections for the NARS to Pre-flowering stress was also severe in south Texas in 1998. actively maintain and use in their improvement programs. The evaluation of the photoperiod insensitive sorghums from Sudan was completed, with several identified as prom- Research Findings ising sources of drought (mostly pre-flowering) resistance (Table 2). Breeding derivatives of the stay green line, B35, Twenty-seven new fully converted exotic lines and 71 have continued to show good stay green and outstanding partially converted lines are in preparation for release from lodging resistance over the years. Major diseases involved the cooperative TAMU-TAESNSDA-ARS Sorghum Con- in the disease resistance breeding were charcoal rot, grain Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation

- Table 1. Grain quality analysis of new white, tan plant, waxy endosperm B-lines. - -- Pericarp Plant Endo- ~ecort.~ Pedigree color color -- sperm Yield ~ensitv~ (BTx630bB9502)-HD8 white tan WX 82.83 1.387 (BTx630bB9502)-HD37* red tan wx 23.63 (B.BON34*B9502)-BE11 white tan WX 22.13 (B.BON34*B9502)-LD6 white tan wx 26.38 BTxARG l white tan wx 27.00 RTx2907 white tan wx 31.50 RTx430 white PUV non-wx 37.63 Sureno white tan - non-wx 26.75

I Thousand keml weight (grams) 2 Dnonicaed yidd (100n~inur%renlwad I lfughcr is best) 3 Dfnsily orgrain(glcc)@ighcrirmorcdcnrc) * Outstanding milling yields and color of decorticated grain.

Table 2. Photoperiod insensitive sorghums from the Sudan Sorghum Collection with drought resistance. 1993 Sudan (SU) number IS number Race Type of dmught resistance' 3 92 1 C Pr 78 2322 CD Pr 92 2337 CK Pr 96 2344 CD Pr 147 3467 C Pr 166 3489 CD Pr 170 3493 C Pr 171 3494 C Pr 173 3496 , CD Pr 181 3507 C Pr 262 3744 C Pr 279 6906 CK Pr 439 8688 CK PT & Po 445 8786 C Pr 448 8799 B Pr 45 1 9227 K Pr 496 9643 CD Pr 544 9693 C Pr 577 9729 C Pr 578 9730 C Pr 58 1 9733 C Pr 583 9735 C Pr .599 9751 C Pr 600 9752 C Pr 601 9753 C Pr 602 9754 C Pr 609 9762 C Pr 629 9782 C Po 66 1 9817 C Pr 689 9747 C Pr 716 9877 C Pr 779 9951 C Pr 809 9987 C Pr 83 1 12459 C Pr 847 12725 D Pr 957 19075 C Pr 1008 19126 D Pr 1084 19203 CD Pr 1149 19269 C Pr 1192 19312 C Pr 1355 19561 C Pr 1556 20855 CD Pr 1671 22363 C Pr 1672 22364 C Pr & Po 1677 22369 C Pr 1862 22557 C Pr 2508 - C Pr 2510 - C Pr 2603 - - Pr 2724 - - Pr 2739 - - Pr 2802 - - Pr Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation moldtweathering, downy mildew, head smut, anthracnose, ghum Regional Network) regional trials. It's head bug resis- and foliage diseases such as rust, zonate, and leaf blight. tance is slightly inferior to the local guinea cultivars, but ap- Grain moldlweathering was especially severe in south pears to have an acceptable level under on-farm conditions. Texas in 1999. Farmers seemed happy with it grain quality wise, and also for yield, but it exhibits significant peduncle breakage under The stay green trait is an extremely useful drought resis- some conditions. tant trait under post-flowering moisture stress and results in significantly higher grain yield, while also yielding well Several new tan-plant N'Tenirnissa derivative guinea when under non-stressed conditions. Hybrids involving a type breeding lines looked outstanding in Mali in 1999, stay green parent performed well in south Texas under showing less stalk breakage, and better head bug resistance moisture stress where they showed good stay green ratings, than N'Tenimissa. Also, some new, shorter N'Tenimissa no lodging, and good yields. derivative F3 and F4 lines showed real promise. Selection also continued among non-guinea type, tan-plant breeding Molecular analysis using RFLP markers, along with lines with improved levels of head bug tolerance and grain drought evaluation, was continued on F9 recombinant in- mold resistance. N'Tenirnissa grain was increased for use in bred lines (RILs) of (B35*Tx430) and (B35*Tx7000). Five various food quality and food product trials. Grain quality QTLs were identified for the stay green trait in the cross evaluations consistently show N'Tenirnissa as being supe- (B35*Tx7000) with two or three appearing to be the most rior to non-guinea breeding materials, but not quite as good important. In the cross (B35*Tx430), three of the same as local guinea cultivars in decortication yield, a measure of QTLs were identified for stay green along with two others. hardness of endosperm. The quality of food products how- Two hundred different RILs, each from two populations, ever, is excellent. B35*Tx7000 and SC56*Tx7000, were evaluated for drought and lodging and DNA analyzed to map QTLs for GAM, the largest producer of bread and cookies in the lodging resistance. BC6 near isogenic lines (NILS) have Bamako area, has announced that it is now marketing cook- been developed involving QTL1, QTL2, and QTL3 to do ies with a blend of sorghum and wheat flower, using sor- fine mapping and study the role and function of these QTLs. ghum flour from the N'Tenimissa increase. There recently Crosses and backcrosses were made using marker assisted was a big public announcement by the Mali government re- selection (MAS) for stay green and greenbug resistance. garding this development. Also, the advanced backcross technique is being used with selected exotic lines to identify QTLs for yield and Excellent segregation for headbug resistance occurred in heterosis. the F3 progenies of the cross (Malisor 84-7*S34). However, Dr. Aboubacar Toure, in his Post-Doc research, failed to Several breeding progeny from crosses generated for identify any QTLs for head bug resistance, as there was a Host County and the USA have looked very good problem with low polymorphism in the cross as well as agronomically in Southern Africa. Some showed excellent some problems with variability in one parent. CIRAD scien- sooty stripe resistance, especially progeny of Macia, tists have also done some DNA analysis of the same cross, ICSV1089BF, Dorado, and SRN39. Various progenies and hopefully some QTLs for resistance will be identified. showed excellent drought resistance, grain quality, and sug- arcane aphid resistance, combined with excellent yield po- Networking Activities tential. The cross, Macia*Dorado, was especially outstanding. Many Macia derivatives look excellent. Other lines giving good progeny included 87E0366, WSV387, TAM428, SRN39, ICSV lO89BF, Sureiio, Dorado, and Participated in the INTSORMIL Central America 90EON328. Planning Conference, October 4-6, 1999 at EAP, Zamorano, Honduras. The Mali Sorghum Collection Growout in Mali was very successfhl and has been processed at NSSL. The late group Participated in the 2000 Sorghum Industry Conference, was grown out, seed increased, and characterized in St. February 20-22,2000, Corpus Christi, TX. Croix in the winter 1999-2000.. There was much more di- versity in the Collection than expected, especially among Participated in the Annual Texas Seed Trade Association the Durra derivative cultivars. Several potential new candi- Research Conference, January 3 1-February 1,2000, Dallas, dates for the Sorghum Conversion Program were identified. TX. The remainder of the Mali Collection is planned for grow- ing in St. Croix in the winter of 2000-200 l. Research Investigator Exchanges

The guinea-type, white-seeded, tan-plant sorghum Traveled to Montpellier, France October 11- 13, 1999, cultivar "N'Tenimissa", developed at IER, continued to along with Dr. Aboubacar Toure, to visit CIRAD scientists perform well in IER and World Vision InterCRSP on-farm Dr. J.C. Chantereau and others working on sorghum, espe- trials in Mali. It was also included in the ROCARS (Sor- cially those working in West Africa. Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation

Traveled to Mali October 14-25, 1999 to evaluate and Toured the sorghum research plots ofDr. Mitch Tuinstra, plan INTSORMILIIER collaborative research. Procured Sorghum Breeder, Kansas State University September 24, and brought to the USA additional seed of 102 Mali Sor- 1999. ghum Collection items from ICRISAT that were missing from the Cinzana growout. Germplasm and Research Inform ation Exchange

Traveled to Honduras, October 4-6, 1999 to interact with Germplasm Conservation and Use scientists from Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua to plan future collaborative research projects in Central Amer- Continued the coordination of the work with the Mali ica. Sorghum Collection, including plans for planting, seed in- crease, and completion of characterization of the late group Traveled to Indianapolis, IN July 27-28, 1999 to the of the Collection in St. Croix the winter of 1999-2000. Iden- INTSORMIL/IGAD Horn of Africa drought project plan- tified, along with Aboubacar Toure, candidates for the ning meeting. Working Collection. Made plans for the quarantine growout of the remainder of the Mali Collection in St. Croix in the Traveled to El Salvador, January 6-8, 2000 to the winter of 2000-200 1. CENTAJINTSORMIL MOU signing ceremony and to meet and discuss sorghum research with CENTA scientists. Seed of 102 additional Mali Sorghum Collection lines (ones that had no plants or no seed in the Cinzana growout) Participated in and presented poster paper at the Annual was obtained from ICRISAT in Mali (from their duplicate American Society of Agronomy Meetings, October growout at Samanko) and introduced into the USA. 3 1-November 4,1999 at Salt Lake City, UT. Evaluated a large Ethiopian Sorghum Collection (2,200 Assisted in and participated in the INTSORMIL EEP re- in 1998-99 and 2,900 in 1999-2000) in Puerto Rico and views at Corpus Christi (July 18-20), College Station (July identified candidates for entry into the Sorghum Conversion 21-22), and Lubbock (September 20-21, 1999). Program. Several had very large seed and high yield poten- tial. Participated in the Sorghum Crop Germplasm Commit- tee (SGC) as AdHoc member, February 20,2000, Corpus Thirty-five new sorghum breeding lines from IER, Mali Christi, TX. were introduced into the USA. These included white- seeded, tan-plant, good food quality guinea derivative and Participated in INTSORMIL Technical Committee (TC) non-guinea types. meetings, April 18-20,2000 at Kansas City, Missouri. Several photoperiod insensitive sorghum cultivars from Continued coordination of the introduction of the Mali the Sudan Collection were identified as promising sources Sorghum Collection into the USA with the planting of the of drought resistance. late group of the Collection under quarantine in St. Croix the winter of 1999-2000,with characterization andharvest May Twenty-seven new fully converted exotic lines from the 23-27, 2000 along with Aboubacar Toure, Jeff Dahlberg, cooperative TAMU-TAESNSDA-ARS Sorghum Conver- and John Erpelding. Initiated plans for the growout of the re- sion Program were selected for release and are being pre- mainder in the winter of 2000-2001. pared for release along with 70 partially converted lines. Twenty additional new fully converted exotic lines were se- Coordinated the visit and hosted Dr. Andrew Borrell, lected for release later in 2000. sorghum stress physiologist from Queensland, Australia, at Lubbock, Texas, June 28-July 2, 1999. Seed Production and Distribution

Coordinated and hosted the short-term training of Mr. Several sets of released fully converted lines and par- Sibene Dena, sorghum pathology technician, IER, Mali, tially converted bulks from the cooperative August 12-September 18,1999, with training visits to Texas TAMU-TAESNSDA-ARS Sorghum Conversion Program A&M, College Station (Dr. Frederiksen), Kansas State, were distributed. A large number of sorghum breeding and Manhattan (Dr. Claflin), and Lubbock, Texas. germplasm lines, from early to advanced generation prog- eny, A, B, and R lines, converted lines, and experimental Coordinated the training (B. S. to lead into M.S.) for Mr. hybrids were increased and distributed to international and Niaba Teme, sorghum breeding technician from Mali, at domestic collaborators. These contained sources of desir- Texas Tech University and TAES at Lubbock, beginning able traits such as resistance to downy mildew, anthracnose, August, 1995. sooty stripe, leaf blight, rust, and charcoal rot, pre- and post-flowering drought resistance, grain mold and weather- ing resistance, and lodging resistance. Seed was increased and many sets of standard replicated trials containing elite Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation germplasm and source lines were packaged and distributed Dr. J.D. Eastin, Physiologist, University of Nebraska, in the USA and internationally. These include the ADIN Lincoln, NE. (All Disease and Insect Nursery), IDIN (International Dis- ease and Insect Nursery), GWT (Grain Weathering Test), Dr. Jeff Dahlberg, Research Director, National Grain DLT (Drought Line Test), DHT (Drought Hybrid Test), and Sorghum Producers Association, Lubbock, TX. the UHSN (Uniform Head Smut Nursery). Counties to which large numbers of germplasm items were distributed Publications and Presentations include Mali, Niger, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Zambia, Ethio- pia, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Abstracts Mexico. Rosenow, D.T., C.A. Woodfin, L.E. Clark,and J.W. Sij. 1999. Droughtre- sistance in exotic sorghums. Agronomy Abs. p. 166. Assistance Given Subudhi, P.K., H.T. Nguyen, and D.T. Rosenow. 1999. High resolution mapping and transfer of stay green QTLs in sorghum. Agronomy Abs. Joint evaluation of germplasm and nursery and test entry p. 369. decisions was done collaboratively with national scientists in Mali. Training on disease and drought breeding method- Journal Articles ology, as well as information on sources of new useful Crasta,O.R., W. Xu, D.T. Rosenow, J.E. Mullet,and H.T. Nguyen. 1999. germplasm and sources of desirable traits, was provided to Mapping of post-flowering drought resistance traits in grain sorghum: several visitors. Pollinating bags, coin envelopes, and Association of QTLs influencing premature senescence and maturity. breeding supplies were provided to the Mali breeding pro- Molec. Gen. Genetics 262579-588. Xu, W., P.K. Subudhi, 0. Crasta, D.T. Rosenow, J.E. Mullet, and H.T. gram. Nguyen. 2000. Molecular mapping of QTLs conferring stay green in grain sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench]. Genome 43:461-469. Other Collaborating/Cooperating Scientists Xu, W. D.T. Rosenow, and H.T. Nguyen. 2000. Stay green trait in grain sorghum: Visual rating and objective measuring. Plant Breeding (in press). Cooperation or collaboration with the following scien- Subudhi, P.K., D.T. Rosenow, and H.T. Nguyen. 2000. Quantltatlve tralt tists, in addition to the collaborating scientists previously loci for stay green trait in sorghum: consistency across genetic back- grounds and environments. Theoretical and Applied Genetics (in listed, was important to the activities and achievements of press). Project TAM-222. Books, Book Chapters, and Proceedings Dr. Issoufou Kapran, Sorghum Breeder, INRAN, Maradi, Niger. Rosenow, D.T.,and J.A. Dahlberg. 2000. Collection, Conversion, and Uti- lizat~onof Sorghum. In C.Wayne Smith and Richard A. Frederiksen (Eds.) Sorghum: Evolution, History, Production, and Technology. Dr. Fred Rattunde, Sorghum Breeder, ICRISAT, John Wiley and Sons, New York, N.Y. (in press). Bamako, Mali. Subudh~,P.K., H.T. Nguyen, M.L. Gilbert, and D.T. Rosenow. 2000. Sor- ghum Improvement: Past Achievements and Future Prospects. In Manjit S. Kang(Ed.) Crop Breeding: New Challenges in theNext Cen- Dr. Inoussa Akintayo, WCASRN Coordinator, tury. Food Products Press (in press). WCASRN, ICRISAT, Bamako, Mali Toure, Aboubacar and I. Kapran. 2000. Hybrid sorghum in West Africa. In Proc of Regional Hybrid Sorghum and Pearl Millet Seed workshop, Sept. 28-Oct. 2, 1998, Niamey, Niger. (in press). Dr. Chris Manthe, Entomologist, DAR, Gaborone, Bot- Toure, Aboubacar and I. Kapran. 1999. Development of tanlwhite sor- swana. ghum cultwars in West and Central Africa. In Proc. of WACSRN (ROCARS) Workshop - Sustainable Sorghum Production, Utilization, and Marketing in West and Central Africa. April 19-22, 1999, Lome, Dr. John Erpelding, Sorghum Curator, USDAIARS, Togo (in press). Tropical Agriculture Research Station, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. Miscellaneous Publications

Dr. L.E. Claflin, Pathologist, KSU-108, Kansas State Pietsch, D., L. Synatschk, W.L. Rooney, and D.T. Rosenow. 1999. 1999 University, Manhattan, KS. Grain Sorghum Performance Tests in Texas. Dept. of Soil and Crop Sc~encesDepartmental Technical Report, SCS-1999-27. 11 1 p. Prof. D.J. Andrews, SorghumtMillet Breeder, UNL- 1 15, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE. Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation

Germplasm Enhancement for Resistance to Insects and Improved Efficiency for Sustainable Agriculture Systems Project TAM-223 Gary C. Peterson Texas A&M University

Principal Investigator

Dr. Gary C. Peterson, Professor, Sorghum Breeding and Genetics, Texas A&M Agricultural Experiment Station, Route 3 Box 219, Lubbock, TX 79401-9757

Collaborating Scientists

Ing. Laureano Pineda, Sorghum Breeding, Instituto Nicaragense de Tecnologia Agropecuaria , Edificio Mar, Apdo. 1247, Managua, Nicaragua Ing. Rene Clara, Sorghum Breeding, CENTA, Apartado Postal 885, San Salvador, El Salvador Dr. Chris Manthe, Entomology, Department of Agricultural Research, Private Bag 0033, Gaborone, Botswana Dr. J. van den Berg, Entomology, ARC - Grain Crops Institute, Private Bag X125 1, Potchefstroom 2520, Republic of South Africa Dr. Aboubacar Toure, Sorghum Breeding, IER, Sotuba, B.P. 438, Bamako, Mali Mr. Sidi B. Coulibaly, AgronomyiPhysiology, IER, Sotuba, B.P. 438, Bamako, Mali (currently Graduate Re- search Assistant, Texas A&M University, Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Rt. 3 Box 2 19, Lubbock, TX 7940 1-9757) Dr. G.L. Teetes, Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-2475 (TAM-225) Dr. G.N. Odvody, Plant Pathology, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Texas A&M University, Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Route 2 Box 589, Corpus Christi, TX 78406-9704 (TAM-228) Dr. Medson Chisi, Sorghum Breeding, Golden Valley Research Station, Box 54, Fringila, Zambia Dr. D.T. Rosenow, Sorghum Breeding, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Texas A&M University, Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Rt. 3 Box 2 19, Lubbock, TX 79403 (TAM-222) Dr. Henry Nguyen, Molecular Biology, Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, 605 Human Sciences, Lubbock, TX 79409-2 122

Summary

This project is the breeding for resistance to insects com- use as hybrid parents. In addition to pest resistance, the lines ponent of the integrated Texas A&M University sorghum should produce excellent grain yield potential under high improvement program. Project objectives are to identify, pest density, acceptable yield with the pest absent, and con- characterize and utilize the genetic diversity of grain sor- tain other needed traits including adaptation, foliar quality, ghum to develop improved cultivars, germplasm, or paren- etc. In 1997, the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station re- tal lines resistant to selected stresses. Research is conducted leased sorghum inbred line pairs A-/B-Tx639, Tx640, and to determine the genetic factors responsible for resistance Tx641. The lines will produce hybrids with excellent grain and their associated mechanisms. Insect pests receiving ma- yield in the presence of sorghum midge. When sorghum jor emphasis are the sorghum midge (Stenodiplosis midge are absent at anthesis hybrids with these lines as the sorghicola), biotype E and I greenbug (Schizaphis hybrid seed parent will yield 10 to 15% less than the best graminum), and sugarcane aphid (Melanaphis sacchari). susceptible hybrids. These lines give U.S. seed companies Some research is conducted on resistance to yellow sugar- the capability of producing sorghum-midge resistant hy- cane aphid (Siphaflava). Breeding and selection activities brids for use if insecticides to control sorghummidge are not primarily use conventional methodology. Collaborative available. molecular biology research projects map genes for resis- tance to greenbug biotypes, and use molecular markers to Molecular markers diagnostic for resistance to the sor- concurrently select for greenbug and stay-green ghum greenbug biotypes C, E, I and K have been identified. (post-flowering drought resistance). Nine markers on eight linkage groups were determined to condition resistance. Greenbug resistance sources used in A primary research objective has been to develop sor- the research were: Tx2737 (resistance from SA7536- 1), ghum lines resistant to sorghum midge that are suitable for Tx2783 (resistance from Capbam), and PI550607. Only two Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation loci were biotype specific and most acted in an additive or grate with other required inputs as part ofan integrated, eco- incompletely dominant way. Digenic interactions ac- logically sound production and stress control strategy with counted for a greater portion of the resistance phenotype large potential benefits in subsistence and mechanized agri- than did independently acting loci. Unfortunately, low lev- culture. Host plant resistance to insects is a continual effort els of DNA polymorphism in existing populations made in response to a dynamic evolving production agroecosys- high-resolution mapping impossible. New populations are tem. being developed for high-resolution mapping of the QTLs conferring GB resistance. Results from the mapping are be- Sorghum midge, Stenodiplosis sorghicola, is the only ing used in a marker-assistedselection(MAS) study to com- ubiquitous sorghum insect pest and may be the Sorghum bine greenbug resistance with stay green (post-flowering species most destructive pest. As LDC programs introduce drought tolerance). The research is using molecular probes exotic germplasm with improved agronomic traits into sor- to combine the two traits, and to study the efficiency of ghum improvement programs, cultivars with less MAS versus traditional selection methodology. photoperiod sensitivity will be developed and sorghum midge damage will become increasingly severe. Depending Objectives, Production and Utilization Constraints on the environment, other insect pests (including aphids, head bugs and borers) will damage grain sorghum. For all of Objectives the insect pests, genetic resistance exists and can be inte- grated into the production system in an ecologically safe, Obtain and evaluate germplasm for resistance to ar- economically inexpensive, and environmentally sustain- thropod pests. Determine the resistance source or able manner. mechanisms most useful to sorghum improvement. Research Approach and Project Output Determine the inheritance of insect resistance. Research Methods Develop and release high yielding, agronomically im- proved sorghums resistant to selected insects. Collaborative research is conducted in LDCs on specific problems. LDC research is supported through graduate edu- Utilize molecular biology to increase understanding cation, germplasm exchange and evaluation, site visits, and of the genetics of plant resistance traits. research at nursery locations in Texas. This project supports collaborative research in three ecogeographic sites - West Africa (Mali), Southern Africa, and Central America. Re- Identify and define sorghum genotypes with varying search efforts in Mali are being reallocated to other sites, levels or tolerance to drought and chemical stress of with current activity directed primarily at graduate educa- Sahelian soils. tion and support of a Ph.D. student. Research in Southern Afnca is directed at incorporating resistance to sugarcane Constraints aphid into adapted cultivars. Activity in Nicaragua provides the opportunity for additional research on sorghum midge Sorghum production and yield stability is constrained by (the most important production constraint in Nicaragua), many biotic and abiotic stresses including insects, diseases drought, disease, and adaptation. For the United States, sor- and drought. Insects pose a risk in all areas of sorghum pro- ghum midge, biotype E, I, and K greenbug and yellow sug- duction with damage depending on the insect and local en- arcane aphid resistant sources have been identified and used vironment. To reduce stress impact, sorghum cultivars with in developing elite resistant sorghums. Through collabora- enhanced environmental fitness suitable for use in more tive ties with other projects genetic inheritance and resis- sustainable production systems are needed. Cultivars expe- tance mechanisms are determined. Molecular biology is rience stress concurrently or sequentially and genetic resis- used to map genes for greenbug resistance and conduct tance to multiple stresses will result in reduced marker-assisted selection research. environmental risk and contribute to improved productiv- ity. This is especially important as e-cosystems Germplasm is evaluated for resistance to economically experience induced change due to cultivars and/or technol- important insects in the collaborative breedinglentomology Ogy, the cultivars and biotic program in field nurseries or facilities, depend- stresses also changing and insect damage becoming increas- ing on the insect mode of infestation. Sources ofgermplasm ingly severe. for evaluation are introductions from other programs (in- cluding ICRISAT), exotic lines, and partially or fully con- Genetic resistance may be utilized at no additional cost to verted exotic genotypes from the sorghum conversion the producer to meet the demands of increased food~rOduc- program. New resistance sources are crossed to elite resis- tion in an economically profitable, environmentally sustain- tant germplasm, and to other germplasm lines with superior able production system. This requires a multi-disciplinary trait(s). Although the primary selection criteria is for insect research program to integrate resistant hybrids into the man- resistance, the geographical diversity of Texas nursery loca- agement system. Cultivars resistant to insects readily inte- tions provides the opportunity to select for wide adaptation, Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation resistance to specific diseases, drought resistance, and new superior A- or R-lines continued. Significant progress weathering resistance. Studies to determine the genetics of to improve agronomic traits and grain yield potential of sor- resistance and resistance mechanism(s) are conducted when ghum midge resistant germplasm has been achieved. possible. Based on data analysis and phenotypic evaluation, cros'ses are made among elite lines to produce additional Breeding lines and hybrids were evaluated for sorghum germplasm for subsequent evaluation. The overall objective midge resistance at two locations in the USA under high is to combine as many stress resistance genes as possible (Corpus Christi) and moderate (College Station) population into a single high yielding genotype. density. The midge line test was also grown at the INTA re- search station near Managua, Nicaragua. Diverse locations For insects important in LDC's but not in the U.S., to screen for sorghum midge resistance are needed since germplasm is provided to the LDC cooperator. The lines and hybrids that perform well under moderatellow germplasm is evaluated for resistance to the specific insect midge density may not perform well under high sorghum under the local production system (fertilizer, tillage, plant midge density. At maturity, the entries receive a midge population, etc.) and agronomic and yield data collected. damage rating (MDR) and agronomic evaluation. The Based upon experimental results, crosses are made to pro- MDR is a subjective rating on a scale of 1 = 0-10% aborted duce populations for inheritance and entomological studies. kernels, 2 = 1 1-2 1% aborted kernels, up to 9 = 9 1- 100% ker- These populations are provided to the cooperator for evalu- nels. ation. When possible, the populations are grown in the USA and selected for adaptation. Molecular biology has been Sorghum midges were present at anthesis in high num- used to study head bug resistance in Mali and the USA. bers in both the Corpus Chnsti (MDR=4.84) and College Station (MDR=4.81) Midge Line Test (Table 1). The test Research Findings included three susceptible checks, 13 resistant checks, 69 experimental entries, and 12 introductions fiom Southern Research to broaden the genetic base of the sorghum Africa. The susceptible check RTx430 sustained high dam- midge resistance breeding program, to incorporate addi- age at both locations (MDR = 7 at Corpus Christi and 6.3 at tional sources of resistance into elite lines, and to identify College Station). Most resistant checks and experimental

Table 1. Midge damage rating (MDR) of selected entries in the 1999 Midge Line Test at College Station and Corpus Christi, TX.

PedigreeIDesignation Midge Damage ati in^'

~ cC2 CS 97Mll(PMl2713*Tx2766)/7BRON134 2 3.7 (MR127-92MS8MR1 14-90M11)-SMI 7-SM2-CMI-SMBK 2 3.3 IS6919ClSC846-14E 2.3 3.3 MR114-90M11 2.3 4.3 B8PR1021m?B116C- 2.3 3.7 94ML68/((SC228-14*Tx2767)*Tx2876) 2.3 3 PM12713 2.7 3.3 Rep(MR11 8der8Tx2882)- 2.7 3.3 7BRON159/7MLT69/(PM12713*Tx2882)-CM3-CM2 2.7 2.3 (MR127-92M5*MR114-90MI1)-SM2-CM2-SMl-CMBK --2.7 3 Tx2880 3 3 Tx2782 3 3.7 894-7 3 4.7 RepI((SC228-14*Tx2767)*Tx2876) 3 3 7BRON145/7MLT58/(MB108BiP.Gm8MB1l049der) 3 4.7 (T~2880*SC170-6-17)-SM15-CMI- 3 2 (TxZ~~~*SRN~~)-CM~-SM~-SM~-SM~-SMBK-CMK 3 3.3 BTx640 3.3 4 B8PR1015/MB124B- 3.3 4.3 97M14I(Tx2882*6E0374)/7BRON153 3.3 3 7 Repl((SC62-14*Tx2782).Tx2878) 3.3 4 (((SC572-14*SC62-14)-C12-)ITx2767)-CM19- 3.3 6.3 (TX~~~~'SRN~~)-CM~-SM~-SM~-CM1-CMBK-CMBK 3.3 3 3 ((MBl20C-BM5-)*MBlOsB/P.G.)-SM5-CMI -CM2-CM 1- 3.3 3.7 ((MB120C-BMS-)*MB 108B/P.G.)-SMS-CM I -CM2-CM2- 3.3 3.7 ((MBl26E-BM3-)*MB 108BlP.G.)-CM9-CM2- 3.3 3.3 (MR1128-92M2*Tx2880)-SM 17-CM2-CM2-CMBK 3.3 5 (MR127-92MS8MR1 14-90M 1 I)-SM2-SMI-SMI-CMBK 3.3 5.3 (Tx631 *(MB126E-BM6-)-SM2 1-CMI- 3.3 3.3 jBVar*MBI02-3)-CM5-SM2- 3.3 - -- - 6 (BArg34*(MBl20C-BM5))-SM3-CM2- 3.3 4 (MRI ~~B-~~M~*TxZ~~O)-SM~-SMI-SM~ 3.3 5 B8PR1013/MB120A- 3.7 3 ((MBl26E-BM3-BM2)*MBlo8B/P.G.)-SMS-CM2- 3.7 3.3 (MBI IO-2lder*Tx623)-CMl I-LMBK-SMZ- 3.7 7 (BVaf MB102-3)-CM5-SM2- 3.7 5 Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation

Table 1 - Continued

Pedigreemesignation Midge Damage ~atingl cc2 CS

B8PR1019iMB131B- 4.7 5.3 97M13/(Tx2882*6E0374)/7BRON152 4.7 3.3 Rep/((SC62-l4*Tx2782)*Tx2878) 4.7 3 7 ((MBIZOC-BM5-)*MBI08BIP.G.)-SMIO-CM1- 4.7 3.7 BTx2755 5 4.7 Tx2767 5 5 (PMI 2713ITx2882)-CM7-CM 1-CM2-CMI-SMBK-CMBK 5 3.7 ((MB 120C-BM5-)*MBlO8BlP.G.)-SM10-CM1- 5 6

MBI08BIP.G. 6 .3 TAM2566 6 4.3 Repl(MB 1 10-der'Tx623) 6 5.7

((MB 126E-BM3-)*MBlO8B/P.G.)-SMS-CM2- 6 5.7 (Tx63 1*(MB126E-BM6-)-SM4-CM I - 6.3 6 (BI *(MB126E-BM6))-CM4-CM2- 6.3 5.3 BTx623 6.7 3.3 RTx430 7 6.3 Macia 7 7 BTx378 7 3 6.3 WM#322 7 7 5.3 CE151 8 6.7 EPSON 2-40/E#I 5lSADC 8 5.7

Segaolane 8 9 Town 8 5 SV I 8.3 8 lCSV745 8.7 8.7

WM#177 FGYQ336 Marupantse Mean

I Midge Damage Rating based on a scale of 1 = 1-10% aborted kernels, 2 = 11-20% aborted kernels, ...... 9 = 91-100% aborted kernels. CC = COTPUSChristi, CS = College Station

lines were significantly less damaged than the susceptible 2) attempt to improve the level of resistance. Several midge checks. Several experimental entries sustained no more line test entries derive resistance from two or three different damage than the most resistant checks. Two new seed par- sources. These resistance sources include IS3390C ents (A-/B-lines), designated 8PRlOll and 8PR1013, ex- (SC572-14E), IS 12572C (SC62- 14E), IS2579C hibited excellent resistance. The Southern Africa (~~423-14E),IS2549C (SC228-14E), astwo lines from introductions - Macia, WM#322, CE 15 1, EPSON ICRISAT(PMI 1344 and PM 12713). Utilization of these 2-40/E#15/SADC, Segaolane, Town, SV 1, ICSV745, lines enables a broader resistance genetic base and selection A964, WM#177, FGYQ336, and Marupantse - were very for other useful traits including tan plant, improved foliar susceptible to sorghum midge damage. MDR for the intro- quality, and larger kernel size. ductions ranged from 5 to 9 with most entries rated at 8 or 9. Combining ability for yield potential and sorghum midge The primary sorghum midge resistance source is resistance was evaluated to identify breeding lines suitable TAM2566 (SC17.5-9) a partially converted zerazera for use as hybrid parents. The major constraint to use of sor- (IS1 2666) from ~thioiia.Major research emphasis for sev- ghum midge resistant hybrids has been the lack of parental eral years has been to use other resistance sources to 1) lines which possess excellent resistance and grain yield po- diversify the genetic base of the program for resistance, and Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation

Table 2. Mean grain yield and midge damage rating for entries in the 1999 Midge Hybrid Test at Corpus Christi and College Station, TX. -~ Hybrid Class1 Kgiha- 1 Kgha-I Kgha-I MDR2 M DR3 MDR3

-- -- . - -. CCY -- ..CS ------CC CS A8PR1013*Tx2880 R* R 3290 3097 3482 3 2.3 3.7 A8PR1019'Tx2880 R* R 2536 2887 2185 3.8 3 4.7 ATx64I897M9 R*R 2667 2694 2639 3.2 2.7 3.7 A8PR101 I8Tx2882 R*R 3113 2529 3697 3.7 4 3.3 ATx640894ML68 R* R 2476 2525 2426 3.3 3.3 3.3 A8PR101 I8Tx2767 R*R 2879 241 1 3348 4 4 4 AXPR1017*Tx2767 R*R 2249 2363 2135 3.8 4 3.7 ATx640897M9 R* R 2282 2360 2203 3.7 3.7 3.7 ATx640'94ML66 R* R 2407 2343 2472 3.5 3.7 3.3 A8PR1013*Tx2767 R* R 2464 2263 2665 4 4 4 ATx6408Tx2880 R* R 2389 2252 2526 3.5 3.3 3.7 ATx64It94ML66 R* R 2256 2234 2278 4 4.3 3.7 A8PR1019*Tx2882 R*R 2364 2195 2533 4.7 4.7 4.7 A94-15*Tx2880 R* R 1752 2191 1313 5.3 4.3 6.3

ABPRIOI I8Tx2880 R* R 1653 506 2800 6.2 8 4.3 A8PR1015*Tx2767 R* R 492 328 657 7.3 8.3 6.3 ATx399*RTx430 StS-CK 67 72 62 9 9 9 ATx2752*RTx430 S*S-CK 83 --41 126 ..- 8.8 8.7 9 A94-6*Tx2767 R*R 45 21 70 8.8 9 8.7 A35*RTx430 S*S-CK 108 14 203 9 9 9 A94-6*Tx2882 R* R 28 9 48 9 9 9 94-6*Tx2880 R*R 49 6 92 8.8 9 8.7 35*Tx2783 S*S-CK 47 4 90 9 9 9 A1 'Tx2862 S*S-CK 60 2 118 9 9 9 MEAN 1722 1489 1955 5.2 5.4 5 LSD .05 5M) 463 588 0.8 0.9 0.9

' Classification: R =resistant S = susceptible, Ck =check. * Midge Damage Rating based on a scale of I = 1-10% aborted kernels, 2 = 11-20% aborted kernels, ...... , 9 = 91-100% aborted kernels. CC =Corpus Christi; CS = College Station. Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation tential under pest infestation, and excellent grain yield po- is conducting Ph.D. research in this project to compare the tential in the absence of the pest. efficiency ofmarker-assisted selection versus traditional se- lection methodology. Three greenbug resistance sources are Grain yield and midge damage rating for entries in the used: Capbam through Tx2783, PI550607, and PI550610. Midge Hybrid Test at Corpus Christi (CC) and College Sta- The source of post-flowering drought tolerance is the cross tion (CS) are shown in Table 2. The standard resistant check B35*Tx7000. Backcrossing is continuing to introgress the is ATx2755*Tx2767 (MDR=6.3 (CC) and 4.3 (CS), grain needed genes into elite genetic backgrounds. To evaluate yield=1020 (CC) and 2390 (CS) kg ha-') and the standard the efficiency of marker-assisted selection, versus tradi- susceptible check is ATx2752*RTx430 (MDR=8.7 (CC) tional selection methodology 347 total Fq progeny from and 9.0 (CS), grain yield=41 (CC) and 126 (CS) kg ha-'). four populations were selected for analysis. Each of the Most experimental hybrids produced significantly more lines was analyzed for presence of greenbug resistant or stay grain than the susceptible checks. At both locations, many green genes using probes diagnostic for the genes of inter- experimental hybrids produced significantly more grain est. Phenotypic ratings for stay green were collectedon field than ATx2755*Tx2767 and several produced more grain plantings and for greenbug resistance in seedling stage than the most resistant hybrid, ATx 640*Tx2880. Based on greenhouse trials. Molecular analysis identified 78 lines grain yield data, MDR and agronomic evaluation as hybrid with stay green (3 to 5 QTLs) and 46 lines with greenbug re- parents, and midge line test MDR two new A-lines were sistance (1 to 4 QTLs). Phenotypic ratings identified 102 identified as potentially useful. The lines, designated lines with stay green and for greenbug 78 lines resistant to 8PR1011 and 8PR1013, have large open panicles with biotype E, 50 lines resistant to biotype I, and 19 lines resis- white grain and possess excellent resistance as lines. Both tant to E and I. Molecular or phenotype data identified 22 lines were selected for inclusion in the PROFIT (Productive and 24 lines, respectively, with stay green and greenbug re- -Rotations -On -Farms In Texas) hybrid seed Hybrids sistant QTLs. Seventeen lines were identified as greenbug with each line as theseed parent (female) will be produced resistant with both molecular and phenotypic data, and 27 in the summer of 2000 for wide area evaluation in 2001. lines were similarly identified for stay green. Hybrids using the selections as the pollen parent have been made to evalu- Selections to develop germplasm resistant to biotype E, ate resistance gene performance in hybrids. I, and K greenbug were made in many populations. The pri- mary sources of resistance to biotype I and K are PI550607 The program to develop resistance to sugarcane aphid and PI5506 10. Both sources are used in developing R-lines, entered the second year. The research is in collaboration and PI550610 is used in B-line development. Screening with TAM-222, TAM-228, and TAM-225. Resistance against biotypes E and I greenbug identified genotypes that sources including TAM428, CE15 1, WM#177, Sima contain moderate resistance to both biotypes. Resistance to (IS23250), SDSL89426, FGYQ336 have been intercrossed the biotypes is conditioned by different genes and a moder- or crossed to locally adapted cultivars to develop a range of ate level of resistance to both biotypes is emphasized in the populations. Exotic cultivars used include Segaolane, selection criteria. Crosses to introgress resistance gene(s) Marupantse, Macia, Town, SVl, and A964. The lines were into other germplasm were made. crossed to elite TAM-223 germplasm to introduce addi- tional favorable traits including foliar disease resistance and New R-lines resistant to biotype E andlor I produced ex- backcrosses of selected F,s to adapted cultivars were made. cellent hybrids. The lines represent a range ofplant types in- The germplasm was planted at Corpus Christi and Lubbock, cluding tan plant, white pericarp and tan plant, red pericarp. Texas for initial selection. New tan plant, red grain biotype E resistant A-lines were evaluated in hybrid combination. The tan plant, red grain A 50-entry test for sugarcane aphid resistance was devel- hybrids were resistant to either biotype E or biotype El1 oped and sent to Southern Africa. The test was evaluated for greenbug, depending on the male parent. The hybrids ex- resistance to sugarcane aphid in a greenhouse screening at pressed excellent grain yield potential, wide adaptation and the ARC, Potchefstroom, South Africa (Table 3). Eleven resistance to several diseases. Based on 1999 performance, experimental enties sustained no more damage than the one A-line, 8PR1059, and two restorer lines, 5BRON139 most resistant checks (WM#322, Ent. 62/SADC, (resistant to biotype E) and LG35 (resistant to biotype EII) FGYQ353, TAM428). Sugarcane aphid resistant breeding were selected for inclusion in the PROFIT hybrid program materials are being developed for the program and several Hybrid seed will be available in 2001 for wide area testing experimental lines were entered in the test. Several lines ex- of tan plant, red grain, greenbug and disease resistant hy- hibited resistance equal to or not significantly different from brids. the resistant checks. The lines may also contain resistance to other stresses including sorghummidge. Selection will con- Marker-assisted selection research to combine greenbug tinue in Texas and seed will be provided to collaborators in resistance and stay green (post-flowering drought toler- Southern Africa for evaluation in the local environment. ance) into a single genotype continued. The research is a The lines should contain wide adaptation, sugarcane aphid collaborative project between TAM-223, TAM-222, and resistance, and disease resistance (primarily sooty stripe the molecular biology laboratory of Dr. Henry Nguyen and anthracnose), and other favorable traits. Traits needed (Texas TechUniversity). Mr. Sidi Bekaye Coulibaly (Mali) Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation

Table 3. Sugarcane aphid damage and abundance on entries in the 1999 Sugarcane Aphid Test, Potchefstroom, SA. . . -- - - Pedimee/Desimation -- Aohid amaze' Aohid bund dance^ WM#322 1 1 Ent. 62lSADC 1 1.5 FGYQ353 1 1 PRGUE#222879 I 1 .5 PRGUE#69414 -~ I 1.5 TAM428 I 1 (Macia'TAM428)-LL2 1 15 (Macia'TAM428)-LL7 1 1 (CEI51 "BDM499)-LD17-BE2 1 1

191BE7414/(R8505*(R5646*SC326-6)) 2.5 2 (87E0366*GRI 34A-90MSO)-LG6- 2.5 I (EPSON2-40/E#I 5/SADCSA964)-LG6- 2.5 2 Segaolane 3 2 Sima (IS23250) 3 I Kuvuma -- 3 2.5 Tx2882*SRN39)-CM3- 3 2 (5BRONl54/(87BH8606-14*GR107-90M46)*EPSON2-40/E#1SISADC) 3 2 (Macia*Dorado)-HD4 3.5 3 (PM12713*Tx2880)CM3- 3.5 2.5 (Sima~IS23250*60BS129/(Tx2862*6E0361)-LGI- 4- 3 Test Mean 1.8 1.6 LSD .05 1.S 1.2

' Rated on a scale of 1 = no damage up to 4 = plant death. Rated on a scale of 1 = few aphids up to 3 = high infestation

to enhance potential use include tan plant, white pericarp, collaborative research on sorghum. Discussed the regional and appropriate height and maturity. planning meeting with scientists and how the new regional program will operate. Networking Activities Honduras and Nicaragua - October 2-9,1999. In Hondu- Research Investigator Exchanges ras, participated in the INTSORMIL sponsored regional planning meeting to review sorghum research in Central Honduras and El Salvador - August 29 to September 2, America and plan research projects for the new regional 1999. In Honduras, met with officials of EAP, DICTA, and program activity. Participated in the EEP review of USAID to discuss potential for continued INTSORMIL ac- INTSORMIL activity in Honduras. In Nicaragua, met with tivity in the country. Planned the regional planning meeting officials of INTA to discuss collaborative activity and plan scheduled for October 4-5 and the EEP Review scheduled future research. Met with representatives of UNA for October 5 and 6. In El Salvador met with officials and (Managua) and UNAN-Leon to sign MOUs between the re- scientists of CENTA to discuss mutual interest in initiating spective universities and INTSORMIL. Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation

El Salvador - January 6-8, 2000. Participated in formal Other Cooperators signing ceremony of the MOU between CENTA and INTSORMIL. Met with CENTA scientists to discuss re- Collaboration with the following scientists was impor- search proposals. tant in the activities of TAM-223:

South Africa, Botswana, Mozambique, and Zambia - Dr. R.A. Frederiksen, Dep. of Plant Pathology and Mi- April 2- 15,2000. The trip had three objectives: 1) Meet with crobiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX scientists and administrators as the in-coming INTSORMIL 77843 (TAM-224). Regional Coordinator (all countries); 2) Continue research on sugarcane aphid resistance (South Africa, Botswana, Dr. L. W. Rooney, Cereal Chemistry, Dep. of Soil and Zambia); 3) Discuss INTSORMIL participation in the Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, inter-CRSP Mozambique training program (Mozambique). TX 77843 (TAM-226).

Germplasm and Research Information Exchange Dr. R. D. Waniska, Cereal Chemistry, Dep. of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Germplasm Conservation and Use TX 77843.

Accessions from the sorghum conversion program were Dr. W.L. Rooney, Sorghum Breeding, Dep. of Soil and grown for increase and evaluation. Releases from the sor- Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, ghum conversion program were deposited in the National TX 77843. Seed Storage Laboratory. Germplasm was distributed to private companies as requested and to the following coun- Dr. T.L. Archer, Entomology, Texas A&M University tries, including but not limited to: Mali, Botswana, Niger, Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Route 3 Box Guatemala, Nicaragua, South Africa, Botswana, Zimba- 219, Lubbock, TX 79401-9757. bwe, and Zambia. Entries in the All Disease and Insect Nursery (ADIN) were evaluated at many locations domesti- Dr. R.G. Henzell, Sorghum Breeding, Hermitage Re- cally and internationally. search Station, via Warwick, QLD 4370, Australia.

Seed Production Dr. M.D. Doumbia, Soil Chemistry, IER, Sotuba, B.P. 438, Bamako, Mali. The following experimental lines developed by TAM-223 were increased in the 2000 Puerto Rico winter Dr. Y. Doumbia, Entomology, IER, Sotuba, B.P. 438, nursery for use as hybrid seed parents in the summer of Bamako, Mali. 2000: Sorghum midge resistant: Tx2880, Tx2882, ASPRlO11, A8PR1013; Biotype E greenbug resistant: Publications and Presentations 5BRON139, A8PR1059, Biotype El1 greenbug resistant: LG35. Seed was provided under contract to a private seed Presentations company to produce hybrid seed for wide area testing in 2001 as part of the PROFIT initiative. Peterson, G.C. 2000. Using molecular biology to understand greenbug re- sistance. Texas Seed Trade Association Production and Research Con- ference. January 30 - February 1,2000. Dallas, TX. Impacts Peterson, G.C. 2000. PROFIT -A New Research and Education Paradigm for Sorghum. Texas Seed Trade Association Production and Research Conference. January 30 - February 1,2000. Dallas, TX. Germplasm previously developed and released by this project is widely used by commercial seed companies in hy- Refereed Journal brid production. Biotype E greenbug resistant R-lines from this project are widely used in the production of greenbug Katsar, C.S., A.H. Paterson, G.L. Teetes, and G.C. Peterson. 2001. Molec- resistant hybrids. ular analys~sof sorghum resistance to the greenbug, Schizaphis graminurn Rondani (Hom0ptera:Aphididae). J. of Econ. Entoml. (submitted). Assistance Given Katsar, C.S., G.C. Peterson, Y.R. Linn, G.L. Teetes, and A.H. Paterson. 2001. Correspondence among greenbug resistance loci suggest the Trained Malian IER breeding collaborators in the use of need for "gene rotation" as a new dimension of integrated pest manage- ment. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. (submitted). computer software. Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation

Breeding Pearl Millet and Sorghum for Stability of Performance Using Tropical Germplasm Project UNL-218 David J. Andrews University of Nebraska-Lincoln

Principal Investigator

David J. Andrews, Professor, Department of Agronomy, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0915

Collaborating Scientists

Dr. Chris Manthe, Cereals Coordinator, and Mr. Peter Setimela, Sorghum Breeder, Department of Agricultural Research, P.O. Box 0033, Sebele, Botswana Mr. Issoufou Kapran, Sorghum Breeder, INRAN, B.P. 429, Niamey, Niger Mr. Adama Coulibaly, Agronomist and Modi Diagouraga, Millet Breeder, Cinzana, Segou, Mali S.A. Ipinge, Millet Breeder, Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Rural Development, P.O. Box 144, Oshakati, Namibia Mr. F. P. Muuka, Millet Breeder, Kaoma Research Station, Zambia Dr. Tunde Obilana, Sorghum Breeder and Emcanuel Monyo, Millet Breeder, ICRISATISMIP Program, Matopos, Zimbabwe Drs. T. Hash and K.N. Rai, Millet Breeders, and Dr. Paula Cox, Genetic Resources, ICRISAT, Patancheru P.O. AP 502 325, India Dr. Anand Kumar, Millet Breeder, ICRISAT, Sahelian Center, BP 12.404, Niamey, Niger Dr. J.D. Axtell, Sorghum Breeder, PRF-203, Department of Agronomy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 Dr. Lloyd W. Rooney, Cereal Chemist, TAM-226, Department of Food Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843 Drs. G.W. Burton and W.W. Hanna, Geneticists, USDAIARS, Coastal Plain Exp. Station, P.O. Box 748, Tifton, GA 3 1793 Drs. J.W. Maranville, Cereal Physiologist, UNL-214, and S.C. Mason, Cereal Agronomist, UNL-213, Department of Agronomy, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583 Dr. D.T. Rosenow, Sorghum Breeder, TAM-222, Texas A&M University, Lubbock, TX 79401

Summary

Sorghum and pearl millet are the major traditional cereal Sorghum is widely used as a grain feed in intensive agri- crops on which millions of people are dependent in exten- culture, in North and South America, southern Europe, sive drought prone areas of low-resource agriculture in Af- South Africa and Australia, with consequent high levels of rica and the Indian sub-continent. These two cereals are the breeding research, some results of which can be modified best adapted to most reliably produced food in the unpre- and used in research in developing countries. The situation dictable conditions of erratic rainfall, low soil fertility, and is different for pearl millet, which so far has only been uti- numerous pests and diseases. In such conditions, agronomic lized in intensive agriculture as a forage crop. However, interventions, such as the use of chemical fertilizers, have pearl millet has a more nutritious grain than sorghum, and dramatic effects but their costs and the risks involved are has the potential to become a high yielding feed grain with a still too high for most low resource farmers. Seed of new somewhat different adaptation pattern than sorghum. It has cultivars is a highly cost effective technology even without frequently been shown in India that pearl millet hybrids can agronomic support, but they are more effective with and en- produce five tons of grainlha in three months, and the same courage the use of other agronomic interventions. Where yield has been obtained on a field scale in Kansas. production increases have been obtained in low resource conditions, they have always been dependent on new The goals of this project are several: to develop parental cultivars. Plant breeding is therefore the key, and the cata- material of higher yielding ability that can be used in collab- lyst to improving food production in Africa, and has already orative breeding programs in developing countries; in the done so in India. USA. to increase the genetic diversity available to sorghum breeders and to produce the adapted plant type needed to grow pearl millet as a combine feed crop; to identify sources Gemplasm Enhancement and Conservation of usefbl traits and to develop methods to consistently select To train LDC personnel in genetics and plant breed- for them; and to provide students thesis topics from the ing. on-going research which are relevant to the problems they will face in their research programs at home. Specifically in Pearl Millet

Collaborative breeding with pearl millet to make hybrids To determine relative values of alternative cytoplas- with the best varieties was continued in Mali and Namibia mic male sterility (CMS) systems for breeding hy- and initiated (1998) in Zambia, the latter two with the assis- brids and their seed and grain production. tance of the SADCIICRISAT Sorghum and Millet Improve- ment Program at Matopos, Zimbabwe. Collaborative To produce A4 top cross hybrids from adapted parents breeding in sorghum in Botswana was completed with the through collaborative breeding in Namibia, Zambia participation of the SADCIICRISATISMIP program. and Mali. Breeding material and information, mostly on pearl millet, is routinely exchanged with the ICRISAT programs in India To produce and release parental lines, both in A, and and the West African Center in Niger. Sorghum germplasm A4 CMS systems, for making early maturing, high and pearl millet germplasm has been sent to many develop- yielding lodging resistant grain hybrids for the USA. ing countries. To investigate and utilize genetic variability for spe- In the USA., both applied and basic research is conducted cial attributes; emergence from cool soils, white on both crops. Good progress was made in developing and grain, zenia (direct effect of pollen genotype) and re- releasing pearl millet hybrid parents (1997) which give high covery from seedling damage. levels of heterosis, lodging resistance and early maturity. Basic research on the new A4 cytoplasmic male sterility For Sorghum (CMS) system, and recently, in collaboration with ICRISAT, the AS system, was continued. Research showed Study methods of early generation selection for com- these offer significant advantages in breeding and produc- ing hybrid seed both in the USA. and tropical areas. Studies bining ability. with the same (isonuclear) pearl millet hybrids with A,, A4 or normal cytoplasm, showed indications of cytoplasm/nu- Continue to produce and evaluate hybrid parent lines clear interaction, which could vary according to cytoplasm, for Botswana (in collaboration with ICRISAT/SMIP/ and nuclear genotype. Some hybrids made in sterile cyto- Zimbabwe) and supply relevant germplasm to other plasm appeared better than in normal cytoplasm. If this cy- countries. toplasmic contribution to heterosis is substantiated, it would have important implications to all crops with CMS hybrids. To produce and release parental lines for food quality The development of isonuclear stocks of three further CMS hybrids for the USA. systems, A5, Aavand Aep continued. The main thrust ofthe sorghum program is to lntrogress new high yielding tropi- o To develop screening methods, and separately study cally bred food sorghums into U.S. grain sorghums and use genetic ability to emerge f?om cool soils, and inheri- some of the resulting early generation segregating popula- tance of seedling heat tolerance. tions for selection in Botswana and other countries. This introgression continues to provide new genetic diversity for Constraints early and full season grain hybrids in the USA including white grain-tan plant food quality hybrids. In the report pe- Pearl millet and sorghum are major food crops in low re- riod, 303 parental lines and germplasms were released. source semi-arid (LRSA) subsistance farming in Africa and Screening methods were developed to identify and investi- Asia. LRSA production is limited by both agronomic and gate sources of genetic resistance either to low and high nonagronomic factors (negligible capital, small and fragile temperatures at germination and initial stages of seedling markets, competing imported cereal grain prices and social growth. constraints). Principal agronomic constraints are lack of plant nutrients, moisture (drought), timely operations, and Objectives, Production and Utilization Constraints occurrence of pests, diseases and weeds. When these con- straints to plant growth exist, local varieties often perform Objectives relatively well, and give stable but low yields. Improving production conditions in LRSA agriculture has proved diffi- For both crops to build and improve a diverse range of cult mainly because of cost and risk involved to the individ- breeding germplasm from crosses between U.S. ual farmer and because of the inability of many developing adapted lines and proven tropical breeder stocks. countries to provide support to LRSA farmers. In this con- Such diversity is used in collaborative country pro- text, higher yielding cultivars developed through plant jects, in deriving parent lines for the USA, and in ge- breeding are the most viable low cost route (seed costs are netic and breeding methods research. much lower than fertilizer, etc.) to a valuable increase in Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation food production. Also, new cultivars are always essential Traits related to seedling establishment are important, prerequisites for any successful agronomic package. particularly in stressful environments. Peter Setimela in his Ph.D., from Botswana, evaluated easy to use methods, and Improved varieties, where seed can be self increased (in genetic effects of sorghum seedling emergence and estab- contrast to hybrids, for whichnew seed must be obtained for lishment at high soil temperatures, shown to be a major con- each crop) can and have been successfully bred for LRSA straint in the tropics. Iskender Tiryaki (M.S.) from Turkey agriculture. However, progress in variety breeding is rela- using sorghum looked at the contrast, methods of measuring tively slow (even in developed countries) and variety multi- genetic differences in lines and their hybrids for emergence plication requires continued government support because from cool soils, advantageous for tropically derived crops varieties do not normally attract private enterprise invest- seeded into soils emerging from temperate winters. Con- ment in developing countries. Hybrids however do attract tinuing with ths theme Mr. S. A. Ipinge, Visiting Scientist private enterprise and this results in providing farmers with from Namibia, began research on the hrect effect (Zenia) of quality seed. In the last few years, attitudes have changed in pollen genotype on size of seed borne by seedparents, and in regard to the utility of hybrids in developing countries and cross pollination between genetically contrasting hybrids. local production of hybrid seed and sale to farmers is now Currently, Mr. M. Mogorosi, Pearl Millet Scientist, from viewed as desirable and possible (e.g., Nigeria). Northern Botswana, is studying pearl millet breeding, vari- ety and hybrid seed production techniques for five months Hybrids in both sorghum and pearl millet, use growth re- as a visiting scientist on the project. sources most efficiently, particularly when they are in short supply, and generally give 20% more yield than equivalent Research Approach and Project Output varieties. While varieties in pearl millet are internally heterotic, higher yields are still given by F, hybrids, even Research Methods those where the best variety is used as a parent in top cross hybrids. Increased yields at the small farmer level, often at The general approach for both crops is to create new ge- low productivity levels without other inputs, has been the netic diversity for selection by crossing high yielding U.S. reason why sorghum and pearl millet hybrids have been stocks with new germplasm from developing countries or successful in Asia. If the hybrids are of a stable and durable ICRISAT (and in the case of sorghum, from the Kansas type, they can also perform in low resource agriculture in State Introgression Program). This-diversity is then used in Africa. Therefore, the project, with this in mind, has been collaborative breeding projects in host countries to select examining aspects of top cross hybrid development and pro- for per se adaptation, and also in the USA to release lines duction in pearl millet with conventional CMS orprotogyny with new trait combinations. In both crops the principal seed parents. breeding method is pedigree selection combined with test crosses and hybrid evaluation to select for the parental lines Thus, the underlying theme of genetic research and that make the best hvbrids. Winter nurseries are used to ex- germplasm development in both crops in this report period pedite the selection process. In sorghum some selection for has been the utilization of heterosis, through selection for host countries is for varieties also. Seed parents are pro- the relative combining ability of male and female parents, duced in A, cytoplasmic male sterile (CMS) system in sor- and in pearl millet, exploring new CMS systems that can im- ghum but both Al (Tift 23A1 cytoplasm) and A4 (monodii prove hybrid development and performance. cytoplasm) and now A5 CMS are being used in pearl millet. A4 male sterility has been transferred into lines derived The need of all plant breeders, especially in developing from a Senegalese long headed dwarf pearl millet variety, countries, where research resources are limited, is IBMV 8401. These can then be used to detect existing or in- knowledge of the most effective selection procedures troduced A4 genes in adapted varieties in Senegal and else- (methods) to use to gain their objectives. Thus, our research where with the eventual aim of producing top cross hybrids [Chibwe Chungu, (M.S.) from Zambia followed by Fabien made with R4 derivatives or R4 versions of the best varieties Jeutong (Ph.D.) from Cameroon] in sorghum first investi- as male parents. A similar approach is being used in collabo- gated methods of selecting for combining ability, which is rative projects in Namibia and Zambia (see Southern Africa fundamental to breeding superior hybrids. Cytoplasmic region report) and Mali. Using a phenotypic marker, studies male sterility (CMS), needed in both crops (although have commenced in pearl millet on direct effects of pollen protogyny, as shown by previous research, provides a very (male genotype) on seed growth. Field screening is con- useful-alternative in pearl millet) to produce hybrids, can ducted to identify germination cool tolerance in pearl millet, add substantial limitations to breeding parental lines. The where like sorghum, earlier planting has advantages. availability of two (now five) independent effective CMS systems in pearl millet provided a valuable opportunity to Several types of testers were evaluated by Fabien analyze the constraints imposed on parental development Jeutong in his Ph.D. study on early generation selection for and hybrid performance by different CMS systems. This re- combining ability. Iskender Tiryaki (M.S.) studied germi- search was partly conducted by Dr. K. N. Rai of ICRISAT, nation cool tolerance. The inheritance of seedling heat toler- who was a Visiting Scientist 1998-99, Fabien Jeutong (Post ance in sorghum using a simplified lab screening technique Doc) and Dr. John Rajewski (Project Manager). was studied by Peter Setimela for hsPh.D. dissertation. A Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation food quality B-line sorghum population based on genetic shed on any given head and pollen quantity was low on male sterility gene ms7 has been produced by random mat- some A, hybrids. These factors lead to low or imperfect ing 26 elite lines. selfed seed set in many A] hybrids under head bags (a test used as an indicator for susceptibility to adverse environ- Research Findings mental conditions which reduces seed set in fields of a sin- gle hybrid). In contrast, most A4 hybrids had good seed set, The findings reported here are a synthesis, with interpre- and many equaled their B x R hybrids, where male fertility tations as to their impact, ofproject research conducted last and seed set is not affected by CMS cytoplasm. year, and the previous three, as detailed in the INTSORMIL Annual Reports of 1997 (pp. 104- 109), 1998 (pp. 106- 112) In general, Al and A4 hybrids yielded similarly but at the and 1999 (pp. 101- 108). individual hybrid level either the Al or A4 version may be slightly better, which is explainable ifcytoplasm/nuclear in- Pearl millet teractions contribute to heterosis. The indication that there may be a CMS/nuclear genotype interaction component in Research based on the A4 CMS system expended greatly heterosis is of great importance, with implications for all in this funding phase, as its attributes were explored and uti- crop species where CMS is used for hybrid production. This lized. In respect to breeding parental lines, compared to the area needs further exploration. Al system, the A4 system was found to give access to a much wider range of diversity and facilitate rapid develop- In a separate experiment an A4 hybrid was found to shed ment of both seed and (see below) pollen parents, based on viable pollen at 8°C. Many Al hybrids go male sterile if clearer inheritance and less environmental interaction on overnight temperatures fall even to 15" C. In limited segre- the expression of male sterility and restored male fertility. gation tests, male fertility in the A4 CMS system was con- A4 sterile cytoplasm has not been noted to revert (mutate) trolled by a single dominant gene, but there is apossibility as back to fertile (normal) cytoplasm as occurs with A, - a yet unresolved, of duplicate genes for fertility restoration. cause of impurity in hybrid seed. Though R4 genes in However, segregation for male fertilitylmale sterility was adapted germplasm initially were scarce, a method was de- clear, unlike the Al system where there is a large segregat- veloped of selecting restorers in A4 sterile cytoplasm (by ing and unusable class of partial sterile1 fertiles. their pollen shed plants are then essentially indicating their male fertility restoration potential) which enables any line Though some individual hybrids may be best made in A, to be rapidly converted to an R4 restorer by a dominant CMS and others in A4, overall there appears to be no yield backcross procedure. disadvantage with A4 hybrids. There were two distinct A4 advantages - earlier flowering and better seed set. We con- The A4 CMS system in pearl millet, since most clude that equally high yielding hybrids can be bred in the germplasms are A4 maintainers (though any line can be con- A4 system, with more tolerance to conditions that stress verted to an R4 restorer) unlike the Al system, allows virtu- seed set in A hybrids, and thus there seems to be no limita- ally unlimited selection for heterotic performance, thus tion to using the substantial breeding advantages conferred making conversion of the parental lines to A4 CMS parents a by the A4 CMS system. secondary economical and assured process. Thus, as long as A4 had no negative effects on seed production or hybrid Realizing the potential of the A4 CMS system, the project performance, its' use would confer substantial advantages has developed and released parental lines (NM- 1 through in breeding higher yielding hybrids. NM-7,1998) and germplasm (NPM-3), and initiated collab- orative research in Namibia, Zambia and Mali to develop The effect of cytoplasm type on hybrid performance was adapted A4 top cross hybrids with high yielding varieties. tested by first breeding iso-nuclear Al and A4 seed parents This builds ICRISAT on research in West Africa and India (both being maintained by the same B line), and male par- which shows a) higher yielding varieties make better top ents found to restore fertility on both systems, thus the dif- cross hybrids andb) varieties can easily be converted to par- ference between hybrids Al x R; A4 x R and B x R is only ents (R4) for the A4 CMS system, whereas this can never be cytoplasm [Al (male sterile), A4 (male sterile) and B (nor- satisfactorily done for the Al system. mal), respectively]. In 1998, field tests were conducted be- tween three sets of seed parents and three different male The project first released in 1993 an early maturing R4 parents i.e., three cytoplasms were compared across nine population (NPM-3, providing opportunities to select dif- sets of iso-nuclear hybrids In 1999,this was expanded to six ferent R4 lines), then in 1998 five seed parents (NM-1 seed parents with three restorers (18 sets of iso-nuclear hy- through NM-5), each in Al and A4 with two male parents, brids) (Table 1). There were several important results. NM-6 R, andNM-7 R1R5.Recipients of these parental lines There was a significant difference in flowering due to cyto- and germplasm can now develop their own Al or A4 hybrid plasm. Most A4 hybrids commenced flowering two to four combinations. Further CMS systems have been identified; days earlier thanAl hybrids and one to two days earlier than A, (K. N. Rai - ICRISAT), A, (ORSTOM) and A,@ B hybrids. Al hybrids had a longer (by about 1 day) (ICRISAT) - and several others have been detected (Hanna - protogyny period between stigma emergence and pollen USDA, Tifton, GA). To enable critical comparisons to be Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation

Table 1. Hybrid grain yields (kg ha-') of pearl millet iso-nuclear hybrid sets in A1 Aq and B cytoplasms. Mead, NE 1999. Seed parent1 Seed Parents1 Male Parents cytoplasm cytovlasm -- .- . .- - ... - .-- .-..-. mean effect

16R - -- 58012 R ...... 086 R 293 A, 6100 5960 6090 6050

Male parent mean effect 5335 Mean cytoplasm A I 5325 ) SE (within seed parents) * 630 effects & 5186 ) B 5236 )

made between the five CMS systems known to exhibit ef- With the two inbred~used, hybrid (white) seed weight, rela- fective male sterility (A,, A4, A5, Av and Aem), we are near- tive to sibbed (grey) seed weights, increased 15% in mixed ing completion of iso-nuclear seed parent sets for these five heads and 19% on heads bearing 100% hybrid seed. Head systems on two seed different parents (NM-1 and NM-3). threshing percentage was 11% higher on heads bearing We have already identified one line, NM-7R, that restores 100% hybrid seed, relative to heads with 100% sibbed seed. male fertility on all systems, except R4, which is being back- Thus, in hybrid seed production, seed weight on the female crossed in. parent is heavier, and seed yields increased, by the heterotic effect ofmale parent pollen. The degree to which this occurs Another research area of general interest are the various is probably genotype specific, but larger hybrid seed confers effects that pollen genotype can have on seed growth and advantages like increased seedling size and growth. composition on the female parent (known as zenia, or direct pollen effect). This is known to occur in maize and sorghum To see if the effect could also occur between hybrids and can affect many traits, including seed size, color, pro- (which might result in a slight increase in grain yield just tein and oil content. Increase in seed size can produce more through growing a mixture of two hybrids of equal yield), yield per head, and give better seedling vigor. Zenia effects similar crosses were made between two genetically differ- on grain weight and head threshing percentage were investi- ent hybrids, one homozygous white seeded, the other grey. gated in pearl millet using pollen carrying a dominant grain Differences were not significant. However cross pollinated color marker, white, from white seeded male parents, to seed on heads bearing both hybrid and sibbed seed was 3% show which grains were cross pollinated on a grey seeded heavier and 6% heavier on 100% cross pollinated heads, female line. Seed from 100% sibbed female heads (possible which also showed a 5% increase in head threshing percent- in pearl millet), heads with 100% hybrid seed, and heads age. More experimentation is needed to check these indica- with a mixture of hybrid and sibbed seeds were compared. tions.. Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation

Two other areas were investigated in pearl millet - seed has a wide range of combining ability, which is known to germinationJseedling cold tolerance, and response to seed- occur, also lines selected by that should subsequently be ling damage. Three years of early planting in cool soils, evaluated by several more different testers. The conversion about 15"C in Aprillearly May at Lincoln, detected strong of these to A2 CMS, or to genetic male sterility, will provide and consistent differences among pearl millet lines. This is an effective way of testing B lines prior to conversion to A of interest because pearl millet is thought of as more cold lines. susceptible than sorghum, however our findings show, with the right hybrid, pearl millet could be planted at least as Counting seed germination percentages at an early time early as sorghum, with many consequent advantages. (eight days) in petri dishes kept at a constant 15 "C was the best simple way to measure germination tolerance related to A mowing experiment, planted both early and late simu- planting in cool soils. Large genotype differences were de- lating seedling/young plant damage as might be sustained tected. Germination cold tolerance in male parents (in the for a variety of causes, grazing, insects, heat, sand blasting, set of 12 lines used) had little effect on hybrid performance or hail was conducted with hybrids of different phenotypes. indicating recessive inheritance in male parents. However, All but one, the earliest maturing, recovered well from seed parents had large consistent effects, both negative and mowing 25 day old seedlings to 10 cm. The two latest matur- positive on rate of germination of hybrids in cool condi- ing hybrids actually responded with significantly higher tions. Even where the male parent showed good tolerance, yields, due to increased tillering. Pearl millet shows remark- the use of a cold tolerant seed parent could produce hybrid able tolerance to early defoliation. seed with better cold tolerance than either parent.

Support for the breeding of locally adapted hybrids in Seedling recovery growth between plexiglass plates Namibia, Zambia and Mali was continued. Activities for measured 32 hours after a heat shock of 10 minutes expo- Namibia and Zambia are contained in the Southern African sure to 50°C in a water bath gave the best separation be- Regional report. Breeding for Mali consisted of providing a tween genotypes for seedling heat tolerance. Soil surface CMS option of producing hybrid CIVAREX 9106 x temperatures often exceed 50°C after planting in the tropics Trombedie, currently being made by the use of protogyny. and in a few hours this can greatly reduce emerging plant Initial crosses and backcrosses were made to convert CVX populations. Plexiglass plates allowed rapid recording (by 9106 into an A4 seed parent and Trombedie to an R4 re- photocopying) repeated over time. Generation means anal- storer. Seed of these crosses was sent to the pearl millet ysis of crosses between relatively heat tolerant and heat sus- breeding program at Cinzana, Mali so the original adapted ceptible genotypes showed additive and dominance effects parent populations can be used to complete the backcross- contributed to coleoptile elongation under normal condi- ing. tions, but only additive effects were significant in recovery growth. Epistatic effects were present in both conditions. Sorghum General combining ability effects for recovery were highly significant under all conditions but specific combining abil- Fabien Jeutong's Ph.D. thesis work tested whether any ity effects were negligible. These results show that sorghum difference in combining ability could be detected among can be improved by breeding in tropical areas where poor early generation (F4- F5) B-lines (potentialAI seedparents) emergence or high seedling mortality is due to hot soils. using progressively broader based R, restorer pool testers. If differences could be detected, lines with poor combining In 1999, new parental lines and partly inbred seed parent ability could then be droppedat an early stage and only good and restorer germplasms from the most recent crosses in the lines converted to male sterile seed parents, thereby increas- long term program of introgression of elite tropical food ing the efficiency of this time consuming activity. Four un- quality stocks were evaluated. Some were tested in hybrid related R, testers (made male sterile in the A2CMS system), yield trials (Table 2) and the whole breeding nursery (since three resulting two-way testers and one four-way tester 1999 was the final season of this project) was subject to a (possibly using a combinationof genetic and A2 male steril- peer review separatelyby 10professional breeders. This led ity) made from the 4 individual testers, and an unrelated ms3 to the identification and release of 90 parental lines and 149 population, were used to evaluate 14 B lines over three envi- partially inbred germplasms in February 2000. This release, ronments in two years. Similarly 16 potential R lines were together with 64 parental lines released in 1998 represent a evaluated with different male sterile tester types. The results wide range of diversity made available for midwestlhigh were inconclusive, but did provide indications. One tester plains environments. As shown in Table 2, it has beenpossi- known to have more general combining ability and one ble to combine food grain quality with high yield in early 2-way would be better for initial screening than a single maturing hybrids. Breeding parents used over the years tester. More complex testers provided no obvious advan- have come from tropical breeding programs in India, China, tage. However, there were differences (expected) between Cameroon, Nigeria, Senegal, Botswana, South Africa, single testers, and the repeated use of only one tester with a Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Latin America. Accessions from narrow range of combining ability would, therefore, bias the Russia have also been used because of earliness, cold toler- type of seed parent selected. If only a single tester can be ance and green bug resistance. Segregating populations used for the first screening ofnew lines, it is important that it from these crosses have beenused in INTSORMIL collabo- Germplasm Enhancement and Conservation

Table 2. Early maturing grain sor hum hybrid trial 99-41, Mead, NE. Days to bloom (days from planting) plant height (cm), lodging scorJ4) and grain yield (kg ha-') of 11 of 23 hybrids in test.

Hybrid' Bloom .. Plant height .. Grain vield N250A x N5 14R2 66 94 9360 N250A x N5 11R 64 115 8630 N250A x N530R 59 104 8150 N250A x N533R2 63 103 8080 N250A x N5 16R2 62 104 7920 N250A x 35028-1 66 114 7730 N250A x N5 13R2 60 100 7480 N250A x N249R2.3 6 1 111 7460 N250A x N524R 65 103 7330 DeKalb 283 58 96 6750 Pioneer 89253 55 110 5490

Mean (23 entries) 61.5 102 2.1 7230 LSD = 0.05 4.4 - 10.9 1.9 1190 ' Parental lines N249R, N250AA3 among project UNL-218 releases April 1998; germplasm restorer lines N511R through N533R among project UNL-218 releases 2-24-2000. * Tan plant whitelcream seeded food quality hybrids. Check hybrids. Lodging, 1= least, 5 = worst, recorded on border plants 1 month after harvest. rative research in some of these countries in Africa. Segre- Fifteen other scientists from Argentina, Australia, gating germplasm and appropriate lines have been supplied Brazil, Egypt, India, Kenya, Mexico, Niger, Senegal, Zam- to Botswana, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Kenya, Niger, Sene- bia and Zimbabwe visited the project. gal, Egypt, Mexico, Australia and Argentina. Most U.S. sor- ghum seed companies have taken parts or all the releases PI visited Botswana (four times), Mali, Namibia (three made from this project. times), Niger, Uganda, Zimbabwe (four times), South Af- rica, Mexico (winter nursery five times), India and Networking Activities ICRISAT (twice).

Workshops Germplasm

Genetic Improvement of Sorghum and Pearl Millet, Lub- Pearl Millet bock, Texas, September 1996. 1996-1999 - Two hundrednineteen samples ofpearl mil- Farmer participatory breeding and farmer based multi- let exchanged with ICRISAT (India, Niger and Zimbabwe), plication systems workshop, March, Okashana, Namibia, Brazil, Mali, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal. 1997. Seed parents (A4) and male parents (R4) under conver- West African Sorghum and Pearl Millet Hybrid Seed sion, separately for Namibia, Zambia and Mali, 1997 Workshop, Niger, September 1998. through 1999.

Research Investigator Exchanges Fifteen A4 and R4 parental lines ICRISAT Niger and Ni- geria, 1997. Mr. S. A. Ipinge, Namibia, Visiting Scientist, millet breeding, May-Nov., 1997. Fifty-four Breeding germplasms to Dr. Wayne Hama Project ARS 205, Tifton, GA. Dr. K. N. Rai, ICRISAT Staff Deployment, millet re- search, Jan.-Dec., 1998. Twenty-three Breeding germplasms to DPI Qld Austra- lia. Dr. Mary Mgonga, Zimbabwe, Co-ordinator SMINET Network/ICRISAT SMIP Southern Africa, March, 1999. Five A, and A4 seed parent sets, NM-1 to NM-5; two male parents, NM-6R to NM-7R, released 1997. Mr. M. Mogorosi, Botswana, Visiting Scientist, millet breeding June - (Nov.) 2000. Germp/asm Enhanceme,nt and Conservation

Sorghum Publications and Presentations

1996- 1999 - Sixty-four samples of sorghum exchanged Abstracts with ICRISAT (India, Niger and Zimbabwe), Botswana, Egypt, Ethiopia, India, Niger, Senegal, South Africa, Zam- Setimela, P.S. and D.J. Andrews. 1999. Genetic studies on sorghum seed- ling tolerance to heat stress. Agron. Abstr. p. 74. bia, Zimbabwe. Tiryaki, I. and D.J. Andrews. 1999. Methods for measuring germination and seedling cold tolerance in sorghum. Agron. Abstr. p. 1 19. Forty-three lines to DAR Botswana. Journal Articles Eleven seed and restorer parents to INRAN, Niger. Rai, K.N., D.J. Andrews, A.S. Rao, J.F. Rajewski and R.H. Du. 1999. Re- storer sources of Aq cytoplasmic-nuclear male sterility in Penniserum Sixty-two seed parents and two restorers, N248 - N311, germplasm and its implications in pearl millet hybrid breeding. Plant released April 1998. Gen. Res. Newsltr. 120:20-24. Rai, K.N., D.J. Andrews and J.F. Rajewski. 1998. Potential of A4 and A5 cytoplasmic-nuclear male-sterility systems In pearl millet. Intl. Sor- Two hundred thirty-nine seed parents, restorer parents ghum and Millets Newsltr. 39:125-128. and germplasms, N341 -N579, released February 2000. Rai. K.N., D.S. Murty, D.J. Andrewsand P.J. Bramel-Cox. 1999. Genetic enhancement of pearl millet and sorghum for the semi-arid tropics of Asia and Africa. Genome 42517-628. impacts Books Methodology research and demonstration of existence and effects of genetic variability for critical traits e.g., seed- Khainval, IS., K.N. Rai, D.J. Andrews and G. Harinarayana. 1999. Pearl ling tolerance to heat or cold, early assessment of combining Millet Breeding. 535 pp. Science Publishers. Enfield, NH, 03748. ability, characterization of CMS systems, etc., are of global importance to breeding programs especially in developing Proceedings countries where limited resources must be used with fo- cused efficiency. Andrews, D.J., J.F. Rajewski and K.N. Rai. 2000. New cytoplasmic male sterility systems for hybrids in pearl millet. Proc. of West African Sor- ghum and Pearl Millet Hybrid Seed Workshop, Niamey, Niger, Sep- Germplasm and parental line releases in the USA will tember, 1998. contribute to new and better quality sorghum hybrids. Pearl Axtell, J.D., I. Kapran, Y. Ibrahim, G. Ejeta, and D.J. Andrews. 1999. Heterosis in sorghum and pearl millet. Pages 375-386. In: Proceedings millet grain hybrids provide a new feed crop for better use of of The Genetics and Exploitation of Heterosis in Crops, J. G. Coors et. certain production conditions not covered by sorghum or al. ASAICIMMYT, Mexico. maize. Tabosa, J.N., D.J. Andrews. J.J. Tavares Filho and A.D. Azevedo Neto. 1999. Comparison among forage millet varieties and forage sorghum under semiarid conditions of Pernambuco State Brazil; yield and aual- Collaborative research with Namibia, Zambia and Mali ity evaluation. Pages 2 13-2 18. In: Proceedings of lntemational pearl will convert parents of existing successful experimental hy- Millet Workshop, Azevedo Neto, A.D. et. al. 9-10 June 1999, brids, to a CMS basis - essential for large scale commercial Planaltina. Brazil. production. Theses

Germplasm supplied to other countries, and other US Fabien, Jeutong. 1996. Effectiveness of classes of testers for evaluation of programs, including all major seed companies, increases lines as potential parents for grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) breeding opportunities for the ultimate benefit of the farmer. Moench) hybrids. Ph.D. Diss., University of Nebraska-Lincoln, pp. 184. Tiryaki, I. 1998. Genetic studies on germination and seedling tolerance to Assistance Given low temperature. M.S thesis, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, pp. 90. Setimela, Peter S. 1999. Genetic studies on sorghum seedling tolerance to Almaco plot belt thresher supplied to pearl millet breed- heat and development of a rapid screening technique. Ph.D. Diss., Uni- ing program MAWRD Okashama, Namibia. versity of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, pp. 105. Davlla, Jesus D. Saldivar. 1998. Evaluation of performance of corn yield trials in a commercial corn breeding program in the U.S. corn belt: Almaco single head thresher supplied to pearl millet Measurement of genetic gain. Ph.D. Diss., University of Nebraska, breeding program, Department of Crops and Soils Re- Lincoln, NE., pp. 89. (Co-advised). search, Kaoma, Zambia.

Pearl millet pollinating bags (20,000) supplied each to breeding programs in Botswana, Namibia and Zambia. Crop Utilization and Marketing

Previous BQQ~-. Blank -/df - Crop Utilization and Marketing

Chemical and Physical Aspects of Food and Nutritional Quality of Sorghum and Millet Project PRF-212 Bruce R. Hamaker Purdue University

Principal Investigator

Dr. Bruce R. Hamaker, Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-1 160

Collaborating Scientists

Mr. Moussa Oumarou, Chemist; Dr. Adam Aboubacar, Cereal Technologist; Mr. Kaka Saley, Nutritionist; Ms. Ramatou Seydou, Chemist; Moustapha Moussa, Cereal Technologist; INRAN, B.P. 429, Niamey, Niger Ms. Senayit Yetneberk, Food Technologist, IAR, Nazret Research Station, P.O. Box 436, Nazret, Ethiopia Ms. Betty Bugusu, Food Technologist, KARI, Katumani National Dryland Farming Research Center, P.O. Box 340, Machakos, Kenya Dr. Arun Chandrashekar, Cereal Chemist, CFTRI, Department of Food Microbiology, Mysore 570013, India Dr. John Axtell, Sorghum Breeder; Dr. Gebisa Ejeta, Sorghum Breeder; Dr. Robert Elkin, Poultry Nutritionist, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 Dr. Brian Larkins, Plant Molecular Biologist, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ

Summary

In the past four years, our work has concentrated mainly In Niger, we are collaborating closely with sorghum in two areas: sorghum and millet couscous processing (in- breeders (I. Kapran and J. Axtell) to use new sorghum hy- cluding a range of agglomerated particle sues) and nutri- brids released from their program. Processing of agglomer- tional quality of sorghum grain. In conjunction with the ated hybrid products or high quality flours for commercial setting up of a couscous processing unit at INRANhIiger, markets would create an outlet for the high production of graduate student studies have been conducted at Purdue to hybrids, and could act as a driving force for their adoption. identify grain and flour factors that determine couscous Equally important, cereal processors require a consistent quality. The objective of these studies was to identify ways supply of good quality grain, with preference given to a sin- to produce the highest and most consistent quality couscous gle grain sources, such as a hybrid would provide. At this products possible for eventual commercialization. A cous- writing, a large scale two phase market study has begun in cous preference study was done in Niger showing, while Niamey using the sorghum hybrid NAD-1. In home surveys consumers accept couscous of different colors, there is a will provide information on product acceptability and mar- clear preference for light colored products. A decortication ket potential, and in-store market evaluation will show ac- study showed that, for some cultivars, 20% kernel removal tual commercial potential. In the future, we would like to gave a product near in appearance to bought wheat cous- place one or more entreprenuerial-scale processing units cous. In off-color grain, up to 40% removal was necessary to outside ofthe institute and collaborate with anNGO to stim- obtain an acceptable appearing product. Studies on the on- ulate commercial processing of sorghum and millet prod- gin of stickiness in cooked couscous revealed that starch ucts. damage during grain milling, and concomitant fiagmenta- tion of the largest starch molecules, is highly correlated to In studies on digestibility of sorghum protein, much of sticky couscous. Addition of oil to the cooking our work has followed our previous discovery of a sorghum (rehydration) water substantially reduced stickiness, partic- mutant with high protein digestibility. We had found that ularly among those sorghum cultivars producing the sticki- this cultivar has high protein digestibility because protein est products. Tempering (adding moisture) to grain would bodies, that contain the kafd storage protein, were abnor- produce flour with less starch damage and, accordingly, mally formed. While normal protein bodies have a would give less sticky couscous. Notably, it was generally hard-to-digest outer protein, y-kafirin, the mutant protein found that harder grains produced stickier couscous with bodies are highly invaginated with this protein located at the more damaged starch and fragmented starch molecules. base of folds. As a result, the main storage protein, Therefore, in choosing cultivars for quality couscous pro- a-kafirin, is exposed to digestive enzymes, and, accord- cessing, intermediate textured grains would be best. ingly, digests very rapidly. In this reporting period, our ma- jor achievement was the development of a simple, rapid screening assay for identification of sorghum lines with Page Blank Crop Utilization and Marketing high protein digestibility. This work was done with finan- products that can be successfully and competitively cial assistance of the Texas Grain Sorghum Board. A reli- marketed. This is especially true for sorghum which is per- able turbidity-based assay was one of three developed, and ceived in some areas to have poor quality characteristics. is now being usedby Axtell's breeding program at Purdue to The overall goal of this project is to improve food and nutri- select for highly digestible segregants. The assay entails a tional quality of sorghum and millet through a better under- rapid digestion of flour, followed by extraction of the undi- standing of the structural and chemical components of the gested proteins, and subsequent precipitation of extracted grain that affect quality. This knowledge will be applied to proteins into a stable suspension. Low turbidity read at 520 develop useful methodologies for screening germplasm for nm signifies highly digestible lines. The assay was scaled end-use quality, develop techniques to make the grain more down to use 96-well microtiter plates, and currently has a nutritious, and improve grain utilization through process- throughput of 100 samplestday with replicates. The written ing. procedure is available on request. Research Approach and Project Output Also notable was the identification and selection of high protein digestibility sorghum lines with increasing amounts Sorghum and Millet Couscous Processing of internal "core" vitreous (hard) kernel texture. Improved modified lines are sought in the breeding program. This Sorghum and millet pre-cooked agglomerated products, unique type of kernel endosperm texture contains densely such as couscous, are traditional foods of the Sahelian West packed starch granules without a continuous protein matrix African countries. However, outside of Senegal, there are that is typical ofvitreous endosperm. A study has been initi- no examples of mechanized units to process these products ated to examine whether high protein digestibility has a pos- for sale to urban consumers. In the last four years, itive effect on starch digestibility in raw grain and cooked INTSORMIL PRF-212 has been involved in two activities flours for livestock and humans, respectively. related to sorghum and millet processing in West Africa. First, a entrepreneurial-scale couscous and flour processing Objectives, Production and Utilization Constraints unit was installed at INR4NMiger with the goal to optimize processing conditions to produce a consistently high quality Objectives product and, through demonstration and testing, to stimu- late entrepreneurs to invest in commercial units. In this pro- Develop an understanding of traditional village sor- ject, a close linkage has been established with breeders I. ghum and millet food processing and preparation pro- Kapran/Niger and J. AxtelllPurdue with the objective of ul- cedures and determine the grain characteristics that timately stimulating demand for sorghum hybrids through influence the functional and organoleptic properties processed products sold in the marketplace. The advantage of traditional food products. of the hybrid to a processor would be a ready supply of pure source grain, which is a prerequisite to processing high Determine the relationships among the physical, quality commercial products. Secondly, we have been en- structural, and chemical components of the grain that gaged in fundamental studies at Purdue to describe grain affect the food and nutritional quality of sorghum and properties necessary to produce a high quality commercial millet. couscous and to elucidate the basis of couscous stickiness, an undesirable property in sorghum and millet-based ag- Determine the biochemical basis for the relatively glomerated products. poor protein and starch digestibility of sorghum grain and many cooked sorghum products. In the West African region, there are currently a number of new activities in the food processing area (e.g., Develop laboratory screening methods for use in de- ROCAFREMI millet processing project, ITA~Uprojectin veloping country breeding programs to evaluate and Dakar, PROCELOS/Ouagadougou, the new IFADICIRAD improve the food quality characteristics of sorghum Sorghum/Millet Processing Initiative, INTSORMIL, and and millet grain. others) that have the common objective of creating new ur- ban markets for products made from locally grown grain Constraints and increasing entrepreneurial-level processing businesses. NARS, such as INRANMiger, can play a key role in stimu- Research on the food and nutritional quality of sorghum lating processors, by providing technological expertise and and millet grains is of major importance in developing creating models that show promise in the West African ur- countries. Factors affecting milling qualities, food quality, ban setting. and nutritional value critically affect other efforts to im- prove the crop. If the grain is not acceptable to consumers, Couscous Processing Unit in Niger then grain yield and other agronomic improvements to the crop are lost. In addition, breeding grains that have superior The core of an entrepreneurial-scale couscous unit was quality traits will more likely give rise to processed food installed at mN/Niger in late 1995; consisting of a cen- tral mechanized agglomerator designed and fabricated at Crop Utilization and Marketing

CIRAD, France by J. Faure, a mixer for flour wetting, a aided in the project design and implementation. The study couscousierre (steamer), and a small solar drier with will involve two parts and tests four products made from through ventilation powered by a solar cell (fabricated in NAD-1; two couscous products of different particle size Niamey by ONERSOL), and a sealer for packaging. The (fine and intermediate) that are traditionally made in Niger, initial unit was finded through the then functioning Niger degue, a large agglomerated, precooked product usually InterCRSP project. Since that time, a much larger passive mixed with milk for breakfast, and a high quality solar drying unit was built at INRAN to dry approximately decorticated flour. The fmt study will involve an in-home 500 kg couscous every 2 days. As high quality flours are es- sweyofproduct acceptability and potential in the market- sential to make quality couscous, a small-scale commercial place. The second part is the actual market test, involving grain decorticator (dehuller) and hammer mill (Urpata placement of products in three market niches, and subse- Sahel, Dakar) were recently procured through PRF-2 12 to quent monitoring of sales and feedback. Depending on the complete the unit. This last addition has also permitting outcome of the market test, the project may expand in the fu- INRAN cereal technologists to begin work on production of ture to place one or more processing units outside the re- high quality sorghum and millet flours and other products search institute, and work in cooperation with an NGO to made from them. An identical decortication and hammer provide technical expertise for processing and marketing mill unit will soon be sent to the sorghum utilization group high quality sorghum and millet products. at EAROIEthiopia. Couscous Preference Test A number of activities involving the couscous process- ing unit have concentrated on optimization of couscous pro- In August 1996, a sensory study on five sorghum cessing procedures to achieve a high quality cultivars (IRAT-204, Mota Maradi, NAD- 1, SC283- 10, and comrnercializable sorghum or millet couscous product. All SEPON) was conducted by A. Aboubacar (doctoral stu- processing steps were optimized, including water content dent) in Niamey, Niger. Couscous was produced using the relating to agglomeration size, throughputlday (to approxi- couscous processing equipment installed at INRAN. A mately 100 kg/day), decortication rate related to product commercial durum wheat couscous bought at a local store quality, (70-80% decortication rate optimum - also see be- was included for comparison. Thirty INRAN employees low) depending on cultivar used, flour particles size, and participated in the sensory test. Couscous was evaluated for drying temperature and time. Couscous yield, as measured color, taste, stickiness, and hardness. Results indicated that by the amount of couscous obtained in one pass through the although the sensory panel accepted a wide range of cous- agglomerator, was increased from about 70% to about 95%. cous color, there was a clear preference for light-colored Optimization tests have been conducted on local and new couscous. Wheat couscous had the highest color score fol- sorghum cultivars, including the sorghum hybrid NAD- 1, lowed by SEPON, NAD-1 and IRAT-204 couscous. Cous- and local and ICRISAT millet cultivars. Regarding the hy- cous from Mota Maradi and SC283- 10 had brown and pink brid NAD-1, it was determined, that the first sorghum crop color, respectively. Differences in couscous taste, hardness, grown following the rainy season crop, produced seed of and stickiness were noted among the cultivars. The panel good quality for commercial couscous processing. Through judged all the sorghum couscous as harder than durum the West and Central African Millet Network wheat couscous. As for stickiness, members of the panel re- (ROCAFREMI), collaborators on millet processing (A. ported some of the sorghum couscous as less sticky and N'Doye of ITADakar and I. Nizar, an entrepreneur who some significantly more than wheat couscous. Overall, con- processes millet for the Dakar market) have assisted in con- sumers liked the uniformity in couscous granular size ob- tributing the practicality of studies related to the market- tained with the mechanized agglomerator. It was noted that place. In 1998, the couscous unit was demonstrated and the manner of couscous consumption were dependent upon product produced were exhibited at a regional agricultural granules size. For example, couscous of fine granules (1-1.5 research exposition in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso by M. mm)called dambu can be consumed with milk, vegetables, Oumarou and M. Moussa of INRAN. At the Regional Hy- or sauce, whereas couscous of intermediate granules known brid Sorghum and Pearl Millet Seed Workshop held in as burabusko (1.5-2 mm) is eaten with either milk or sauce. Niamey, September 28 - October 2, 1998, the participants A third type of couscous of coarse granules (> 2 mm) called were invited to the Cereal Quality Laboratory at INRAN degue is often mixed with spice and consumed with milk. A and couscous prepared using the mechanized unit was desirable feature of the couscous agglomerator is that it can served. In 1998, a local food processor group was estab- be used to produce all three types of couscous simulta- lished and meetings have been held between INRAN scien- neously, which can be marketed as separate products. tists/technologists and entrepreneurs to discuss new technologies and to obtain feedback on INRAN processing Efect of Grain Decortication Rate on projects. Sorghum Couscous Color and Yield

At the time of this writing, a large-scale market study has From the above study, consumers were found to accept a begun, to test sorghum NAD-I couscous and flour market- wide range of couscous color, although there was a clear ability. This test is in collaboration with C. Nelson preference for light-colored couscous. A study was under- (UIUC-205) and J. Ndjeunga (ICRISATIMali) who have taken at Purdue to determine the effect of extent of kernel Crop Utilization and Marketing decortication, or dehulling, on couscous color and granule Earlier studies in our laboratory indicated that the com- size distribution. ponent responsible for couscous stickiness was in its wa- ter-soluble extracts. Water-soluble materials contained Grain samples from seven sorghum cultivars considerable amounts (40 to 90%) of carbohydrates which (IRAT-204, SEPON, NAD-1, SC283-10, P72 IN, P721 Q, alone correlated with stickiness. Native starch is comprised Mota Maradi) were decorticated with a tangential abrasive of two major molecules, the very large branched dehulling device (TADD) to remove 10,20,30 and 40 % of amylopectin and the comparably small more linear the kernel, and ground into flour. Flour ash and protein con- amylose. A chromatographic separation of these carbohy- tent decreased with increased percent kernel removal. Also, drates indicated that they were composed of two major com- an increase in flour lightness and a decrease in flour red ponents: an intermediate-to-low molecular weight color was observed as decortication rate increased. Cous- component that was identified as fragmented amylopectin cous was prepared from the flours using a laboratory proce- and a low molecular component that was composed of small dure. Processing flour into couscous decreased the lightness sugars. The stickiness of couscous was positively correlated and increased red and yellow color in couscous at all to the amount of the fragmented amylopectin fraction in decortication rates. These changes in color became obvious couscous (r = 0.86, P<0.01) and to the amount of starch upon water addition to flour and were accentuated during damage in the flour (r = 0.89, P< 0.01). A marked decrease steaming. For all the cultivars, couscous lightness increased in stickiness was noted when soybean oil was added to cous- with increased decortication rate. The best couscous in cous cooking water; an effect pronounced in sorghum terms of lightness were obtained with IRAT-204, SEPON, cultivars with high proportion of fragmented amylopectin. NAD-1 and SC283- 10, while the worst couscous were de- It was concluded that the decrease in stickiness observed af- rived from Mota Maradi, P721N, and P721Q. Couscous ter oil addition was due to carbohydrate-lipid interactions. from IRAT-204 and SEPON were the best in yellow color and resembled the color of durum wheat couscous. Red To determine whether the branched starch fraction origi- color in flour was found to be the most important parameter nated from the flour, water-soluble extracts from sorghum that influenced final couscous color. This study showed flour and couscous were compared. High performance size that, for some sorghum cultivars, substantial improvement exclusion chromatography (HPSEC) revealed that flour in couscous color can be achieved through appropriate contained the carbohydrate fraction previously correlated to decortication,though for the poorest colored grain had to be couscous stickiness. Fragmented amylopectin found in decorticated to 30-40% kernel removed to achieve good couscous solubles originated in flour, however, the molecu- color. lar makeup of fragmented starch from couscous and flour were found to be different; the couscous solubles containing Decortication rate also affected couscous granule size more linear starch fragments than the flour. distribution. For all the cultivars, high proportion of fine (< lmm) couscous granules was obtained at 10% kernel re- Milling experiments were conducted to test whether the moval. As percent kernel removed increased, the proportion origin of the fragmented amylopectin fraction correlated to of fine (< lmm) granules decreased and that of intermediate couscous stickiness was because of milling damage. (1-2 mm) and coarse (> 2mm) granules increased gradually. Chromatograms of water-soluble extracts of sorghum flours We observed that couscous granules prepared with flour pin-milled to obtain 3.6% and 6.1% damaged starch showed from 10% decorticated grain tended to break easily when that more material was solubilized from flour with higher dried, whereas couscous from 40% decorticated grain damaged starch. When couscous was made from flour with gelatinized quickly during steaming and produced high pro- 6.1% damaged starch, more fragmented starch with molec- portion of large chunks of granules that were very hard after ular weight below 400,000 Da was extracted. Ball-milling drying. The best couscous granules were obtained when decorticated sorghum kernels intensified damaged starch to flours from 20 and 30% kernel removed were used. 20.6% and increased the amount of solubilized intermediate molecular weight fragmented amylopectin, as well as Grain or Processing Factors Related smaller amylopectin fragments. to Couscous Quality (Stickiness) Experiments were also conducted to determine the con- Although most sorghum and millet cultivars can be made tribution of enzymatic degradation of starch molecules dur- into couscous, there is wide variation in product quality. ing couscous processing on product stickiness. Overall, Stickiness, one of the critical textural characteristics of enzymatic starch degradation did not substantially change couscous, is viewed as an undesirable factor. Good quality the water-solubles elution profiles. It was concluded that cooked couscous is a soft, fluffy product that easily falls flour milling is the major cause of starch fragmentation that apart on the plate. In testing eight sorghum varieties, six of leads to a sticky couscous product. Tempering (increasing which are used in Niger, a wide difference in couscous moisture content) of grain would reduce starch damage and stickiness was measured. A study was conducted to identify concomitant generation of fragmented starch that causes the causative agent for couscous stickiness, its origin, and couscous stickiness. methods to control stickiness or to select cultivars with low degree of stickiness. Crop Utilization and Marketing

Fragmented Starch and Porridge Stickiness A Three-way Complex Involving Starch, Free Fatty Acids, and Protein Affects Paste (Porridge) Properties Starch damage and fragmented arnylopectin were also found correlated to sorghum porridge stickiness. Wa- Following liberation of free fatty acids from flour during ter-soluble extracts of sorghum and maize starches with in- a relatively short storage period, sorghum porridge quality creasing proportions of damaged starch were separated changed because of the formation of a three component through a HPSEC system with refractive index detection. complex involving amylose, free fatty acid, and soluble pro- Chromatograms were typical of fragmented starch, with a tein. In this study whole grain sorghum was ground to flour distinct peak containing fragmented amylopectin eluting in and stored under ambient conditions to examine the effect the amylose elution range (Figure 1). Maize starch damaged of flour storage on pasting properties of porridges. Paste vis- to various levels resulted in chromatograms with less in- cosity profiles, as measured by a Rapid ViscoAnalyzer, tense fragmented amylopectin peaks, than sorghum starch were measured, as well as production of free fatty acids with corresponding levels of damaged starch. The lower caused by enzymatic breakdown of triglycerides (the native amounts of water-soluble carbohydrates eluted in maize ex- form in oil). Large increases in cooling paste viscosities (at plain why maize starch gels had lower stickiness than sor- about 50°C) were observed when free fatty acids were liber- ghum starch gels with similar percent damaged starch. The ated from triglycerides at around month two of storage. logarithm of the area under the fragmented starch fraction in Stored sorghum flour showed breakdown of triglycerides to the chromatogram highly correlated with starch gel sticki- free fatty acids at a much faster rate than comparable stored ness. When freeze-dried water-soluble fragmented starch maize flour. The reason for this difference is unclear. was added sorghum porridge, its stickiness increased. This confirmed the role of flour water-soluble components on the The three component interaction was defined using a stickiness of sorghum food products. model system consisting of isolated sorghum starch, free

14.6% damaged starch 9.2% damaged starch ....- 6.8% damaged starch .-. 0.5% damaged starch

- -

- /-\ \ / \ - . - -. ,' / '.. \. - .... \\ .

I I I I I I

Elution Time (rnin)

Figure 1. Size-exclusion chromatograms of water-soluble extracts from sorghum starch damaged to different de- grees through ball-milling. Increasing peaks indicate higher amounts of fragmented starch molecules that were shown to correlate to couscous stickiness. Flow rate was 1.5 mllmin. Crop Utilization and Marketing fatty acids both made in the laboratory and purchased, and cultivars (inset). Imrnunocytochemistry investigation soluble whey protein. All three components were required showed similarities in localization of a- and P-kafirins to develop the large increase in cooling stage (50°C) paste within the protein bodies of highly digestible and normal viscosity. The complex itself was isolated by HPSEC and cultivars. However, in the highly digestible cultivars, was verified by a combination of RI, W, and carbohydrate y-kafirin, the high cysteine-containing protein, was found (phenol-sulfuric acid) detections. This large soluble com- located at the base of the folds of the protein bodies instead plex (-1 million Da) was disrupted by salt, lowering of pH of at the periphery as is characteristic of normal cultivars. to 5, addition of a reducing agent. This is the first evidence Consequently, a-kafirin in the highly digestible cultivars is of a three component complex occurring in food prepara- more exposed and is more easily accessible to digestive en- tion. Large changes in viscosity cqn produce unacceptable zymes. This, along with the large surface area exhibited by sorghum porridges. This study reveals hndamental infor- the invaginated protein bodies of highly digestible cultivars mation on the changes that occur in pastes. is thought to account for their high in vitro protein digest- ibility. The discovery of these highly digestible sorghum Sorghum with High Protein Digestibiliv cultivars generated interest in incorporating them into breeding programs. This, in turn, prompted the need to de- Previous to this four year period (1994-96 INTSORMIL velop quick, inexpensive and simple assays to screen breed- annual reports), we reported on the identification of sor- ers' lines for protein digestibility. The following report of ghum lines within J. Axtell's high lysine population with assay development work was funded by the Texas Grain markedly higher uncooked and cooked protein digestibility Sorghum Board. levels compared to normal types. Biochemical and microstructural studies in our laboratory showed that higher Rapid Screening Assays for High digestibility was due to altered morphology (folded struc- Protein Digestibility Sorghum ture) of the kafirin-containing protein bodies, resulting in a more rapid digestion of the main storage protein of sor- Prior to this work, there were two in vitro (laboratory) ghum, a-kafirin (see inset in Figure 2). a-kafirin alone com- procedures used to predict sorghum protein digestibility. prises over half ofthe total whole grain proteins of sorghum. Mertz et a1 (1984) developed an in vitro pepsin digestion These protein bodies were distinctly different from the method specifically for sorghum proteins, that approxi- spherically shaped protein bodies of normal sorghum mated data obtained from human feeding trials. Although

Highly Digestible \ Normal

A

Absorbance (562 nm)

Figure 2 Comparison of values from the new high throughput turbidity-based protein digestibility assay and the standard pepsin digestibility assay. The two distinct populations show the ease in using the assay to distin- guish the high protein digestibility and normal sorghum types. Insets show transmission electron micro- graphs of protein bodies of developing endosperms. Crop Utilization and Marketing very effective in differentiating for digestibility among sor- lyzed, and use of costly chemical reagents avoided. A com- ghum cultivars, this method is very lengthy and cumber- parison between the BCA, turbidity, and some and allows for only few samples to be analyzed at a electrophoresis-based assays indicated that the turbidity as- time. Alternatively, the pH-stat procedure, provisionally say is more efficient than the BCA assay in distinguishing recommended by FAOIWHO, has been used by some inves- highly digestible from normal cultivars. A linear relation- tigators as a more rapid method to measure sorghum protein ship with a correlation coefficient of r = 0.995 was obtained digestibility. In spite of the relatively short analysis time when a standard curve prepared using kafirin was devel- used, the pH-stat procedure also has limited practical use oped for the turbidity assay. This indicates that the amount when screening hundreds to thousands of breeders' lines. of kafirin remaining after digestion can be quantified using Only about 16 samples can be analyzed in a day using this the turbidity assay. procedure, and the operator must be present at all times. Axtell's group conducted hrther validation tests on the Protein digestibility in sorghum cultivars were deter- turbidity assay and found it to have good repeatability and mined using the standard pepsin digestibility procedure and low source of experimental error. Currently, 100 sorghum compared to newly developed, rapidassays. The new assays lines are evaluated per day by one operator. It is possible to were based on the rate of a-kafirin disappearance after pep- further increase sample throughput, perhaps to 200 sam- sin digestion. In the new assays, samples were first digested pleslday, by adding microcentrifuges. Procedure write-ups with pepsin for 1 hour and undigested proteins were quanti- are available on request. fied using different methods. In the first method, undigested proteins were extracted with a buffer and analyzed by so- Moiizjication of Floury to Hard dium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis Endosperm High Protein Digestibility Types (SDS-PAGE). The intensities of the undigested a-kafirin bands were then measured. Higher band intensity indicated Modified, hard endosperm phenotypes have been found lower protein digestibility. For qualitative analysis to sim- that contain the high protein digestibility trait, as well as the ply separate highly digestible from normal genotypes, the high lysine trait. These, however, are not normal vitreous SDS-PAGE method can be used with visual scoring (+ or -). (translucent),hard endosperm types, but have a unique en- In the second method, proteins remaining after one hour dosperm structure where vitreous endosperm is found sur- pepsin digestion of sorghum flours were extracted and rounding a floury core of the kernel with a dense floury quantified by a colorimetric assay using bicinchoninic acid endosperm radiating from the vitreous portion out to the (BCA). The lower the amount of remaining protein indi- grain periphery (Figure 3). Scanning electron micrographs cated the more digestible the cultivar. Values from both as- suggest that Instead of having starch granules packed com- says highly correlated to the values from the standard pepsin pactly into a continuous protein matrix, the modified kernel assay. The third method, described below, is currently used type has starch granules densely packed into a discontinu- in our collaborative research program. ous protein matrix.

Turbidity Assay In a recent study on grain development, we showed pe- ripheral layers (about 2 cells deep) contain small starch Two versions of the turbidity assay were developed, granules, suggesting a shutting off of starch synthesis in the based on relative turbidity of suspensions ofundigested pro- later stages of development. Light micrographs, using a pro- teins. Extracted undigested proteins were precipitated with tein stain, clearly show that the modified vitreous core con- 72% trichloroacetic acid and the absorbance of the turbid tains starch granules that are not surrounded by a protein solution was read at 520 nm. The first version uses 1.5 rnl matrix. Proteins, both within and outside protein bodies, microcentrifuge tubes to digest and extract samples, and were found accumulated near the cell periphery. The core precipitate proteins. The second version is a scaled-down vitreous endosperm appears to arise simply out of densely procedure using 96-well microtiter plates and ELISA plate packed starch granules. reader to increase throughput and decrease sample size. In this procedure, flour samples are digested in microcentri- Highly digestible lines have been recently selected by fuge tubes and extracts (1% SDS, 0.5% 2-mercaptoethanol, Axtell's group that have much improved vitreousity. How- borate buffer, pH 10) of undigested proteins are placed in ever, there still appear to be environmental affects on the de- microtiter plate wells. Plates were read on an ELISA plate gree of modification. Also, observations made in Mexico reader. Addition of TCA to the protein solutions resulted in suggest that grain within the panicle of these modified types a quick turbidity development that reached a plateau at is not of uniform vitreousness; grain from the bottom of the about five min for highly digestible cultivars and 10min for panicle had a higher percentage of central vitreous endo- normal cultivars. In both cases, the turbid solutions were sperm than at the top of the panicle. Erfvironmental effect on stable for at least one hour. Comparison tests with the stan- modification is currently being studies by Axtell's group. dard assay showed high correlation and discrimination be- tween the normal and highly digestible lines (Figure 2). Modified highly digestible lines were evaluated for rnill- These results indicate that by using the turbidity assay, con- ing performance and cooked porridge texture. Milling eval- siderable amount of time can be saved, more samples ana- uation showed that the modification of kernels to a central Crop Utilization and Marketing

vitreous endosperm confers a harder, more dense grain that can mill nearly as well as a normal vitreous grain. Abrasive hardness index (AHI) values, defined as th;time in sec re- quired to remove 1% of the kernel, which are a reliable indi- cator of grain milling quality, placed the modified kernel group (AH1 range, 4.0 to 5.7) in proximity to the normal vit- reous group (AH1 range, 6.3 to 8.3), and well above the floury group (AH1 range, 3.0 to 3.7). Kernel density values for the modified group (range, 1.30 to 1.34 g/cc) were even closer to the normal group (range, 1.34 to 1.38 glcc), and further from the floury group (range, 1.23 to 1.27 glcc). The correlation coefficient between AH1 and kernel density was significant at r=0.87, indicating that density could be used as a fairly good predictor of milling quality.

Cooked flour gel properties produced at three different flour:water ratio; showed the modified, highly digestible lines were softer (measured as the modulus of elasticity) than gels made from either the normal vitreous lines or all but one of the floury lines. Stickiness values (measured as the work required to pull the compressed gel from between a plate and probe) of the modified grain group were similar, though slightly stickier, to the normal or floury groups. Dif- ferences in gel properties, particularly firmness, exhibited within the modified group may be the result of changes in the starch component - amy1ose:amylopectin ratio or mo- lecular fine structure. This needs to be investigated further.

Protein Digestibility of Normal Sorghum

In our studies on protein digestibility of sorghum grain, we found variations in digestibility occurring over years and during grain drydown. It appears that environment has a sig- nificant effect on protein, and possibly starch, digesti- bilities, and may be rooted in changes in susceptibil& of sorghum protein bodies to digestion.

Year-to-Year Variation

A fairly large variation in in vitro protein digestibility was found within a sorghum cultivar (P721N) monitored over 7 years. Uncooked digestibility values ranged fiom 69.2 to 89.1% and cooked values ranged from 47.2 to 72.9%. Year-to-year protein digestibility differences were not related to amounts of protein disulfide isomerase, a non-kafu-in high molecular weight putative heat shock pro- tein that we identified at the periphery of the protein body, or amounts of the individual a, P, or y-kafirins. However, in sequential extractions of kafirins in incrementally increas- ing concentrations of reducing agent (to cleave disulfide bonds), there was a negative correlation (~0.88)noted be- tween amount of crosslinked y-kafirin extractable in 0.00 1% reducing agent (2-mercaptoethanol) and digestibil- ity. This finding may indicate that digestibility in normal Figure 3. Photos of longitudinal cross-sections of high sorghum cultivars is related to the amount of protein digestibility modified vitreous "coren disulfide-bound y-kafirin. It is notable that the highly di- kernel sorghum types (A and B), and normal gestible cultivar was not significantly affected by year, vitreous sorghum (C). probably due to the fact that y-kafirin is not found at the pe- Crop Utilization and Marketing riphery of its protein bodies, but at the base of folds in its gelatinization, which would retard its digestion. Under the structure. conditions used, we found, using differential scanning calo- rimetry, that starch was fully gelatinized. This leads us to Eflect of Drydown on Protein Digestibility believe there may be an interaction that reduces digestibil- ity. Uncovering the mechanism accounting for the lower We showed previously that sorghum protein digestibility starch digestibility of cooked flour will allow for methods to decreases during development. This decrease coincides be developed to increase digestibility in cooked human with the formation of disulfide bonds in y-Mi,a sorghum foods protein body protein, and possibly other related proteins. Sorghum reaches physiological maturity at approximately Improving the Function of Prolamin 40 days after halfbloom(DAHB), but it dries in the fieldun- Storage Proteins in Breadmaking ti1 approximately 90 DAHB (moisture content to about 14%). The formation of disulfide bonds has been speculated In this study, prolamins, the storage proteins of sorghum to be due to oxidation during dry-down. In this experiment, (kafirins) and maize (zeins), were made to contribute to sorghum samples (45 DAHB, moisture content = 31%) dough strength and loaf volume of sorghum-wheat compos- were dried under varying environmental conditions. Sam- ite breads. It is generally accepted that wheat gluten proteins ples were freeze-dried immediately after harvest or allowed alone can form viscoelastic fibrils during dough mixing that to air-dry at room temperature (1 8 da). Additionally, several contain carbon dioxide to produce a leavened bread product. samples were dried under artificial environments. To inves- Storage prolamin proteins are the predominate proteins of tigate the effect of oxygen during drying, sorghum was sorghum (-80% in decorticated flour), maize (-70% in dried at 0,2 1 (ambient), and 42% oxygen; nitrogen made up maize grits), and millet. They are encapsulated in protein the balance of the atmosphere. The digestibilitiesofall sam- body structures, where they are synthesized and packaged, ples dried at 45 DAHB under the various environments had and, therefore, normally do not hction in the breadmaking higher digestibility (approximately 92%) than samples har- process. However, in the highly digestible sorghum mutant, vested at 90 DAHB following field drying (77%). These re- with altered protein body structure, or in the form of an in- sults indicate that dry-down alone is not the cause of gredient, proteins could be made functional. This study pro- disulfide bond formation during development. Another fac- vides fundamental information regarding the potential of tor, possibly an enzyme, may facilitate the formation of using native or added sorghum kafirns or maize zeins in these bonds. breadmaking. The overall objective is to find ways to in- crease the substitution rate of sorghum or millet flour in Starch Digestibility of Cooked Sorghum Flour composite dough systems for breadmaking.

Sorghum starch is somewhat less digestible (available) Addition of sorghum flour to wheat flour produces than starches from other cereals. This is true both in animal marked negative effects on rheological properties of dough feed, where processed sorghum has on average about 5% and loaf volume. Although there are notable differences in less nutritional value compared to maize, and in human the chemical composition of sorghum proteins, kafirns, food, where studies on children showed 2 1% of energy con- compared to wheat gluten that might imply poor functional- sumed from a sorghum diet was excreted in the feces. We re- ity in bread making systems, a larger constraint may be the ported on the study below four years ago, and have just unavailability of kafuins due to encapsulation in protein recently started another study designed to identify ways to bodies. zein, the analogous maize prolamin to kafuin, was increase starch digestibility for animals and humans. We are used to determine the potential effects of protein body-free particularly interested in the effect of the rapidly digesting prolamins on dough rheology and baking quality of proteins of the highly digestible mutant, and differences in wheat-sorghum composite flour. Mixograms ran at 35OC starches and protein matrices among normal sorghums. (above the glass transition temperature ofzein) were signifi- cantly (p<0.01) improved with addition of zein. Mixogram Our in vitro experiments using a-amylase as the diges- peak heights increased while mixing time decreased uni- tive enzyme showed that starch from cooked sorghum flour formly with addition of zein. Dough extensibility studies pastes was about 20% less digestible than a maize flour showed an increase in maximum tensile stress while baking paste. Isolated starches, however, were about equal in di- studies showed an increase in loaf volume with increasing gestibility, with sorghum starch even slightly more digest- amounts of added zein (Figure 4). These data are supported ible than maize. Pepsin pretreatment markedly increased by a previous study, showing that in a model system zein the starch digestibilities of sorghum cultivars, while little af- mixed with starch can form viscoelastic networks, and sug- fecting maize. Also, cooking sorghum flours in the presence gest that kafirin, if made available, could contribute to of a reducing agent, sodium metabisulfite, increased starch dough formation. digestibilities. Pepsin treatment after cooking did not in- crease starch digestibility. These results support a view that Confocal laser scanning microscopy was used to observe sorghum protein reduces starch digestibility in cooked the structure of zein fibrils and the interaction between zein flours. This hypothetically could be through an interaction and gluten proteins in the composite dough and bread sys- with starch after gelatinization or by restricting tems. Autofluorescence and irnrnunolocalization tech- Crop Utilization and Marketing niques were used to locate wheat gluten and maize zein, 80% of sorghum proteins normally seen in an SDS-PAGE respectively. Optical sections were collected every 0.4 pm banding pattern. Grain of sorghum cultivar SRN39 that was through the samples and digitally processed to produce re- separated visually for weathered (darkened to any extent) constructed three-dimensional images. Results showed that versus clean grain showed high and no proteolytic activity, zein fibrils form an outer layer that intermittently coats the respectively, following a 2 hr alkaline-detergent extraction. gluten networks, thereby strengthening them. This type of Interference can be avoided by decorticating grain or by microstructure is able to withstand the pressure exerted by adding a protease inhibitor. Preliminary experiments sug- gas cell expansion during yeast fermentation to increase gest that the presence of the protease is not detrimental to loaf volume. quality of sorghum foods.

A Highly Reactive Protease Networking Activities (likelyfungal) in Sorghum Grain Workshops A protease was found in sorghum pericarp (bran) that is active in highly denaturing extraction solvents and interfers Over the four year period, B. Hamaker has participated in with protein analysis. The protease was highly active in a the annual planning and evaluation meetings for the P5 pro- solvent containing SDS and 2-mercaptoethanol at alkaline ject Millet Promotion Through Improvement of Processing pH of 10, and was inhibited using 15 mM PMSF. The prote- Technologies of the ROCAFREMI network. These have ase effectively hydrolyzed sorghum protein and resulted in been held in Accra, Ghana (February 1997); Niamey, Niger marked loss of protein bands on SDS-PAGE and lower (March 1998); Dakar, Senegal (March 1999), and a P5 ELISA readings. Moreover, the protease was active under meeting followed by a general workshop of all electrophoresisconditions, as it created a clear zone on aca- ROCAFREMI projects in Niamey, Niger (March 2000). sein-impregnated gel from migration at the top of the sepa- The focus of the project is on processing of locally grown rating gel to its band formation at about 45 kDa. In those millet to products for sale to urban consumers. This project cultivars most highly affected (e.g., SRN39), proteolysis has to date been quite successful in coordinating millet pro- during alkaline-detergent extraction for 1 hr removed over cessing projects in the region; has significant output in opti-

Figure 4. Breads made from 20180% sorghum/wheat composite flours with 0, 5,10, and 20% added zein protein, mixed in dough at 35'~. crop Utilization and Marketing mizing the design of a destoner, its placement in key and to meet with local entrepreneurs and an NGO active in research institutes, conducting regional surveys on method- processing of locally grown crops. ology and processing technologies; and was recently rated by an external review panel one of the most effective in B. Harnaker has traveled to India twice in September ROCAFREMI. 1997 and November 1999to initiate and follow-up on a pro- ject funded by the Mahyco Research Foundation (Murnbai) B. Hamaker participated in an East Afiica regional work- designed to study the potential of introducing the high pro- shop held in Nazret, Ethiopia in September 1997. Collabo- tein digestibility sorghum into Indian germplasm. On the rative projects were planned with S. Yetneberk of IAR, first trip, he visited B.R. Barwale, chairman of Mahyco Ltd. Ethiopia and plans were finalized for B. Bugusu of KARI, and Drs. Usha and Brent Zehr of same company, Dr. Rana of Kenya to come to Purdue for her M.S. studies. Ms. Bugusu the All India Sorghum Program, and A. Chandrashekar arrived in January 1998 to begin her program. (collaborator) of the Central Food Technology Research In- stitute, Mysore. On the second trip, he visited co-PI A. B. Hamaker and A. Aboubacar participated in the West Chandrashekar at CFTRUMysore, V.S. Murty at Mahyco African Regional Hybrid Sorghum and Pearl Millet Seed Co.myderabad, F. Bidinger at ICRISATmyderabad, and Workshop held in Niamey, Niger in September 1998. B. Drs. Usha and Brent Zehr at Mahyco research headquar- Hamaker moderated a panel discussion on commercial utili- ters/Jalna. zation of hybrids in processed foods and animal feed utiliza- tion, and A. ~boubacargave an introductory talk on Dr. Arun Chandrashekar traveled from CFTRI in My- potential commercializable products in West Africa. In the sore, India to Purdue University in September 1998 for 6 aftem3on, workshop participants traveled to the Cereal weeks for short-term research, training, and planning for a Quality Laboratory to observe a demonstration of the cous- new project funded by the Mahyco Research Foundation cous processing unit and try sorghum and millet couscous (Mumbai) designed to study the potential of introducing the products prepared by the INRAN staff. high protein digestibility sorghum identified through INTSORMIL PRF-2 12 into Indian germplasm. B. Hamaker has made four visits (as part of above trips) to NUN/Niger to consult with collaborators in cous- B. Hamaker traveled to CIMMYT, Mexico in April 1998 couslflour processing - M. Oumarou, M. Moussa, and S. to explore further the possibility of setting up a nutritional Kaka. Plans were made for final optimization and comple- impact study on Quality Protein Maize. tion of the couscous processing unit, meetings were held with local processors and NGOs, and design of the market An informationpamphlet was designed and printed by A. study was made with INRAN technologists/scientists, C. Aboubacar to promote couscous processing for commercial Nelson, and J. Ngeunga. markets. The pamphlet was camed to INRAN/Niger and was distributed within the Niamey area and at a regional ex- B. Hamaker participated in the biennial Congress on position in Burkina Faso. An entrepreneurial-scale Maize and Sorghum held in Uberlandia, Brazil in May decorticator and hammer mill are in the process of being 2000, and presented talks on sorghum grain nutritional qual- purchased for the INRAN/Niger and IARIEthiopia labora- ity and current regulatory issues concerning GMOs in the tories. USA. He also visited the EMBRAPA center on maize and sorghum improvement in Sete Lagoas and met with scien- Purdue staff working on INTSORMIL-related projects tists on potential areas of future collaboration. (see accompanying list of abstracts) attended and presented research findings at four annual American Association of Research Investigator Exchange Cereal Chemists meetings in: Baltimore, Maryland in Sep- tember, 1996; in San Diego, California in October 1997; A. Aboubacar (doctoral student) traveled in August 1996 Minneapolis, MN in October 1998; and Seattle, WA in No- to CIRADfMontpellier, France to be trained on use of the vember 1999. A presentation was made at the annual Insti- couscous agglomerator, and on to INRAN/Niger to set up tute of Food Technologists meeting in Chicago, Illinois in the couscous processing unit, B. Hamaker traveled to July 1999. Niamey in February to work with M. Oumarou and R. Seydou in setting up plans for the unit. A protocol was de- Publications and Presentations veloped to optimize processing conditions for sorghum and millet couscous production, followed by sensory testing, Abstracts and market trials. Two food technologists (one each for sor- ghum and millet) were later hired on a short term basis to Aboubacar, A.I. and B.R. Hamaker. 19%. Physicochemical properties of sorghum starch in relation to the textural characteristics of couscous. carry out the planned work. Cereal Foods World 41 579. Buckner, R.J., M.P.Oria, P.V. Reddy, andB.R. Hamaker. 1996. Develop- A. Aboubacar traveled to INRAN/Niger in Septem- mental changes in sorghum protein bodies and their digestibility. Ce- real Foods World 41:573. ber-October 1997 to conduct sensory studies on sorghum couscous produced using the new couscous processing unit, Crop Utilization and Marketing

Oria, M.P., B.R. Hamaker, and RJ. Buckner. 1996. ldentification of a Rahmanifar, A. and B.R. Hamaker. 1999. Potential nubitionalcontribution non-kafirin high molecular weight protein in sorghum. Cereal Foods of Quality Protein Maize in poor communities: A close-up on chil- World 41574. dren's diets. Ecol. Food and Nutr. 38:165-82. Zhang, G., C.P. Huang, and B.R. Hamaker. 19%. Variation in enzymatic Batterman-Azcona, S.J., J.W. Lawton, and B.R. Hamaker. 1999. hydrolysis of native sorghum starch. Cereal Foods World 41 :564. Microstructural changes in zein proteins during extrusion. Scanning Huang, C.P., X. Han, and B.R. Harnaker. 1998. Uncovered fungal protease 21:212-16. in weathered sorghum grain interfers with protein characterization. Ce- Aboubacar, A. and B.R. Hamaker. 1999. Branched soluble starch as a de- real Foods World 43524. terminant of sorghum couscous stickiness. J. Cereal Sci. 3 1: 1 19-1 26. Batterman-Azcona, S.J. and B.R. Hamaker. 1998. Specific mechanical en- Huang, C.P., E. Hejlsoe-Kohsel, X.Z. Han, and B.R. Hamaker. Proteolytic ergy required to disrupt corn protein bodies and disperse a-zein. Cereal activity in sorghum flour and its ~nterferencein protein analysis. Cereal Foods World 43525. Chem. 77:343-4. Hamaker, B.R., A.S. Tandjung,, L. Mamadou.. and J.D. Axtell. 1998. A Oria, M.P., B.R. Hamaker, and J.D. Axtell. 1999. A highly digestible sor- novel vitreous core endosperm phenotype found in sorghum grain in a ghum cultivar exhibits a unique folded structure of endosperm protein high protein digestibilitylhigh-lysinepopulation. Cereal Foods World bodies. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 975065-70. 43548. X.Z. Han and B.R. Hamaker, Functional and microstructural aspects of sol- Zhan~.G. and B.R. Hamaker. 1999. Interaction amone starch. orotein, and uble starch in pastes and gels, StarchIStaerke 2-3:76-80. liGd affects starch pasting properties. Institute or~ood~chnologists Bugusu, B.A. and B.R. Hamaker. Improvement of sorghum-wheat com- annual meeting abstracts. Chicago. Julv, v. 176. posite dough rheological properties and breadmaking quality through Aboubacar, A. and B.R. ~aiaker.fi&. ipl;lication of the BCA assay to zein addition, Cereal Chem. In press. identify sorghumwith high protein digestibility, American Association of Cereal Chemists annual meeting abstracts, Seattle, November, p. 171. Proceedings Aboubacar, A., N. Yazici, and B.R. Hamaker. 1999. Effects of decortication rate on sorghum flour and couscous quality, American Hamaker, B.R., M.P. Oria, C.A. Weaver, and J.D. Axtell. 1997. Improving Association of Cereal Chemists annual meeting, Seattle, November, p. sorghum nutritional quality. Pages 227-292. In Quality Protein Maize: 217. 1964-1994, B.A. Larkins and E.T. Mertz (eds.), Purdue University, Bugusu, B.A. and B.R. Hamaker. 1999. Effect of added zein protein on West Lafayette, IN. composite flour dough mixograph curves, American Association of Hamaker, B.R. and A. Rahmanifar. QPM and nutritional needs ofchildren Cereal Chemists annual meeting, Seattle, November, p. 237. in poor communities. Pages 27-40. In Proceedings of the International Mix, N.C., A. Aboubacar, and B.R. Harnaker. 1999. Presence of wa- Symposium on Quality Protein Maize, B.A. Larkins and E.T. Mertz ter-soluble low molecular weight branched starch components in sor- (eds.). Purdue University, West Lafayette. ghum flour, American Association of Cereal Chemists annual meeting, Seattle, November, p. 250. Zhang, G. and B.R ~ader.1999. Starch-protein-lipid interaction in a Books model system, American Association of Cereal Chemists annual meet- ing, ~ehle,November, p. 302. B.R. Hamaker and B.A. Larkins, Maize food and feed: a current perspec- Hamaker, B.R., A. Aboubacar, M.B. Miklus, and N.C. Mix. 1999. Frag- tive and consideration of future possibilities, in Transgenic Crops, Mar- mented branched starch structures and product texture, American As- cel Dekker, Inc., New York. sociation of Cereal Chemists annual meeting, Seattle, November. Tandjung, A.S., S.J. Batterman-Azcona, and B.R. Hamaker. 1999. The ef- fect of corn zein protein on extrudate properties and viscosity profiles, Dissertations and Theses American Association ofcereal Chemists annual meeting, Seattle, No- vember v. 235. Lewamy, M.K. 1996. ldentification of novel "dense floury" sorghum lines Miklus, M.B. and B.R. Hamaker. 1999. Changes in soluble starchcompo- with high lysine and high protein digestibility. M.S. thesis. Purdue Uni- nent of masa associated with adhesiveness. American Association of versity, West Lafayette, M. Cereal Chemists annual meting, Seattle, November p. 309. Buckner, RJ. 1997. Developmental and crosslinking factors related to low protein digestibility of sorghum grain. Ph.D. dissertation. Purdue Uni- versity, West Lafayette, IN. Journal Articles Batterman-Azcona, S.J. 1998. Microstructural and chemical changes in com protein bodies and a-zeins during processing and their effect on Weaver, C.A., B.R. Hamaker, and J.D. Axtell. 1998. Discovery of grain texture. Ph.D. dissertation. Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN. sorghum germplasm with high uncooked and cooked in vitro protein Zhang, G. 1999. A novel three-way interaction among starch,brotein, and digestibilities. Cereal Chem. 75:665-70. free fatty acid: functionality and mechanism elucidation. Ph.D. disser- Zhang, G. and B.R. Hamaker. 1998. Low a-amylase starchdigestibility of tation. west Lafayette, IN.^ cooked sorghum flours and the effect of protein. Cereal Chem. Bugusu, B.A. 2000. Effect of added zein on properties and microstructure 75~710-3. of sorghum-wheat composite flour dough and bread. M.S. thesis. Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN. Crop Utilization and Marketing

Food and Nutritional Quality of Sorghum and Millet Project TAM-226 L.W. Rooney Texas A&M University

Principal Investigator

Dr. Lloyd W. Rooney, Professor, Food Science and Agronomy, Cereal Quality Lab, Soil and Crop Science Department, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843-2474 Cooperator: Dr. Ralph D. Waniska, Professor, Food Science, Cereal Quality Lab, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843-2474

Collaborating Scientists

Ms. A.B. Berthe, Food Technologist and Dr. A. Toure, Sorghum Breeder: Institute Economie Rurale, Bamako, Republic of Mali Mr. Javier Bueso, Assistant Professor, CITESGRAN, Escuela Agricola Pan Americana, Departmento de Agronomia, Zarnorano, Honduras Ms. Caroline Villadares, Food Scientist, EAP/RN, Zamorano/Tegucigalpa, Honduras Drs. G. Teetes and R.A. Frederiksen, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas Drs. D.T. Rosenow and G. Peterson, Texas A&M University, Agriculture Research and Extension Center, Lubbock, Texas Dr. Sergio Sema-Saldivar, Professor and Head, Food Science, Instituto Tecnologico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey (ITESM), Mexico Dr. Trust Beta, Lecturer, Department of Food Science, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe Professor John R.N. Taylor, Head, Food Technology Department, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Summary

This project has made significant contributions to the de- New commercial sorghum hybrids with tan plant redand velopment of new markets for value-enhanced white food whlte pericarp color are nearing release from commercial sorghums promoted by the U.S. Grains Council. hybrid seed companies and TAES. Several parental sor- Value-enhanced white food sorghums positively impressed ghum lines released from the program are used in commer- the Japanese food industry as an ingredient in extruded cial hybrids grown in Mexico and the United States. ATx snacks and related products. Sorghum flour was demon- 635 hybrids have outstanding milling properties. strated effective in nearly 20 traditional Japanese foods in Tokyo. Its extrusion properties were better than rice. The The principles defied by Ms. M. Leon-Chapa's thesis on bland flavor and light color extrudates were excellent flavor Mexican cookies made from sorghum flour was used to carrier. Additional industrial food processing trials spon- make excellent rosquettes (coolues) and rosquillos which sored in part by the U.S. Grains Council are underway in Ja- are dry salty cookies made from nixtamalized maize or sor- pan. ghum in Honduras. Sureiio, a white food sorghum grown in Honduras, and two new improved Maicillo varieties were In Central America, white food sorghums are used in useful. Several white tan plant sorghum varieties in El Sal- cookies and other products as a substitute for wheat or vador are used as a substitute for wheat flour in sweet maize. Personnel in Honduras successfully conducted bak- breads. ing trials demonstrating the value of white food sorghums. A new snack from white sorghum was marketed in the Our long term research on improving sorghum milling United States. Several mills are producing sorghum flour properties include these observations: for niche markets . The milling properties of sorghum are affected by hy- Special sorghums with high levels ofphenols andantiox- brid and environmental conditions. idants produce excellent chips and baked products. The an- tioxidant level in brown sorghum bran is higher than that of Sorghums with purple or red plant color produce blue bemes. highly-colored, stained grits when the grain weathers during and after maturation; tan plant color reduces discoloration. Crop Utilization and Marketing

The food sorghums released have about the same grit Constraints yields as cream hybrids, but the grit color is much better, especially when weathering occurs. Factors affecting food quality, processingproperties, and nutritional value of sorghum and millet are critically impor- The tan plant red sorghum hybrids produced about the tant. Ifthe grain cannot be processed and consumed for food same yields of grits; however, the grit color was much or feed, then the agronomic and breeding research has been improved. wasted. This project relates quality to measurable character- istics that can be used to select for sorghum and millet with ATx635 hybrids all had significantly improved yields acceptable traditional and industrial utilization attributes. It of grits with excellent color. The density and test has defined quality attributes and incorporates those desir- weights were highest for ATx635 grains at all loca- able properties into new cultivars at early stages in the tions. breeding and improvement programs. The project also seeks to find more efficient ways of processing sorghums In Mali, 20% flour from N'Tenimissa, a white food and millets into new foods with better acceptability that can sorghum, was used successfully in biscuits by a large generate income for farmers and entrepreneurs. industrial processor. The bland flavor and light color ofwhite food type sorghums were superior to maize in The major constraint to development of profitable sor- composite baked products. However, identity pre- ghum and millet foods is the lack of a consistent supply of served grains of consistent quality must be obtained good quality grain. Until a source of identity-preserved, for processing. This is a major constraint. good quality grain can be produced, sorghum and millet products will continue to be inferior. It is imperative that Antifungal proteins are related to grain mold resis- plant improvement programs develop cultivars with good tance in sorghum. A molecular linkage map for sor- quality for value-added processing at the local level. Sys- ghum kernel characteristics, milling properties and tems for marketing identity-preserved grains as value-added products for urban consumers are critically im- mold resistance is nearing completion. portant. Near inhared and a sing1e hardness Grain molds cause and significantly reduce the tester were and used for grain 'Om- quality of sorghum for food and fee&. Infomation on the position and size and factors that affect mold damage of sorghum and methods to weight successfully for sorghum. develop mold resistant sorghums is needed. This project ad- dresses those critical issues. Eight Ph.D., 8 M.S. and four B.S. students completed their studies and joined the food industry or went on to ~~~~~~~h ~~~~~~~h and project output graduate school during the past four years. Sorghum and millet grains grown locally and from vari- Objectives, Production, and Utilization Constraints ous areas of the world were analyzed for physical, chemical, structural, and processing properties. Various food and feed Objectives products were prepared to test the quality of the different grain samples. Some of these findings are summarized be- Develop new food products from sorghum and millet low. using technology appropriate for use in less devel- oped areas. Significant Accomplishment - Application of Technology to Marketing Determine physical, chemical, and structural factors that affect the food and nutritional quality of sorghum; This project has led the way in developing and stimulat- seek ways of modifying its properties or improving ing interest in the U.S. sorghum industry to produce methods of processing. value-enhanced white food type sorghums using identity preserved systems with subsequent market development in Develop simple, practical laboratory methods for use several areas of the world. Recently, the U.S. Grains Coun- in breeding programs to assess important grain quality cil completed successful marketing efforts in Japan to sell characteristics. white identity preserved white sorghum for food applica- tions. Lloyd W. Rooney provided continuing technical in- Determine the factors that affect resistance to grain formation and was a major participant in these market molds and field deterioration in sorghum and devise activities utilizing information obtained over the years in laboratory procedures to detect genotypes with resis- TAM-226. Figure 1 shows the market development team tance. presenting information to Japanese millers and food proces- sors in a milling company that has developed a small scale milling plant for sorghum. The products in the photo pro- Crop Utilization and Marketing

Figure 1. United States Grains Council market development activities in Japan (top right) have utilized informa- tion and technologies generated to promote identity preserved value-enhanced sorghum for Japanese food processors. The products shown were produced in Japan. Identity preserved white sorghum is being sent to Japan for processing. The white sorghum flour produces bland, white products compatible with Japa- nese food systems. duced by Japanese food companies and a dietician were ex- flour using twin screw extruders following our suggestions. hibited and consumed by 45 or more participants in a U.S. The extrusion properties of sorghum flour and meal were Grains Council sorghum products seminar in Tokyo in June judged outstanding by these Japanese industrial food scien- 2000. The products were given high ratings and were the tists which confirmed what we had told them in their visit to capstone for the seminar. Lloyd Rooney presented a two- our laboratory in 1999. They found that the white sorghum hour lecture on use of sorghum in food products which was produced bland flavor, light color products that extruded based on research conducted as part of this project. into "0-like products with better properties than rice at re- duced cost. An extruded salty snack and sweet chocolate coated snack was made by a Japanese food company from sorghum Crop Utilization and Marketing

Two containers of identity preserved food sorghums food products have finally begun to pay dividends by assist- were shipped to Japan for further evaluations. The Japanese ing farmers to produce and market value-enhanced sorghum are interested in buying white sorghum and sales could oc- hybrids. The long term financial support of INTSORMIL, cur this next year if all goes well and increase after that. the TAES and our tenacity in persevering allowed this to happen. POPUMS, a commercial new product based on a special whlte food hybrid sorghum, was marketed by a west coast Applications in Honduras and El Salvador company in the United States. These new food hybrids are also marketed as flour and meal to ethnic and celiac sprue Our research on sorghum has been applied in Honduras afflicted people by several small companies. and El Salvador. The variety, Sureiio and others with white tan plant color, are used in Central America for tortillas, Our long-term efforts to improve sorghum quality rosquillos, and rosquettes which are major baked products. through breeding and demonstration of its use in prototype Figure 2 shows some of the products produced near

Figure 2. Findings in our laboratory concerning use of sorghum in baked products have been demonstrated in prod- ucts in Honduras by EAP personnel. The products shown contain white food type sorghum with little or no change in their characteristics over the usual wheat or maize products. Crop Utilization and Marketing

Choluteca, Honduras by small bakeries and housewives. absorbance capacity) value (U mol Trolox equivalent, They utilize nixtamalized Sureiio to produce the rosquillos. TEIg) range of 23 to 4 10, compared to blue berries with val- The color is slightly darker for sorghum rosquillos but they ues of 63 to 282 on a dry matter basis. Sorghum brans high in are more acceptable than corn products since the slightly tannins, anthocyanins, and phenols have excellent potential darker color signifies to the consumer that more cream, as antioxidants and they are excellent sources of insoluble cheese, and other high-value ingredients have been used. In dietary fiber. El Salvador, sorghum flours are used in small bakeries to produce rosquettes, rosquillos and other variations of these Effects of Sorghum Brans on Bread Qualig products. Adding sorghum brans to baked goods can produce Applications of Technology in Mali nutraceutical products. Since addition ofbran to breads may diminish bread quality, effects of white sorghum, early su- Work in Mali continues to demonstrate the value of new, mac, and black sorghum brans on bread quality were evalu- white, tan plant sorghum varieties in food systems. Major ated. Breads were formulated according to AACC method constraints continues to be lack of an effective identity pre- 10- 1OB, with addition of 17 or 23% bran. Controls were for- served production scheme integrated into processing into mulated with the addition of wheat bran. Brans were ana- value added flour and meal. The General Foods Company of lyzed for tannins, phenols, and Oxygen Radical Absorbance Mali has found up to 20% white sorghum flour acceptable in Capacity (ORAC) values, as well as dietary fiber and other production of biscuits. The key constraint now is to secure components. A maximum of 23% bran (for all brans except adequate production of the tan plant sorghum varieties. black sorghum, which exhibited a maximum usage level of Also, new improved tan plant white sorghums are needed to 17%) yielded high-quality loaves with excellent sensory improve production levels. Fanners growing the white tans characteristics. Use of sorghum brans also added significant remark that they prefer them to those made from the tan dietary fiber and higher amounts of phenolic compounds plant grains. This is a similar situation to farmers in Hondu- compared to wheat bran. Addition of 23% early sumac bran ras and El Salvador who like tortillas made from white tan or 17% black sorghum bran gave breads with appearance, plant sorghum varieties. texture, color and specific volume (cm3Ig) similar to com- mercial specialty or dark rye breads. Work continues in Mali by the IER and Novartis to dem- onstrate the application of sorghum or millet malt inproduc- The Effect of Grain Color andpH tion of improved weaning foods made with a combination on Sorghum Tortilla Chips of cowpeas and millet. We have worked on this technology in the past to show that millet or sorghum malt can be used to The effect of grain color and pH on sorghum chip proper- produce caloric dense weaning foods from pearl millet or ties was evaluated. Masas prepared from hard-endosperm, sorghum and cowpea blends. Progress is being made in Ma- white-pericarp, food-type (white- ATX63 1 x RTX436) and lian villages to use home-made children's foods with high soft-endosperm, tannin-containing, red-pericarp caloric density and reduced viscosity. The millet malt re- (brown-ATX623 x SC 103-12-E) sorghums were adjusted duces the viscosity of the cooked gruels significantly. to pH levels of 5,7 (control) and 11 and processed into torti- llas and tortilla chips. Color components were measured. Sorghum Phenols and Catechins as Anti-oxidants Grain color and pH levels had a significant effect on sor- ghum chip properties. Chips produced from brown sorghum Some sorghum varieties contain tannins and other phe- were dark brown at high pH and reddish tan at low pH. nols concentrated in the bran; they could provide a natural White sorghum chips were yellowish at high pH and pinkish source of antioxidants for foods. Our objective was to iso- tan at low pH. Both types of sorghum chips increased in late sorghum fractions with the highest levels of tannins ahd hardness at a high pH. White sorghum chips were softer phenols and determine their antioxidant capacities. than those from brown sorghum at every pH. Brown and Twenty-three sorghum varieties grown in Texas in 1999 white chips at neutral and low pH were similar in texture. were analyzed for tannins (Vanillin-HC1) and phenols For both varieties, chips prepared at high pH levels devel- (Folin-Ciocalteu). Four varieties with different characteris- oped peak viscosity in a shorter time and the peak viscosities tics -Early Sumac (Brl) and ATx623*SC103 (Br2), type I11 were higher than those of chips at low pH. Chips produced high tannin sorghums; Tx430 (Bkl ), a black variety high in from brown and white sorghum had acceptable flavor at anthocyanins; and ATx63 1*RTx436 (white), a food type neutral and high pH. sorghum - were selected and abrasively milled to remove successive bran fractions. Phenol contents (mg/100 mg gal- Sorghum Starch, Malting and Brewing Studies lic acid equivalent, GAE) in whole grains ranged from 0.07 to 2.45, and bran 0.43 to 6.01; blueberries had 2.57 and Brewing Adjuncts and Sweet Worts wheat bran 0.30 on a dry matter basis. Tannin levels fiom Waxy Sorghums (mg1100 mg catechin equivalent, CE) ranged from 0 to 5.6 in the whole grains. Brl and Br2 brans had values of 13.9 Four different sorghum genotypes, white normal and 17.5. The brans had an ORAC (oxygen radical (WNO), white waxy (WWX), white heterowaxy (WHWX), Crop Utilization and Marketing and brown normal (BNO), were decorticated in a PRL mill duction in cookie quality. It is possible to produce cookies and then roller-milled into brewing grits. Grain hardness without wheat flour, but a binder is needed to strengthen the values determined with the TADD mill indicated that the crumb. The addition of 5% pregelatinized corn starch to BNO sorghum had the softest endosperm and yielded the 95% SF made the dough easier to handle, held the cookie lowest amount of decorticated kernels. Decorticatedkernels structure together, and improved the handling properties of had lower protein, crude fiber, ash, and color scores and the cookies. However, over time, this treatment tended to be higher starch contents than their respective whole kernels. more fiagile than the wheat control. The bland flavor and The yield of brewing adjuncts from decorticated WNO, light color of sorghum flour makes it advantageous to use in WWX, WHWX, andBNO were 87.4,89.9,90.0, and 81%, flour substitution, but the grittiness of the particles must be respectively. Worts produced from WWX brewing adjuncts controlled. filtered faster than the heterowaxy and normal counterparts. All sorghum worts, standardized to 14O Plato, had in practi- Sorghum Flour in Biscuits and Cookies in cal terms similar pH, viscosity, alpha amino nitrogen and Central America and Mexico color scores. The fermentable carbohydrate content of the BNO sorghum wort was slightly lower when compared with Ms. Leon Chapa completed her M.S. thesis on the utiliza- all the white sorghum worts. White sorghums with hard, tion of sorghum flour as a substitute for wheat flour in Mexi- waxy endosperms were the most suitable for use as brewing can dry, sandy, cookies. She found that up to 50% sorghum adjuncts. flour could be substituted for wheat flour without affecting organoleptic and other properties. The same type of cookies Dr. Sema-Saldivar, ITESM, Monterrey, Mexico, is con- called roskettes in Honduras and El Salvador are used. Ms. P tinuing to investigate brewing and starch properties of sor- Carrillo, B.S. student and Ms. C. Villadares, Food Scientist ghum with our collaboration. He has two more students at EAP in Zarnorano, Honduras assisted by Mr. Bueso, initiating research in this area presently. New food type sor- Ph.D. graduate student in our Cereal Quality Laboratory, ghum hybrids are being grown in Mexico where sorghum is have applied her information in Honduras. They found that the second leading cereal crop; these new varieties should sorghum can be used extensively in rosquette production be successfully utilized by the brewing industry. provided it is a white sorghum flour. They conducted exper- iments in local households near Choluteca in southern Hon- Effect of Sorghum Flour and Gelatinized Starch duras demonstratingthat rosquettes containing sorghum are on the Structure and Texture of Cookies of excellent quality and can provide an outlet for improved sorghum grains (Figure 2). Cookies were prepared from 100% sorghum flour (SF), a combination of 5050 wheatISF, and 955 SFIgelatinized Ms. Herrera, working with CENTA in El Salvador, has corn starch, using 100% wheat flour as a control, to deter- conducted many trials in local bakeries showing that sor- mine what effect the flours had on cookie texture and struc- ghum can be used effectively in baking of roskettes, sweet ture. Fragility of the 100% sorghum cookie and low values breads, and other products as well. We have initiated a pro- for peak force (texture) was because of reduced starchy con- gram in El Salvador to work with her to assist in sorghum tinuous phase and no gluten network to hold the crumb to- flour production from the improved white, tan plant food gether. The flour particles in the crumb appeared to be held sorghums that are available in El Salvador. This work along together by little more than the fat in the mixture. The 5050 with the breeding program in El Salvador and Nicaragua wheattSF cookie had a stronger crumb, higher peak force will continue to improve sorghum quality for use in foods. value, and similar appearance to control; a continuous phaselgluten network was present, but was thin and insuffi- The production of sorghum flour by small operators is a cient to hold the crumb together. The cookie prepared with major constraint to more widespread use of sorghum by the 955 SF/ gelatinized corn starch was harder in texture than small holders in the region. We are trying to blend together the 100% SF cookie and was similar in appearance to the existing expertise in the region to put the technologies to controls. The pre-gelatinized starch provided enough work. starchy continuous phase matrix to hold the sorghum flow particles in the cookie together and provide strength to the Rosquillos, made by small local processors, are a type crumb. The SF/gelatinized corn starch cookies were as ac- of dry, salty, cookie made from nixtamalized maize in Cen- ceptable in appearance and texture as the control cookies. tral America (Figure 2). They are, after tortillas, the second Increased production of sorghum in Mexico creates most important use of nixtamalized maize. Field experi- long-term opportunities to use sorghum as an alternative ments in Choluteca, Honduras by the EAP, accompanied by flour source. White food type sorghums are high quality Mr. Bueso, showed clearly that the rosquillos made from grains with bland taste that can be easily incorporated into white sorghum (Sureiio) had equal to or better acceptance many foods. The grittiness of the sorghum flour can be re- than those made with a white corn. The slightly darker color duced by process changes. of the sorghum rosquillos was an advantage because darker means that greater amounts of cream, cheese, and other in- Sorghum flour (SF) can be substituted for wheat flour in gredients were used in production of the product and, hence, a variety of cookies. A 5050 blend can be used with little re- the improved quality is perceived. The taste ofthe rosquillos Crop Utilization and Marketing from sorghum and corn were the same in the trials. Ms. qualities. They are an obvious choice for planting in more Henera, CENTA has industrial experience in this area as humid areas, i.e., Corpus Christi and College Station, well. Rosquillos and rosquettes are made by small bakers Texas. and sold in the local cities and towns. Several white tan plant hybrids out yielded the red corn- These findings are discussed in detail in the Central mercial sorghum hybrids and are being grown in some loca- American report. Our experience with tortilla processing tions in west Texas. Surprisingly, the grain yields of some from sorghum has direct relevance to rosquillo production white tan plant hybrids was tops in many of the Kansas State as well. This affords an opportunity to utilize sorghum in University sorghum yield trials. The grain quality traits of popular food items where it has an advantage over maize. the hybrids were good to excellent except for the early ma- As we work to enhance utilization at the entrepreneur level, turing hybrids that stayed too long in the field prior to har- the combination of cereals and legumes to produce vesting at College Station and Corpus Christi. Next year, value-added foods is critically important. Acquisition of tan plant performance trials will be located in Kansas as good quality raw grains and legumes is the limiting eco- well. nomic factor in many cases. The objective to evaluate commercial food-type hybrids Our emphasis will be to work with personnel in Central was achieved. These trials originated by Bill Rooney, Sor- America to assist them in stimulating production of foods ghum Breeder, TAES, and sponsored by the Grain Sor- from these grains in an economic and practical manner. We ghum Producers Association, and a special TAES fund can provide training on technology that will be useful in El called PROFIT, provide information required to develop Salvador and Honduras. Proper milling technology and markets for value-enhanced food sorghums. Identity pre- identity preserved food sorghums can be used to produce a served white food sorghums are now available to service wide array of products including rice substitutes. these markets. They are the direct results of the significant long term research done in this project and others within The price of rice is such that locally grown sorghums INTSORMIL in conjunction with other funding sources. could compete for markets in certain snacks, ready to eat The white food and tan plant red sorghums had superior breakfast cereals, and composite flours for baking. milling properties consistently and can be used for produc- tion of light color, bland flavor food ingredients, and con- Tan Plant Food Type Hybrid sumer products. Performance and Quality Trials In Japan, commercial food companies have successfully A new replicated food sorghum test consisting of 18 developed prototype snacks and other products from white commercial hybrids submitted by 9 seed companies, plus 5 sorghums. They report that the extrudates are excellent and Texas Agricultural Experiment Station food hybrids, and 2 carry flavor and color additives better than extruded rice commercial red sorghum hybrids was grown at Corpus flour snacks. A new product made from 100% white food Christi, College Station, Halfway, and Dumas, Texas. The sorghum called POPUMS, introduced by a company in objective was to obtain uniform agronomic and quality data Washington State, is made from a specific commercial food to permit a better understanding of our current food sor- grade white sorghum hybrid that has excellent yield and ghum hybrids and their properties. Data from the Halfway, hard grain. Texas location was abandoned due to excessive midge dam- age. The Corpus Christi and College Station locations had We continue to evaluate grain from international food some grain moMs and weathering while Dumas, Texas quality nurseries and hybrid trials to monitor new materials grain was optimum quality. Typical red and cream corn- in the pipeline and to encourage private seed companies to mercial sorghumhybrids were includedas well as openped- develop new improved value-enhanced hybrids. The grain igree food hybrids for comparisons. industry in the U.S. is rapidly changing to a value-enhanced identity preservedmarketing system which fits into our long The agronomic data showed that the tan plant hybrids term goal of improving sorghum quality for food and feeds. were competitive with comparable traditional purple plant Sufficient quantities of value-enhanced sorghums exist to hybrids. The availability of short season tan plant hybrids is allow for market development. limited. More of them are required to extend the food sor- ghum production into drier, shorter season environments. In Yield, Agronomics and Quality Attributes of 1999, College Station and Corpus Christi had significant Commercial White Tan Food Sorghum Hybrids weathering and discoloration of the early hybrids. The later maturing hybrids avoided weathering. The test at Dumas Commercial sorghums and value-enhanced white food had excellent clear grain and gave a real accurate compari- sorghum grown on farmers' fields and exported from Gulf son of relative grain quality traits. Grain weathering and Coast elevators in 1999 were analyzed for composition, molds are definitely limiting factors affecting food sorghum physical, and milling properties. The milling properties of production. Fortunately, the red tan plant hybrids avoided value-enhanced food-type sorghum hybrids grown under weathering; some had excellent grain yields and processing commercial production were compared with commercial Crop Utilization and Marketing export samples of sorghums. The white food grains had nents. The instrument can be utilized for millet as well, but slightly higher test weight, true density, reduced floaters, calibration equations must be developed for its effective ap- and slightly higher yields of decorticated grain than the red plication. sorghum. However, the major difference was in color, which was significantly lighter and brighter for the A single kernel characterization tester used for wheat food-type sorghums. The red pericarp contributes signifi- kernel hardness was applied to sorghum kernel hardness cant color to the flour which would have been worse if the measurement. The instrument in our laboratory has been grain had been weathered slightly. This information was renovated to more efficiently work with sorghum. We use it used in the U.S. Grain Councils value-enhanced grains - to characterize sorghum kernels from our replicated white 2000 summary of quality for grain importers. tan plant and other sorghum tests in 2000. Preliminary infor- mation looks promising with a high correlation between We evaluated the International Food Sorghum Trials hardness scores, milling properties, and other characteris- grown in several locations in Texas during 1990 to 1999 for tics. kernel properties and milling properties. Based on abrasive milling techniques on samples from these extensive Funds to improve these methods were received from a multi-location, multi-year trials we have the following con- special research program on sorghum from the Texas Legis- clusions: lature.

The milling properties of sorghum are affected by hy- Role of AFP in Minimizing brid and environmental conditions. Grain Molding of Sorghum

Sorghums with purple or red plant color produce Grain deterioration caused by molding is the major dis- highly-colored, stained grits when the grain weathers ease problem for sorghum utilization in many regions of the during and after maturation; tan plant color reduces world. Grain deterioration is common when sorghum is discoloration. grown in warm, humid environments. We are continuing to determine mechanisms of mold resistance involving pro- The food sorghums released have about the same grit teins with antifungal activity (AFP). Previously, we re- yields as cream hybrids, but the grit color is consis- ported several AFPs (sormatin, chitinases, p- tently improved because they do not stain during light 1,3-glucanase, and ribosomal inactivating proteins (RIP)) weathering. When hot, humid conditions exist all are present in pericarp, germ and endosperm; and these sorghums will eventually deteriorate. AFPs are inhibitory to grain mold fungal species.

The tan plant red sorghum hybrids produced about the We assisted Drs. Bill Rooney and Raul Rodriguez to de- same yields of grits as grains from red grain with pur- termine the levels of AFPs in thq grain of sorghums grown ple plant color; the grit color was much improved. in eight environments over three years. Levels of four AFPs These hybrids should be grown in hot, humid areas were determined in mature caryopses (40-45 days after such as the Gulf Coast region. They also produce anthesis) of eight grain mold resistant (GMR) and eight sus- grain that causes reduced specking in eviscerated ceptible (GMS) sorghum lines using the irnrnunoblot tech- broilers which allows sorghum feeding during final nique. These 16 lines came from the same cross and were days prior to slaughter. selected for high and low grain mold resistance. The GMR lines had less grain molding in seven environments with ATx635 hybrids all had significantly improved yields grain mold incidence, as expected. There was very little grain deterioration or molding in any cultivar in the of grits with excellent color. The density and test grain-mold-free environment. weights were highest for ATx635 grains at all loca- tions. In the seven environments with grain mold incidence, higher levels of sormatin, chitinases, and ribosomal inacti- Some commercial tan plant hybrids have improved vating proteins (RIP) were observed in the GMR lines com- milling and processing properties that relate to ATx pared to the GMS lines (Figure 3). Values of p- 635. ATx 635 is used as a parent in several commer- 1,3-glucanase for the GMR lines were higher in three of cial food hybrids. It produces excellent quality grain; seven and were similar in four of seven environments with hybrids based on it are being produced in Mexico. grain mold incidence. Also, levels of chitinase, sormatin, and RIP in the GMR lines were higher in the environments Improved Methods of Analysis with grain mold than in the mold-free epvironment. AFPs correlated among themselves and with grain mold resis- Near infrared equipment to analyze whole grain for tance. chemical composition and physical properties have been calibrated for whole and ground sorghum samples. This will In the grain mold-free environment (Halhay, Texas in for its cornPo- 1996), grain mold ratings were similar and low for GMR Crop Utilization and Marketing

Figure 3. Antifungal protein levels (pglg) in mature caryopses of eight grain mold resistant (GMR) and eight suscep- tible (GMS) lines grown at seven environments. Resistant lines have more AFP than susceptible lines ex- cept for glucanase. For glucanase, means followed by the same letter are not significantly different (within environments). Legend: BE - Beeville, CD - College Station, dry (furrow irrigated), CW - College Station, and GMS lines. The GMR lines had higher RIP and lower P- co-induction or retention of AFPs may be a necessary pre- 1,3-glucanase levels than those in the GMS lines. Sormatin requisite for resistance to grain mold in sorghums without a and chitinase contents were not significantly different be- pigmented testa, even though some AFPs may be constitu- tween GMR and GMS lines. AFPs did not correlate with tively expressed. grain mold resistance since no grain molding was observed in this environment. We are continuing this research with Dr. Bill Rooney, David Wooton (a Ph.D. student of Dr. Bill Rooney) and Dr. Grain mold infection pressure caused GMR lines to in- Robert Klein (USDA). We are currently sampling and will duce and/or retain more AFPs compared to GMS lines. The Crop Utilization and Marketing evaluate AFPs in 200 lines from Dr. Rodriguez's study to es- vide assistance to the region by involvement in these tablish molecular markers for antifungal proteins. programs where possible.

We are also assisting Dr. Luis Prom (USDA) to evaluate Several graduate students are conducting research on as- AFPs in eight lines from Dr. Rodriguez's study that have pects of sorghumutilization with professor Taylor. Dr Trust been stressed at anthesis with fungal pathogens. This is Beta completed her Ph.D. on processing sorghum with high needed to verify previous results from Javier Bueso's thesis levels of polyphenols into foods. She has published several research that suggested resistant cultivars responded to manuscripts related to dry milling, malting and brewing ap- stress by retaining more AFPs than susceptible cultivars. plications of local Zimbabwean sorghum cultivars. Her work has been cooperative with the Matopos grain quality These data were presented by Dr. Ralph Waniska to the lab in Zimbabwe. She has worked on starch properties at the "Consultative Group Meeting on Technical and Institu- University of ~ongKong with Professor Harold Corke and tional Options for Sorghum Grain Mold Management" held is a faculty member at the University of Zimbabwe in the at ICRISAT on May 18-19,2000. The goal of the meeting food science area. Lloyd Rooney served on her committee was to increase the value of the grain by 1) increased resis- and was a thesis examiner. tance to grain deterioration (molding) during development and post maturation; and 2) increased utilization (demand) Ms. Leda Hugo, Mozambique, is a Ph.D. student at the of the grain for food and non-food uses. All of the recent University of Pretoria working on the effect of malting sor- data on AFP research was provided by Dr. Waniska. These ghum on its use in compositebreads. She is a professor at the data were instrumental in the formulation of the work plans University of Eduardo Mondlane University and completed of the conference. We decided the target should be her M.S. at Texas A&M University. Lloyd Rooney serves "warm-humid environment, white pericarp, high yield, bold on her Ph D. committee. grain, short duration, medium hardness, thin pericarp, and increased gama-prolamins." We decided that a marker as- Lloyd Rooney served as external examiner for the M.S. sisted selection process should be utilized to increase AFPs programof Mr. Joseph Wambugo, Kenya, who completed a in improved cultivars. The conference report will soon be thesis on weaning foods from sorghum. Ms. S Yetneberk, complete and used by ICRISAT in a strategy to increase Ethiopia, is initiatingher Ph D. program and L. Rooney will grain mold resistance in sorghum. serve onher committee as well. Her project will be related to determination of the factors affecting the quality of injera Sorghum Improvement Research from sorghum.

This project cooperates closely with other members of Mr. J. Awika,Kenya, is a M.S. candidate in the Cereal the sorghum program to incorporate the best quality charac- Quality Lab nearing completion of his degree. He will con- teristics into new cultivars and parents of new hybrids. Sev- tinue on to a Ph.D. in food science and technology. eral inbreds that produce white, tan-plant sorghum hybrids with excellent food and feed processing quality have been Honduras, Mexico and South America released. These so'rghums produce excellent quality grain when grown under dry conditions. Because of reduced L.W. Rooney traveled to Honduras to assist Mr. Javier anthocyanin pigments, the grain can withstand some hu- Bueso with research and teaching activities at EAP. midity during and after maturation. However, these Nixtamalization of sorghum from advanced breeding nurs- sorghums need more resistance to molds and weathering to eries was accomplished in the CITESGRAN laboratory. be grown in hot, humid areas, e.g., the Coastal Bend of Texas and Tamalipas in Mexico. The need to understand The EAP CITESGRAN program has increased activities sorghum molding and weathering is critical. If markers can in food science teaching, research, and out reach in Central be found that confer mold resistance, we will be able to America. Mr. Javier Bueso made two trips to EAP in the make better progress since field screening is difficult. spring of 2000 to assist in conducting research on baking quality of sorghum. He is working on a Ph.D. in our lab. Networking Activities Nolvia Zelaya, M.S. Student from Honduras, is working on tortillas in our laboratory and is available for these activi- Southern Africa ties. They are partially hdedthrough INTSORMIL.

Graduate students in the Food Science Department at the L.W. Rooney has a cooperative project with Dr. S. University of Pretoria are from many other Afr-ican coun- Serna-Saldivar, Professor and Head, Food Science, tries. Many of them are participating in the Regional Master Instituto Tecnologico y de Estudios Superiores de of Science program which consists ofjoint programs be- Monterrey (ITESM), Monterrey, Mexico, to evaluate the tween CSIR and the University of Pretoria. Thus, interac- usefulness of the new improved food sorghum hybrids in tions with this program informs many future African food wet and dry milling and as adjuncts in brewing. We pro- industry leaders on the potential role of sorghum and millets vided samples of sorghum for planting and for analysis in as food and industrial ingredients. INTSORMIL can pro- addition to the use of our laboratory for a few analytical Crop Utilization and Marketing

tests, i.e., reducing sugars, rapid viscosity analyses, color, blue berries which are considered excellent sources of anti- and texture. His Ph.D. and subsequent experience was oxidants. funded from INTSORMIL. We have a graduate student from Mexico partially fhded on this project. Numerous presentations were made to sorghum produc- tion conferences in Texas to U.S. Grain Council market de- Mali velopment teams from Japan, Mexico, Central America, Taiwan, and to visitors fkom Australia, Mali, Niger, Bot- N'Tenimissa (a new white, tan plant, locally adapted swana, Honduras, Guatemala, El Salvador, and China. photosensitive sorghum cultivar specifically designed for value-added processing in Mali) is liked by farmers for its Our laboratory conducted annual short courses on prac- improved t8 quality. NYTenimissa'spanicle breaks off after tical snack foods production for private industry in which grain fill and causes harvesting problems. Sister selections sorghum utilization was part of the program. and other advanced breeding materials offer promise to eliminate that problem. N'Tenimissa has high yields with Sorghum Market Development Activities slightly softer grain than local cultivars so some adjust- ments in milling time are required. It consistently has a The Grain Sorghum Producers Association has market lighter color, provided it is not contaminated with off types. development activities to capitalize on value-enhanced sorghums for use in value-added products in Japan, Taiwan, Production of identity-preserved grain in sufficient Mexico, Central and South America. Our research activities quantities for value-added processing has proven difficult to on development of food type sorghums, milling properties, achieve. Ms. Berthe and others in the IER Food Technology composite flours, tortillas, snacks, and other prototype food laboratory have demonstrated the improved value of products fiom sorghum was presented at the U.S. Grain N'Tenimissa in food products. The real key is to produce Council sponsored value-enhanced market development large enough quantities of identity preserved grain for workshops in the United States (three times), Japan, Mexico value-added processing on an economically sound basis. (three times), Guatemala and to trade teams from several This is a very significant problem that limits adaptation of countries. technology for processed food products from sorghum and millet. The concept of identity-preserved production and mar- keting of grains is expanding significantly in value-added Our information on weaning foods with increased calo- corns. Our development of white food-type, waxy, ric density using sorghum or millet malt is being tested in heterowaxy, and nonwaxy sorghums fits into these market- villages by the IER Food Lab through a grant from the ing schemes. Novartis Foundation. These activities are pursued by Dr. Scheuing of the Novartis Company in Basil, Switzerland. It Training, Education and Human looks promising. In the past, a small company produced Resource Development MILEG, a weaning food from cowpea and millet, but could not maintain profitability. It failed for a number of reasons, Monterrey Institute of Technology: our collaboration including the lack of good quality millet and cowpeas for with Dr. Serna-Saldivar, Head, Food Science Dept., processing. The current effort is focused in villages that ITESM, Monterey, Mexico has lead to completion of six consume millet and sorghums. Once successful, the tech- Master of Science degrees. These young scientists have po- nology can be applied in urban areas. sitions in the Mexican food industry. Thus, knowledge of sorghum utilization potential has been transferred. North America Mr. Javier Bueso, Assistant Professor, CITESGRAN, Several papers were presented at the annual American Escuela Agricola Panamericana, Tegucigalpa, Honduras Association of Cereal Chemists conference in Seattle, WA joined our laboratory in January 2000 to complete his Ph.D. and at the Institute of Food Technologists Food Exposition in food science and technology. He has completed two short in Dallas. L.W. Rooney presented sorghum qualitylutiliza- term assignmentsto Honduras to work with his successor to tion discussions to Texas Sorghum Producers Board Mem- continue collaborativeresearch on sorghum processing into bers andpanels. L.W. Rooney was appointed to the National baked products. Three B.S. students were provided partial Sorghum Producers associations committee challenged to scholarships from INTSORMIL to complete their senior market sorghums for the food industry in value-enhanced thesis research on baking and extrusion of sorghum. Three productslingredients. L.W. Rooney was awarded funds graduate students currently work on INTSORMIL related (loOK+) from the Texas Advanced Technology Competi- research, with partial financial support. tive Research program for a two-year effort to evaluate spe- cial sorghums for anti-oxidant potential and use in Eight Ph.D., eight M.S. and four B.S. graduates were ed- nutraceuticals. Sorghum bran fractions contained from ucated as part ofthis project over the past four years. Several 20-400+ ORAC units compared to 80-200+ ORAC units for joined the food industry in their home countries. Crop Utilization and Marketing

Publications and Presentations McDonough, C.M. and L.W. Rooney. 1999. Use of the environmental scanning electron microscope in the study of cereal-based foods. Ce- real Foods World 44(5):342-348. Abstracts Quintero-Fuentes, X., C.M. McDonough, L.W. Rooney and H. Almeida-Dominguez. 1999. Functionality of rice and sorghum flours Awika, J.M., L.W. Rooney and E.L. Suhendro. 2000. Sorghum phenols in baked tortilla and corn chips. Cereal Chem. 76(5):705-710. and catechins as antioxidants. IFT Annual Meeting, June 10-14, Dallas, Rodriguez-Herrera. Raul, Ralph D. Waniska and William L. Rooney. TX. 1999. Antifungal proteins and grain mold resistance in sorghum with ~ordi,L.A., C.M. Mitre-Dieste, J.M. Awika, L.W. Rooney and E.L. non-pigmented testa. J. Agricultural and Food Chem. Suhendro. 2000. Effects of sorghum brans on bread quality. IFT An- 47(11):4802-4806. nual Meeting, June 10-14, Dallas, TX. Rooney, L.W., J.M. Awika, C.M. Mitre-Dieste, L.A. Gordon, E.L. Books, Book Chapters and Proceedings Suhendro and R.D. Waniska. 2000. Nutraceutical products from sor- ghum. IFT Annual Meeting, June 10-14, Dallas, TX. Awika, J.M., E.L. Suhendroand L.W. Rooney. 1999. Milling properties of McDonough, Cassandra M., Lloyd W. Rooney and Sergio Othon new food sorghum hybrids. AACC 84th Annual Meeting, October 31 - Serna-Saldivar. 2000. The Millets, Chapter in: Handbook of Cereal November 3, Seattle, WA. Cereal Foods World 44(7). Science and Technology: Second Edition. Marcel Dekker, Inc., Kulp, Leach, M., E.L. Suhendro, C.M. McDonough and L.W. Rooney. 1999. Karel and Joseph Ponte (ed.) 177-201. Characterizationof commercial noodles. AACC 84th Annual Meeting, Rooney, L.W. and S.O. Serna-Saldivar.2000. Sorghum.,Chapter in: Ency- October 31 - November 3, Seattle, WA. Cereal Foods World 44(7). clopedia of Food Sciencesand Nutrition. London: Academic Press. Ca- Leon, M., C.M. McDonough and L.W. Rooney. 1999. Effect of sorghum ballero, Benjamin, Trugo, Luiz, Finglas, Paul (ed) flour and gelatinized starch on the structure and texture of cookies. Rooney, Lloyd W. and Sergio Othon Serna-Saldivar. 2000. Sorghum, AACC 84th Annual Meeting, October 31 - November 3, Seattle, WA. Chapter in: Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology: Second Edi- Cereal Foods World 44(7). tion. Marcel Dekker, Inc.,Kulo, Karel and JosevhPonte led.) 149-1 75. Zelaya, N., H. Yeggy, E.L. Suhendro,X. Quinteroand L.W. Rooney. 1999. Rooney, L.W. and R~.~&iska:2000. The sorg6um carydpsk: structure The effect of grain color and pH on sorghum tortilla chips. AACC 84th andchemistry,Chapter in: A Sorghum Monopra~h.-. Wilev. C.W. Smith Annual Meeting, October 3 1 -November 3, Seattle, WA. Cereal Foods and R.A. ~rederikskn(ed.) ( in press) World 44(7). Rooney, L.W. and RD. Waniska. 2000. Sorghum food and industrial utili- zation, Chapter in: A Sorghum Monograph. Wiley. C.W. Smith and R.A. Frederiksen (ed.) ( in press) Journal Articles Beta, T., L.W. Rooney and J.R.N. Taylor. 1998. Sorghum phenolics and their implications in food processing, Chapter in: Asian Food Product Beta,T., L.W. Rooney, L.T. Marovatsangaand J.RN. Taylor. 2000. Effect Development. Science Press. H. Corke and R. Lin (ed.) pp.159-163. of chemical conditioningon the milling of high-tannin sorghum. J. Sci. Food Agric 80: (in press). Dissertations and Theses Beta, T., L.W. Rooney, L.T. Marovatsangaand J.RN. Taylor. 2000 Effect of chemical treatments on polyphenols and malt quality in sorghum. J. Cereal Sci. (in press). Leon-Chapa, Martha. December 1999. Methods to improve and measure Bueso, Francisco J., Ralph D. Waniska, William L. Rooney and Feliciano texture of sorghumcookies. M .S. Thesis. Texas A&M University, Col- P. Bejosano. 2000. Activity of antifungal proteins against mold in sor- lege Station, Texas. 126 pp. ghum caryopses in the field. J. of Ag. and Food Chem. 48:810-816. Hugo, L.F., L.W. Rooney and J.R.N. Taylor. 2000. Malted sorghum as a Miscellaneous Publications functional ingredient in composite bread. Cereal Chem.77: (in press) Osorio-Morales, S., S.O. Serna-Saldivar, J. Chavez-Contreras, H.D. Almeida-Dominguez and L.W. Rooney. 2000. Production ofbrewing Rooney, L. W. 2000 Value-enhanced sorghum quality evaluations pp. adjuncts and sweet worts from different types ofsorghum. J. American 30-32, 37-40, 89-93 in Hofing, S. and Stewart, R. 2000. 1999-2000 Soc. Brewing Chem. 58(1):21-25. Value-Enhanced Grains Quality Report, US Grains Council, 1400K Suhendro, E.L., C.F. Kunetz, C.M. McDonough, L.W. Rooney and R.D. St., NW, Suite 1200, Washington, DC 20005. Waniska. 2000. Cooking characteristics and quality of noodles from Waniska, Ralph D. and Lloyd W. Rooney. 2000. Cereals as a source of food sorghum. Cereal Chem. 77(2):96-100. nutraceuticalsl functional foods. Food Protein R&D Nutraceutical and Beta, Trust, Lloyd W. Rooney, Lillian T. Marovatsanga and John R.N. Functional Foods: Herbal Products, Functional Ingredients, Food Taylor. 1999. Phenolic compounds and kernel characteristics of Sources, Extraction, Separation1 Purification, Market, Toxicology and Zimbabwean sorghums. J. Sci. Food Agric 79:1003-1010. regulations, February 20-24, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX. Crop Utilization and Marketing

Strategic Marketing of Sorghum and Pearl Millet Food Products in Western and Southern Africa Project UIUC-205 Carl H. Nelson University of Illinois - Urbana

Principal Investigator

Carl H. Nelson, Department of Agricultural and Consumer Economics, University of Illinois, 1301 W. Greg- ory Dr., Urbana, IL 61801

Collaborating Scientists

Alex Winter-Nelson, Department of Agricultural and Consumer Economics, University of Illinois, 1301 W. Gregory Dr., Urbana, IL 6 1801 Jupiter Ndjeunga, ICRISAT, P.O. Box 320, Bamako, Mali Tebogo Seleka, Department of Agricultural Economics, Botswana College of Agriculture, Private Bag 0027 Gaborone, Botswana

Summary

The project completed a study on valuing the attributes of market in Botswana. Two research projects are underway to millet in the preparation of t6 and couscous inNiger. A sur- investigate the constraints on supply. First, a household sur- vey was prepared and began to be administered in June, vey is being conducted to gain an understanding of the po- 1999. Five millet varieties were identified for inclusion in tential for a domestic commercial supply of sorghum. The the test. The attributes that consumers value were developed survey instrument has been constructed and the survey area, in consultation with food scientists at INRAN. Data were Baralong , has been pre-surveyed. Second, a country level collected through a structured survey administered at four equilibrium analysis will be performed to analyze the eco- sites. Variety and attribute preferences were collected for nomic impacts of sorghum processing in Botswana, and the three products: couscous, tuo, and fermented tuo. Conjoint differential impacts of domestic sorghum supply versus im- analysis was used to quantify the relative value of cooking ports. Preliminary data collection for the equilibrium analy- and consumption attributes. Results show a strong prefer- sis was completed. ence for the local landrace, Hainikire, with one modem vari- ety, MTD092, coming close in overall consumer Objectives, Production and Utilization Constraints preference. The modem varieties ZATIB, Souna 111, and CTO-V were all found to be significantly inferior in overall All principal investigator work in 1999-2000 was con- consumer preference. The analysis of the basis of varietal ducted fiom the United States, because of familial con- preference revealed that color, cohesiveness, and chewiness straints on travel. This caused some delays in research were the most important product attributes contributing to progress because long-distance communication and organi- overall consumer preference. Given consumer preference zation moves more slowly than on-sight communication for the local landrace, adoption of modem varieties is likely and organization. As a result, the primary work that was to be slow or non-existent if the varieties do not exhibit completed was economic analysis of recently collected some of the consumption attributes preferred by house- data, and revision and refinement of a survey instrument holds. that was pre-tested in Botswana. These results have fur- thered the accomplishment of the research objectives on The research in Southern Africa is addressing constraints production and utilization constraints. on coordinated marketing of processed sorghum food prod- ucts. Current research is studying constraints on the supply Objectives of quality grain for the production of processed products. The study is concentrating on supply to sorghum millers in The overall objectives are : Botswana because these millers have a good market for their processed products. Consumer demand for products is not a To identify the elements needed to create a successful constraint for these processors. The constraint on growth coordinated marketing channel from farm to proces- and profitability is caused by their inability to procure reli- sor to consumer. able supplies of quality grain. So, the research is concentrat- ing on factors that are constraining farmers fiom producing To develop strategies to overcome the constraints on and marketing sorghum for the thriving processed sorghum these elements. Crop Utilization and Marketing

The sub-objectives that contribute to the identification of cause it contains commercial and subsistence farmers. The constraints and the development of solutions address three research method employs agricultural household models to areas: identify the key components of resource allocation deci- sions that influence willingness to engage in commercial The adoption of varieties by farmers contracting. The economic model of agricultural house- holds emphasizes the interrelation between production, The demand for characteristics by consumers marketing, consumption, savings, and investment deci- sions. When households live in risky environments, as in . coordinated supply of identity preserved grain from Botswana, risk balancing of the components of the house- farmers to processors. hold portfolio is central.

The research in West Afkica made progress in under- Thus, the survey is being constructed to collect informa- standing the demand for characteristics. And the research on tion about key components of the household portfolio and demand for attributes established a research methodology the decisions that are made to manage risky contingencies. that can be applied to other products by NARS scientists in Commercial and subsistence households will be sampled in other counties. There are current plans to conduct a similar order to learn the significant differences in the constraints study on sorghum varieties in Mali. The research in Bot- and incentives facing these households. swana is directed at identifying how to sustain the growth of sorghum processing. The most immanent threat to sustained A rapid reconnaissance rural appraisal conducted in growth is supply interruption. So the research plan is con- March, 1999 revealed that agricultural programs of the Bot- structed to identify the full range of feasible supply altema- swana government have a large impact on farmer planting tives and their economic welfare implications. intentions. The appraisal supports information that can be extracted from aggregate production statistics for Botswana Research Approach and Project Output - sorghum planting and harvesting has declined signifi- cantly in the last two years. Thus, an additional objective of Valuing Attributes of Pearl Millet the survey research is to understand the incentives and con- in the Preparation of To^ and Couscous straints that limit planting and harvesting of sorghum. Two components are being given primary attention: agricultural The research method is founded in the hedonic theory of incentive programs; and off-farm income .The data col- consumer demand, which explains demand for consumer lected from the survey will be analyzed with econometric goods as a demand for the bundle of properties that the techniques based on the economic models of agricultural goods deliver. It is the properties that are the ultimate source households. of value for consumers. This model of consumer demand provides the ability to derive implicit relative prices ofprop- Given the current reliance of sorghum processors on im- erties that are valued by consumers. Closely related is the ported sorghum supplies, the additional research plan is to technique of conjoint analysis, which is used in new product evaluate the economic welfare impacts of imported versus research. This research differs from traditional new product domestic sorghum supply. The research method is derived research because the packaging of attributes is not under the from computable general equilibrium models. The equilib- control of researchers. The consumer goods, which package rium framework allows the direct and feedback effects of al- attributes, are the different varieties of pearl millet. ternative input supply sources to be analyzed. It also allows for the quantification of the distributional impact on identi- This research is also related to ongoing chemical analy- fied economic groups, such as processors and rural house- ses of pearl millet and sorghum varieties that are being con- holds. ducted by the NARS in the region. One of the stated aims of the chemical analyses is to identify varieties of value to pro- Networking Activities cessors. The research has found the relative value of con- sumption attributes that determine consumer preference for These activities were restricted to strengtheningexisting varieties. This provides the understanding necessary to working relationships, given the constraints on principal in- gauge consumer acceptance of new varieties by means of vestigator travel for the majority of the year. taste tests of the varieties. Publications and Presentations Constraints on Sorghum Supply for Food Processors in Botswana Presentation Ndejunga, J. and C.H. Nelson. "Toward Understanding Household Prefer- The research question concerns the incentives necessary ence for Millet Varieties in the West African Semi-Arid Tropics", se- to cause small farmers in Botswana to view sorghum pro- lected paper, annual meeting of American Agricultural Economics duction as a commercial enterprise tied to the value added Association, Tampa, FL. July, 2000. processing carried out by small-scale millers. A region of Botswana - Baralong - has been chosen for a survey be- Host Country Program Enhancement Host Country Program Enhancement

Central America Regional Program Stephen C. Mason University of Nebraska

Regional Coordinators

Dr. Francisco Gomez, Escuela Agricola Panamericana (EAP), Apdo. 93, Tegucigalpa, Honduras 11996 - 19971 Dr. Juan Carlos Rosas, Escuela Agricola Panamericana (EAP), Apdo. 93, Tegucigalpa, Honduras [I997 - 19991 Dr. Raul Espinal, Escuela Agricola Panamericana (EAP), Apdo. 93, Tegucigalpa, Honduras [I999 - 20001 Dr. Gary C. Peterson, Texas A&M University Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Rt. 3 Box 2 19, Lubbock, TX 79401-9757 [I996 - 20001 Dr. Stephen C. Mason, 229 Keim Hall, Department of Agronomy, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-0915 [2000 - Ongoing]

Collaborating Scientists

Ing. M.S. Javier Bueso, Agronomist and Cereal Quality, CITESGRAN, EAP, Honduras Dr. Ronald Cave, Biological Control, Department of Plant Protection, EAP, Honduras Ing. Guillermo Cerritos, Agronomist, Asgrow of Central America, Honduras Ing RenC Clara Valencia, Plant Breeder, CENTA, El Salvador Dr. Lany Claflin, Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506-5502 Dr. Richard Frederiksen, Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843 Mr. Leonardo Garcia Centeno, Agronomist, UNA, Nicaragua Ing. Reina Flor Guzman de Serrano, Plant Pathologist, CENTA, El Salvador Ing. Fidelia Herrara de Paz, Food Scientist, CENTA, El Salvador Dr. Allan Hruska, Head of Plant Protection Department, EAP, Honduras Dr. Anthony S.R. Juo, International Programs, Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843 Ing. Luis Larios, Agronomist, Semillas Cristiani Burkard, Guatemala Dr. Stephen Mason, Department of Agronomy, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-0915 Ing. Rafael Mateo, Agronomist, EAP, Department. of Agronomy, Tegucigalpa, Honduras Ing. Francisco Javier Mejia, Executive Director, DICTA, Honduras Ing. Carlos Merlo, Agronomist, Cargill of Central America, Honduras Dr. Nivaldo de Gracia, Agronomist, IDIAP, Panama Ing. Rafael Obando Solis, Agronomist, INTA, Nicaragua Ing. M.S. Alejandro-Palma, Breeder, DeKalb of Central America, Costa Rica Mr. Sergio Pichardo Guido, Plant Pathologist, UNA, Nicaragua Ing. Laureano Pineda, Agronomist, INTA, Nicaragua Dr. Henry Pitre, Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Drawer EM, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State MS 39762 Dr. Lloyd Rooney, Cereal Quality Laboratory, Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843 Dr. William Rooney, Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843 Dr. Darrell T. Rosenow, Texas A&M University Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Rt. 3 Box 219, Lubbock, TX 7940 1-9757 Dr. John Sanders, Department of Agricultural Economics, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47097-1 145 Ing. M.S. Hector Sierra, Agronomist, EAP, Dept. of Agronomy, Honduras Dr. Thomas Thurow, Department of Rangeland Ecology and Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843 Ing. Rolando Ventura Elias, Agronomist, CENTA, El Salvador Ing. Mark Wenholz, Agronomist, Pioneer of Central America, Honduras Dr. Larry Wilding, Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843

Previous Ba~e@ Blank 757 Host Country Program Enhancement

Collaborative Program

Institutions INTSORMIL through the CLAIS network has strength- ened sorghum research in Central American countries. This Collaboration between 1996 and 1999 was primarily collaboration has had several aspects - training, publication with the Pan-American Agricultural School, Zamorano of research results, and germplasm exchange. The Grain (EAP), Honduras; Direccion de Ciencia y Tkcnologia Sorghum Performance Trial publication offers sorghum Agricola (DICTA),Honduras; Institute Nicaraguense de producers an evaluation of the cultivars available in Central Tkcnologia (INTA) ,Nicaragua; Texas A & M University; America as well as their performance across diverse loca- and Mississippi State University. In 1999 - 2000, the Centro tions. Private companies use this trial to evaluate their hy- de Technologia de Agricola, El Salvador: Universidad brids, and thereby, help their breeding programs develop Nacional Agraria (UNA), Nicaragua; Universidad better hybrids adapted to tropical conditions. Autonoma de Nicaragua (UNAN), Nicaragua; Kansas State University and the University ofNebraska became collabo- Three types of grain sorghum are grown in Central rating institutions. America. Maicillos criollos are grown on hillsides and are used primarily by very sniall producers in a maize Organization and Management intercropping system. The primary production region for the maicillos is the steep hillsides of the Pacific regions of From 1996 through 1999, the INTSORMIL Central Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala, and El Salvador. American Regional Program was based at the Panamerican INTSORMIL rnaicillo research has been conducted in Hon- Agricultural School (EAP), Zamorano, Honduras. This lo- duras, but the El Salvador andNicaragua national programs cation provided the opportunity to conduct sorghum re- have also conducted such research. Small to medium pro- search in Honduras, to evaluate new technologies ducers in the region frequently produce photoperiod insen- throughout Central America through outreach and network- sitive varieties, with such research conducted in El Salvador ing, interact with private seed industry, and identify EAP and Nicaragua. Large producers grow hybrids developed students for degree training: The EAP has excellent faculty by private seed companies for use in mechanized systems. and students, and provided an ideal location from which to conduct research and training. The Direccion de Ciencia y In 1999, a major change in program occurred due to in- Tecnologia Agricola (DICTA) provided Government of creasing opportunities for sorghum research in El Salvador Honduras research support by use of the LaLujosa Experi- and Nicaragua, a shift in priorities at EAP, and reduced sup- mental Station located near Choluteca. Nurseries and trials port by the Honduran government for the national sorghum were planted at Zamorano and Choluteca. The program was research program. The program emphasis shifted from managed by Dr. Raid Espinal in collaboration with Hector Honduras to El Salvador and Nicaragua, with collaborative Sierra and Rafael Mateo, and had extensive ties with private projects developed in plant breeding, utilization, plant pro- seed industry resulting in development of the first tection (entomology and plant pathology), and agronomy. multi-location Central American region sorghum perfor- The INTSORMIL program will now focus on the needs of mance test to provide unbiased hybrid performance data the two largest sorghum producing countries in Central across environments in the region. Texas A&M University America, who also have the most comprehensive sorghum developed collaboration with Christiani Burkard (Guate- research programs, and will broaden discipline involve- mala), the largest regional seed company in Central Amer- ment. ica. Fin uncial Inputs The major goal of the program between 1996 - 1997 was to develop high yielding photoperiod sensitive sorghums. Primary financial support for the program is from the Much of the breeding activity has been on improvement of INTSORMIL Central America Regional Program budget. indigenous land race varieties unique to Central America, The regional budget has been approximately $80,000 per called maicillos criollos in Honduras and rnillon in Nicara- year. Between 1996 - 1997 approximately 67% of the funds gua. These sorghums are widely planted in the semi-arid re- have been transferred to EAP for program operation. The gions of Central America and used as a maize substitute for funds supported all phases of the research program includ- making tortillas. Research has been conducted in sorghum ing supplies, general operations, and salary. Two partial breeding, entomology, plant pathology and cereal quality. scholarships for fourth year EAP students to conduct thesis Primary support for the breeding, plant pathology and cereal research on sorghum production were included in the bud- quality program was from Texas A&M University and ento- get. The remaining Central American Regional funds were mology research from Mississippi State University. Ento- kept at the Management Entity and used for travel, supplies, mology research has dealt primarily with insect complexes equipment, repairs, and maintenance of the regional pro- in the maicillos, but research on sorghum midge gram. INTSORMIL collaborated with the Soil Manage- (Stenodiplosis sorghicola) in Nicaragua was initiated in ment CRSP in research on the steeplands of southwestern 1998. Honduras, the primary maicillo growing region. The Soil Management CRSP transferred $17,000 to Honduras to Host Country Program Enhancement support research activities. Funds also were generated Production/Utilization Constraints and through operation of the PCCMCA sorghum performance Research Findings trial, a fee entry trial was initiatedand organized by this pro- gram with approximately six locations per year. EAP sup- introduction ported the research through facilities, land, financial management and general supervision of the program opera- Sorghum is the third most important crop in Central tions. DICTA supported the research by providing land and America (El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicara- facilities at the LaLujosa Experimental Station, Choluteca. gua) after maize and beans. The area devoted to sorghum in Starting in 2000, $16,000 of budgeted funds will be allo- 1997 was 302,738 ha-l with an average grain yield of 1.2 cated to each discipline-basedproject (plant breeding, utili- Mg ha-' (FAO, 1998). During the last decade sorghumgrain zation, plant protection, and agronomy), with the balance yield in Central America increased due to improved tech- maintained at the INTSORMIL Management Entity to sup- nology (including improved cultivars and hybrids, herbi- port regional research activities. cides, insecticides, planting date, minimum tillage, seed treatments and fertilizer) available to producers. Collaboration Small-scale Central American farmers are burdened with The program has collaborated with many organizations low productivity and limited land resources. Intercropping and served as a catalyst for Central American sorghum re- provides a means to increase total productivity per unit land search. Seed was provided to the USAID funded LUPE area and reduce the risk of monocrop dependence. The dom- (Land Use Productivity Enhancement) project for several inant cropping system is maize intercropped with maicillos years. Collaboration with other organizations includes but criollos. These tropical sorghums are three to four meters is not limited to: Associates in Rural Development tall, drought tolerant, and photoperiod sensitive. The grain (ARD-USAID), Center for Agricultural Development is used as human food and livestock feed grain, and the (CEDA-JapanIGOH), Consolidated Agrarian Reform in the stover for livestock forage. Although maicillos produce low South (CORASUR- Belgium/GOH),'Integrated Rural De- yields, they are planted on 235,000 ha-', or 67%, of the sor- velopment (DRI-Yoro-SwissIGOH), Escuela Nacional de ghum hectarage in Central America. Maicillos are culti- Agricultura (ENA-GOH), Friederich Ebert Foundation vated along the Pacific side of the Isthmus, from (F.E. Foundation - W. German Social Democrats), Luis southeastern Guatemala through El Salvador and southern Landa Ag. School, Rural small business development pro- Honduras and south to Lake Nicaragua. Maicillo is the last gram (PER-INFOP-Dutch), COSUDE Cooperacion Suiza remnant of tall, photoperiod sensitive sorghums brought to a1 desarrollo (Swiss), Lempira Rural Development Project the New World during the colonial period. Although of Af- (FAO), Rural Development Program (GTZ), Evangelist rican descent, rnaicillos possess unique traits for adaptation Committee on National Emergency (CEDEN-PVO), Men- to traditional maize intercropping systems and local food nonite Social Action Commission (PVO), World Vision processing customs. These changes have come about (PVO), Choluteca Support Project (PROAPACH-UN), San through allopatric differentiation and artificial selection by Jost Obrero (PVO), and World Neighbors (PVO). In small farmers in Central America. As the need to boost sor- 1998-99, seed of DMV-198 (161 kg) and Sureiio (276 kg) ghum productivity in Central America increases, maicillos was distributed in Honduras and Nicaragua through DIC- are slowly being replaced by higher yielding, uniform TA, World Vision, Paz y Deszhollo, and to small farmers. cultivars. Seed (100 kg) of Sureiio was provided to the PROMESA project in Nicaragua for increase following the destruction The limited grain yield response of maicillos to manage- caused by Hurricane Mitch. Collaboration with the Soil ment practices is a primary constraint to increased produc- Management CRSP Program measured the effect of soil tion. Soil and water conservation, improved soil fertility and conservation techniques on sorghum productivity on increased genetic potential of cultivars is essential to obtain steepland areas of southern Honduras. economical yield increases. To date increased sorghum yield and area is due primarily to utilization of improved A MOU with the Institute Nicarguense de Technologia cultivars (hybrids and varieties), which are increasing Cen- Agropecuaria in Nicaragua was signed in May, 1998 and tral American sorghum production. with the Universidad Nacional Agraria (Managua), and the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Nicaragua (Leon) in Maicillo is an old world crop adapted to neotropical slash 1999. Initial research activity in Nicaragua centered on an and burn agroecosystems. More than 60 percent of the sor- entomology graduate student research project on sorghum ghum planted in Central America is maicillos intercropped midge. Additionally, several germplasm tests from Texas with early maturing maize. While maize is the preferred sta- A&M University were sent to INTA for evaluation and se- ple, it is often intercropped with sorghum by small farmers lection. A MOU was signed with Centro de Technologia de in hot, erratic rainfall areas as a hedge against drought. Agricola in El Salvador in January, 2000. The new operat- Maicillo's sensitivity to photoperiod and its ability to with- ing structure will open opportunities for new collaborative stand shading are essential for its adaptation to traditional relationships in the future. maize intercropping systems. Maicillos have an acute sensi- tivity to photoperiod and day lengths of 12 hours or less are Host Country Program Enhancement required for floral initiation. In Central America, floral initi- starch digestibility and maximize net energy intake for live- ation occurs during the frst fortnight of October regardless stock feed. Human consumption needs to be promoted, es- of planting date. The photoperiod response prevents pecially in tortilla related products, extruded snacks and maicillos from spreading beyond their defined flour substitution through use of superior grain quality sor- agroclimatological range. For maicillos to produce good ghum cultivars. Use of sorghum cultivars for forage, or dual quality edible grain, dry conditions during maturity are re- use for both grain and forage are important to small produc- quired. High precipitation areas with different distribution ers. patterns need high yield potential sorghum cultivars with good disease resistance to produce high yields. Plant Breeding Research - Hybrids

The traditional farming system of clearing the forest, in- Each year sorghum hybrid tests have been conducted in tense grazing during the dry season, and residue burning five to seven countries in Central America. This testing pro- prior to planting have all contributed to severe erosion and gram has helped seed companies evaluate hybrids across runoff from the steeplands in Central America. This severe different environments, and producers select the best hy- erosion reduces crop productivity by decreasing the amount brids. Five companies have participated in the tests: of nutrients available for plant growth and soil water hold- Asgrow, Cargill, Cristiani Burkard, DeKalb and Pioneer. ing capacity. Land use pressure on hillsides has increased Results were published and distributed among sorghum sci- with population growth. Some farmers have adopted soil entists and collaborators during the PCCMCA meeting held conservation techniques, but the majority still practice tra- annually. Sixteen hybrids were evaluated in 1999 at loca- ditional agriculture. Research on planting improxed tions in Guatemala (l), Honduras (2), Nicaragua (2), Pan- maicillos on steepland areas with soil conservation tech- ama (I), and Dominican Republic (1). Average grain yield niques has shown dramatically increased sorghum yield. over locations was 4.56 Mg ha-l (Table 1). The hybrids AS7327, DKX-9811 and DK 69 produced average grain Alternative uses for sorghum grain need to be developed yields over 5.0 Mg ha-I (Table 2). to encourage sustainable economic growth in semi-arid ar- eas in Central America. White grain, tan plant colored sor- The Texas A&M University INTSORMIL sorghum ghum cultivars are well adapted to Central American human breeding program provided the All Disease and Insect food and livestock feed systems. Innovative processing sys- Nursery (ADIN), Grain Weathering Test (GWT), Intema- tems, like extrusion and flaking, are needed to increase tional Food Sorghum Adaptation Trial (IFSAT), Drought

Table 1. Location means for 16 sorghum hybrids in PCCMCA performance trial in 1999...... - . . Location G,lain Days to Plant Panicle Y~eld Flowering Height Exertion - Mg ha-1 - cm Azua, Dominicana 2.01 51 134 10 Tiquizate, Guatemala 5.56 62 177 19 Zamorano, Honduras 5.33 69 151 2 1 Sta. Inks, Hondulas 5.50 64 133 13 Rivas, Nicaragua 5.03 62 160 16 Managua, Nicaragua 5.18 62 169 17 Rio Hato, Panad 3.31 59 92 13

Table 2. Sorghum hybrid mean yield and other characteristics averaged over seven locations in 1999. Hybrid Grain Color Grain Yield Days to Flowering Plant Height Panicle Exertion - Mg ha-' - cm AS 82247 White 5.06 63 148 . 15 AS 82327 White 4.87 60 140 12 AS 92277 White 4.89 60 156 15 Red Red Red Red Red Red White Red Red Red White Red Red Host Country Program Enhancement

Hybrid Test (DHT), and the Drought Line Test (DLT) for midge population and means of control. An extension bulle- evaluation by Cristiani Burkard, Guatemala. Also the tin on sorghum midge biology, and cultural and chemical Midge Line Test (MLT), All Disease and Insect Nursery control was published by INTA based on this research. Fu- (ADIN), Drought Line Test (DLT), Grain Weathering Test ture research will include identification and management of (GWT), and food type introductions from Southern Africa insect pests in the maicillo intercropping systems inNicara- were evaluated by INTA in Nicaragua.

Although plant breeding efforts have focused on devel- Grain Quality Research oping improved maicillo photoperiod sensitive varieties, some effort has been made to develop improved hybrids. The Central America program has historically concen- The hybrid ZAM-ROJO has been released along with three trated on improving the grain yield and processing charac- broomcorn hybrids. This latter has had a positive economic teristics of sorghum for use in tortillas and related products. effect on the artisanal broomcorn manufacturers in Nicara- This includes the improved maicillos criollos. Beginning in gua. January 1998, enhanced maicillos (named dwarf maicillo varieties or DMV) that showed good agronomic traits in the Enhanced Maicillos EIME trials were evaluated for grain quality, nutritional composition, and rnasa and tortilla quality at Zamorano. Enhanced maicillos are sorghum lines obtained from This research was in close collaboration with the Texas crossing photoperiod-sensitive land races (maicillos A&M University Cereal Quality Laboratory where the eval- criollos) with elite sorghum lines from ICRISAT and Texas uations had been done previously. Sixteen DMVs from the A&M University that have adaptation to the maize/maicillo 1997 EIME were evaluated for grain quality traits along intercropping system. Nurseries of enhanced maicillos were with two high-yielding commercial white-tan sorghum hy- planted annually at Zamorano and LaLujosa. Advanced ma- brids (MX7 124 and DK69). Standard checks were Lerdo terials were then evaluated in the International Improved Ligero, a maicillo, and Surefio, a photoperiod-insensitive Maicillo Trial (EIME). This has resulted in the release of food-type sorghum released by INTSORMIL Surefio was three improved maicillo varieties (Tortillero, Catracho and selected as the standard because of its wide acceptance for Sureiio) which are widely used in southwestern Honduras. making tortillas.

With the program shift from Honduras to El Salvador and Nixtamilized Sureiio flour was found to be more desir- Nicaragua, the nursery was planted and increased in 1999 - able than maize for making rosquillos in the Choluteca, 2000 at Zamorano and evaluated by Rene Clara. A set of the Honduras area. CENTA research in El Salvador has led to nursery germplasm was left at Zamorano, and a set trans- much interest to a 50% substitution of sorghum flow for ferred to CENTA, El Salvador and to Texas A&M Univer- wheat flour in baking sweet breads, rosquettes and sity. rosquillos. The production of Surefio allows sorghum flour production of good enough quality for use in cookies and Entomology Research rosquillos. Future research and technology transfer in El Salvador will focus on the substitution of sorghum flour for Thelepidopterous complex Spodoptera frugiperda, wheat flour in baked products. Spodoptera latisfacia, Mocis latipes and Metaponpneumata rogenhoferi have been identified as the major insect pests of Optimum quality grain sorghum for tortillas must have a sorghum in southern Honduras. Control of the insects has white pericarp, tan glumes and tan plant color. The been studied the past several years using an integrated pest anthocyanin pigments of the purple maicillos criollos pro- management approach. Results showed that farmers in- duce dark colored tortillas that are not accepted by farmers creased sorghum yield by 20% and maize by 35% using the once they have used Sureiio. The kernel should have a high recommended production.practices that included delayed density (>1.3 g/cc), thousand kernel weight of at least 25 g planting, weed control after crop emergence and seed treat- and intermediate to high hardness indices (<30% TADD ment with insecticides. Natural enemies of some species in decorticating and 30-70% floaters). A yield of 1.6- 1.8 kg of the lepidopterous complex have been identified in relatively masatkg of corn or sorghum at 13% humidity is considered high numbers, especially larval and pupal parasitoids. optimum. All DMVs and two hybrids tested had excellent Twenty-six species of larval and pupal parasitoids of quality traits and was found to be suitable for food process- Spodoptera frugiperda have been identified in Honduras. ing. Variability among DMVs was very low, averaging a Zamorano published a technical bulletin about this true density of 1.38 g/cc and a 1000-kernel weight of 25g. lepidopterous complex on sorghum and maize which high- Hardness of most DMVs was high, except for DMV 222 lights collaborative research accomplishments in dealing and 223. These results show that the screening process for with these insect pests in Honduras. grain quality traits in the breeding nurseries has been suc- cessful. Sorghum midge remains the most serious insect pest on large scale, mechanized farms in Nicaragua. A graduate stu- Every sorghum cultivar was tested in comparison with dent from MSU has studied the dynamics of the sorghum white corn (Hybrid H-29) for tortilla quality traits such as Host Country Program Enhancement appearance (color), taste, aroma, texture (mouthfeel), and Zamorano did not produce expanded snacks, but produced rollability (Table 4) by a taste panel. The quality of tortillas sorghum pellets with 40 to 50% floatability even though made with DMV 2 18 and DMV 2 10 was statistically equal water supply to the barrel was done manually. Delays in the to the ones made with corn and Sureiio. Farmers emphasize installation of a water pump to the extruder have postponed whiter tortilla color and good rollability when selecting a the conclusion of these studies until next year. sorghum variety. Thus DMV 198, a purple-colored glume line, is not suited for tortilla making despite good field per- In 1999, this research was expanded to include the poten- formance. tial of sorghum for making nixtamaliied (rosquillas) and non-nixtamalized (rosquetes) cookies or biscuits. Prelimi- Masa yields of sorghums was in general significantly nary tests on sorghum's ability to substitute corn in an ex- higher than the yields of masa of corn. Except for DMV 198 truded pellet for fish and in a expanded breakfast cereal (1.33 kg/ kg grain) and DMV 221 (1.24 kgkg grain), all im- made in combination with soybean were performed. The proved maicillos yielded over 1.6 kg of masakg of grain. Insta-Pro 600 Jr. extruder available in Zamorano appears Such similarity among DMVs in masa yield was expected not to be suited to produce expanded snacks but produced since their grain quality traits are fairly similar. Sureiio was sorghum pellets with 40-50% floatability even though water the highest yielding of all sorghums evaluated (2.06 kg of supply to the barrel was done manually. Delays in the instal- masakg of grain). Sorghum (DMV 2 18)/corn masa combi- lation of a water pump to the extruder have postponed the nations were tested at four levels:100:0, 75:25, 5050, conclusion of these two studies for next year. 25:75; with 100% corn as the control. Respondents pre- ferred corn tortillas and could differentiate them from torti- Sorghum is used ig the Honduran southern region to llas made with as low as 25% DMV 218 masa. However, make sweet cookies called "polvorones" (sandies) or even tortillas made with 100% DMV 218 received accept- "rosquetes" at the household level. These rosquetes are able grades on all quality traits evaluated. Further in situ rod-shaped and made with decorticated sorghum flour, un- evaluations of agronomic performance and tortilla quality like the also rod-shaped but salty "rosquillas", which are of DMV 2 18 and DMV2 10 with farmers from Choluteca made with nixtamalized masa and cheese. Cookies in Hon- are required to elucidate if these cultivars are suited for re- duras are mostly consumed soaked in coffee and these lease. Testing of these cultivars in Nicaragua and El Salva- polvorones tend to fall apart almost immediately . Partial or dor will be suggested to PCCMCA collaborators in those total substitution of wheat flour by sorghum in the produc- countries. DMV 210 is the best choice since it combines tion of a sugar cookie at industrial level was evaluated. high grain yield with good tortilla quality. Dry-milled sorghum grits (Sureiio) produced at Texas A&M University were hammer-milled and sifted in Tortillas made with 100% DMV 2 19 staled at a similar Zamorano to produce a coarse flour (through US # 40 rate to tortillas made with Sureiio but slower than mesh). A descriptive trained panel evaluated the sensory ATx63 1*RTx436. Staled tortillas become tougher with properties of the cookies. time and require more force (N) to be bent. Tortillas with re- duced peak viscosity measured with the Rapid Visco Overall, 100% sorghum cookies showed acceptable Analizer contain more retrograded starch, which is an indi- smell and taste but bad texture and a darker appearance than cation of higher degree of staling of the tortilla. Some farm- 100% wheat (Table 3). Grittiness and poor cohesiveness ers report that sorghumtortillas tend to stale faster than corn (cookies crumbled easily when soaked in coffee) were the tortillas. This was confiied subjectively during evaluation most important complaints raised by the descriptive panel. of the improved maicillos. Further research at Texas A & M Improved dry milling and sifting procedures for producing a University will focus on the factors that accelerate the stal- fmer and whiter sorghum flour would reduce the grittiness ing of sorghum tortillas compared to corn tortillas. and poor appearance of 100% sorghum cookies. Further studies will focus on improving the cohesiveness of sor- Preliminary tests on sorghum's ability to substitute for ghum cookies by adding pregelatinized corn starch or gums corn in an extruded pellet for fish and in a expanded break- (CMC, Xanthan). fast cereal made in combination with soybean were pre- formed. The Insta-Pro 600 Jr. Extruder available in

Table 3. Sensory properties of cookies made with different levels of addition of sorghum flour. % Sorrrhum Flour External Avpearance Internal Appearance -- Texture Smell Taste1 0 3.61a 3.67a 3.44a 3.44a 3.78a 25 3.44a 3.56a 3.17a 3.89a 3.67ab 50 3.44a 3.44a 3.78a 3.56a 3.78a 75 3.17ab 3.28a 2.89ab 3.72a 3.61ab 100 2.17b 2.28b 2.00b 3.06a 2.94b HSDUo.05) 1.16 0.84 0.92 1.12 0.77

' Rating scale: 1 =poor, 2 =bad. 3 = neither good or bad. 4 = good, 5 = excellent Highly significant difference Host Country Program Enhancement

Addition of up to 50% sorghum flour did not signifi- product). Early shelf-stability tests show that sorghum cantly reduce sensory properties of the cookie compared to rosquillas stale at a rate similar to corn rosquillas. In both the wheat control @=0.05). Even 75% sorghum cookies cases, the products retained their crunchiness and taste for at showed similar appearance, smell and taste than 100% least 15 days, when stored at room temperature inpolyethyl- wheat cookies, although grittiness increased and cohesive- ene bags. ness was reduced. These data agree with the findings of Leon and Rooney (1999) that sorghum flour can be used ef- Future research will focus on developing an alkaline fectively in a wide variety of cookies substituting for up to cooking procedure for the best improved maicillos 50% of the wheat flour and that with special formulations (DMV-2 10, DMV-2 18), a 100% sorghum cookie for coffee higher levels can be used. with improved cohesiveness and elaboration of pellets for Tilapia with whole sorghum instead of corn meal. Samples Corn rosquillas are rod-shaped , very dry, crunchy salty ofgrain from the best three DMVs and Surefio were brought cookies that are the second most popular nixtamalized prod- to Texas A&M University to continue evaluations of sor- uct in Honduras, behind tortillas. They are also consumed ghum tortilla staling vs. corn. Seed samples of 10 DMVs soaked in coffee. Production of rosquillas is ,like tortillas, were also imported to be increased in Weslaco, TX for use in mostly a home-based business and there is no data available future studies. Use of sorghum for making other traditional on their shelf stability. There is only one snack industry products (popped sorghum in "alborotos" and pearled sor- ("Alimentos Dixie", located in San Pedro Sula, Northern ghum as a substitute for "Marmaon" pasta) will be explored. Honduras) that produces corn rosquillas at the commercial level, but the product is of fair to good quality. An industrial Mutual Research Benefas cooking and baking procedure for making sorghum rosquillas was developed. Many production constraints are similar between Central America and the U. S. including drought, diseases, insects, Extensive research was conducted in the communities of and adaptation. U.S. based scientists can provide Santa Elena and Namasigue (Choluteca region) where sor- germplasm that could at least partially alleviate the effect of ghum rosquillas are made, to gather information on varia- some of these constraints. The maicillo criollos are a unique tions in formulations and cooking and baking procedures. type of sorghum and can potentially contribute useful food Different ingredient levels and processing conditions were quality traits to U.S. germplasm, and several lines are pres- evaluated in Zamorano to determine the best formulation ently in the Texas A & M University IUSDA-ARS Sorghum according to a trained descriptive panel (Table 4). Conversion Program. Germplasm exchange will contribute to development of novel genetic combinations with multi- Product quality and shelf stability of sorghums vs. corn ple stress resistance, wide adaptation, and improved food rosquillas are currently being evaluated. Surefio ,the best quality. Entomology and plant pathology research includes food-type sorghum available in Honduras, and an improved pests that affect sorghumboth in Central America and in the maicillo (DMV-228) are being evaluated for rosquilla mak- U.S., such as sorghum midge and ergot. ing. Preliminary data from evaluations performed with a trained panel and with consumers indicate that sorghum Institution Building rosquillas are as good as corn rosquillas. The slightly darker color of sorghum rosquillas appears not to be a burden for Equipment and other support acceptability. This is because, unlike tortillas, consumers associate a slightly dark yellow-brownish color with prod- INTSORMIL purchased a Jeep Grand Cherokee for use uct quality (the higher the cheese content the darker the in Nicaragua by graduate students and INTA personnel in conducting research in different regions of the country. The Table 4. Formulations and process conditions evalu- Ford pickup, John Deere tractor and planter were trans- ated in Zamorano for sorghum rosquilla pro- ferred from EAP, Honduras to CENTA, to support sorghum duction at an industrial level. research in El Salvador. Ingredients Levels (YO)' Training and education Lime2 1,2,3,4 Water 300,350 Fresh Cheese (Cuajada) 50,65 During the past four years numerous half-tuition scholar- Salt 0.5, 1.0,1.5,2.0,2.5 ships were awarded to EAP students to conduct research on Cream 7,10,12 sorghum plant breeding, pest management and grain pro- Shortening 10, 12,20,25 Process Conditions Levels cessing. In 1999, the project awarded four Zarnorano stu- Cooking time 40,45,50,55 min dents a half-tuition scholarship to conduct research on soil Baking temperature 300,350,400 O C erosion on steepland areas in southern Honduras, and on Baking time 12, 18,24,40,55 min substitution of sorghum for wheat flour in sugar cookies and ' Expressed as % of the amount of dry grain (lime and water). nixtarnal (cheese) evaluation of maicillos for tortillas (Belen Prado, Hondu- or masa (salt, cream and shortening). Low quality, nonpurified lime. ras). In 2000, Paola Carrillo (Ecuador) started research to Host Country Program Enhancement compare quality and shelf stability of corn versus sorghum with NARSIICRISATICIAT to evaluate sorghum and mil- rosquillas. let for tolerance to acid soils in Honduras, and collaboration is being established with the CIAT Hillside project refer- Mr. Javier Bueso (Honduras), Assistant Professor, EAP ence sites in Yorito (Honduras) and San Dionisio (Nicara- has joined the Grain Quality Lab at Texas A & M University gua). Increased collaboration with programs located in El to complete a Ph.D. degree with part of the dissertation re- Salvador and Nicaragua are expected as the INTSORMIL search conducted in the EAP CITESGRAN laboratory in program expands in these two countries. Honduras. Mario Carrillo (Nicaragua) is completing a M.S. degree in entomology at Mississippi State University with Research Results thesis research on insect management strategies in tradi- tional and improved sorghum and maize production sys- Released three food type kultivars (Tortillero, tems in flat and gently sloping fields in southern Honduras. Catracho, Sureiio),a ~orghum~budangrasshybrid (AT Johnson Zeledon (Nicaragua) is completing a M.S. degree x 623 * Tx2784), the hybrid Zam-Rojo, and three at Mississippi State University with thesis research on the broomcorn hybrids. II biology and management of sorghum midge on sorghum in Nicaragua, and will continue studies for a Ph.D. degree with Developed improved maicillo germplasm (yield po- dissertation research on sorghum insect pest management in tential, grain quality, processing traits) for use in na- Nicaragua. Short-term training has been planned at Kansas tional plant breeding programs. State University for sorghum plant pathologists from El Sal- vador and Nicaragua in 2000. Developed and extended c/mtrol strategies of delayed planting, weed control q'nd seed treatment for the Travel and Networking lepidopterous ("langostt$') complex that increases sorghumgrain yield by 26% andmaize yield by 35%. A Central America Sorghum Research Planning meeting I was held at Zamorano, Honduras in October 1999. This Characterized the sevedty of sorghum midge infesta- meeting was attended by scientists from El Salvador, Hon- tion, and released an edtension circular about this in- duras, Nicaragua and the United States. INTSORMIL was sect and its control. ,' represented by Drs. John Yohe, Gary Peterson, Steve Ma- I son, Lloyd Rooney, Darrell Rosenow, and Larry Claflin. Sorghum grain can produce tortillas of comparable External Evaluation Panel (EEP) members were also pres- ent for part of the meeting. quality to maize, especially white grain, tan plant types of improved maicillos. Drs. John Yohe, Gary Peterson, Lloyd Rooney, Darrell Rosenow and Larry Claflin attended the MOU signing cere- Sorghum flour can substitute up to 50% for wheat mony with CENTA, El Salvador in January 2000. flour in cookies, rosquillos and sweet breads, afford- ing the opportunity to increase sorghum production Dr. Henry Pitre evaluated research in Honduras and Nic- and reduce wheat imports. aragua in November, 1999 and June, 2000. Sureiio production in Honduras continues to increase Renk Clarh represented INTSORMIL at the PCCMCA due to its good agronomic properties, unique proper- meeting in Puerto Rico in May, 2000. Laureano Pineda rep- ties for use in white tortilla preparations, and the resented INTA (Nicaragua) at this meeting. sweet, juicy stalk gives good forage quality. In addi- tion, Sureiio grain has the potential for use in Drs. Larry Claflin and Stephen Mason visited rosquillos and rosquetas. INTSORMIL collaborative research in El Salvador and Nicaragua in June 2000. A more detailed list of research accomplishments up to 1998 canbe found in the INTSORMIL 1988 Annual Report. Mr. Javier Bueso, graduate student at Texas A & M Uni- versity, traveled to Honduras in March and June 2000 to as- Publications and Presentations sist with sorghum rosquilla research. Journal Articles Networking Clar5, Renk. 2000. Grain sorghum performance test for the PCCMCA. (In Spanish). Tech. Rep. No. (In Press). Escuela Agricola Panamericana, Strong collaboration has developed between the El Zamorano, Honduras. INTSOMIL sorghum program and other organizations in Honduras to implement programs to improve the sustainabilityof steepland agriculturalproduction. A partial list of collaborators during the life of the project was listed previously in the report. Collaboration has been established Host Country Program Enhancement

Horn of Africa Gebisa Ejeta Purdue University

Coordinators

Gebisa Ejeta, Regional coordinator, Purdue University, Department of Agronomy, West Lafayette, IN 47907 Katy Ibrahim, Administrative Assistant, International Programs in Agriculture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 A.G.T. Babiker, Sudan Country Coordinator, Gezira Research Station, P.O. Box 126, Wad Medani, Sudan Aberra Debello, Ethiopia Country Coordinator, Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization, P.O. Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia C. K. Kamau, Kenya Country Coordinator, Katumani National Dryland Farming Research Center, P.O. Box 340, Machakos, Kenya Semere Amlesom, Eritrea Country Coordinator, Division of Ag Research and Extension Services, P.O. Box 10438, Asmara, Eritrea Peter Esele, Uganda Country Coordinator, Serere Agricultural and Animal Production Research Institute, Serere, P.O., Soroti, Uganda

Collaborative Program

INTSORMIL/Horn ofAfrica is a new initiative proposed search project. With limited funds available to the to regionalize our collaborative research efforts in Eastern INTSORMILIHorn ofAfrica, it has not been possible to ini- Africa. Before the start of the current regional effort, tiate a full range of collaborative projects with each of the INTSORMIL had a productive collaborative program with NARS in the region. Instead, the intent has been to establish the Agricultural Research Corporation (ARC) in Sudan. a full complement of collaborative partnerships with the In- This collaboration has resulted in an array of technical de- stitute of Agricultural Research in Ethiopia and to use this velopments that have impacted on sorghum agriculture in program as a hub from which to network with the other Sudan. Sudanese scientists have been trained in member countries of the Horn. A line item for networking INTSORMIL institutions. U.S. scientists have traveled ex- has been built into the budget of the INTSORMIL/Hom of tensively in Sudan and worked alongside their Sudanese Africa program to catalyze exchange of information and counterparts. Joint workshops and conferences were orga- ideas among member NARS and INTSORMIL scientists. A nized and attended. Results of joint research efforts have major initiative that has been under consideration is the been published and distributed widely. Extensive raw and identification ofmajor regional constraints upon which con- improved germplasm have been identified, assembled, and siderable research may have been undertaken by one or catalogued for the benefit 0fU.S. andSudanese agriculture. more of the NARS in the region. There has been great inter- est among scientists in the region to identify such research Under the INTSORMIL Horn of Africa initiative, new projects and undertake regional evaluation and verification memoranda of agreements have been signed with NARS in with the hope of generating technologies that could have re- Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, andUganda to go with the existing gional application. We continue to have dialogue on the fea- relationship with the Agricultu~alResearch Corporation of sibility of implementing such a regional initiative. Once Sudan. With these MOAs, INTSORMIL now has collabora- agreed upon, collaborative research projects among NARS tive relationships with five countries in the Horn of Africa in the region will be developed, in consultance with appro- region. A two-tier program has been under development in priate INTSORMIL scientists, on a priority research agenda the Horn of Africa. With each national program, we have of regional importance. Inputs from concerned scientists in initiated a traditional collaborative program between a the region will be solicited in developing the research NARS scientist and a U.S. principal investigatofls) on a agenda as well as in refining the research protocol on a topic of common concern and interest with at least one disci- timely basis. Collaborative scientists will be encouraged to plinary project identified in each country. A scope of work meet regularly (preferably once a year) to exchange ideas is jointly developed and submitted for review and approval and to sharpen the focus of the regional research agenda. by the NARS country coordinator, NARS research director and the Horn of Africa program coordinator before being Annual fieldtlaboratory touring workshops will be orga- approved as an INTSORMILiHost Country workplan. Each nized alternately at a site in one of the host countries in the workplan has its own funding. Funds are forwarded directly region. Participation in the tour will be based on interest and from Purdue University or the INTSORMIL Management the topic of the workshop for that year. These tours will pro- Entity at the University of Nebraska, and are then disbursed vide INTSORMIL PIS opportunities for interaction with in-country to each collaborating scientist to carry out the re- very many scientists in the region. Scientists from the region Host Country Program Enhancement will also have opportunity to pick up useful germplasm, re- Sorghum Utilization - Senait Yetneberk, Aberra Debelo, search techniques, or potentially transferable technologies EARO; Lloyd Rooney, Bruce Hamaker and Gebisa Ejeta, that they may come across during these tours. INTSORMIL.

Opportunities for collaboration with other organizations Research Extension - Beyene Seboka, Aberra Deressa, such as ASARECA, ICRISATIEast Africa, World Vision EARO; Gebisa Ejeta, INTSORMIL. International, Sasakawa Global 2000, and the IPM CRSP have been good and there are initiatives under development Pathology - Girma Tegegne, IAR; Larry Claflin, with each of these organizations. Discussions have also INTSORMIL. been underway to determine possibilities of buy-ins from USAID Missions in the various countries in the Horn ofAf- Kenya rica. Contacts have also been made with the new USAID initiative, the Greater Horn of Africa program as well as Sorghum Breeding - C. K. Kamau, KARI; Gebisa Ejeta, REDSOEast to check for possible financial assistance to INTSORMIL. INTSORMILkIom of Africa program. Food Quality - Betty Bugusu, KARI; Bruce Hamaker Research Disciplines and Collaborators and John Axtell, INTSORMIL.

Sudan Uganda

Cooperative Sorghum Breeding and Genetic Evaluation Sorghum and Millet Pathology - Peter Esele, NARO; - Osman I. Ibrahim, ARC; Gebisa Ejeta, Darrell Rosenow, Richard Frederiksen, INTSORMIL. INTSORMIL. Striga Management - Joseph Oryokot, NARO; Gebisa Cooperative Millet Breeding - El Haj Abu El Gasim, Ejeta, INTSORMIL. ARC; David Andrews, INTSORMIL. Eritrea Plant Pathology Program - El Hilu Omer, ARC; Richard Frederiksen, INTSORMIL. Sorghum Breeding - Tesfamichael Abraha, DARE; Gebisa Ejeta, INTSORMIL. Entomology Program - N. Sharif Eldin, ARC; Henry Pitre, INTSORMIL. Entomology - Asmelash Woldai, DARE; Henry Pitre, INTSORMIL. Food Quality Program - Paul Bureng, ARC; Bruce Hamaker, INTSORMIL. Striga Management - Asmelash Woldai, DARE; Gebisa Ejeta, INTSORMIL. Economics Program - Hamid Faki, Abdel Moneim Taha, ARC; John Sanders, INTSORMIL. Sorghum/Millet Constraints Researched

Striga Research - A.G. T. Babiker, ARC; Gebisa Ejeta, Sorghum and millet are important crops in all of the INTSORMIL countries in the Horn of Afr-ica (Table 1) ranking first or second in cultivated area among the major cereal crops of Ethiopia the region. Sudan and Ethiopia are the indisputable centers of origin for sorghum and are major centers of genetic diver- Agronomy - Kidane Georgis, EARO; Jerry Maranville, sity for both crops. In addition, a wealth of improved sor- INTSORMIL. ghum and millet germplasm has been made available in both of these countries as a result of association with Striga Management - Gebremedhin Wolde Wahid, INTSORMIL and ICRISAT. Collaborative research be- EARO, Wondemu Bayu, MOA; Gebisa Ejeta, tween Sudan and INTSORMIL has also resulted in research INTSORMIL. and production technologies that can be shared by other members of the Horn of Africa. Entomology - Tsedeke Abate, EARO; Henry Pitre, INTSORMIL. According to the sorghum and millet scientists in the Horn of Africa region, "the major sorghum and millet pro- Agricultural Economics - Yeshi Chiche, EARO; John duction and utilization constraints are generally common to Sanders, INTSORMIL. all countries (Table 2).

These constraints include lack of improved germplasm, drought, Striga, insects and diseases (anthracnose, leaf Host Country Program Enhancement

Table 1. Sorghum and millet production. Sorghum Millet Countries Area Yield Production Area Yield Production 1000 ha Kg ha-' 1000 mts 1000 ha Kg ha-l 1000 mts Eritrea 60 842 5 1 15 546 8 Ethiopia 890 1236 100 280 1OM) 280 Kenya 120 745 90 85 682 58 Sudan 4684 785 2386 1150 1 92 22 1 Uganda 255 1498 382 407 1602 652

Table 2. Production constraints of sorghum and millet across eastern Africa countries. Eritrea Ethiovia Kenya Sudan Uganda Varietal Development x x x x Strigu x x x x x Crop Protection Pest X X X X X Diseases x x x x x Drought x x x x x Production x x x x x Technology Transfer x x x x x Training - Long-term x x x x - Short-term x x x x x Socioeconomics x Utilization x x x x Information Exchange x Germplasm Introduction x x x x x SoiVWater Conservation x x Seed Production and Marketing x x x x x blight, grain molds, smuts, ergot in sorghum, blast, downy intercropping system with millet and sorghum to maximize mildew, and ergot in pearl millet). Other problems in the re- production. Overthe last two to three decades, rainfall in the gion include lack of adoption of new production andutiliza- Horn of Africa region has declined, thus reducing the soil tion technologies by farmers, soiltwater management recovery rate during fallow. Fallow periods have also de- techniques, as well as the infrastructure and technology for creased due to higher human and animal pressure on plant production and marketing of seeds and other essential in- cover, resulting in fkther reduction of sorghum and millet puts. yields in the region. Research on all of these aspects is needed to improve sorghum and millet production and utili- Agronomic research on soil and water conservation tech- zation in the Horn of Afiica. niques have not been extensively evaluated in any of the countries in the region. Lack of moisture and soil nutrients Research Methods and poor husbandry are primary constraints of sorghum and millet production. Breeding efforts currently in use to incor- Research conducted by participating scientists of NARS porate drought tolerance traits to genotypes with high yield in the Horn of Afiica is primarily applied research. In each potential are limited by lack of a field screening procedure ofthe NARS, research scientists appear to be closely in tune and lack of knowledge of sources of appropriate germplasm with crop production, protection, and utilization constraints with useful traits. The lack of absolute definition of good encountered by farmers and farm communities in the sor- food quality parameters and good screening methods for ghum and millet growing areas. There are establishedproto- food quality to some extent also limit the utilization of high cols for assessing and prioritizing research constraints on a yielding sorghum and millet varieties. Very little research regular basis, often annually in conjunction with a national has also gone in developing germplasm with resistance to research and/or extension conference organized to take the major insect pests and diseases. Striga, a major parasitic stock of emerging technologies and to publicize develop- weed of sorghum and millet, constitutes a major constraint ments in research. Such fora have also been used to ex- to the production of these crops. There is very little sorghum change ideas and concerns across disciplinary lines, and and millet germplasm with resistance to Striga and the tend to lead to development of interdisciplinaryinitiatives. mechanisms that render resistance to Striga are not well un- Collaborative projects that have been agreed upon by partic- derstood. Knowledge about inheritance of many of these ipating NARS and INTSORMIL scientists would be pre- traits is also lacking. In many of these areas, the crophush sented to anational committee that would evaluate the merit fallow system of production has traditionally been used to and relevance of the research before formal approval and lo- provide enough nutrients and possibly some moisture for a cal research support is granted. Field research facilities at period of crop years (5- 10 years fallowl2-4 years cropping). most of the NARS are excellent. Machinery and equipment In some areas, other crops are often grown in an have not been always adequate or appropriate. Technical Host Country Program Enhancement support and capabilities vary from country to country. ARC, selected as showing superior performance and will be Sudan and IAR, Ethiopia have been the strongest sorghum evaluated further for adaptation and tolerance to local pro- and millet research programs in the area with a full comple- duction constraints. ment of technical assistance particularly in field research. As a newly independent nation, the Eritrean national pro- The Striga problem in Ethiopia is progressing into the gram needs fbrther strengtheningin human capital at all lev- highlands where the local sorghums do not possess resis- els. Wet-lab facilities are very modest in all NARS of the tance to Striga and lowland Striga resistant selections are region, with technical expertise most limiting. In general, not well adapted. To address this problem, a new breeding sufficient effort is committed to summarizing research re- program has been initiated to introduce genes for Striga re- sults for subsequent sharing of information with production sistance into selected land races from the highlands of Ethi- agencies and extension services. opia.

Research Progress Introduction and Testing of Food Grain Sorghum Hybrids In the last four years collaborative regional research on sorghum and millet has been carried out between scientists There is great potential to introduce adapted sorghum hy- at INTSORMIL institutions and their collaborators at brids to many of the sorghum growing environments in NARS in the Horn of Afi-ica. Collaboration with the Agri- Ethiopia. In the 1970s and 1980s considerable progress was cultural Research Corporation of the Sudan has been sus- made in introducing a large array of parental germplasm as pended as a result of cooled relations between the well as in synthesizing and testing experimental hybrids, but governments of Sudan and the United States. Hence, the fol- there has been some loss of momentum in recent years. As lowing examples of research progress in our collaborative part of our collaborative effort, we have resumed scheduled efforts in each of the countries in the region will not include introduction and testing of INTSORMIL germplasm for po- a report hmSudan. tential adaptation in Ethiopia. In the last four years, several hundred experimental hybrids have been introduced. In Ethiopia 1999, for instance, a total of 419 experimental hybrids were introduced from Purdue university and evaluated at Selection for Striga Resistant Sorghum Cultivars Melkassa and Mieso test sites. Based on visual evaluation of these hybrids at these locations, 158 hybrids were advanced Significant progress has been made in our collaborative for further evaluation and selection. These hybrids will be efforts in the area of selection for Striga resistance. Activ- resynthesized and evaluated in a multilocation trial. ities included demonstrationand testing of elite Striga resis- tant sorghum cultivars in farmers' fields, introduction of In addition to experimental hybrids, effort has also been new breeding lines from INTSORMIL and testing them in exerted in introducing seed parents ( A and B lines ) and re- Striga-sickplots, and initiating a breeding program to incor- storer (R) lines. Several hundred R lines and sets of seed par- porate genes for Striga resistance into Ethiopian highland ents have been introduced and evaluated in the last four sorghums. years. With the interest in hybrids by sorghum breeders in Ethiopia and availability of a relatively good logistics for Eight Striga resistant sorghum lines developed at Purdue winter nursery activities, the opportunity for expanded un- were released for wide distribution in 1994. In Ethiopia, a dertaking of hybrid sorghum work in Ethiopia looks good. collaborative program between EARO, INTSORMIL, and Germplasm and expertise at the various INTSORMIL insti- Sasakawa Global-2000 undertook testing, demonstration, tutions will be tapped. and diffusion of these varieties in Striga endemic areas of the country. Based on the results of testing of these eight va- Management Study on Sorghum Smuts rieties over the last four years, two of the cultivars, P9401 and P9403 were recommended for wide commercial culti- We studied the efficacy of traditional management prac- vation by the Ethiopian National Variety Release Commit- tices that are routinely employed by subsistence farmers in tee at the end of the 1999 crop season. In addition to Striga Ethiopia for the control of sorghum smuts. These studies resistance, these varieties were preferred because of their have been camed out since 1996and were conducted both at superior productivity, adaptation, grain quality and resis- research stations and on farmers' fields. Preparations made tance to drought and diseases. These varieties were also from plant and animal products have been evaluated in com- found to possess acceptable food quality characteristics. parison with the commercially available seed treatment chemicals, Thiram and Apron plus. Application of a powder As a second tier, field tests of a pool of sorghum lines de- form ofthe plant preparations as seed treatment at the rate of veloped at Purdue University have been conducted in sev- 33glkg and soaking sorghum seeds for 20 minutes in live- eral Striga endemic locations in Ethiopia. Genotypic stock urine that is diluted with water at a ratio of 1: 1 VNef- differences in Striga resistance, productivity, and grain fectively controlled covered smut incidence. The efficacy quality were taken into consideration in advancing selected of the traditional treatment was as good as commercial seed entries through the testing program. Some 21 entries were treatment chemicals. We also found that seed treatment with Host Country Program Enhancement the natural products had no adverse effect on seed germina- foliar anthracnose was found to be the most prevalent at tion and emergence in experiments conducted under both both locations. Stalk and panicle infection also occurred but greenhouse and field conditions. Different rates, on a vol- were generally insignificant. A large number of entries were ume basis, were evaluated and no significant differences found to have good level of resistance to anthracnose. The were observed, suggesting that rate determination may re- number of susceptible entries among elite introductionswas quire knowledge of active compounds involved in the actual low. Most of the susceptible entries were in the world col- control of smut pathogens in these preparations. While our lection. Plans are underway to repeat this experiment with past experiments involved only one plant product, more re- artificial inoculation with the pathogen to ensue uniformity cently, we have identified several plants that have potential of infection. antifimgal properties. In the 1999-2000 crop season, we tested natural products from two plant species and found Striga Management for Small significant reduction in infection by both covered and loose Scale Sorghum Farmers smuts even at very low rates. We also conducted a labora- tory bioassay on the mode of action of these products and Sorghum production in Uganda is threatened by Striga observed that our natural plant extracts caused deformation which has become the leading biological constraint in its of teliospore germ tubes and inhibition of mycelial growth production. It is now present in all the major sorghum pro- of other pathogens. Further indepth studies are required to ducing areas of the country. In two districts of Uganda for elucidate the specific mode of action as well as to identify example, Striga was found in up to 83% of fields surveyed, the specific active ingredients involved in the control of sor- causing yield losses estimated at 60 to 85%. Several strate- ghum smut pathogens. gies have been proposed to manage Striga infestation in the field. These have included growing of resistant sorghum va- Uganda rieties, and cultural control measures such as improving soil fertility through fertilizer application or intercropping with Screening Sorghum Germplasm legumes and rotation with trap crops. Resistant varieties for Anthracnose Resistance have been either not adapted or possessed undesirable agro- nomic characteristics. Research done indicates that nitroge- Sorghum anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum nous fertilizers can reduce the level of Striga infestation. graminicola is the most important foliar disease of sorghum Late season hand weeding has also been shown to reduce in Uganda. The disease has been reported in all parts of the Striga seed return to the soil or even increase yields . A country but is more prevalent in the humid areas of Eastern, farmer strategy in Uganda, in the past, was to interplant sor- Central, and Western Uganda. The disease infects most ghum with Celosia argentea, its efficacy has not been, how- parts of the plant including leaves, stalks, peduncles, and ever quantified. Several other crops and plants have also panicles, as well as the grain. However, leaf infection is the been reported to be trap crops. Intercropping or most prevalent in Uganda. The disease has been responsible interplanting sorghum with these crops increases yields and for the elimination of the 2 KX series of sorghums from the reduces Striga emergence. Serere collection. We have emphasized research into the management of this disease because of its importance and To put effective management strategies in the hands of impact in the economy of sorghum production in the coun- the small-scale producers, simple and effective measures try. that are socio-economicallyand locally adaptable need to be developed. This project therefore was to develop farmer As a collaborative effort with INTSORMIL, a project friendly Striga management options that minimize crop was launched to screen all ofthe sorghum germplasm avail- losses due to Striga infestation are economically viable. able at SAARI for resistance to sorghum anthracnose. The objective was to identify resistance sources for utilization in The trial was planted in five farmers' fields in Kacaboi, the breeding program. It was also expected that this study Kumi district. Fmers fields were selected on the basis of a would go further into investigating the possibility of the ex- history of high Striga infestation. Individual farmers istence of variability in the Ugandan pathogen. A total of formed the replicates. Plot size was 12.0 m x 9.0 m and treat- 857 sorghum entries in 14 experiments were screened in ments were located in the most Striga sick area of the field. 1999 at two locations, Soroti and Ngetta. Soroti is the main Treatments were randomly allocated to plots in each field. sorghum research station with an altitude of 11 OOm and av- Seed of Celosia argentea were interplanted with sorghum erage annual rainfall of 1320mrn. Ngetta is a sub-station of seed at the proportion of 1.O g to 500 g of sorghum seed. This SAARI located in Lira district in Northern Uganda with an was a guestimate but estimated to prevent it from becoming altitude of lOOOm and an average annual rainfall of a weed itself. The Celosia argentea seed was mixed with 1200mrn. All entries were planted in September in single soil as a filler to allow for broadcasting or row planting. Sor- row plots of 5m length. Data on infection levels were col- ghum was planted at 60 cm x 20 cm, as recommended ex- lectedon leaves, stalks and panicles at 50% flowering and at cept in farmer management treatments, where it was maturity. A score of 1-5, where 1= resistant, disease incon- broadcast. Seed of Celosia argentea in filler were spicuous or present on occasional plant, and 5= highly sus- interplanted between the sorghum rows and thinned to two ceptible with death of leaves or plants, was used. Generally, plants per metre row. Emerged Striga plants were counted Host Country Program Enhancement three times; early season (5-7 sorghum leaf stage), mid sea- Initiate breeding efforts on transfer of Striga resis- son (10-12 sorghum leaf stage) and at harvest. Fourpeima- tance from various sources into Kenya Sorghum vari- nent quadrants measuring 1.0 m x 1.0 m were established in eties. each plot. Emerged Striga plants were counted within these quadrants, and means for each plot determined. Sorghum Train Kenyan scientists on laboratory methods for plant heights were measured at flowering. Ten plants were screening for resistance to Striga in sorghum. randomly measured and mean height derived. At harvest each plot was randomly sampled three times, each measur- Administrative ing 4.0 m x 2.0 mgiving a total harvest area of 24 m2. Grain yield was determined from this harvest area. In Kenya, there are two crop seasons in a year as a result of the bimodal rainfall pattern. The efficiency of our The results of this experiment indicated that the use of a INTSORMILKenya collaborative research can be en- tolerant sorghum variety, Seredo, in combination with soil hanced if sorghum germplasm for adaptive screening can fertility enhancement and two hand weedings or be sent out twice a year. The most appropriate times for interplanting with Celosia argentea and two hand weedings sending test material to Kenya is in February for the main all had favorable increases in yield and suppression of crop season (long rains), and in September for the short Striga emergence. A combination of nitrogen fertilizer and rainy season. Two or more sets of each test material should interplanting with C. argentea appeared to have greater im- be sent to Kenya as that increases the chances for establish- pact on Striga emergence than when each was applied sin- ing a good crop in at least one location. gly. Application of fertilizer plus interplanting with Celosia argentea and two hand weedings increased sorghum grain The purchase of a computer for the Kenya program will yield compared to either Sekedo or farmers variety at his increase their efficiency in data management and retrieval. management (P<0.05). Interplanting Seredo with Celosia Valuable time is wasted in waiting for computer time that argentea resulted in a yield not different with fertilizer ap- must be borrowed from other research programs. plication. This was eventually reflected in net income that was superior to fertilizer application. The grain yield benefit Eritrea from integrated Striga management strategy appears to be due to a number of factors; the reduction of competition Evaluation of Introduced Sorghum from weeds other than Striga, the suppression of Striga Varieties for Striga Resistance emergence and the increased soil fertility. All these com- bined to give a robust plant, as indicated by the greater plant The trial was carried out both in 1997 and 1998 in the height, that withstands better the pathological effect of western lowland (Shambuko), but the 1997 trial failed be- Striga. cause of the drought. The trial intended to be carried out in 1997 in the highland (Mendefera) was not camed out be- Kenya cause of technical reasons. The result given below was car- ried out during 1998 in the western lowland (Shambuko) Evaluation of Striga Resistant and in the highland (Mendefera). Sorghums from INTSORMILl Purdue The objectives of this experiment were as follows: In Kenya, about 70% of the sorghum crop is produced in areas surrounding Lake Victoria where witch-weed (Striga To evaluate high-land sorghum cultivars with en- Spp.) is a major production constraint. In the East Africa ie- hanced level of resistance against Striga under gion losses due this parasitic weed are estimated to range be- Eritrean conditions. tween 65% and 100%. Of late Striga has been reported to extend to non-traditional areas. The current control methods To evaluate low-land sorghum cultivars with en- involve fertility management, crop rotation and use of trap hanced level of resistance against Striga under crops. Of all the varieties being grown in the area, none is re- Eritrean conditions. sistant to this menace. Purdue university scientists in the USA have made a break through in a rapid laboratory A total of 26 varieties of which 24 were received from screening method for sorghum resistance to Striga. The im- INTSORMIL/Purdue University (International Striga Re- mediate objectives ofthe International Striga nurseries are: sistant Sorghum Nursery) with two local varieties.

Conduct field screening for Striga resistant sorghum The tial was camed out at five farmers' plot around lines developed at Purdue for adaptation to growing Shambuko. Each farmer's plot was considered as a replica- conditions in Kenya tion. The experimental design was RCBD with four replica- tions. Three rows of 5 m long were used for each treatment To assess impact of integrated use of Striga resistant (variety) in each replication. Plant height, panicle size, sor- sorghum varieties in combination with nitrogen fertil- ization and water conservation measures. Host Country Program Enhancement ghum stand count, Striga count and yields of the treatments Travel (1996-2000) were recorded. U.S. Collaborators Travel Eight Sorghum varieties, received fiom INTSORMILI Purdue University (International Striga Resistant Nursery), In 1996, John Sanders traveled to Ethiopia to work with which were selected based on their resistance against Striga IAR economists to evaluate potential for future collabora- with one local checkused forthis trial. The experimental de- tion. sign was RCBD with four replication. Three rows of 5m long were used for each treatment. The experiment was car- In 1997, Gebisa Ejeta and John Yohe traveled to Kenya, ried out at Shambuko Research Center. Plant height, sor- Uganda, Ethiopia, and Eritrea to establish MOAs with the ghum stand count, and Striga count per plot of 11.25 m2 NARS, conduct discussions ASARECA and REDSOIE were recorded. In 1998, Gebisa Ejeta, Bruce Harnaker, John Leslie, From this trial, Striga count during the early growth stage Henry Pitre and Tom Crawford to Ethiopia with the first of sorghum was very few in number. Greater number of raveling HOA workshop. Striga was observed during late season when the crop has al- ready been well established to cause reduction of sorghum In 1999, Gebisa Ejeta to Ethiopia to work with the grain yield. There were significant differences in the num- USAID Mission on the Amhara project; John Sanders to ber of Striga count made in all the treatments. The varieties Ethiopia for discussions with EAR0 and Sasakawa 2000 that produced low amounts of germination stimulants suf- on impact assessment of Striga resistant sorghum varieties fered to a lesser degree from this parasitic weed. Host Country Scientists Travel Varieties with entry numbers 8579 and 8568 were not in- fected with Striga at all and varieties with entry numbers In 1996, Abdel Gabbar Babiker, Abdelmoneim Ahmadi 8557 and 8580 showed very few numbers ofstriga. Variety and Abdelatif Nour from Sudan to participate in the with entry number, 8552, 8556,8566, 8577 and 8555 sus- INTSORMIL Principal Investigators Conference; Aberra tained fewer Striga and as the same time gave good yield Debelo, Girma Tegegne and Senait Yetneberk fiom Ethio- with 39.19,33.24,29.85,29.68 and 29.43 qha respectively. pia to attend the INTSORMIL Principal Investigators' Con- ference; Peter Esele from Uganda to attend the INTSORMIL Principal Investigators' Conference. Generally yields fiom these varieties were low as com- pared with other cultivars. The advantage of these cultivars In May of 2000, Aberra Debelo from Ethiopia, Member is that they can give yields under heavy infestation and/or of the INTSORMIL Board of Directors attended the Board poor seasons as an Gsurance crop. Under improved man- Meeting in Kansas City. agement, the resistance of this crop to Striga can be en- hanced. The Striga infestation problem is complicated by Training (1 996 -2000) environment and/or host parasitic weed relationship. Al- though the varieties were supposed to show some degree of The following students have been trained from the Horn resistance because of their genetic potential, all the varieties of Africa Region in this grant period. were seriously infested with this weed. Despite the yield of all treatments could not be obtained, being damaged by ani- Regassa, Teshome, Ethiopia, Ph.D. mals, only one variety with entry number of 8552 was rela- Nduulu, Lexington, Kenya, Ph.D. tively resistant against Striga. Ibrahim, Yahia, Sudan, Ph.D. Mohammed, Abdallah, Sudan, Ph.D. Institution Building Bugusu, Betty, Kenya, M.S. Awika, Joseph M ,Kenya, M.S. Equipment Purchased (1996-2000) Admasu, Melakebrhan, Ethiopia, Ph.D. Mulatu, Tadesse, Ethiopia, M.S.(Deceased) Table-top hand sealer, Sharp copier, slide projector, Mohamed, Ahmed, Sudan, Ph.D. Mettler precision balance, Altimeter, Hygrothennograph, Murithi, Linus, Kenya, Ph.D. air conditioner, HP Lase jet printer, power converters, Nega, Wubeneh, Ethiopia, M.S. Compaq computer, HP Scan jet, Micron Computer, slide projector, overhead projector, DM LS microscope, power Networking converters, and a Cannon EOS Elan I1 camera. In addition, books and subscriptions to scientificjournals as well as ex- Our regional initiative in the Horn of Afiica has provided pendable research and lab supplies were purcfiased and us opportunity to forge effective networking with a number shipped to Ethiopia. of governmental and non-governmental agencies. In addi- tion to bilateral agreements we have developed with each of five NARS in the region, we have also been able to develop Host Country Program Enhancement linkages with a number of agencies, namely the Association INTSORMIL. The agency also organized the planning and for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and implementation of several hundred !h hectare demonstra- Central Africa (ASARECA), REDS0 and USAID mis- tion plots in the Tigre, Amhara, and Oromo regions known sions, Sasakawa Global 2000, and the Intergovernmental to have serious Striga infection annually. Successful imple- Authority on Development (IGAD). mentation of these demonstration experiments generated valuable data that was presented to the Ethiopian National A summary of collaborative activities with each of these Variety Release Committee which recommended the offi- agencies follows: cial release of two INTSORMIL bred varieties for commer- cial cultivation in Striga endemic areas of the country. ASARECA IGAD A memorandum of agreement was signed with ASARECA to engage in joint efforts of developing andpro- The IGAD Secretariat, in partnership with its Member moting improved technologies for sorghum production and States and Partners in Development recently identified a utilization in the region. In cooperation with ICRISAT, we new initiative on the development and promotion of drought assisted ASARECA to hold a workshop in the region and tolerant high yielding crop varieties for immediate formula- pooled scientists in the region to prepare a document to- tion and implementation. INTSORMIL was requested by wards resurrecting a network for sorghum and millet im- IGAD to undertake a survey project on "Promoting Sustain- provement in the region. As part of the agenda developed able Production of Drought Tolerant High Yielding Crop for the 1995 workshop, NARS scientists in the ASARECA Varieties through Research and Extension." This compre- region formulated a draft proposal to solicit funding for re- hensive project required INTSORMIL to engage several vitalization and operation of a sorghum and millet research scientists from each of the countries in the region as well as network in the ASARECA region. Both INTSORMIL and from the United States in analyzing the availability and util- ICRISAT expect to be key participants in such a network in ity ofmodern technologies resulting from research in the re- the Greater Horn of Africa. Proceedings of the workshop, gion that may have potential in alleviating the critical food including the proposal drafted by the NARS scientists in the deficit that is a constant in each of the countries in the re- region, have been published at Purdue University. A net- gion. . Inhabitants of the IGAD region continue to experi- work in the region will greatly enhance interaction and dis- ence famine due to repeated food shortages triggered semination of research results among NARS. It will also primarily by drought but also by a fragile and degraded en- facilitate INTSORMIL's efforts in the Horn of Africa. vironment caused by severe population pressure. In much of the region, farmers attempt to increase food production Plans are for this network, ECARSAM, to start function- via horizontal expansion into marginal lands using tradi- ing in the region as soon as sponsors are located. We believe tional cultivars and farming practices. More than one-half that the resurrection of this network will facilitate our col- of the IGAD region is classified as arih or semi-arid lands laborative interaction and coordination of efforts with (ASAL) characterized by management practices, and a se- ICRISAT, the NARS and NGOs in the Horn of Africa re- vere soil erosion problem. As a result, farmers in the region gion. In 1997 we signed MOUs with Ethiopia, Kenya, are often destitute and easily affected by vagaries of low Uganda and Eritrea following discussions initiated during rainfall and food shortages associated with drought. Added the workshop. This gave INTSORMIL an excellent nucleus to the overall poverty and limited income opportunities for in which to operate an effective regional research network in people in rural communities, the majority of the people in the Greater Horn of Africa. The USAID Missions in Ethio- the arid regions of Eastern Africa are chronically food inse- pia and Eritrea have identified crop research and production cure. Hence, there is great need for urgent intervention to- as targets for development initiatives. Leaders of the wards more efficient and sustainable practices for food Eritrean program are particularly excited about the opportu- production and natural resource management. There have nity for working with CRSPs because as a new nation, they been great strides made in agricultural research, both in have identified human capital development as a priority and crops and livestock, in the IGAD region. A number of na- they see U.S. universities providing graduate education op- tional research programs in cooperation with international portunities. Support for INTSORMIL activities in the re- and regional organizations have developed technologies gion has been outstanding. that can significantly increase food production in the region. However, much of this technology has not been fully ex- Sasakawa Global 2000 ploited. In some countries greater emphasis has been placed in the more optimal ecologies targeting intensive farming This agency has been instrumental in testing, demonstra- programs. In other countries, research may have generated tion, and dissemination of improved agronomic practices drought tolerant crop varieties and soil-water conservation for increasing crop yields in cooperation with NARS in the practices for marginal lands, but transfer and use of these region. We collaborated with Global 2000 in promoting the technologies havebeen hampered due to various factors in- adoption of Striga resistant sorghum varieties in Ethiopia. cluding ineffective input delivery systems as well as poor Global 2000 sponsoredthe multiplicationof large quantities extension infrastructureand services. An organized effort is of seed of the improved sorghum varieties supplied by needed to identify and assess the bottlenecks to increased Host Country Program Enhancement agricultural productivity in each of these countries. There is Research Accomplishments a need to examine the existence of capacity for food-self sufficiency in each country. There is also a need to examine Although the Horn ofAfrica regional project is a new ini- the institutional barriers and limitations for technology gen- tiative, INTSORMIL has had a strong collaborative pro- eration and extension. Where promising technologies have gram in the region with Sudan as a prime site. Much of the been developed but have not been extended due to lack of collaborative effort has been in working with the Agricul- proper linkages or absence of an effective delivery system, tural Research Corporation (ARC) oftheSudan. The collab- attention will be drawn to creation of such a mechanism. In orative research relationship between the Agricultural countries where drought tolerant, adapted crop varieties or Research Corporation (ARC), Sudan and INTSORMIL that efficient soil-water conservation technologies have not started in 1980 was developed into a strong, mutually bene- been developed, efforts need be directed towards testing the ficial partnership that produced several excellent results. feasibility of possible transfer of such technologies from Tangible results ranging from training to development of neighboring countries. There would also be a need for de- useful technologies and elite germplasm have been gener- vising new collaborative research in the region for develop- ated. ment of new technologies for addressing some of the more intractable agricultural problems that need long-term joint Even before the advent of INTSORMIL, ARCJSudan collaborative efforts. An analysis of on-going public, pri- had a "critical mass" of well-trainedmanpower in place. Su- vate, non-governmental (NGOs), as well as regional and in- dan is unique in Africa in this regards. Over decades it had ternational research and development efforts in the region is invested its own scant resources into developing a sufficient needed. It is essential to conduct a through survey in each cadre of agricultural manpower. However INTSORMIL IGAD State to identify available technologies as well as to has also trained several Sudanese scientists who have assess probable constraints and bottlenecks to the develop- returned and filled in key positions particularly in sor- ment and wide adoption of drought tolerant crop varieties in ghudmillet research related areas. Sudanese graduates of the IGAD region. The objective of this project, therefore, is INTSORMIL institutions currently provide service in sor- to undertake such a survey followed by a regional workshop ghum breeding (2), plant pathology (I), entomology (I), held where key stakeholders in the IGAD region would pro- agronomy ( 1), food science (1), and agricultural economics vide input into the formulation of a comprehensive docu- ( 1). A few Sudanese trained and sponsored by INTSORMIL ment for eventual implementation of a project on the currently also serve IARCs and national programs else- development and promotion of drought tolerant crop variet- where. Of significance has been the contribution made by ies. INTSORMIL in mentoring of young graduates as they re- turned to ARC. Furthermore, several ARC scientists have Am hara Project spent valuable time in the laboratories of their counterparts in the U.S. Some have done this more than once. In some of At the request of the USAID mission in Ethiopia, these cases, significant research findings have come out of INTSORMIL was involved in the discussion and evaluation these experiences and the results have been published as of an integrated food security program for the Amhara re- joint contributions of ARC and INTSORMIL. gion of Ethiopia. This initiative was based on the premise that the region is one of the most vulnerable areas for food On numerous occasions, and at times on a regular basis production and current development efforts in the region annually, INTSORMIL and ARC scientists have held round can not adequately address the food security related prob- table discussions on assessing and reevaluating production lems in most of the drought affected areas of the region. and utilization constraints in sorghum and millets in Sudan, Hence the need for a targeted solution to alleviated food se- assessing of research findings and utility technologies curity problems was considered important. A rural develop- jointly developed, and more significantly in setting priori- ment effort with greater emphasis on the agricultural sector ties. The ARC has used these deliberations to assess priori- was considered. Growth in this sector, however, requires ties and progress and to sharpen the focus in the broader support from the research-extension system. The sorghudmillet research in Sudan. ARC has often involved agricultural research component of the food security initia- INTSORMIL PIS in setting the national agenda around sor- tive is designed to address problems related to the allevia- ghudmillet research as well as in finding better ways of ex- tion of food security in drought affected areas that are tending technologies derived from research. characterized by combinations of moisture deficit, unfavor- able climatic conditions, pest infection, degraded and poor Tangible technologies that resulted from natural resource base, and lack of appropriate technology ARCIINTSORMIL partnership include: packages. INTSORMIL and other CRSPs were invited to consider development of research projects that would gen- Development, release, and distribution of Hageen erate sets of technologies that would help increase produc- Dura-1, as the first commercial sorghum hybrid. tivity and thereby support in the alleviation of food security problems. Discussions are underway towards initiating an Identification, wide-testing and release of SRN39 and InteSRSP project in the Arnahara region of Ethiopia to- IS-9830 as the first Striga resistant sorghum releases wards this goal. Host Country Program Enhancement

The development of an infant seed industry that began funds to ARC in support of sorghudmillet research. In re- with the pilot project around HD-1 seed production. turn, that encouraged the Ministry ofplanning to continue to Today over one million acres of sorghum fields are provided unprecedented level of support specifically for targeted for HD-1 production. sorghurn/millet research in Sudan. Individually, particu- larly ARC scientists in the area of Striga, pathology, and ce- The testing and recommendation of use of compos- real quality, have produced significant results that have ite-flour for bread making and the better quality mix given them due recognition in the sorghumlmillet research obtained with use of HD- 1 grain. community. The collaborative partnership between INTSORMIL and ARC has clearly demonstrated that sus- The economic evaluation on the impact of HD-1 (the tained support and focused research efforts would produce social returns to research investments). tangible and usell results. It also showed that an effective utilization of research generated technologies would in re- The development of a technology to produce "instant turn eventually bring due recognition to scientists and re- nasha" as a weaning food. search programs, and generated increased and sustained support for agricultural research, even in a national program of a developing country with numerous, seemingly insur- Establishing fermentation, a traditional process as an mountable problems. effective method to alleviate problems of protein di- gestibility associated with sorghum grain.. Promising results have emerged from the new collabora- tive research projects between INTSORMIL and the Insti- Benefits accrued to INTSORMIL scientists and U.S. ag- tute of Agricultural Research in Ethiopia. riculture from ARCIINTSORMIL collaborationinclude the following: New Striga resistant sorghum cultivars introduced Contribution of germplasm tested in Sudan in enhancing from ~urduelIN~~0RM~and tested in Striga en- drought tolerance of material developed for the U.S. seed demic areas with excellent results. Three outstanding industry. Recently 10 drought tolerant lines were derived lines (P9401, P9403, and P9404) were selected. Seed from crosses between U.S. and Sudan sections and were re- of these varieties was multiplied during the off-season leased to the seed industry in the USA in a joint effort with Global 2000. About 1 '/z ton of seed was produced to be distributed to several hun- Raw germplasm from Sudan for potential use in the U.S. dred farmers in three regions. Testing and demonstra- Recently over 3000 Sudanese land races were contributed tion conducted over the last three years led to the by ARC to the USDA. official release ofthese varieties for commercial culti- vation in Ethiopia. The development and refinement of new technologies with potential use in the U.S. For instance Long Smut is not An integrated Striga control study including the three a disease of economic importance in the U.S. However, Striga resistant selections, nitrogen fertilization, and should it become one, screening technology INTSORMIL tied-ridges has been conducted since the 1998 crop scientists helped develop in Sudan, will come in handy. season.

The fmding that traditional process of fermentation as a Formulation of a local plant product and an animal means to alleviate the protein digestibility problem in sor- by-product traditionally used by Ethiopian sorghum ghum laid the foundation for the scientific understanding of farmers for the control of covered smut was tested and factors that influence protein digestibilityin grain sorghum. confirmed.

The excellent field demonstration program by Global A comprehensive integrated pest management study 2000 and the persistent efforts of ARCIINTSORMIL in as- for control of stalk borers was initiated and the neces- sisting the seed production programs have established sary baseline data generated. Hageen Dura- 1 as an ARC generated technology with sig- nificant impact to sorghum agriculture in Sudan. Added to A Traveling Workshop in Ethiopia and Eritrea for our other research technologies which have been generated by regional collaborators was held. The workshop al- ARC, including those listed above, ARC has been recog- lowed for exchange of ideas and establish understand- nized by the GOS and other agencies operating in Sudan. ing for undertaking regional sorghum and millet For instance, the USAID mission, with prodding from research collaboratively. INTSORMIL PIS, granted a substantial amount of PL-480 Host Country Program Enhancement

Mali

Sustainable Systems for Production, Utilization, and Marketing of Sorghum and Millet in Mali

Coordinators

Dr. Aboubacar Toure, Host Country Coordinator, IER, B.P. 438, Sotuba, Bamako, Mali Dr. Darrell T. Rosenow, U.S. Country Coordinator, Texas A&M University, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Route 3, Box 219, Lubbock, TX

Collaborative Program

Program Structure Millet -UNL-2 18 -D.J. Andrews; IER - Moussa Daouda Sanogo and Mody Diagouraga. The INTSORMIL collaborative program in Mali is a multidisciplinary research program. The vital collaboration Sustainable Crop Protection Systems continues to provide efficient use of resources. The program has centered around Malian scientists and each Malian sci- Insects -TAM-225 - G.L. Teetes; IER - Yacouba entist develops research plans cooperatively with a US Doumbia and Mme Diarisso Niamoye Yaro. counterpart which provides for effective research planning, communication, and coordination. Each year during the Diseases - TAM-224 - R.A. Frederiksen; IER - cropping season, INTSORMIL collaborators travel to Mali Mamourou DiourtC; Mme Diakite Mariam Diarra; and to observe field trials, consult, review progress and plan fu- Ousmane Cisse. ture activities with Malian scientists. Occasionally, IER sci- entists also travel to the US for research review, planning, Striga - PRF-207 - G. Ejeta; IER - BourCma DembtlC; consolidation and coordination. The planned project activi- Mountaga Kagnatao; and Cheickna Diarra. ties then become part of the annual Amendment to the MOA between INTSORMIL and IER. Sustainable Crop Production Systems

The program includes all aspects of sorghumlmillet im- Agronomy/Drought/Nutrient Use (Sorghum) - provement with major emphasis on germplasm enhance- UNL-214 - J.W. Maranville; IER - Abdoul W. Toure; and ment, utilization and quality, physiology of drought Sidi Bekaye Coulibaly. adaptation, nitrogen efficiency, soil management, insect pests, diseases control strategies and striga control. Agronomy, Crop Residues (Millet) - UNL-2 13 - Steve Mason; IER - Samba Traork; Adama Coulibaly; Minamba Financial Input Bagayoko.

The USAID Mission has provided significant financial Soil Management InterCRSP - TAM-223 - G.C. Peter- support to IER research program through the SPARC Pro- son; and IER - Mamadou Doumbia. ject which ended in June 1997. In addition to the Malian Government, Novartis and World Bank support the IER re- Grain Utilization and Quality - TAM-226 - L.W. search program in a complementary way depending on Rooney; IER - Mme Aiissata Bengaly Berthk; and Mrne needs. Coulibaly Salimata SidibC.

Research Disciplines and Collaborators On-Farm and InterCRSP - IER - Aboubacar Tourk; Oumar Coulibaly; and World Vision - Philippe Dembele. Genetic Enhancement - (Breeding) - Sorghum and Millet Economics and Marketing - PRF-205 - J.H. Sanders; Icofil IER - Bakary Coulibaly; and Purdue University - Sorghum - TAM-222 - D.T. Rosenow, and IER, Jeffrey Vitale. Aboubacar Tourk. Collaborating Institutions TAM-223 - G.C. Peterson, IER - Abocar Oumar Toure ; Sidi Bekaye Coulibaly; Abdoulaye G. Diallo; and Aly Institute of Rural Economy (IER), Bamako, Mali BocarTourk. Texas A&M University University of Nebraska Host Country Program Enhancement

Purdue University Mali INTSORMIL Coordinator, and on INTSORMIL Kansas State Univerity Technical Committee. USAID/Bamako NovartisICiba-Geig y Dr. Mamourou Diourt6 (Texas A&M and Kansas State) ICRISAT/WASIP/Mali - Currently Head Sorghum Pathologist. WCASRNJROCARS (Regional Sorghum Network) Dr. Samba Traore (Nebraska) - Currently Agronomist ROCAFREMI (Regional Millet Network) and Mali National Coordinator for Millet. World Vision International and InterCRSP (WVI) Soil Management CRSP Dr. Mme Diarisso Niamoye Yaro (Texas A&M) - Cur- rently Sorghum Entomologist, and Head of a Vegetable Sta- SorghudMillet Constraints Researched tion in IER.

Plant Production Constraints Dr. Momadou Doumbia (Texas A&M) - Currently Di- rector of Soil Laboratory and Soil Scientist with IER. The yield level and stability in sorghum and millet pro- duction is of major importance in the country. Diseases, in- Mr. Abdoul W. Tour6 (Nebraska) - Currently Sorghum sect infestations andStriga significantly affect sorghum and Agronomist. millet production in Mali. Head bugs and associated grain molds adversely affect sorghum yield and grain quality. Mr. Adama Coulibaly (Kansas State) - Currently Sor- Anthracnose is a very severe sorghum disease in Mali and ghum Agronomist long smut is severe in the drier regions of the country. Striga is a major constraint for both sorghum and millet. Mr. Sidi Bekaye Coulibaly (Nebraska) - Previously Sor- ghum Physiology/Agronomy and Sorghum Breeding and Land Production Constraints INTSORMIL Coordinator. Currently working on Ph.D. at Texas A&M/Texas Tech. Low soil fertility combined with the low yield and unsta- ble yields of Malian cultivars affect sorghum and millet pro- Mr. Bakary Coulibaly (Purdue) - Currently Economist duction in Mali. Major soil related constraints to production with Icofil, IER. in Mali are phosphorus and nitrogen deficiency, and water stress. Dr. Bourema Dembel6 (Purdue - Short-Training) - Cur- rently Deputy Research Director, IER. Previously Weed Technological and Socioeconomic Constraints Scientist (Striga) and National Coordinator for sorghum.

There is a lackof farm credit policy which would encour- Mme Aissata Bengaly Berth6 (Texas A&M - Short- age adoptionof improved sorghum andmillet new cultivars. Training) - Currently SorghumUtilization and Quality P.I. In addition, the prices of these two cereals are low and unsta- ble. New, shelf-stable foods and industrial sorghum and New students in training include Niaba Tem6 who has millet based products which would encourage production, successfully complete his B.S. and is currently an M.S. stu- are lacking in the country. dent at Texas Tech University. Sidi Bekaye Coulibaly, who has served as INTSORMIL Host Country Coordinator, is Sorghum and millet research in Mali has attempted to ad- now a Ph.D. student at Texas TechITexas A&M University. dress all three categories of constraints through genetic en- hancement of the species, and crop and land management Bocar Sidibt and Sibkne Dtna received short term train- strategies development ofnovel post-harvest technologies. ing in the USA provided by INTSORMIL in breeding and plant pathology. Institution Building U.S. scientists traveling to Mali included: Drs. D.T. IER sorghum and millet programs received, through Rosenow and G.C. Peterson, Sorghum Breeders; L.W. INTSORMIL collaboration, a vehicle and various field and Rooney, Food Scientist; G.L. Teetes, Entomologist; R.A laboratory research equipment including computers, print- Fredericken, Plant Pathologist; all from Texas A&M Uni- ers, pollinating bags, and breeding supplies. versity; Drs J.D. Maranville and S.C. Mason, Agronomists and Prof. D .J. Andrews, Millet Breeder, from the University Many Malian scientists trained at INTSORMIL institu- of Nebraska; Dr. J.H. Sanders, Economist, from Purdue. Dr. tions are senior staff making important contributions in sor- Tom Crawford, INTSORMIL Associate Director, and Dr. ghum and millet research within the IER including: Jeff Dahlberg, Sorghum Curator, USDA-ARS, Puerto Rico also traveled to Mali. Dr. Aboubacar Tour6 (Texas A&M) - Currently Sor- ghum Breeder, Mali National Coordinator for sorghum, Host Country Program Enhancement

IER scientists Sidi Bekaye Coulibaly, Yacouba some collaborative programs in Ghana and Senegal in Doumbia, Bourtma Dembtlt, Abdoul W. Tourt, Mme 2000-2001. Bertht Aissata Bengaly and Adama Coulibaly, attended the International Sorghum and Millet Conference at Lubbuck in The program has also interacted with ICRISAT, 1996. Mr. Sidi Bekaye Coulibaly traveled to the US for an TROPSOILS, NOVARTIS, etc. There has been a long his- INTSORMIL Technical Committee meeting and attended tory of collaboration with ICRISAT in Mali especially in the INTSORMIL PI Conference and Impact Assessment breeding, entomology, and weed science. The program has Workshop in June 1998 at Corpus Christi, TX. assembled, planted, increased and characterized the Mali Sorghum Collection in collaboration with USDA-ARS, All key Malian scientists traveled to Niger, September 25 ICRISAT, ORSTOM, CIRAD, and has distributed seed to to October 2,1998 to participate in the West African Hybrid US, ICRISAT, and ORSTOM. The development of a work- Sorghum and Pearl Millet workshop, and to discuss collabo- ing group for active use is ongoing. Approximately 450 (the rative research efforts with Nigerien and other West African late maturing group) items from the Mali Sorghum Collec- scientists. Mde. A.B. Bertht, Aboubacar Tourt, and Darrell tion were grown in quarantine on St. Croix, U.S.Virgin .Is- Rosenow participated in the ROCARS Workshop - Sustain- lands in early 2000 with seed increased and characterization able Production, Utilization, and Marketing in West and completed. Plans are to grow out the other two thirds of the Central Africa, April 19-22, 1999 at Lome, Togo. John Collection in St. Croix by the winter of 2000-200 1. Sanders and Jupiter Ndjuenga also attended the ROCARS Workshop representing INTSORMIL. A workshop on Sorghum Germplasm and Characteriza- tion was held at Cinzana, Mali in November 1997 with over Mme Bertht Aissata Bengaly, Food Scientist, is a mem- 40 sorghum scientists, mostly from West Africa, attending. ber of the Streering Committee of the West and Central Af- The workshop was held in cooperation with the working, rica Sorghum Research Network, WCASRN (ROCARS). harvest, etc. of the Mali Sorghum Collection grown at Cinzana and was co-sponsored by INTSORMIL, IER, Two INTSORMIL scientists were presented the ICRISAT, USDA-ARS, WCASRN, ORSTOM, and CIWARA Award in the fall of 1999 by the IER Director CIRAD. General. The CIWARA Award is presented through the Bambara association of farmers to persons or organizations Another collaborative activity was the search for molec- making significant contributions to agriculture in Mali. Re- ular markers for head bug resistance. This collaboration has ceiving the award were Dr. Richard Frederiksen, on behalf involved IER, The Rockefeller Foundation, Texas A&M of his contribution to the formation and development of University, Texas Tech University, INTSORMIL, and INTSORMIL and in recognition of the contribution of CIRAD. INTSORMIL to Malian agriculture, and Dr. Darrell Rosenow, for his contribution to Mali farming and agricul- Research Results - 1999 ture through his leadership in collaborative IER research and as Mali Country Coordinator. Performance data from the 1999 Sorghum Drought Test grown at the dry,'northern Mali Station at Bema is presented Networking in Table 1. Although the 1999 rainfall was rather good, some interesting results were obtained. Some previously An efficient sorghum and millet research and technology drought tolerant non-guinea cultivars from other countries transfer network exists though WCASRN and performed well including Tx7000, Ajabsido, El Mota, ROCAFREMI. The INTSORMILAER collaborative pro- SC414-12E, CE15 1, Macia, and 93SU629. As a rule, the gram is integrated on a regional basis. Technologies devel- drought tolerant Feteritas from Sudan (93SU numbers) per- oped in Mali are transferable to most countries in West formed well and had a desirable early flowering. Also, the Africa specially in the areas of head bugs, drought and grain durra cultivars from northern Niger, Nigeria, and Mali mold which are common across West Africa and are (Bagoba, Babadia Fara, 0H/84-3/5, Gadiaba, and Lakahiri) world-wide problems. Exchange of elite germplasm with producedhigh yields. The guineacultivars had only average useful traits is ongoing among breeders in the region. The performance, while the converted Malian Guineas (CSM emerging interaction with NGO's, the University of Mali numbers followed by C) were very early and low yielding. (IPR de Katibougou), farm organizations, and extension in The three introduced hybrids showed no superiority over conducting on-farm research and tests is a positive one that the best adapted cultivars. efficiently utilizes scarce resources and personnel. The pro- gram is using this approach to evaluate new improved The Mali Ministry of Agriculture and IER held a Press breeding cultivars and other technologies in the West Africa Conference in the spring of 2000 to make a public an- Region. Efforts are underway to reinforce coordination of nouncement of the commercialization of a cookie made by research programs and activities with Niger and Burkina GAM, a large private bakery in Bamako, called Dali-ken. Faso. Some seed money has been made available from This cookie uses 20% locally produced flour (combined INTSORMIL through the Mali Country Budget to develop with wheat) from the grain of the white-seeded, tan-plant IER/INTSORMIL developed sorghum cultivar, Host Country Program Enhancement

- - .-.- . - -- -- Table 1. Performance data from 51 selected entries from a 75 entry drought trial at Bema, Northern Mali, 1999. -- - - -. VarietylCultivar Days to Plant height Grain yield 50% flower -- (m) kg ha-l Tx7078 68 .88 800 835 76 .99 1133 Tx7000 58 .98 1800 1790E 63 .79 627 Ajabsido (Sudan) 59 1.7 1400 ElMota (Niger) 53 1.4 1707 Segaolane (Botswana) 6 1 .98 400 P954035 67 .97 1867 P898012 6 1 1.5 1280 SC414-12E (Sudan) 64 .89 1627 CE 151 (Senegal) 63 1.2 1893 P37-3 69 1.1 1493 SS 130 (Somalia) 8 1 2.5 1133 SC 121 1 -1 1E (Honduras) 59 .96 1200 Macia (Mozambique) 73 1.2 2667 Kuyuma (Zambia 73 1.3 1867 MP-53 1 (SADC) 72 1.6 2267 Malisor 84-7 76 1.O 1533 Malisor 84-5 72 1.6 1600 S-34 65 1.6 1267 ICSV 400 73 1.6 1933 Malisor 92-1 68 1.5 1800 Sureno 74 1.5 2480 93SU629 (Sudan) 55 1.3 1867 93SU1671 (Sudan) 61 1.8 1933 93SU1672 (Sudan) 64 1.1 1307 903SU96 (Sudan) 59 .96 1427 93SU70 (Sudan) 60 1.8 1333 93SU439 (Sudan) 59 2.1 1867 93SU577 (Sudan) 63 1.9 1600 Gadam el Hamon C (Sudan) 6 1 .68 1467 CSM419C 48 .98 1200 CSM414C 53 1.3 800 CSM388C 55 1.4 893 CSM90C 52 1.03 1426 CSM4 17C 60 1.3 560 CSM87C 51 1.O 600 CSM207C 5 1 1.2 693 CSM63 50 1.8 1067 CSM228 66 1.9 1093 CSM219 63 1.9 1400 Seguetana Cinzana - E 74 2.9 1093 CE90 70 1.3 933 Bagoba (Niger) 62 1.9 1600 08184-315 (Nigeria) 63 2.3 2067 Babadia Fara (Niger) 63 1.9 2173 Gadiaba Cinzana (Mali) 76 2.1 2133 Lakahiri (Mali) 76 2.2 2267 Hageen Dura 1 (Hybrid) 67 1.3 2000 A1 *P37-3 (Hybrid) 64 1.2 2000 A35*P37-3 IHvbrid) 74 -1.3 - - -- 2133 Mean of 75 entries 64 134 1330 Significance ** ** +* C.V. (%) 11.9 18.7 44.8

N'Tenimissa, which was contract grown. This demonstrates 1999 (Tables 2 and 3). Many are derived from the cross that the grain of the newly developed tan-plant Guinea N'Tenimissa*Tiemarfing, and have very good guinea-type cultivars is superior in quality to the local Guinea cultivars, grain, being superior to N'Tenimissa grain in resistance to and that it can enhance the commercial value and utilization the head buglgrain mold problem. Several appear to be of value-added, high quality sorghum grain. equivalent to N'Tenimissa in yield, but with less stem lodg- ing and breakage than N'Tenimissa. Also, several new F3, Several new tan-plant-Guinea breeding lines in the F4,and F5breeding progenies looked outstanding, some be- multilocation yield trials showed real promise in 1998 and ing significantly shorter with good lodging resistance. They Host Countv Program Enhancement are primarily guinea or guinea derivative lines involving Breeding crosses have been initiated inTexas and Mali to such lines or cultivars or N'Tenirnissa, Tiemarfiig, Bimbiri develop appropriate parental lines (both A-B and restorer) Soumale, CSM219, CSM388, S-34, Malisor 84-7, Naga to use in developing a sorghum hybrid breeding program in White, 92-SB-F4-14, 92-SB-F4-97, Seguetana Cinzana, Mali. Initial research is aimed at identifying restorer or ICSV 1079, ICSV1089, IS22380, and Sureiio. Thn-ty-five non-restorer reaction among guinea cultivars. of these new breeding lines were introduced into the U.S. Research Accomplishments - Summary Seed from 10 improved cultivars was increased by farm- ers, and farmers trained in seed increase in 1999. Table 4 The most significant impact of INTS0R.MIL has been shows the cultivars, farmers involved, and the quantity of the strengthening of the IER bbth through staff training and seed produced. research capacity building. Interdisciplinary and coopera- tive research in sorghum and millet which are in place at the Ten local and improved sorghum cultivars were evalu- IER are mainly due to INTSORMILAER collaborations. ated for malt and dolo (local beer) making.. There was no re- The multidisciplinary approach to solving technical prob- lation between good malt producers and good beer making. lems have been promoted by INTSORMIL, and is The order for malt from best to worst was: Malisor 92-1; fuctioning well in Mali. MEIDsor 88-10-02; CSM 388; MIKsor 86-30-41; Foulatitba; MIDsor 88- 10-06; Sorgho rouge; N'Tenirnissa; Breeding MIPsor 90-30-43; and MIDsor 88-10-01. Foulatitba made the best beer with excellent color and taste, while Malisor Eight local photosensitive sorghum cultivars have 92- 1 made the worst beer. been improved through mass selection and are grown by farmers on a significant area in Mali (CSM 388,

Table 2. Summary of data from the early yield trials at Cinzana and BBma during 1998 and 1999. Varieties Yield 50% Flowering (days) Plant Height (kg ha-') .- - (m) 1998 1999 Mean 1998 1999 Mean 1998 1999 Mean 96-CZ-F4P- 12 2088 31 12 2600 76 69 73 2.03 2.10 2.07 97-CZ-F5P-3 1173 3151 2162 81 75 78 1.73 1.80 1.77 97-CZ-F5P-4 1091 2922 2007 86 82 84 1.65 1.84 1.75 97-SB-F5DT-63 1497 2006 1752 79 75 77 3.82 3.70 3.76 97-SB-F5DT-64 1869 2009 1939 79 77 78 3.89 3.54 3.72 97-SB-F5DT-65 1480 1982 1731 82 76 79 3.97 3.52 3.75 CSM-63 1350 2453 1902 66 66 3.06 2.93 3.00 LOCAL 1330 2500 1915 75 75 3.31 3.67 3.49

Table 3. Summary of data from the medium maturity yield trails collected during 1997,1998 and 1999. Varieties 50% Flowering Plant Height Yield (davsl (m) (kg ha-') Mean Mean 1997 1998 1999 Mean 96-S-CS-FB6-4 76 1.99 2313 1748 1664 1908 96-SBCS-F6-6 77 2.21 2236 1637 1147 1673 96-SBCS-F6-8-1 78 2.69 2614 2186 1447 2082 96-SBCS-F6-F6-8-2 82 3.83 1156 1156 96-SBCS-F6-15 80 2.24 2702 2014 1710 2142 97-SB-F5DT-15 89 1.73 1966 2106 2036 97-SB-F5DT-74-1 83 4.07 1278 1406 1342 97-SB-F5DT-74-2 83 4.02 1407 1572 1489 97-SB-F5DT-154 92 1.63 1912 1413 1663 97-SB-F5DT- 150 89 1.70 1828 1925 1877 98-SB-F5DT-78 88 1.75 2004 2375 2375 98-SB-F5DT-82 89 2.26 2171 1844 1844 CSM-388 85 4.13 2126 2065 LOCAL 85 4.06 2133 2152

Table 4. Seed quantities of improved cultivars produced in 1999. -. -. Varieties Localities Farmers trained Area Quantity

Cinzana 1 Cinzana 1 Cinzana 1 Kolombada. Samanko 2 ~oukoula Seguetana Soukoula Sariaso 1 Sikasso N'Tenimissa Tamla 2 Seguifa Cinzana, Sotuba I Host Country Program Enhancement

CSM 219E, CSM 63E, Foulatikba, SCguCtana CZ, two-thirds is planned for quarantine growout in win- CMDT 45 , CMDT 39). ter, 2000-2001.

The white-seeded, tan-plant Guinea type breeding Entomology cultivar, N'Tenimissa, was released. Its yield is equal to or slightly superior to local checks. It has good The adverse effect of head bugs on the grain food farmer acceptance regarding yield and food use. Flour quality of introduced sorghum across West Africa from N'tenimissa is currently being marketed com- was first recognized and documented in Mali. mercially (20% N'tenimissa and 80% wheat flour) in a cookie called Dali-ken by the private company, The INTSORMIL collaborative sorghum entomol- GAM, in Bamako. ogy research program in Mali has discovered the best source of genetic resistance to head bug (Eurystylus Six new white, tan plant true Guinea breeding lines marginatus), a major constraint to the quality of grain were identified: 96-CZ-F4-98, 96-CZ-F4-99 (late sorghum in Mali, in an IER Malian developed maturity); 97-SB-F5-74-1, 97-SB-F5-74-2 (medium cultivar, Malisor 84-7. maturity); and .97-SB-F5-63,97-SB-F5-64(early ma- turity), all from the cross (N1tCnimissa*TiCmarifing). An easy, efficient technique for screening for head They were evaluated on-farm in 1998 and 1999 with bug resistance using bagged vs. non-bagged heads has promising results. They have somewhat superior been developed and is used cooperatively by the grain quality and show less stem breakage than breeders and the entomologists. N'tenimissa. Malisor 84-7, developed in the IERIICRISAT, Several mutant-derived Guinea type breeding lines USAID sponsored bilateral program in Mali, was developed by Dr. Alhousseini Bretaudeau, a geneti- identified to possess excellent genetic resistance to cist at the Agriculture School at Katiabougou, showed head bugs. Resistance can be genetically transferred promise for nitrogen use-efficiency and grain yield. to its progeny, but its inheritance is quantitative and primarily recessive. Varieties of millet selected for the tallest expression of the D2 dwarfing complex (1.7 to 1.9 m) have given New sources of resistance to head bugs were identi- good performance in rnillet/legume intercropping fied: 93-EPRS-F6-GII-5, 94-EPRS-F6-GII- 1077, studies. 90-CZ-CS-T-2,90-CZ-CS-T-12, and PR 2562.

Dwarf (D2) inbred millet lines selected at Cinzana Observations indicate that head bug infestations in from progenies of crosses between Mali and on-farm trials is much lower than in Station Nurseries. UNL-218 lines appear promising as germplasm This means that sorghum with somewhat lower levels sources to develop dwarf varieties for intercropping. of head bug resistance may well work at the farm level, even though they may show significant damage Testing in Texas and Mali has demonstrated that the under certain Station infestations. drought response in Mali is similar to the drought re- sponse in West Texas increasing probability of suc- Pathology cess in breeding for enhanced drought tolerance. INTSORMIL collaborative research has shown: Germplasm from U.S. breeders and the Sorghum Conversion Program has been incorporated into the Grain yield increase of 20% can be obtained by treat- Malian breeding programs. ing millet seed with Apron Plus.

Nine improved sorghum lines from Malian program Protection from head bugs will be a requirement for were released (Malisor 84-1 to 84-7 and Malisor 92-1 evaluation of grain mold resistance. and 92-2) with some promising results. Long smut (Tolyposporium ehrenbergii) is severe in The Mali Sorghum Collection of indigenous cultivars the drier regions of Mali. from Mali was successfully grown in 1997, was char- acterized and seed increased and distributed. A small Anthracnose (Collectostrichum graminicola) is a working collection has been identified. There was very serious sorghum disease in Mali. greater diversity in the collection than anticipated. Approximately on-third of the Collection was grown Leaf spot is not as serious in southern Mali as other in St. Croix in spring '00 with seed increased and diseases characterization completed. The remaining Host Country Program Enhancement

Studies were conducted on covered kernel smut Weed Science (Sphacelotheca sorghi) by using traditional fungi- cides and the results showed that "Gon" (Canavalia Several Striga resistant lines from Purdue evaluated ensiloformis) used in seed treatment had the same ef- in Mali showed good Striga resistance, but had infe- fects as Apron Plus 50DS and Oftanol. rior grain quality compared to local cultivars.

Agronomy Striga resistance using lab screening to Striga asiatica in the USA works under field conditions to S. INTSORMIL/IER research has demonstrated that hermonthica in Mali. millet or sorghum planted after peanut or cowpea re- sults in 36-63% yield increases. New sources of resistance to Striga were identified: Seguktana CZ, CMDT 45, CMDT 30, CMDT 39. INTSORMIL collaborative research has shown an in- crease in pearl millet grain yield and biomass produc- Grain QualiQ and Utilization tion due to previous cowpea crops and equivalent to the application of 30 to 40 kg ha-' N. Sorghum and millet postharvest technology systems in Mali were documented in 1979 and strategies for The study of sorghum response to nitrogen suggests a evaluating the quality of cereals, especially sorghum, relationship between response to N and genotype as for ti3 were devised. well as environment. Mini tests for evaluating milling and t6 properties The joint INTSORMILITROPSOILS collaborative were developed and currently are used in the labora- program has addressed soil chemical properties asso- tory. ciated with nutrient deficiencies toxicities in sandy soils of the Cinzana Station. Some Durra varieties Sorghum with hard endospenn and thick pericarps from Niger and northern Mali show tolerance to soil was definitely required for efficient traditional hand toxicity (Bagoba, Babadia Fara, and Gadiaba) pounding.

Genotypes of sorghum which accumulated high The size and shape of the pearl millet kernels affects amounts of proline had significantly greater heat and dehulling properties significantly. desiccation tolerance. Landraces obtained from Mali had high heat and desiccation tolerance. The souna millet types have reduced yields of decorticated grain. A method of screening large numbers of sorghum and millet lines for early generation and selection for T6 quality of millet cultivars does not vary as much as seedling stage drought resistance using a charcoal pit it does among sorghum. has been adapted and is used. Head bugs damage reduced sorghum milling yields Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) of improved sorghum and produced ti3 with unacceptable texture and keep- cultivars has been better than that of local cultivars at ing properties. higher N rates, while local cultivars had better NUE at zero and very low N rates. Parboiling can convert sorghum and millet into ac- ceptable products. It improves dehulling yieds, espe- Application of N fertilizer and P fertilizer increases cially for soft grains. The cooked milled products can pearl millet (and sorghum) grain yields. be eaten like rice.

Without fertilizer application all tested cropping sys- The combination ofcowpea and millet flour(l:3) sig- tems (including legume rotations) mine the soil of nu- nificantly improved the nutritional status of young trients. children. This technology has been transferred to many villages especially in the Cinzana area. Crop rotation with cowpea and leaving crop residues in the field (either incorporated or on the surface) in- Mileg, a weaning food using primarily millet flour has creases the sustainability and productivity of pearl been developed by private entrerprise and marketed in millet cropping systems. stores in the Bamako area. The product was devel- oped using technology developed in the IER Cereal Technology laboratory. Host Country Program Enhancement

New white-seeded, tan-plant, tan-glume guinea-type gate impact on yields. Only where inorganic fertiliz- breeding cultivars, have good potential for use in de- ers and improved water retention or irrigation were veloping new high quality, value added food prod- combined with new cultivars, have there been large ucts. They posses excellent guinea traits and yield yield increases. Given the low soil fertility and irregu- potential. lar rainfall in semi-arid regions, both increased water availability and higher levels of principal nutrients Dali-ken, a cookie using 20% N'TCnimissa flour and will be necessary for substantial yield increases. Im- 80% wheat flour has been developed by private proved cultivars alone are unlikely to have a signifi- entrerprise GAM and marketed in stores in Mali. cant effect upon yield.

The lack of a consistent supply of high quality sor- ghum and niillet grain is the major constraint limiting The domestic cereal economy has been helped by de- value-added grain processing. valuation with the increased relative price of sorghum and millet to rice. A future devaluation is expected to Lack of farm credit for millet and sorghum, compared result in much more substitution of traditional cereals to cotton and maize, discourages adoption by farmers now that there is only a minimal rice tariff. of improved millet and sorghum technology, espe- cially in the Sudano-Guinean (higher rainfall) zone. In spite of substantial introduction of new sorghum and millet cultivars, there has been minimum aggre- Host Country Program Enhancement

Niger John Axtell and Issoufou Kapran Purdue University and INRANiNiger

Coordinators

Issoufou Kapran, INRANIINTSORMIL Coordinator, B.P. 429, Niamey, Niger John Axtell, Professor and West Africamiger Country Coordinator, Agronomy Department, Lilly Hall, Purdue University, W. Lafayette, IN 47906

Description of Collaborative program

In 1999, INTSORMILIINRAN hired an administrative USAID~Washington assistant to assist Dr. Kapran with the day-to-day manage- ITRA (Chad) ment of the project. She is Mrs. Katy Ibrahim's counterpart INTSORMIL and they work closely in managing and implementing activ- ARC/FCRI (Egypt) ities related to the program. INRAN CIRAD-CA (France) The INTSORMIL Niger program continues to be inter- IERIMali disciplinary and multi-institutional involving INRAN, ISRA (Senegal) ICRISAT and U.S./INTSORMIL institutions (University WCASNIUROCARS (Mali) of Nebraska, Texas A&M University, and Purdue Univer- DDEWCUN (Niamey) sity). Activities include development of the new sorghum IDESSA (CBte d'Ivoire) hybrid, NAD-1, Striga research using INTSORMILI Premier Seed Nigeria Ltd. (Nigeria) INRAN tested varieties, millet breeding and cropping sys- Mahyco Seed Ltd. (India) tems, farm level studies on the effect of tied-ridging and fer- ICRISAT Sahelian CenterJNiger tilization, pearl millet/cowpea cropping systems, C.TRA.P.A. (Burkina Faso) production of sorghum and millet couscous, pathology, en- ICRISATlWCA (Nigeria) tomology, and analyzing interactions between input-output ROCAFREMI (Niger) market development and adoption of new millet and sor- Ministry of Food & Agric. (Ghana) ghum technologies in Niger. Mahindra Hybrid Seed Co. (India) PASP (Niamey) In 1998, the Niger program was successful in procuring ANNOYER (Burkina Faso) additional funds fromThe McKnight and Rockefeller Foun- Ministry of Agriculture (Namibia) dations in support of the Regional Hybrid Seed Workshop. Care Intl. (Niamey) World BankINiamey also partially funded Dr. Lee House, SADC/ICRISATlSMIP (Bulawayo) INTSORMIL consultant, to assist INRAN in developing a World Vision Int. (Ghana, Mali) seed multiplication unit. AGRIMEX (Niamey) Rockefeller Foundation (Kenya) ICRISAT is an active collaborator on the seed produc- USAID/REDSO/ESA (Nairobi) tion of a new INRAN sorghum hybrid designated NAD- 1. Participants include Drs. Anand Kumar, S.C. Gupta, and Partial fimding support was also provided by the West D.S. Murty. In addition, Dr. Ousmane Youm supervised an African Regional Sorghum (ROCARS), Millet INRAN graduate student in conducting field biology and (ROCAFREMI) Networks and ICRISAT. laboratory studies on millet head miner. A second workshop activity during the spring of 1999 Approximately 150 participants from 14 different coun- was a training program conducted at the ICRISAT Sahelian tries attended the Regional Hybrid Seed Workshop which by Lee House and Issoufou Kapran. Training was on ele- was held September 28 through October 2,1998 in Niamey. ments of hybrid seed production for INRAN and World Countries included: the United States, Niger, Ghana, Mali, Bank technicians in Niger. This activity was very usekl and Cote d'Ivoire, India, Burkina Faso, Kenya, Chad, Egypt, productive during the growing season and was repeated in Senegal, France, Nigeria, Zimbabwe, and Zambia. The fol- the Spring of 2000. A practical training manual on hybrid lowing organization also participated: seed production in Niger was prepared in English and French. Winrock International (SenegallMali) PROCELOS-CILSS (Burkina Faso) There are several interdisciplinary activities involved in World Bank ONAHA (Niamey) this program. These include sorghum and millet breeding, Host Country Program Enhancement agronomy, pathology, physiology, food quality, and eco- vate the creation and production of adequate nomics. U.S. INTSORMIL Principal Investigators and their sorghum/milletprocessing technology. INRAN collaborators develop research plans on an annual basis. The host country collaborators then submit a prelimi- With INTSORMIL's financial assistance a small pro- nary budget which is then incorporated within the total cessing unit has been initiated at the INRAN cereal lab for country program in consultation with the INRAN country research, demonstration and testing. The unit consists of an coordinator. The request is then reconciled with the agglomerator/siever designed by CIRAD (France), a INTSORMIL allocation. couscoussier (Nigeral-Niger), food mixer (Kenwood elec- tronics), a decorticatorLmil1 (URPATA, Senegal), a solar SorghumlMillet Constraints Researched dryer (ONERSOL, Niger) and sealer for packaging.

Production and Utilization Constraint The overall objective of this project is the production and commercialization of value-added millet and sorghum Drought, insect pests, long smut and Striga are the major products with particular emphasis on utilization of locally constraints in Niger. Extremely high soil temperatures lead andlor regionally fabricated food processing equipment. to difficult problems in crop establishment. Sand blasting of The specific objectives are to 1)optimize the couscous young seedlings is also a complicating factor. Plant breed- agglomerator. The rationale is to increase couscous yield ing for tolerance to these major constraints is one ofthe most and improve couscous particule size; 2) improve the quality feasible solutions. New cultivars must be acceptable for of the flour by using modern decortication and milling tech- couscous and ti3 preparation. niques; 3) Increase the capacity of drying the couscous; 4) Initiate a marketing test for the couscous; and 5) transfer of Research Methods the technology to beneficiaries.

Research methods appropriate for each of these disci- Research Output (1996-2000) plines are used for this research program. Regional scien- tists in these disciplines are involved in collaboration as The first survey conducted by the cereal lab of INRAN appropriate, (i.e., Steve Mason and Wayne Hanna in on traditional processing of millet/sorghum couscous re- Burkina Faso) and Nigeria with National Program Staff in vealed that color and texture are the most important attrib- these countries and with Dr. Gupta at ICRISATin Kano, Ni- utes that determine consumer acceptability of couscous. geria. Since 1997there were two studies on sorghum and millet Examples of Research Progress couscous using the existing processing equipment at the ce- real lab. Flours from two sorghum cultivars (NAD-1 and Cereals Quality and Utilization Sepon 82) and two millet cultivars (HKP and Souna 111) were used. Two studies were conducted; the first, on the in- Principal Investigators - Mr. Moustapha Moussa, Food fluence of flour-to water ratio on couscous granule size dis- Chemist, INRAN, Niger; Drs. B. Harnaker and Adam tribution, and the second on the effect of grains fermentation Aboubacar, Department of Food Science, Purdue Univer- on couscous color. sity; Dr. Moussa Oumarou, Chemist, Mr. Kaka Saley, Food Technologist, Dr. Issoufou Kapran, Sorghum Breeder, Mrs. Decortication and milling were carried out manually. Ramatou Seydou, Food Technologist, Dr. Jupiter Decorticated grains were fermented for 48 hours at ambient Ndjeunga, ICRISAT, Niger temperature with water. Mixing of flourlwater was done with a food mixer and granulation was carried out with the Research Approach agglomerator/sieveradjusted at 36 rpm. A cooking stove us- ing butane as fuel with a couscoussier were used to steam Couscous, a very popular food in Sahelian West Africa is the couscous for 30 rnin., and a solar dryer was used to dry prepared from sorghum or millet flour that has been ag- the couscous for 48 hours. glomerated, steamed and dried. Couscous is usually con- sumed with milk for breakfast or with sauce or stew for the The study revealed that the optimum amount of water evening meal. In Niger although couscous is consumed by used to hydrate flour whose particule size range between 0.2 the majority of the population, no commercial sorghum or to 0.5 rnm varied from 60 to 72% for sorghum cultivars and millet couscous are available. In urban areas, imported 45 to 55% for millet cultivars. The result indicated that the wheat-based couscous is commonly bought. particle size of the couscous is strongly influenced by the amount of water used for agglomeration and by cultivar The non-availability of appropriate processing technol- type. By controlling the hydration of flour agglomeration, ogy of sorghum/millet, the recent devaluation of the CFA, couscous of desired particle size (1 and 2 mm) can be pro- the progressive urbanization, the newly approved free trade duced and marketed separately. The fermentation test car- agreement in West Africa, and the possibility of processing ried out was found to considerably improve the color of quality sorghum,millet flours are reasons that should moti- couscous from millet cultivars and Sepon 82, whereas it has Host Country Program Enhancement little effect on the color ofNAD-1 couscous. This study also with the collaboration of agro-economists, food processors, revealed the possibility of processing sorghudmillet cous- distributors and NGOs. cous. Efforts will have to be made to optimize the efficiency of the processing equipment and complete the product de- Expected Impact velopment. This year the couscous unit is now complete with the addition of a commercial-scale abrasion type elec- By the end of the year we expect to complete the market- trical decorticator with a treatment capacity of 250 kg of ing study, the optimization of the processing equipment and grainslhour and electrical hammer mill with capacity of to obtain a quality sorghudmillet couscous which could grinding 300 kg of decorticated grainslhour. A large produce impact by 1) creating additional market for grain; scale-size solar dryer (50 kglday) was constructed at the ce- 2) act as driving force for adoption of sorghum and millet real lab. The agglomerator conditions and settings have hybrids; 3) generate income through entrepreneurial activi- been optimized to increase output to approximately 40 ties.; and 4) reduce import of wheat-based couscous and kghour. maize.

Sorghum hybrid NAD-1 grown at two different periods Other Collaborative Research Work at the breeding station of Tillabery under recommended cul- tural conditions have been studied for their couscous mak- In collaboration with Dr. Jupiter Ndjeunga, Agronomist ing ability. In this study the effect of flour extraction and at ICRISAT, consumer preference was evaluated for differ- hydration on couscous yield and color were monitored. Dry ent millet couscous/T6 characteristics using co-joint analy- decorticationhas been carried out at various flour extraction sis methodology. Results support that product taste, color, level (60,65,70, and 75%) according to time using an abra- and textural attributes are important. Increased demand for sion-type decorticator having eight abrasive discs rotating processed products requires investment by food processors at 1420 rpm. A hammer mill machine having six hammers in physico-chemical characterization of varieties to deter- rotating at 3000 rpm has been used to grind the unwashed mine their suitability to specific processed products or de- and washed decorticated grains to flour of desired particle velop products that would include traits preferred by size (0.2-O.5mm). consumer.

After mixing flour with water, agglomeration, steaming Sorghum Breedingmybrid Seed and solar drying with the processing equipment, various Activities (1996-2000) samples of couscous were obtained. We observed that opti- mum fine couscous yield particle size = lmm was obtained Principal Investigators -Dr. Issoufou Kapran, Habou from 60 to 70% flour extraction at an approximate hydration Kano, Siraji Moumouni, Sabiou Maharnan, Dr. Issaka of 6lto 66%. Acceptable medium couscous yield particle Mahaman, Illa Bawa, Moussa Oumarou, Dr. Lee House, Dr. for both sowing dates. These values obtained, confiied the D.T. Rosenow, Professor D.Andrews, Dr. B. Harnaker, Dr. findings of 19 97-98. We also observed an improvement of John D. Axtell and Dr. Gebisa Ejeta. couscous color from washed grains of both sowing dates. This may be due to the complete removal ofbran after wash- Background ing. This observation agreed with the recent study made on sorghum flours where suggested optimum ash content to Sorghum is a staple food crop in Niger. Together with obtain good quality flour was about 1%. From our study this pearl millet it contributes 75% of the total caloric intake of value was obtained from washed grains of both sowing date the population. On average 85% of total production is con- between 60-70% flour extraction. sumed directly and the remaining is sold on local markets. Sorghum acreage has increased steadily from less than half Moisture content of the dried couscous varied from a million hectares in 1961 to more than two million hectares 6-9%, value that may confirm the efficiency ofthe new solar of essentially dryland in 1999. Grain yield declined from0.6 dryer constructed by the couscous research team. t ha-' to 0.2 t ha-1 during the same period. Sorghum produc- tion in Niger is severely limited by biotic and abiotic Current Research (2000) stresses including drought, poor soils, insect pests (espe- cially midge and headbugs), diseases including long smut, This year good quality NAD-I seed was used to produce and Striga. The Institut National de Recherches 700 kg of very nice and consistent quality sorghum cous- Agronomiques du Niger (INRAN) has overall responsibil- cous that may compete with maize and wheat-based cous- ity of agricultural research in Niger. A long term strategic cous. A marketing study will be initiated, to learn about the plan for research in Niger was prepared and published by consumer acceptability and the potential market for pro- INRAN in 1998. For rainfed crops the objective is to in- cessed sorghum couscous. The plan is to administer the crease and stabilize production to cope with demand from a couscous and a questionnaire to selected households to fast growing population. This is sought mainly through sig- learn about the acceptability of the couscous and also to de- nificant yield increases. For sorghum and millet, emphasis velop a proper stratification of the products into market seg- is placed on technology transfer, development of varieties ments that are substantially different from one to another with better yield stability, and plant protection. For most of Host Country Program Enhancement the 1996-2000 period, a World Bank project was the major The program was organized in such a way to allow source of funding for the sorghum improvement activities at Kapran to make two trips a year in Niger to supervise the INIWN. INTSORMIL support to sorghum improvement breeding program and other on-farm activities, which are was significant in terms of human resource enhancement described below. and vision for technologies that can be transferred and adopted by farmers and other end-users. This was especially On-farm Variety Trials (Hybrids, New Striga Lines) the case for NAD- 1 hybrid seed production. Activities con- ducted during the 1996-2000 period are described under the Although NAD-1 and other improved varieties were four categories that follow. demonstrated to farmers across sorghum growing areas, on-farm yield data were not systematically collected. To Ph.D. Training create a more substantial database a trial was designed to check the extent of NAD- 1 superiority over locals under as With support from INRAN, INTSORMIL, the diverse conditions as possible with farmer management, McKnight Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation, and assess its area of best performance. A second hybrid Issoufou Kapran was trained at Purdue University with better grain quality, NAD-3 (ABON34xMR732), was (1993-1998). For his thesis research, Kapran worked on the included after it showed good yield potential on-station. In- genetics of maturity, a critical trait for sorghum adaptation. dependently of farmer choice of variety check (different in He used the tools of DNA marker technology to identify ge- each location), the local variety Mota Maradi (MM) was al- netic loci for plant maturity, height, and grain yield in two ways used as an overall checkbecause of its wide adaptation sorghum populations. The summary of his thesis follows: in Niger. After harvest farmers organized their production in relatively identical bundles tied with ropes. Yield esti- Maturity is a critical trait for better adaptation and pro- mates were obtained by threshing and weighing a single ductivity of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) in stress bundle and multiplying by the number of bundles. Mean environments where this crop is usually grown. Despite ac- yields for 1995,1997,1998, and 1999 are presented in Table crued knowledge of how genotypes with different maturity 1. NAD-1 yield superiority over local checks varied be- respond to environments, breeding efficiency is still limited tween 24% and 96%. It is particularly interesting to note that by poor characterization of individual quantitative trait loci on-farm yields where no fertilizer inputs were provided to (QTL) affecting this trait. The objective of this research was farmers were in two years out of four, close to the long-term to identify factors of sorghum maturity through DNA average of 3 t ha-l obtained for NAD-1 on station. Data marker association, and to determine their relationships range for each cultivar showed that extremely poor condi- with other important agronomic traits. The 10% earliest and tions as well as extremely good conditions could exist 10% latest maturing sorghum lines were identified in on-farm. Indeed the trial was ofien conducted outside the FGxM90812 (Cross 1) and MmxSepon72 (Cross 2). Par- boundaries of agricultural land (northern Niger) so that the ents and progeny were evaluated at one temperate location extent of cultivar adaptation could be identified. Although in the USA and six semi-arid tropical locations in Niger. For NAD-1 maturity did not fit those areas the hybrid usually each cross maturity (days to anthesis), plant height, and produced at least as well as the local. On the other hand, ex- grain yield data were statistically analyzed considering six cellent yields were obtained in areas of better farming alternative groupings of locations. Genetic variability for (southern Niger). Farmer ranking of varieties usually put maturity and plant height was high. For grain yield however NAD- 1 on top because of visible yield potential, adaptation there was significant genetic variability only in Cross 2 un- to light or heavy soils, and in some cases reported tolerance der rainfed conditions of Niger. Seventy-three random am- of midge or Striga. The performance of NAD-3 was not as plified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and six simple sequence good as that of NAD-1 and sometimes less than the local repeat (SSR) markers in Cross 1, and 62 RAPD markers in checks. This hybrid was selected because tan plants in both Cross 2, were used in single marker analyses. In Cross 1,17 parents (to surmount the loss of quality observed in NAD-1 of the 79 markers (22%) detected maturity loci with stable grain under heavy rains and insect infestation), and also be- expression across environments. Most of these markers also cause its seeds were easier to produce (better nicking of par- identified plant height factors in all environments, but grain ents). Unfortunately it seems to have stand problems yield and maturity were related only when the temperate lo- especially on poorly-managed farms, which results in re- cation was included. In Cross 2 four markers out of 62 (6%) duced yield. Its maturity is also slightly on the late side of detected maturity factors in all environmental settings. In NAD-1 which is a disadvantage in Niger. These results led this cross, maturity influenced plant height and grain yield us to reconsider the option of replacing NAD- 1 with NAD-3 especially under rainfed conditions inNiger. A set of 12 1 re- and pursue the evaluation of experimental hybrids for better combinant inbred lines (RIL) independently developed material. fiom Cross 1 was used to confirm association of six of the above DNA markers with maturity factors. Four RAPD and Striga is a serious constraint to sorghum production es- two SSR collectively explained 47% ofthe phenotypic vari- pecially in the Maggia zone (Konni to Madaoua) where sor- ation for maturity in the RIL. They mapped to one genomic ghum is intensively grown as sole crop. Previously, variety segment defining the position of a putative QTL for matu- SRN39 was successfully identified as Striga resistant rity in sorghum. through this program. However, its yield potential was not Host Country Program Enhancement

Table 1 On-farm mean yields of grain sorghum hybrids in Niger. - .-- - - - .. -. - Grain yield (kg ha-') Year Cultivar Range Mean % check mean 1995 MM 85-6600 1030 100 NAD-I 38-7000 1562 152

CHECK MM NAD-1 NAD-3

CHECK MM NAD-1 NAD-3

1999 CHECK 567-2000 1215 100 MM 767-2400 1399 115 NAD-1 793-2800 1503 124 NAD-3 -- 533-2 133 1053 87 good and it has a high susceptibility to grain weathering in Table 2. NAD-1 seed production in Niger Niger. The opportunity to test new Striga resistant and Total seed higher yielding varieties was offered with the development Year Producer Type of seed produced (kg) and release of eight new lines by the program at Purdue 1995 INRAN dhybri 700 University. The eight lines (P9401-P9408) were tested for 1996 INRAN hybrid+parents 1,400 Private hybrid m~nlmal two years at the Moulela irrigated perimeter near Galmi, 1997 INRAN hybrid+parents 2,813 where striga is endemic in farmer fields. Field observations Private hybrid 4,288 and plant counts showed clearly that the new lines were 1998 INRAN hybrid+parents 4,000 Private hybrid 7,000 highly resistant compared to local Mota Galmi (MG) and 1999 INRAN hybrid+parents 4,500 the positive effect of nitrogen fertilizer on reduced Striga Private hybrid 7.500 effect was confirmed Unfortunately it was not possible to show a significant impact ongrain yield. Still farmers them- selves selected two of the eight lines (P9401, P9407) which are currently being tested in other Striga-endemic zones Qualitative Changes Have Occurred and using in hybrid combinations with elite female parents. there is more hybrid seed available in Niger than ever Hybrid Seed Research and Initiation before, although quantity is still small compared to of Private Production in Niger actual needs and requests; Starting in 1995, a major step was taken in the produc- hybrid seed is now sold instead of being given away tion of hybrid seed (NAD- 1), in that INTSORMIL agreed to for free, which serves to establish an economic basis help promote a stable seed production in the private sector. for seed production; Dr. L. R. House was contracted by the NigerhNTSORMIL country program to help evaluate the progress of the hybrid breeding program and propose strategies for the supply of more seed is produced by private individuals or good quality seed to farmers in Niger. Based on the pre- farmer cooperatives while INRAN is reducing its mises of enough land being devoted to sorghum, the exis- production; tence of a high yielding hybrid that is recognized by farmers, feasibility of seed production for the hybrid, the areas of better seed production have been identified: challenge was to identify highly motivated private individ- Tillabery is ranked fust on the basis of availability of uals or farmer groups that can produce and market hybrid good soils and irrigation water, semi-arid climate for seed. NAD-1 seed production has gone through a positive better seed quality, relative easiness to access, virtual evolution since, and many aspects are still evolving: Table absence of any of the major sorghum pests (midge) 2 illustrates progress in NAD-I seed production. and weeds (Striga), and existence of a nearby plant for seed cleaning and storage (Lossa seed farm);

INRAN is able to produce large quantity of parental seed for emerging private seed producers to acquire; Host Country Program Enhancement

some crucial equipment was purchased including performance. The hybrid described as NAD-3 (ABON34 x small tractable seed cleaners, light irrigation pumps, MR732) was our first choice: it is produced by crossing two bird nets for off-season seed increase; tan plants, has a higher yield than local checks on station (NAD-3=3.0 t ha-l; MM=2.7 t ha-l; MG=2.2 t ha-l); but training in techniques of seed production received NAD-3 is not as good as NAD-1 (3.6 t ha-l) and was even high priority and a manual has been written to that ef- later maturing. Its performance under farmer conditions fect; was also less convincing as noted above. We concluded that NAD-3 has a high potential mostly under good farming con- INRAN has created a seed unit to help with founda- ditions. tion seed production and management, and help pri- vate seed producers become better professionals; In a more systematic fashion, large sets of Fl hybrids as well as potential R lines and seed parents were produced at a regional workshop on sorghum and millet hybrid INRAN stations (Tillabery, Lossa, Kollo, Maradi), or intro- seed was successfully organized in 1998; duced from Purdue University, Texas A&M University, and University of Nebraska-Lincoln starting in 1997. A limited set of 58 A lines and 65 potential R lines was prepared and a seed trade association was started in 1999 by a group tested for adaptation across several locations. In addition at of mostly NAD-1 seed producers. Lossa an early planting were used to detect weathering sus- ceptibility in the material. This approach allowed us to put Current plans focus on increasing the availability of different lines in different maturity groups for making all NAD-1 seed through contracting with farmers at selected possible crosses. This resulted in identification of some ex- sites (Tiaguirire near Kollo, Galmi and Moulela near Konni, cellentpotential parents that we are currently using in devel- Jirataoua near Maradi, and Diffa). Private seed producers oping various experimental crosses (Table 3). benefit from INRAN'S technical support for their own ac- tivities. Problems, however, remain to be solved. Table 3. Elite lines identified as testers The takeover from INRAN to private seed producers is Maturi group days Identification to %wenns$ Source slow. Some constraints include lack of startup funds which A Linces limits producers' capacity to use good farm machinery P9511A 61-65 Purdue and/or chemicals. Land and water management appear to be AHFS 66-70 TAMU a serious issue with most producers, ultimately leading to P9526A 71-75 Purdue 223A 76-80 Nebraska low seed yields and little profit. Support in this area will be R Lines needed. The other critical issue is that of seed quality, start- 97M 10522 61-65 Nebraska ing with harvest, drying, packaging and storing under good Macia 66-70 TAMU conditions. Small farmers with interest in seed production SEPON82 7 1-75 INRANtPurdue are the most handicapped by these problems; however, in MR732 76-80 INRANIPurdue many cases they would be useful as contract producers for bigger producers such as the ones organized in the seed trade association. Nurseries were open for visits by seed producers to ex- pose them to available genetic variability and get their ob- Germplasm Introduction and Evaluation for servations on most advanced materials. A few crosses have Cultivar Development and Release so far been selected for wide testing in hope of rapid replace- ment of NAD-1 hybrid. Activities initially were organized around germplasm conservation and observation nurseries. In this period, one Mutuality of Research Benefits of the breeding lines introduced from Purdue was released as open pollinated variety 90SN7 (P967083xSEPON72). Use of drought tolerant materials from West African 90SN7 was ranked overall No. 1 in the West and Central Af- countries, including Niger, have been used extensively by rica Sorghum Network trial in 1997. The major threat was the private and public sectors in the US. The principal bene- however the need to identify new hybrids to replace NAD-1 fit to Niger will be an efficient and productive research pro- whose value was seen as mostly educative of the expression gram at INRAN through training and collaborative research of heterosis in a Sahelian environment. NAD-1 has limita- activities of INRAN staff. Extensive research accomplish- tions because of weathering susceptible under high rainfall ments by INRAN scientists are presented in the Research and not early maturing for some of the dryland area. Added Accomplishments of this report. to this, its seed production requires staggered planting in most cases because the two parents have different maturi- Institution Building ties; this is not easy to work out especially for beginning seed producers. Our major objective was to select new hy- The Cereals Laboratory at INRAN has now been fully brids based on quality, feasibility for seed production, and equipped to optimize the quality of the flour to ultimately Host County Program Enhancement improve the quality of the couscous. In addition, a laptop Description of the Collaborative Program computer, overhead projector and other research materials were purchased in support of the program. The research program is a collaborative effort between Texas A&M University entomologists through INRAN, When INTSORMIL first began collaborative research INTSORMIL, and ICRISAT-Niger. The research activity relationships with INRAN there were relatively few highly on Laboratory Life-Fertility Table Assessment and Field trained Ph.D. level scientist in their organization. Over the Biology of Millet Head Miner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in past 16 years this situation has changed dramatically within Niger was part of the requirements for the Master of Science INRAN. INTSORMIL has played some part through train- Degree at Texas A&M University. The principal objective ing and through collaborative research efforts in the institu- of this research was to use life table analysis of data col- tional development of INRAN. INTSORMIL scientists lected in the laboratory to assess the effects of temperature have also grown during this period in terms of their collabo- and diets on millet head miner abundance and capacity for rative research capabilities in sorghum and millet research increase. Field studies of millet head miner biology were and technology. The collaborative research relationship conducted to support results obtained from laboratory ex- now is an effective system for delivering excellent research periments. and for the application of this research for the benefit of farmers in Niger and in the USA. INRAN now has excellent During year 18 and 19, Dr. Gilstrap, Texas A&M Uni- leadership, excellent scientific direction and excellent sci- versity, provided leadership for this research. Financial sup- entists, either fully trained or in the final stages of their M.S. port from Texas A&M/Entomology (TAM 125-Bl225-B or Ph.D training programs. They now have a critical mass of project) was used to conduct laboratory and field experi- excellence in research capability for the agricultural sci- ments on millet head miner. Dr. Yourn, ICRISAT entomol- ences. When one looks at progress in institutional develop- ogist, and Dr. Owusu E. Ebnezer, Post-doctoral Research ments over a longer time frame, it is easy to be optimistic Scientist provided support, advice, and allocated the re- about the future of INRAN/INTSORMIL collaborative re- search facilities (field, laboratory equipment, and supplies) search. and other local support needed.

In 1996-2000,25 U.S. PIS and INRAN trainees traveled During 1999-2000, activities were concentrated on fmal- to Niger. izing the academic studies to fulfill the requirements for a Master of Science degree at Texas A&M University. A the- Currently, there are two Nigerien students being trained sis was written and defended on July 15, 1999. Since his re- in U.S. institutions. They are Abdoulaye Tahirou, Ph.D ag- turn, Kadi Kadi was assigned as Entomologist at the ricultural economics, at Purdue University and Mamame CERRA at Maradi. Nouri, Ph.D agronomy, University of Nebraska. Millet Constraints Researched Networking Introduction The major constraint for adoption of new technologies in West Africa is the lack of a viable seed industry to deliver Pearl millet, Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br., is planted elite genetic materials to the farmers in a timely fashion and each year on 12 million hectares in western Africa and an- at a reasonable cost. A major contribution of INTSORMIL nually produces 9.6 million tons. Millet production ac- was a West African Seed Production workshop held in counts for >30% of the total agricultural production in most Niamey September 27 to October 2, 1998. This highlighted of the Sahelian countries. Millet production comprises the important contribution that can be made by a seed indus- -43% of agricultural production and <75% of all cereal try and offered opportunities for West African countries to food produced and consumed in Niger (FA0 and ICRISAT share experiences. One of the major foci of the meeting was 1996). Millet head miner, Heliocheilus albipunctella de hybrid seed production for sorghum and millet as well as Joannis, has been the major pearl millet insect pest since other crops. Extensive collaboration with ROCARS, 1972- 1974. Young larvae cut and feed on flowers and perfo- ROCAFREMI, ICRISAT, and World Vision, and included rate glumes of pearl millet. Late-instar larvae bore and cre- many organizations participating in the workshop. Since ate tunnels under the kernels on pearl millet spikes. then, a Farmer Seed Producer Association has been set up for hybrid seed production. Different management tactics were tested, including cul- tural and chemical controls, to reduce damage by millet Research Accomplishments head miner in West Africa. However, most management tactics are impractical or expensive. Therefore, finding al- Entomology ternative strategies are important for managing millet head miner in the Sahel. Principal Investigators - Mr. Ham6 Abdou Kadi Kadi, Drs. Ousmane Youm, Frank E. Gilstrap, George L. Teetes, To reduce damage in Niger and other Sahelian countries, and Bonnie B. Pendleton more research is needed on millet head miner biology and Host Country Program Enhancement assessment of natural enemy impact on millet head miner The principal activities'continueto be the economic anal- abundance. One way to understand millet head miner biol- ysis of new technologies in the Sahelian countries, espe- ogy better is to assess life table parameters (fecundity, cially Mali, Senegal, and Niger. The program interacts with survivorship,birth and death rates, etc.) calculated by using IER, INSAH, INRAN and ISRA in this process so that the standard life table construction and analysis techniques. results will be more accessible to researchers and This understanding could help in devising management policymakers. Also through this collaboration, the program strategies and enable scientists to evaluate the feasibility of can give better direction to priority research activity. cultural management methods (e.g., removal of eggs fiom millet spikes, hand picking of larvae, etc.) and their effects Presently, there is concern with the input and output rnar- on abundance of this insect pest. kets. Hence, in Mali, Senegal, and Niger, a principal focus of our research is on the utilization of inorganic fertilizers on Results and Discussions the cereals. The impact intended is forthese countries to rec- ognize the necessity for inorganic fertilizers and to improve Laboratory studies: Cool and warm temperatures tended their policy support for improved fertilizer markets. This to increase and decrease, respectively, survival and fecun- will clearly make a big difference on cereal yields and the dity of millet head miner cohorts. An apparent difference introduction of new cereal cultivars. was noted for number of days required for eggs to hatch at cooler (fewer days) and warmer temperatures (fewer or Similarly, the program has become involved in some more days). More individuals of millet head miner cohorts marketing and price-stability issues since they have been survived when fed Bio-ServQ than any of the millet-based identified as critical factors in new technology diffusion diets. Developmental times from eggs to adults were longest from both modeling and fieldwork. Specifically, a major (51.1-55.4 d) when millet head miner cohorts were fed factor in historic consumption shifts between cereals in the Bio-Sew@ diet and shortest (40.2-50.2 d) when fed Sahelian countries is government policy distortions; some soft-dough millet diet. Percentages of survival from eggs to of these are now being removed. adults were greatest when millet head miner cohorts were fed Bio-ServQ diet, 2.4-5.4%. Survival to the adult stage Another research focus has been on the changes in con- was lower, 1.3-2.6,l. 1-2.9, and 0.0-2.3%, when millet head sumption patterns of the principal cereals. This is an impor- miner cohorts were fed soft-dough, middle-flowered, and tant concern for sorghum and millet because some have early exerted millet diets, respectively. argued that these are inferior food commodities which will be displaced by wheat and rice as incomes increase. How- Temperature influenced population increase of millet ever, there is evidence that as the distortions from previous head miners fed Bio-ServQ diet. The best temperature to policies toward food imports are taken off, that there is some rear millet head miners fed Bio-Sew@ diet could be 28 or recovery in the consumption of the traditional cereals. Call- 30°C because percentages of survival from eggs to adults ing the attention of policymakers to the continuing impor- were 3.5 and 5.4, respectively tance of traditional cereals is an important aspect of our work Suitability of food and environmental conditions af- fected fecundity and development of millet head miner in During the past year Sanders has become involved in a the laboratory and field. Fecundity of millet head miner was study for IGADIINTSORMIL analyzing the introduction of 2-4 time greater when abiotic conditions were controlled in new technologies into the semi arid zones of six Horn of Af- the laboratory than when abiotic and biotic factors influ- rica countries. One fundamental message of the enced fecundity in the field. Millet head miner in the labora- IGADANTSORMIL study is the neglect in these countries tory survived best when fed Bio-Sew@ diet at 30°C (5.4%), of the network connections with other scientists working in but 5 1.1 days were required for development to the adult the drylands so that the rate of new cultivar introduction se- stage. Eleven fewer days were required for millet head riously lags and is not responding to the emerging biotic miner to develop from eggs to adults when fed soft-dough constraints. millet diet at 24OC in the laboratory, but survival was only 2.6%. More prepupae and pupae developed but more days Senegal has income levels per capita about three times were required for development on spikes of pearl millet those of other Sahelian countries and so serves as a model planted in June than later. Manipulation of planting date for what will happen as the other Sahelian countries de- could be a recommended management tactic to reduce sur- velop, in various forms. Also, the intensive poultry industry vival and damage by millet head miner in the Sahel. is rapidly becoming more important but still with the base of imported maize. Cooperatives of millet producers could ex- Economics ploit this potential demand if they could guarantee quantity and quality. So a focus on new and expanding markets is Principal Investigators - Tahirou Abdoulaye and John clearly the emphasis in Senegal presently for the traditional Sanders cereal, millet. The economics program continues to evalu- ate developments in these new marketing channels to obtain Host Country Program Enhancement better understanding of the directions of other countries as Tahirou attended the Global Agriculture and the Amer- well as Senegal. ica Midwest: A win-win Exchange, conference organized by USAID and ISU fiom 03/18/99 to 03/19/99. The main Lately this project has been involved with ASA and with objective of the meeting was to increase awareness about IFDC. This has been very useful for learning more agron- how foreign aid benefits the US also. He made a presenta- omy, and will have some impact on the economic analysis. tion, which identifies two types of benefits of the INTSORMIL program to host countries including research Tahirou Abdoulaye and Sanders spent two weeks in results and national research programs enhancement. 1998 reviewing the seed production program for a new hy- brid sorghum being promoted there. They visited several re- Tahirou's thesis research will focus on interaction be- gions in Niger and talked to farmers and scientists. Tahirou tween input-output market development and adoption of did a report on the economics of seed production. He is pres- new millet and sorghum technologies inNiger. The research ently working with ICRISAT scientists Andre Bationo and will focus on seed industry and new uses for millet and sor- Jupiter Ndjeunga on his Ph.D. dissertation on the economics ghum. of fertilizing millet in Niger. Agronomy-Millet Tahirou presented a paper entitled "Farm Level Profit- ability and Input-output market Evolution: Economic Per- Principal Investigators: Mr. Nouri Maman, Drs. Botorou spective: at the Regional Hybrid Sorghum and Pearl Millet Ouendeba, Salvador Fernandez-Rivera, Mr. Moustapha Seed workshop,Niamey, Niger, organized by Moussa, and Dr. Stephen Mason INTSORMIL, INRAN and ICRISAT from 09128198 to 10102198. In the semi-arid regions of sub-Saharan Africa with 800 mm and more annual rainfall, farmers use two types of pearl The paper examined the effects of the economic environ- millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.]: early maturing ment (prices of inputs and outputs) and the ability of the (Guero) and late maturing (Maiwa) in intercrop and sole farmer to finance input purchases on the adoption decision crop. Contrary to Guero pearl millet, few studies on Maiwa of the new hybrid. It was suggested that: pearl millet have been reported in Niger (Botorou, 1992, 1993, 1994; and Reddy et al., 1992). There is no specific Hybrid sorghum technology is profitable and expected to recommendation from INRAN for farmers. New varieties be adopted by farmers on rainfed and irrigated areas. Im- of Maiwa actually tested with farmers. However, for better provements in economic conditions will increase diffusion productivity, there is need for specific crop production prac- of hybrid sorghum technology. Strategies to offset seasonal tices including plant population, thinning and fertilizer ap- price collapses after harvest and to moderate the price de- plication. Maiwa pearl millet produces more tillers than clines resulting from good weather or improvement in input Guero pearl millet; that is why the recommended plant pop- markets (seed and fertilizers) are critical. Also improve- ulation for pearl millet in Niger is not appropriate for Maiwa ments in the infrastructure can have similar effects. Better since some of these tillers do not produce panicle. Farmers access to markets, farmer management practices (storage) feed their animals with the stem of pearl millet as there is an or increased demand for sorghum through research on new increasing integration of crop production and animal hus- uses (processing, industry) caigive farmers better prices for bandry. Pre-harvest of some tillers before plant maturity their outputs. Storage opportunity costs may be high for will provide more nutritive feed to animals and probably most farmers if they are pressed to repay loans or to make will improve the grain yield and quality. A two-year study urgent purchases immediately after the harvest. For diffu- will be conducted at Bengou INRAN station in 1998 and sion of hybrid technology to be sustained, input markets 1999 before going to the on-fann study. (seed and fertilizers) need to be well developed. Farmers of- ten complain about the availability of necessary inputs. Objective Farmers need access to fertilizers and seed for production of NAD-1. The private marketing sector needs to make seed The main objective of the study is to develop specific and fertilizers available at the village level. crop production practices for Maiwa pearl millet which takes into account the increasing integration of crop produc- Decision-makers often fear increases in basic food prices tion andanimal husbandry. To do so the intermediate objec- including cereals because of the burden this imposes on ur- tives are 1) evaluate the effect of plant population on grain ban consumers. Because of the power of urban consumers, yield and quality; 2) determine the effect of pre-harvest of decision-makersoften adopt policy measures, which reduce tillers on grain yield and quality; and, 3) determine the nu- the prices of cereals. This type of action hinders the intro- tritive value of pre-harvest tillers as animal feed. duction of technological change in agriculture. Policy mak- ers need to recognize the importance of a favorable Pearl millet is generally grown on nutrient-poor soils and economic environment for agriculture to hasten farm level low rainfall conditions in Niger. Nitrogen and P accumula- investment and technological change. tion and utilization are very important factors in pearl millet growth, and are affected by environment and management. Host Country Program Enhancement

An understanding of seasonal N and P accumulation is nec- plants were left per hill after thinning. During the 1998199 essary to improve pearl millet production. A two-year field season the rainfall was at Tillakaina, the dry location, 456.7 study was conducted in 1995 and 1996 at Kollo with the ob- mrn in 3 1 days, while in Konni it was 398.5 mm in 29 days. jective to determine N and P concentration and accumula- Rainfall in the dry location was higher than the one received tion by pearl millet as affected by variety and management in the intermediate region in this cropping season. Trials level. Treatments were factorial combinations ofthree pearl were weeded twice and any major problem was observed millet varieties: 'Heini Kirei', a tall land race variety; during the growing period. Harvest was ended in October at 'Zatib', an improved tall variety; and '3/4HK1, a short im- Konni and in November at Tillakaina. Production of grain proved variety, with low management (10,000 hills ha-l and stover of each plot was weighed to estimate the yield of with no fertilizer) and high management (20,000 hills ha-I these variables. with manure and N and P fertilizer application). Manage- ment level had no influence on N and P concentration even Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed only on though N and P fertilizer and manure were applied. Variety the results of trials from Tillakaina, in the dry region and influence was small and inconsistent. More N and P were Konni, in the intermediate zone. Trials conducted at translocated from the stem and leaves to the panicle in the Bengou, in the humid climate, failed due to bad germination higher rainfall year when grain yield was greater. The and development. Their results were not analyzed, there- shorter variety 314HK had less N and P accumulation than fore, they are not included in the report. In the dry location the tall varieties which was likely due to less dry matter pro- (Tillakaina), results of five trials were analyzed while in the duction. The average maximum total plant N accumulation medium site (Konni), results of four trials were used in the for low management was 1.42 g N m-2 in 1995 and 0.62 g N analysis, the fifth trial failed to produce. Grain yields for all mm2in 1996, while for high management in either year, the treatments and genotypes were much higher in the dry while grain nitrogen use efficiency was 17 g grain g-l N zone that in the medium rainfall one. But there was no sig- higher with high with low management than with high man- nificant difference in the dry zone or in the medium rainfall agement. The short, early maturing variety '314HK' tended zone. No significant difference was observed in stover to have lower N use efficiencies than the other varieties. Ni- yields in both locations. The contrasting situation observed trogen and P accumulation, and grain N use efficiency was in grain yield could be explained by the fact that in the 1998 influenced more by management that N variety. season, rainfall in the dry location was greater than the one obtained in the medium rainfall zone. Moreover, drought Agronomy - Sorghum occurrence and severity appeared to be enormous in the me- dium zone than in the dry region of Tillakaina. Rainy season Principal Investigators - Seyni Sirfi and Jerry Maranville also was shorter in the medium location than in the dry loca- tion. The genotype NAD-l produced the highest grain yield The main objectives were (1) on-farm testing on the ef- (2240 kg ha-') with tied ridges at Tillakaina. But at Konni its fect of tied-ridging and fertilization on sorghum growth and yield was only 432 kg ha-] for the same treatment (tied productivity in comparison with the traditional cultural ridges). Grain yields of the same genotype (NAD-1) at practices, (2) determining the effect of ridging in combina- Tillakaina were not different between ridges (non-tied) and tion with organic and chemical fertilizer on soil structure traditional cultivation treatments. They were estimated at and texture, and (3) water and nutrients use efficiency of 1401 and 1614 kg ha-] for ridges and traditional cultural sorghum under these cropping conditions. practices, respectively. At Konni, nonetheless, grain yields ofNAD-1 were not only low but also decreased fromthe im- On-farm studies on nutrient use and ridges were con- proved to the non-improved treatments. They were 432,602 ducted in Niger during the cropping seasons. Sites of the and 625 kg ha-' for tied ridges, ridges and traditional cul- studies were located in three different agro-ecological zones ture. Grain yields for the local germplasm in the dry location (dry, intermediary and humid). The dry location, Tillakaina, looked stable and high in all the treatments. They were 1752 has an average annual rainfall of 300 mrn, while Konni, in kg ha-' for tied ridges, 2473 kg ha-l for ridges and 2236 kg the intermediaterainfall zone, received annually on average ha-' for traditional culture. 400 mm of rain. Bengou located in the humid zone has usu- ally an average rainfall of more than 600 mm. Two im- Average stover yield for all the treatments in all locations proved genotypes (NAD-1 and 90SN7) were compared to were around 4500 kg ha-I for most of the genotypes. Signifi- land race cultivars under improved and traditional sorghum cant differences were not observed between treatments for cultivation. The improved cultivation consisted of ridges this variable either in the dry or medium rainfall zone. and tiedridges combined with 5 t ha-' manure and 50 kg ha-l urea. Manure was applied before planting at soil prepara- Results of the 1998 season were variable compared to tion, while urea was used at early growth stage. A random- those of 1997 in terms of grain and stover yield. In 1997, all ized complete bloc was used where each producer was locations, tied ridges performed better than traditional culti- considered as a replicate and five replicates were planned to vation and genotype NAD- 1 gave the highest yield. In 1998, be installed in each location. Plots size was 4m x 8m and however, the performances of genotypes were diverse and planting density was 41,675 hills (0.80 m x 0.30 m) with in some cases the traditional and the local varieties tended to 0.80mm between rows and 0.30 n between hills. Three be more productive than the improved. Due to that contrast- Host Count~yProgram Enhancement ing situation, it is difficult to make any conclusion about the ments did not have any significant effect on the susceptible results of the 1998 study. hybrid NAD- 1.

Pathologv InNiger, soils have generally low pH (4-5.5) and are very poor in nitrogen and other essential nutrients. Both soil pH Principal Investigators - Issoufou Kollo Abdourhamane and nitrogen are know to influence soil borne diseases. An and Richard Frederiksen experiment to study the effect of nitrogen form and lime on the development of acremonium wilt on sorghum was con- Acremonium wilt (caused by Acremonium strictum) has ducted at the Konni research station during the 1997 and become a serious disease of sorghum in the sorghum grow- 1998 cropping seasons. The hybrid NAD-1 was used. Two ing areas of Niger, particularly near Konni. Before the levels of limestone was used, 0 and 1 t ha-]. Limestone was 1990s, the disease was a minor problem. However, with the obtained form the Malbaza cement plant (40 km from introduction of improved cultivars and hybrids the disease Konni). The lime was powdered and sieved with a 60-mesh has become a serious threat to sorghum production in that screen. Before planting, the powder was broadcast and thor- area. Although the disease is generally more serious on the oughly mixed in the soil. Two sources of mineral nitrogen, improved cultivars there are cases where even the land races urea and calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN), and farmyard are severely attacked. This indicates that there are other fac- manure were used. CAN was used because KN03 was not tors besides A. strictum involved in the development of available in Niger. Mineral-N was applied at the rate of 69 acremonium wilt. kg ha-' as urea or CAN. Manure was applied at the rate of 20 t ha-' before planting and mixed in the soil. Both urea and The objective of the present study is to investigate the CAN were also applied at the time of planting. The control role played by plant pathogenic nematodes, especially plot did not receive any nitrogen. The factorial treatments Pratylenchus spp. Therefore, a nematicide trial was con- were arranged in a randomized complete blocks with repli- ducted in Niger in the area of Konni on a farmer's field cations. Disease incidence was monitored and yield compo- where the disease is particularly severe. Two nematicides nents were measured. Furadan, and Counter were used. The nematicides were band applied at the time of planting and incorporated in the Stand was significantly improved by lime and nitrogen. soil. Rates for Counter were 1.1, 2.2 and 3.3-kg a.i./ha. The interaction between the nitrogen and lime was not sig- Rates for firadan were 2.0,4.0 and 6.0 kg a.i./ha. The con- nificant. The control treatments had the lowest number of trol plot did not receive a nematicide. One sorghum land plants; the best stand was obtained with CAN. Although the race Mota and the hybrid NAD-1 were used. The experi- wilt incidence was highest in the control plots differences mental design was a factorial with 14 treatments in a ran- were not significant at the 5% level (p4.08 for the main ef- domized complete block replicated 6 times. fect of lime, and p= 0.11 for nitrogen). For the number of plants harvested, the interaction between lime and nitrogen In order to estimate the preplant nematode population was not significant at the 5% level. However, the effect of level, at least eight soil samples were randomly taken from lime was significant and the effect of nitrogen form was each plot. The sample was thoroughly mixed to make a highly significant. The control plots had the lowest number composite sample. From this composite, 250 cm3 of soil of plants harvested. Therefore, the ability of the plant to sur- was taken for nematode extraction. Near harvest, the nema- vive was increased by the addition of lime or nitrogen. CAN tode population was estimated from soil samples and the was better than urea or manure. For stover and grain yield, number of Pratylenchus zea per gram of root was estimated. there was a significant interaction between lime and source Disease incidence was estimated near physiological matu- of nitrogen. In the absence of lime, mineral nitrogen tends to rity. Yield and yield components were taken. decrease the straw weight. Whereas the straw yield was in- creased in the presence of lime. Manure in presence of lime For the susceptible hybrid, NAD- 1 the presence of nema- reduced the stover yield. In absence of lime, urea tends to re- tode is not necessary for disease development. The high sus- duce the grain yield. Whereas liming without any nitrogen ceptibility of this hybrid to acremonium wilt is evident. significantly reduced grain yield by about one third. With the land race Mota, the level of infection increases as the nematode number increases (R2=0.42). In the presence The data, indicated that urea might not be the most suit- of nematodes, Mota becomes susceptible to A strictum. able form of nitrogen for sorghum. Liming may be impor- This experiment is being actually repeated in the green- tant in managing soil borne diseases and to increase yield of house in Niger during the off-season. cereals such as sorghum. This is important because Niger has huge deposits of lime and the agricultural use of lime is The nematicide treatments did not significantly affect the not known by many extension agricultural agents. The man- incidence of acremonium wilt in either 1997 (which is a agement of the cement plant in Malbaza is very much inter- drought year) or in 1998. For Mota, stand establishment, the ested in knowing the potential of using lime for agricultural number of plants harvested and grain yield were signifi- purposes. cantly improved by the nematicide treatments. These treat- Host Country Program Enhancement

Transformation Equipment Local Cereals (Sorghum and Millet)

Decorticator Mill

Mixer Roller Agglomerator Host Country Program Enhancement

Couscoussier

Dryer Packaging Host Country Program Enhancement

Southern Africa Region (Botswana, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe) D.J. Andrews University of Nebraska

Coordinators

D.J. Andrews, INTSORMIL Coordinator for SADC Region and Pearl Millet and Sorghum Breeder, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska Dr. Mary Mgonja, Coordinator, SMINET network, SADCtICRISAT SMIP Project, Matopos, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe Dr. Medson Chisi, Member, SMIP Steering Committee Member and Sorghum Breeder, Crops and Soils Research, Mt. Makulu Research Station, Chilanga, Zambia

Collaborators

Dr. Gary Odvody, Plant Pathologist, Texas A&M University, Corpus Christi, TX Dr. Gary C. Peterson, Sorghum Breeder, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX Dr. Lloyd Rooney, Cereal Quality Scientist, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX Dr. George Teetes, Entomologist, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX Dr. Carl Nelson, Economist, University. of Illinois, Urbana, IL Dr. Chris Manthe, Botswana College of Agriculture, (formerly Entomologist with the Department of Agricultural Research), Sebele, Gaborone, Botswana S.A. Ipinge, Pearl Millet Breeder, Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Rural Development, Tsumeb, Namibia P. Ditsipi, Department of Agricultural Research, Private Bag 0033, Gaborone, Botswana G. M. Kaula, Crops and Soil Research, Mt. Makulu Research Station, Chilanga, Zambia N. Mangombe and L. Mpofu, Plant Breeding Institute, Zimbabwe, c/o SADCIICRISAT, Sorghum Millet Improvement Program, P.O. Box 776, Bulawayo E. Mtisi, Plant Protection Research Institute, DRSS Box 8108 Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe Drs. N. McLaren and J. van den Berg, Pathologist and Entomologist, ARC-Grain Crops Institute, Private Bag X1251, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa D. Frederickson, (Consultant Scientist), SADCIICRISAT, Sorghum Millet Improvement Program, P.O. Box 776, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe Dr. A.J. Taylor, Department of Food Science, University of Pretoria, South Africa Dr. Janice Dewars, Research Scientist, CSIR, Pretoria, South Afiica Ms. Trust Beta, Food Utilization Lecturer, Mt. Pleasant, Harare, University of Zimbabwe Dr. Tunde Obilana, Sorghum Breeder, SADCIICRISATISMIP, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe Dr. Emrnanuel Monyo, Pearl Millet Breeder, SADCtICRISATISMIP, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe Dr. Tebago Seleka, Economist, Botswana College of Agriculture, Sebele, Gaborone

Collaborative Program

Organization major post graduate training program for the Southern Africa region (25 Ph.D. and 50 M.S. students from nine During the last four years, INTSORMIL's collaborative countries completed their degrees), many of the collaborat- research in the Southern Africa region has increased from 3 ing scientists in Southern Africa are INTSORMIL trained projects (breeding, pathology, sorghum food quality) to 6 and had INTSORMIL PIS as their major advisors. Activities (with the addition of entomology, market development and in each project are planned annually in conjunction with sorghum ergot studies), and through a Memorandum of NARS collaborators. Where SADCtICRISATISMIP Agreement with SADCIICRISATISMTP the project has be- (called SMIP hereafter) has scientists in the research disci- come fully integrated with regionally planned sorghum and pline, these are also involved. The plans are then reviewed at pearl millet research. The MOU allowed INTSORMIL the SMIP annual Steering Committee Meeting to ensure grant funds to be disbursed to collaborating NARS scien- they continue to fit in the profile of work needed on the de- tists, of which there are now 14 in 5 countries. Discipline velopment of sorghum and pearl millet production in the re- scientists and the SMINET regional coordinator at the gion. ICRISAT SMIP Center at Matopos, Zimbabwe are also in- volved. Due to INTSORMIL's previous management of a Host Country Program Enhancement

Six research projects were being conducted in the South- search and Technology Transfer program (SMINET) to en- em Africa region in 1999-2000. They were: sure full integration with other sorghum and pearl millet re- search and development projects in the region. 99-1 Breeding: Development ofpearl millet R4 top cross hybrids, using popular Namibian and Zambian varieties As of October 1999, donor funding for Phase IV of the SMIP program to ICRISAT at Matopos focused entirely on 99-2 Pathology: Disease management research, identifi- technology transfer, with no further crop improvement re- cation and use of resistance to sorghum diseases search. Since ICRISAT has no core hded plant breeders resident in the SADC area, INTSORMIL's continued par- 99-3 Food quality: Sorghum food quality research ticipation in regional collaborative crop improvement re- search is now regarded as essential by SMINET. 99-4 Pests: Genetic resistance to sugarcane aphid and in- tegrated pest management in Botswana and South Africa Sorghum and Pearl Millet Constraints Researched

99-5 Production and Marketing: Identification of factors Production and Utilization Constraints limiting commercial production and marketing of sorghum in Botswana Sorghum and pearl millet are major food crops in the SADC region. Sorghum is also used to make opaque beer. 99-6 Ergot: Control of sorghum ergot Sorghum is the major cereal in Botswana and parts of Zam- bia, Mozambique, Malawi, and Tanzania, and pearl millet is Financial Inputs the major cereal in Namibia and parts of Tanzania, Mozam- bique, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Most of the usual con- Following the finalization of the MOU in October 1998 straints associated with low resource agriculture are with SMIPIICRISAT, Matopos, regional funds were trans- present. These include low yield potential, infertile soils, ferred and disbursement against planned expenditures com- variable moisture availability, numerous pests and diseases, menced. and poor market facilities. Genetic improvement can eco- nomically address some of these constraints by increasing Collaboration with Other Organizations yield levels and matching grain qualities to meet end-use re- quirements. However, market channels still need improve- Research on pearl millet and sorghum breeding is orga- ment since there are sorghum varieties with the required nized with NARS scientists in collaboration with the SMIP quality to meet commercial consumer requirements, but Technology Transfer program (now a regional organization production has been inconsistent. The availability of a con- - SMINET) at Matopos, Zimbabwe, which ensures sistent supply of improved quality sorghum and millet for complementarity to existing SMIP and NARS sorghum and processing into value added urban products is a major prob- pearl millet programs. lem limiting utilization. Food companies can use but cannot consistently acquire sufficient quantities of high quality Grain quality research is collaborative with the Univer- sorghums for processing. A strong need exists for develop- sity of Zimbabwe, University of Pretoria, CSIR (South Af- ing a system of identity preserved production, marketing, rica), Agriculture Research Corporation, South Africa, and and processing. SMIP. The CSIR has strong interactions with the private sectors in the region which will assist in transfer of informa- New varieties and hybrids with increased yield potential, tion to help private entrepreneurs. Sorghum and pearl pro- drought tolerance, or other desirable traits are being devel- duction constraints are being investigated with the oped by national programs, and other sorghums are continu- Botswana College of Agriculture. Ergot research is collabo- ously being introduced into various SADC regions. It is rative with the ARC Summer Grain Crops Institute, imperative that all improved cultivars have the requiredlev- Potchefstroom, RSA. Other projects operate directly with els of resistance to major endemic disease pathogens and NARS governmental research departments. pests along with adaptation to environments present in given regions where they are intended for production. The Planning Process Identification of regionally-adapted sorghum with sta- Research projects in breeding, pathology, entomology, ble, multiple disease resistance will help the NARS sor- and food quality were based on on-going linkages. Produc- ghum improvement teams in their development of lines, tion and marketing, and ergot research projects were based varieties, and hybrids for the diverse environmentsand sor- on availability of regional expertise. The future program ghum production systems in each country and throughout will be shaped by priorities decided by SADC/NARS similar environments in the SADC region. (SADC = Southern Africa Development Community) and the availability of matching INTSOR.MIL scientists and Sorghum ergot is prevalent through the region and may funds. The INTSORMIL collaborative research in SADC be severe in hybrid seed production fields. Researchon con- will thus be developed as part of the SMIP Regional Re- Host Country Program Enhancement trol involves the use of genetic resistance, location, time of Examples offindings planting and possibly chemicals. Breeding Constraints Addressed by Project Objectives The breeding project initially collaborated on sorghum Breeding: Raise grain yields by developing A4 CMS breeding in Botswana with the sorghum breeder, Peter pearl millet hybrids with local adapted varieties as male par- Setimela, at DAR, Sebele, and on pearl millet breeding in ents in Namibia and Zambia. Namibia with S. A. Ipinge and W. R. Lechner. In bothcases, the work was planned to fit in with the ongoing NARS re- Pathology: Reduce yield losses by identifying adapted, search and that supported by the SMIP program managed agronomically desirable sources of resistance to drought for sorghum by Twde Obilana and pearl millet by Ernman- stress and charcoal rot to include sources with resistance to uel Monyo. Both participated in the INTSORMIL initia- sugarcane aphid (Botswana, Zimbabwe, Zambia). Identify tives by growing additional breeding materials and adapted, agronomically desirable sources of resistance to providing off-season nursery space. As a result, 36 AIB sor- the major foliar pathogens: leaf blight, anthracnose, and ghum seed parent lines were developed for Botswana and sooty stripe (Zimbabwe, Zambia). released as SDSNB 1 through SDSA/B 36. The relative combining ability of these lines was determined by a series Food Quality: Improve sorghum food quality by evalu- of yield trials conducted by ICRISAT SMIP. ating qualities of Zimbabwean sorghums. Examine meth- ods of using high polyphenol sorghums in foods through dry The pearl millet research planned for Namibia was to milling, malting and brewing. take parents of the hybrids, shown experimentally by ICRISAT SMIP to be at least 20% higher yielding than ex- Pests: Reduce yield losses by identifying, evaluating, isting varieties, and convert them to the A4 CMS system and incorporating sugarcane aphid resistance into sorghum (shown to be superior to the A, system - see UNL-218 re- varieties and hybrids adapted to Southern African agricul- port) - a feature essential for commercial seed production tural systems. Develop integrated pest management strate- and reliability of hybrid performance. INTSORMIL sup- gies for sorghum insect pests in Southern Africa. plied the A4 CMS needed to make two seed parents male sterile (88006, an ICRISAT SMIP proven Al seed parent, Production and Marketing: Through structural village and an IBMV 8401 selection made by UNL2 18 from a long surveys and country-wide equilibrium analysis, identify al- headed Senegalese population). Both seed parent conver- ternative feasible sources of supply for sustainable sorghum sions have been completed and supplied to Namibia, along processing in Botswana and their distributional economic with some test hybrids. INTSORMIL UNL-2 18 also sup- welfare impacts. These analyses can then be extended plied the R4 genes required to make the Namibian varieties, throughout the region. Okashana and MKC, into solid Rq restorer male parent pop- ulations. Two backcrosses with each were made and sent for Ergot: Reduce the risk of ergot through analyses of completion to Namibia. A test hybrid IBMV 8401 A4 x weather data, and develop control strategies involving host MKC (made from partially backcrossed parents), was ex- plant resistance, management to improve pollination, and ceptionally productive. MKC also was converted into an R5 chemical control. restorer in consonance with research on this new (A5/R5) CMS system at ICRISAT Center, India, so that when A5 Mutuality of Benefis seed parents become available from ICRISAT there will be at least one African based R5 variety with which to produce The productivity and utilization of both sorghum and hybrids. pearl millet will ultimately be improved both in SADC countries and the USA through joint research. Germplasm Following the departure of Peter Setimela (the only sor- flow is usell in both directions. Basic research from the ghum breeder) from Botswana to UNL-2 18 for his Ph.D., USA can often be adapted for use in developing countries collaborative sorghum research in Botswana was put on where yield potential, along with adaptation, need to be in- hold and recommenced in 1999-2000. Pearl millet A4 hy- creased. U. S. pathologists and entomologists can become brid development for Zambia was begun in 1998 using the familiar with diseases and insects not yet present in the same methods as for Namibia, with Mr. F. P. Muuka at USA, or find new resistance to existing pests. Sorghum er- Kaoma Research Station, Western Zambia. At Kaoma a got disease, which recently entered the USA from South number of good varieties suitable as male parents for top America, is a case in point. Prior research in South Africa cross hybrids had been developed. Donor material for both on sources of ergot resistance, understanding environmen- seed parent development and male parent development tal conditions conducive to disease spread, and methods of were supplied. Mr. Muuka is proceeding with the backcross research are now of vital interest to U.S. scientists. Nutri- program. He has been supported by the supply of selfing tional components of food quality researched in collabora- bags and a single head thresher. tive projects have relevance to grain values for livestock feed. Host County Program Enhancement

In summary, this breeding project for Southern Africa also had good to excellent drought tolerance at the Sebele has followed through with the concept that adapted hybrids station in Botswana over more than one season. developed, preferably with the use of the best (i.e. well adapted) local varieties, is the most cost effective way of in- Sugarcane aphid resistant sorghums were concurrently creasing yields at all levels of productivity. Hybrids facili- evaluated with drought tolerant sorghums at the Sebele sta- tate the use of other inputs that raise production (better tion. From these and related materials a sugarcane aphid re- management and fertilizer). Also, they attract private enter- sistance nursery (50 entries, 2 reps) was initiated in prise into producing quality seeds for farmers. Namibia has collaboration with TAM-223, TAM-225, and TAM-222 a successful pearl millet certified seed production program and other NARS scientists and planted at several SADC lo- (now an autonomous cooperative of skilled farmer-seed cations including Matopos, Zimbabwe and Golden Valley, producers) based on variety production. Hybrid production Zambia. Most had a susceptibility to sooty stripe at Golden is the next logical progression for them, and this will be an Valley but may be useful elsewhere in the SADC region example for others to follow. where sooty stripe is not a production problem.

Pathology Virus reactions in the International Sorghum Virus Nurs- ery (ISVN) at the Sebele and Pandamatenga Research Sta- Several sorghum disease nurseries were planted yearly tions in Botswana were typical of previous years but do not (1997-2000) at one or more locations in Zambia, Zimba- appear to adequately fit host differential response patterns bwe, Botswana, and South Africa (1999- 2000). Strategic for SCMV-B. Live virus specimens collected two years ago nursery locations for foliar disease evaluation were the in Botswana and Zambia were identified as being similar to Mansa (anthracnose) and Golden Valley (sooty stripe) sta- SCMV-B by S. Jensen, USDA, Lincoln, NE. Mahube, an tions in Zambia and the Panrnure (sooty stripe) and early maturing released variety in Botswana, was identified Henderson (leaf blight) stations in Zimbabwe. Most stan- as being vulnerable to the virus at both the Sebele and dard entries in the nursery continued to have their previ- Pandamatenga locations where it sometimes showed exten- ously identified resistance or susceptibility response to the sive Red Leaf Necrosis (RLN) when virus-infected plants major pathogens present. Most of newly introduced materi- were exposed to cool night temperatures. als in these nurseries had a high susceptibility to either or both sooty stripe and anthracnose under moderate to heavy In the 1999-2000 season, a multilocational nursery ini- disease pressure at these locations; however, some of these tially dubbed the Southern Africa Sorghum Breeding Nurs- new sorghums may still be of value in other SADC regions ery was developed from the disease, drought, and sugarcane where foliarpathogens are not aproduction constraint. As in aphid nurseries to identify cultivars that had both broad ad- previous years, SC326-6 derived material like 86EON 361 aptation to the SADC region and resistance to major disease and 86 EON362 were consistently resistant to foliar patho- and insect pests. Cultivars showing good foliar disease re- gens (low to moderate response) and demonstrated good re- sistance at three nursery locations in 1999-2000 are shown gional adaptation and favorable agronomic characteristics. in Table 1. This initial nursery was made up of two repli- cates of 100 entries with the eventual goal of a more space Several drought resistant materials were tested yearly at efficient 50 entry nursery for widespread deployment in the the Sebele station and occasionally the Pandamatenga sta- SADC region. The smaller nursery would be re-named as tion in Botswana. Yearly response to drought stress and ag- the SADC Regional All Disease and Insect Nursery. In ad- ronomic appearance was utilized to identify those cultivars dition to regional adaptation, the nursery is intended to iden- for continued and expanded evaluation and to target poten- tify cultivars adapted to individual locations, determine tial new cultivars for inclusion in drought resistance nurser- relative importance of specific pest constraints by site and ies. Beginning in 1998, cultivars previously tested in region, determine needed types of pest resistance, and iden- Botswana or closely related cultivars were selected for ex- tify potential cultivars with adequate individual and multi- panded evaluation at the Matopos station in Zimbabwe and ple pest resistance for direct farmer use or as proven parents the Golden Valley station in Zambia. Unfortunately, several in breeding programs. entries were extremely susceptible to sooty stripe (E0366 derivatives) at Golden Valley and did not appear to have Food quality good adaptation to that location. In a previous season some E0366 x WSV387 (Kuyuma) derivatives had shown good Dry Milling of Sorghum drought tolerance and agronomic characteristics at Sebele. However, other entries did have both acceptable adaptation Roller milling and abrasive decortication reduced the and at least moderate or good resistance (as in SRN39 deriv- polypohenol content of brown sorghums by nearly 50% but atives) to sooty stripe. Derivatives of several crosses with the endosperm products were still dark in color. Pretreat- Macia had both resistant and susceptible representatives, ment of the grains with dilute NaOH and HCl at 12,16 and but those of Macia x Dorado and ICSV1089 x Macia com- 20% moisture prior to milling did not affect the yield of en- monly had both excellent sooty stripe response and good ag- dosperm products. The yield of roller milled flour was 90.7, ronomic characteristicsat Golden Valley. These derivatives 88.5 and 90.2 respectively for optimum tempered grain (16% moisture) of white food type and two brown sorghums Host Country Program Enhancement

Table 1. Cultivars in the 1999 Southern Africa Sorghum Breeding Nursery with good foliar disease resistance at nursery locations in Golden Valley Station, Zambia, Matopos Station, Zimbabwe, and Cedara Station, South ~frica' Designation Soow stripe Anthracnose Leaf Blight (SRN39*90E0328)-HF4. .CA2 0.5 0.5 0.6 (SRN39*90E0328)-HF4. .CAI 0.5 0.4 0.6

Sirna.MISV187 0.5 0.0 0.9- - Segaolane 0.6 0.0 0.8 (BI*Segaolane)HL?-HL2 0.6 0.0 1.5 (BI*Segaolane)HF31 0.6 0.1 1.O SRN39 0.7 0.0 1.6 (Macia'Sureao)-HF19-GWOI 93 0.7 0.0 0.4 (Dorado'SRN39)-??. . . . 0.8 0.0 1.5 (SureBo*SRN39)-HD5 0.8 0.0 0.6 (B1*Town)-HL?-HL2 0.8 0.0 1.4 (86E0361'Macia)-HD15 0.8 0.0 0.3 (BI*Segaolane)HFl-BE3-Cl01 0.4 0.9 0.9 (Bl'B9501)-HF88 0.5 0.0 1.9 (Macia*Dorado)-HD2 0.5 2.0 0.9 Bl (BTx625*B35) 0.6 0.8 1.O ' All disease ratings from 0 to 5 were done by N. McLaren in April 2000 where 0 is resistant and 5 is susceptible. Numbers in each column are mean values of disease ratings from two sites for sooty stripe (Golden Valley and Matopos), anthracnose (Golden Valley and Matopos) and leaf blight (Matopos and Cedera). Causal fungal pathogens are Ramulispora sorghi for sooty stripe, Colletrichum graminicola for anthracnose, and Exserohilurn turcicum for leaf blight. respectively. Tempering did not affect the yields of Sorghum Starch Properties decorticated grain obtained by abrasive milling. The NaOH treatments gave slightly lower phenol content for roller Starch was isolated from ten Zimbabwean sorghum vari- milled endosperm products but did not affect the phenol eties using alkali steeping and wet milling procedures. A content ofabrasively decorticatedproducts. The color ofthe tannin-free variety with white pericarp and tan plant color, brown sorghum flour was very dark with high levels of phe- SV2, gave a very white starch. Varieties with red or white nols. Roller milling of grain treated with NaOH at 16% pericarp gave pink starches. Hunter L, a and b values of moisture produced flour with significantlyreduced levels of starches were not correlated with grain phenol content or phenols. Light color, bland flavor and quite acceptable grain appearance. This was probably because all of these flours were prepared from the whlte sorghum while the sorghums had purple or red plant color and intense red or brown varieties had dark colored flours with a strong flavor. purple glumes. The anthocyanins from the glumes and the pericarp of slightly weathered grain penetrated into the Malting of Sorghum starch during wet milling giving highly colored starch. These starches would not be useful in applications where Tannin sorghums are malted for use in opaque beer brew- color is important. The starch of the white SV2 would be ac- ing. The condensed tannins adversely affect the ability of ceptable in food products of light color. the malt enzymes to accomplish their task. Treatment of the sorghum with formaldehyde inactivates the tannins and im- Sorghum starches had higher peak viscosities than com- proves the quality of malt significantly. An alternative to mercial maize starch. Since commercial corn starch is iso- formaldehyde, NaOH, was found effective by South Afri- lated by acid steeping, some of the differences are related to can scientists recently. Dr. Beta evaluated several treat- the milling procedures. The amylose content of the sorghum ments to confm that NaOH is effective in eliminating the starches varied from 21 to 29 % of the starch. The viscosity effects of tannin. She confirmed that NaOH was as effective changes during cooking were related to amylose content. in elimination of condensed tannins as formaldehyde;in ad- Amylose and starch gel hardness was positively correlated. dition, water uptake during steeping was significantly in- The setback properties were highest for starches with in- creased by the NaOH treatment. Thus, Dr. Beta's creased levels of amylose. Peak gelatinization temperature confirmation of the effectiveness of NaOH as a pretreat- (Tp) occurred over a narrow range of 66 to 69OC. The re- ment of tannin sorghum prior to malting should lead to im- duced amylose content of the commonly grown high tannin proved malting efficiency. Elimination of formaldehyde hybrid DC-75, if it can be confirmed in additional experi- from malting will alleviate questions about the safety of ments, might be related to its generally acceptable malting formaldehyde in opaque beer. The increased rate of water quality. uptake during steeping of sorghum could enhance malt pro- duction from non-tannin sorghum as well. Chemical treatments in wet milling could improve the physio-chemical properties of starch isolated from high-tannin sorghums. Sorghum varieties, Chirimaugute (medium-tannin), DC-75 (high-tannin) and SV2 (tan- nin-free) were steeped in water, dilute HCl (0.9%, vlv), Host Country Program Enhancement formaldehyde (0.05%, vlv) and NaOH (0.3%, w/v) solu- Christi or Beeville) and temperate Lubbock to select for tions prior to wet milling and starch separation. Chemical wide adaptation. Selections from Texas will be provided to treatments during steeping of sorghum greatly affected collaborators in Southern Africa for evaluation in the local starch properties. Steeping in NaOH produced starches with environment. The lines should contain wide adaptation, higher peak viscosity (PV), cool paste viscosity (CPV), and sugarcane aphid resistance, and disease resistance (primar- setback than when water, HC1 and formaldehyde were used. ily sooty stripe and anthracnose). Plant traits selected to en- The time to peak viscosity and temperature of peak viscos- hance potential use include tan plant, white pericq, and ity were markedly reduced by treatment with NaOH. The appropriate height and maturity. texture of DC-75 starch gels was slightly fmer in NaOH treated grains. Starch from NaOH treated grain generally Research on host plant resistance for Southern A£iica had slightly higher gelatinization temperatures than when will be increased for 2000-2001. INTSORMIL, through the water, HCl or formaldehyde was used. Dilute alkali steep- Texas A&M University breedinglentornology program, ing during wet milling could be used to modify properties of will provide to regional scientists a replicated 100-entry test starch isolated from tannin-containing sorghums. However, for evaluation for resistance to sugarcane aphid and local the color of the starches will probably limit their applica- adaptation at sites to be determined. The replicated Midge tions. Line Test will be provided to South Africa to evaluate the population density of sorghum midge (Stenodiplosis Ms. L. Hugo found that increased quantities of sorghum sorghicola) at anthesis and the level of resistance and adap- flour can be added to composite bread when the flour comes tation present in the TAMU sorghum midge resistance from malted sorghum. It improves the texture of the flour breeding program. INTSORMIL also will develop new sor- eliminating harsh, sandy particles and significantly improv- ghum germplasm lines with novel gene combinations and ing the crumb properties of the baked bread. This research provide the germplasm to local collaborators for evaluation continues with completion in 2000. for resistance to sugarcane aphid. INTSORMIL will lead in developing a regional sorghum diseaselinsect adaptation Pest Management test for planting at numerous locations. Material in the test will represent a range of diversity to stress resistance, plant A trip was made in April, 2000, to South Africa, Bot- type, and yield. The material will be available to regional swana, Mozambique, and Zambia by Dr. Peterson to con- scientists for use in their research programs. tinue the collaborative research program for Southern Africa directed at development, evaluation, and deployment Production and Marketinflesearch of sorghum genotypes resistant to the sugarcane aphid, Melanaphis sacchari. The primary collaborators in initiat- A pre-survey of farm households in Baralong, Botswana ing the project are Dr. van den Berg and Dr. Manthe. How- revealed that government agricultural programs and ever, Dr. Manthe has taken a position with the Botswana off-farm income create disincentives for the consistent an- College of Agriculture, and his continued participation in nual production of sorghum, raising questions about the this research is questionable. Dr. van den Berg is currently ability of domestic sorghum supply to meet the demand of conducting many research projects on several insect pests of domestic processors. These initial, informal frndings will be sorghum, and research on sugarcane aphid represents an ex- quantified through a rural household survey that will be pansion of his research program. conducted in Baralong. During this year the comprehensive survey instnunent was developed, pre-tested, and revised. A 50-entry test for sugarcane aphid resistance was sent to The administration of the survey will be under the direction Southern Africa in collaboration with TAM-228, of Dr. Tebago Seleka of the Botswana College of Agricul- TAM-225, and TAM-222. The test was distributed for ture. One other researcher, to be identified by Dr. Seleka, greenhouse screening in Botswana and South Africa and will direct the field operations of the survey. field evaluation in Zambia. For sugarcane aphid resistance, 11 experimental entries sustained no more damage than the Drs. Seleka and Carl Nelson began work on a model of most resistant checks (WM#322, Ent. 62/SADC, general equilibrium in the Botswana economy, incorporat- FGYQ353, and TAM424)(Table2). Sugarcane aphid resis- ing sorghum supply from South Africa (which is currently tant breeding materials are in development for the collabo- the main source). This model will be constructed to analyze rative program. Resistance sources including TAM428, the differential economic welfare impacts of alternative sor- CE15 1, WM#177, Sima (IS23250), SDSL89426, and ghum supply channels for the Botswana sorghum process- FGYQ336 have been intercrossed or crossed to locally ing industry. Such information is needed to make judgments adapted cultivars to develop a range of populations. Exotic about the value of promoting andlor subsidizing domestic cultivars used include Segaolane, Marupantse, Macia, supply Town, SV1, and A964. The lines were crossed to elite TAM-223 germplasm in order to introduce additional fa- Tshepo Makape, a student from the Botswana College of vorable traits including foliar disease resistance, and back- Agriculture, is currently taking prerequisite course at the crosses of selected F, 's to adapted cultivars were made. The University of the Orange Free State in South Africa. He will germplasm is planted in sub-tropical South Texas (Corpus Host Country Program Enhancement

Table 2. Rating of sorghum lines for resistance to sugarcane aphid based on aphid damage and aphid abundance to Potchefstroom, South Africa.

~- Ent. 62lSADC FGYQ353 PRGUE#222879 PRGUEff69414

(87E0366*GR134A-90M50)-LG6- (EPSON2-4O/E#l S/SADC*A964)-LG6- Segaolane Sima (IS23250) Kuyuma

(Tx2882*SRN39)-CM3- 3 (5BRONlS4/(87BH8606-l4*GR107-90M46)*EPSON2-40/E#15/SADC) 3 (Macia*Dorado)-HD4 3.5 (PM12713*Tx2880)-CM3- 3.5 (Sima/IS23250*60BS129/(Tx2862*6E0361)-LG1- 4 Test Mean 1.8 LSD .05 1.5 : Rated on a scale of 1 = no damage up to 4 = plant death. Rated on a scale of 1 = few aphids up to 3 = high infestation.

begin work in the agricultural economics M.S. program at of sorghum in Botswana. These effects will be quantified the University of Illinois in January, 2001. with data from a formal rural household survey.

Pre-survey results provided qualitative information Ergot about how government agricultural programs and off-farm income create disincentives for regular, annual production Incidence of ergot, caused by Claviceps africana Frederickson, Mantle & deMilliqo, is dependent on the Host Country Program Enhancement rate of pollination and fertilization, and on weather condi- tions during early post-anthesis. Rate of pollination and fer- tilization is affected by pre-flowering minimum temperatures that reduce pollen vigor. Once fertilization has taken place, susceptibility declines rapidly, and effective pollination and fertilization facilitateescape from infection.

The objective current research is to develop a multi-variate risk analysis model which incorporates as many of the relevant variables as possible that affect ergot severity in commercial hybrid seed production systems. The study is being conducted in areas representative of a range of climatic zones, including three areas in South Af- rica and Mt. Makulu in Zambia. The current report is based on data from Cedara and Makulu (Pietermaritzburg, South Africa) pending receipt of data from the other trials sites.

Trials consisted of blocks of 27 rows, 25 m in length, spaced 0.9 m apart. The outer rows of each block were A-lines planted three weeks before the remaining rows, and inoculated prior to flowering with a C. afi-rcana spore sus- pension (ca lo6 spores per rnl) to serve as ergot spreaders. The next two rows were pollinator (fertile) rows and the in- Minimum temperature "C ner 23 rows were male-sterile A-lines. At each locality (days 23-27 preflowering) blocks were replicated at three planting dates from late No- vember to early January to create a range of ergot potentials Figure 1. Relationship between pre-flowering mini- during flowering. On each planting date six blocks of mum temperature (days 23-27 preflowering) A-lines were planted. Pollinator row splits of 0, 7 and 14 and pollen viability in NK283. days after A-lines were used. Three blocks each were planted to PAN8564 and NK283 as pollinators. 100 Row II

Flowering of pollinator rows was monitored and the per- 80 %0301*)YX-Z VC centage heads shedding pollen determined on a weekly ba- sis. Pollen was randomly collected from each row for * . I assessment of pollen viability and mean pollen viability was determined for each flowering date.,Heads of A-lines with .* approximately 10% stigma emergence were marked with the date of flowering in each alternate row. This was re- peated weekly in each block until flowering was complete. Approximately four weeks after flowering, heads were vi- sually assessed for percentage seed set and ergot severity.

NK283 was more cold sensitive than PAN8564, showing an approximately linear increase in non-viable pollen w

Flowering of pollinators relative to A-lines and pollen vi- ability was used as a measure of pollen available to A-lines on specific assessment dates, i.e., percentage of pollinator heads shedding pollen x proportion viable pollen. The rela- tionship between "available pollen" and ergot severity was determined by regression analyses ineach A-line row. Ergot development in A-line rows 1 (adjacent to pollinators) and Ava~lablepollen (%) 11 (middle row) relative to "available pollen" is given in Figure 2. Based on the reaction of row 1 (adjacent to Figure 2. Relationship between available pollen at pollinators), the rate of ergot increase per percentage de- flowering of sorghum A-lines and ergot se- cline in "available pollen" is 0.73 and 0.88 with PAN8564 verity. Host Country Program Enhancement and NK283, respectively. This rate increases with distance Institution Building from the pollinator row. Funding Support and Equipment As indicated in Figure 3, a gradient in ergot severity was evident with distance from the pollinator rows. Distance The MOU with the SMIP program was signed in Octo- from the pollinator row resulted in an increase in ergot se- ber, 1998. INTSORMIL collaborative researchprojects be- verity at a rate of 2.76 and 1.89 % (PAN8564 and NK283, came fully integrated in the SMINET research and respectively) for each meter distance from the pollinator development program for the Southern African region and row. Results indicate that PAN 8564 was a more efficient were again reviewed at the SMIP Steering Committee meet- pollinator than NK283, and seed set was the direct inverse ing in October, 1999. of ergot severity. A head and small plot belt thresher was provided to the The ergot x pollen interaction with weather during the Namibian pearl millet breeding program at Okashana Re- critical phases of crop development is still to be quantified search Station and a head thresher to the Zambian pearl mil- and modeled pending data from remaining sites. At Cedara, let breeding program at Kaorna, Zambia. Twenty thousand maximum temperature during flowering ranged from 17.8 pearl millet pollinating bags were also supplied to each of to 28.6 "C with RH for the greater part, higher than 90 %. these programs and to Botswana. Thus, conditions were highly conducive for ergot develop- ment, particularly under relatively low pollen pressures. Four computers and two printers were purchased for col- laborators in Zambia and Botswana. Results to date suggest that under disease favorable con- ditions, relatively small variations in available pollen as Training of Host Country Researchers well as distance from the pollinator can result in large differ- ences in disease severity. Observations based on Figure 4 Ms. Trust Beta, Zimbabwe, completed her Ph.D. pro- indicated that under the conditions of this study with gram in food quality research in the University of Pretoria, PAN8564 a significant increase in ergot can be expected Harare, Zimbabwe under Dr. Taylor, co-advised by Dr. where the pollinator to A-line ratio is greater than 1:s. With Lloyd Rooney. Research equipment and partial subsistence a poorer pollinator such as NK283, ergot increases signifi- costs were provided by INTSORMIL. cantly with a ratio greater than 1:3. It is important that seed producers take into account pollen viability and associated Mr. Peter Setimela, sorghurnbreeder, Department ofAg- factors to minimize the impact of ergot on seed production. ricultural Research, Sebele Research Station, Botswana,

1 5 9 13 17 21 246810 Row Distance from pollinator (m)

Figure 4. Ergot severities in A-line rows on the flower- Figure 3. Relationship between distance of A-line from ing date most favorable for pollination (28 pollinators and ergot severity. February 2000) Host Country Program Enhancement completed his Ph.D. program in November 1999 on the ge- search activities in sorghum ergot and to establish research netics of seedling heat tolerance in sorghum at the Univer- linkages between all scientists in the region. sity of Nebraska with David Andrews under project UNL- 218. Human Resource Strategy

Mr. S. A. Ipinge, pearl millet breeder in Northern In the past, through a regional USAID program Namibia, completed a six month visiting scientist program INTSORMIL has trained a large number of sorghum and with David Andrews at the University ofNebraska in Octo- millet scientists from the SADC region. Human resource ber, 1998 working on selection methods and breeding tech- development continued with support for Ms. Trust Beta's niques. Ph.D. program in sorghum grain quality research at the Uni- versity of Pretoria and Mr. Peter Setimela's Ph.D. program Mr. M. Mogorosi, sorghum/pearl millet scientist, Bot- in plant breeding at the University of Nebraska. Mr. S. A. swana, commenced a five month training program at the Ipinge completed a six month visiting researcher program University of Nebraska in June 2000 on breeding and seed with the UNL-2 18 pearl millet breeding program at the Uni- production. versity ofNebraska. Mr. M. Mogorosi started in June 2000 a five month training program in breeding and seed produc- Host Country and U.S. Scientist Visits tion with UNL-2 18.

Two members of the INTSORMIL External Evaluation Networking panel, Drs. Fran Bidinger (ICRISAT) and Walter DeMilliano, accompanied by Dr. John Yohe, INTSORMIL An efficient sorghum and millet research and technology Director; John Swanson, USAID-Washington; Dr. Darrell transfer network exists in the SADC region conducted by Nelson, INTSORMIL Board from UNL; and, David An- the SMIP program. The memorandum of understanding al- drew~,Southern Africa Regional Coordinator, visited lows INTSORMIL to be a component of the SADC sor- Namibia, Zimbabwe, and Botswana March 1 - March 13, ghum and pearl millet research and technology transfer 1999. network, so that INTSORMIL's SADC collaborative re- search program is completely integrated on a regional basis. Carl Nelson attended a SADCJICRISAT planning and The emerging interaction of the University of Zimbabwe, review meeting in Harare, Zimbabwe and visited Botswana University of Pretoria, Council for Science and Industrial in July 1998. Dr. Nelson returned to Botswana in March, Research, South Africa and SMIP in conducting sorghum 1999 to initiate collaborative research. and millet utilization research efficiently utilizes scarce re- sources and personnel. A jointly organized workshop on Lloyd Rooney traveled to the University of Pretoria in Sorghum Food Quality was held at the University of Preto- March 1999 as co-organizer of Sorghum End Use Quality ria and CSIR in South Africa in April 1999 at which there Assessment Workshop, and visited ARCJGCI were 36 participants, including industrial representatives. Potchefstroom. Graduate students in the Food Science Department at the University of Pretoria are from many other African coun- Gary Peterson and George Teetes visited South Ahca tries. Many of them are participating in the Regional Master and Botswana for pest reseafch in April 1999. of Science program which consists of joint programs be- tween CSIR and University of Pretoria. The regional pro- Gary Odvody traveled to Southern Africa for approxi- gram has the goal of providing education for African mately three weeks each year in March-April 1997-00 to scientists on African crops that are of importance in the re- evaluate nurseries and determine future collaborative re- gion. Sorghum and millets are a key components of these search activities in the region. Locations visited include food systems. Thus, interactions with this program informs SMIP scientists and the Zimbabwe national sorghum many future African food industry leaders on the potential breeder in Bulawayo (Matopos), Zimbabwe, PPRVRSS in role of sorghum and millets as food and industrial ingredi- Harare, Zimbabwe, sorghum program scientists in Mt. ents. INTSORMIL can provide assistance to the region by Makulu, Golden Valley, Mansa, Lusitu, Zambia, DAR in involvement in these programs where possible. Sebele and Pandamatenga, Botswana, and the sorghum pa- thologist and sorghum entomologist at Grain Crops Institute Several graduate students are conducting research on as- in Potchefstroom South Africa. pects of sorghum utilization with Professor Taylor at the University of Pretoria. Dr. Trust Beta completed her Ph.D. Gary Peterson traveled to South Africa, Botswana, Zam- on processing sorghum with high levels of polyphenols into bia, and Mozambique in April 2000 to evaluate sugarcane foods. She has published several manuscripts related to dry aphid research and plan future regional collaborative re- milling, malting, and brewing applications of local search activities. Zimbabwean sorghum cultivars. Her work has been cooper- ative with the Matopos (Zimbabwe) grain quality lab. She TAM-228 sponsored the travel ofN. McLaren within the has worked on starch properties at the University of Hong region in 1999 and 2000 to promote his collaborative re- Kong with Professor Harold Corke and is a faculty member Host Country Program Enhancement at the University of Zimbabwe in the food science area. Research Accomplishments Lloyd Rooney served on her committee and was a thesis ex- aminer. Breeding

Ms. Leda Hugo, Mozambique, is a PhD student at Uni- Seed was sent from UNL-2 18 and planted by Mr. Ipinge versity ofPretoria working on the effect of malting sorghum in Namibia during 1998 to complete the third cross to de- on its use in composite breads. She is a professor at Univer- velop two A4 CMS Namibianpearl millet top cross hybrids. sity of Eduardo Mondlane University and completed her A similar process was started by Mr. Muuka in Kaoma, MS at Texas A&M University. Lloyd Rooney serves on her Zambia, using A4 CMS seed parents from SMIP, an A4R4 PhD committee. donor from UNL-2 18 and eight adapted Zambian varieQes as potential male parents. Mr. Ipinge completed his studies Lloyd Rooney served as external examiner for the M.S. at the University ofNebraska - Lincoln in hybrid breeding in program of Mr. Joseph Wambugo from Kenya who com- October 1998, and Mr. Mogorosi, SorghudMillet scientist pleted a thesis on weaning foods from sorghum. Ms. S. commenced a five month training course at the University Yetneberk from Ethiopia is initiating her Ph.D. program, of Nebraska-Lincoln with Project UNL-2 18 in June 2000. and Lloyd Rooney will serve on her committee as well. Her project will be related to determination of the factors affect- Single headJsmal1 plot threshing machines for research ing the quality of injera from sorghum. use and 20,000 pearl millet pollinating bags were supplied each to the Namibian and Zambian pearl millet breeding Mr. J. Awika from Kenya is a M.S. candidate in the Ce- programs. Pollinating bags were also supplied for millet real Quality Lab at Texas A&M University nearing comple- work in northern Botswana. tion of his degree. He will continue on to a Ph.D. in food science and technology. Pathology

In the 1998-99 growing season, SMIP sorghum breeder Nurseries have provided good disease, drought and in Tunde Obilana grew 1344 materials from national collec- some cases insect information from 1997-2000. Entries tions of eight SADC countries at the irrigated Aisleby nurs- from these nurseries are being used to develop a small 50 en- ery site near Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. N. McLaren and Gary try, two replicate nursery for wide deployment in the SADC Odvody rated much of the collection for diseases that were region called the SADC Regional All Disease and Insect present and trained assisting SMIP personnel to evaluate the Nursery. Neal McLaren is in the second year of his ergot re- remaining entries. Disease pressure at this location was only search, but was hampered in year one with lateness in the adequate to assess susceptibilityand not resistance. If suffi- availability of funding so that he concentrated on locations cient seed is available multiple location plantings of these only in South Africa. In year two, 1999-2000 he was able to materials at disease-intensive nursery locations in Zimba- establish nurseries in South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Zambia. bwe, Zambia, and South Africa would provide more rele- He was able to get ergot information from Zambia and vant and specific disease response information. Inoculated South Africa locations but not Zimbabwe. In year three, he nurseries at certain locations might also be useful. Insect re- will establish ergot trials in South Africa and Zambia as be- sponse (sugarcane aphid) could also be included at another fore but in Zimbabwe he will re-locate his trials to the South Africa location. Matopos station where D. Frederickson will collaborate on this study. D. Frederickson is currently located at the Germplasm Exchange SADCIICRISAT facility in Matopos through at least June 30,2001 as a consultant research scientist working collabor- Several hundred sorghum lines and cultivars were evalu- atively with TAM-228 on sorghum ergot. ated yearly for response to various diseases, adaptation, drought response, and sugarcane aphid resistance in the Food Quality SADC region in 1997-2000 (collaborative with TAM-222, W. Rooney, TAM-223, TAM-224, and TAM-225). INTSORMIL co-sponsored the Sorghum End Use Qual- ity Workshop at the University of Pretoria in April 1999, Thirty-five sorghum parents and lines selected from and supported Mrs. Beta to the conclusion of her Ph.D. pro- UNL-218 nurseries by Peter Setirnela were sent to Bot- gram. Her research on high tannin sorghums indicate treat- swana, October, 1999. ment with NaOH prior to roller milling is preferable to the use of formaldehyde and can reduce tannin levels to an ac- Twenty pearl millet germplasms selected by Mr. Ipinge ceptable level for food use. were sent to Namibia in October 1998. Backcrosses of two Namibian varieties (to R4 donors) and two seed parents (to Pests A4) were sent both to Namibia and ICRISAT SMIP in 1997, 1998, and 1999. A4 and R4 donors were sent to Zambia, Oc- Sources ofresistance to the sugarcane aphid were identi- tober 1998. fied, which, except for sooty stripe, were well adapted in Botswana and Zambia. Crosses have been made to incorpo- Host Country Program Enhancement rate sooty stripe resistance and higher levels of anthracnose The sorghum and millet research and technology transfer resistance. Southern Africa regional network (SMINET) became oper- ational, and Dr. Mary A Mgonja was appointed as Coordi- Production and Marketing Constraints nator.

The principal investigator made a first visit to the region INTSORMIL collaborative project annual work plans in July 1998 followed by a second visit in March 1999. The were reviewed and accepted by the SMIP Steering Comrnit- primary objectives for the first year were: to establish a col- tee in October 1998 and October 1999. laborative working relationship; to identify specific re- search projects for collaboration; and to initiate those INTSORMIL funded collaborative research has pro- projects. These objectives have been accomplished. A good duced results that are important to increasing the production working relationship has been established with the Bot- and quality end products of sorghum and pearl millet in the swana College of Agriculture and Department of Agricul- Southern Africa region. tural Research. Surveys have been researched and developed. Hybrid parents have been bred for sorghum and are near- ing completion for pearl millet. A large amount of sorghum Ergot breeding material and varieties in use have been character- ized for resistance to major diseases and sugarcane aphid. Results obtained in two years of trials show that several Multi-location testing of sets of such lines provides strategic factors can and need to be managed to reduce ergot levels in ecogeographic information on distribution and severity of hybrid seed production fields. These involve genetic ability diseases. in male parents to shed good amounts of viable pollen fol- lowing adverse conditions and being certain that male par- Factors influencing the incidence and control of sorghum ents are flowering throughout the duration of female ergot are now better understood, leading to better control of flowering. This may involve multiple planting of male the disease, especially in hybrid production fields. rows, a higher ratio of male to female rows, and reduced width of female strips. Depending on economic factors, Food quality research can lead to increased use of sor- time of planting, or even choice of location for seed produc- ghum in various products. Linking variety qualities to spe- tion fields can be used to avoid the worst probabilities of oc- cific end uses is shown to be very important. Using NaOH to currence of environmental conditions favorable to ergot reduce tannin effects (where high tannin cultivars have to be attack. grown), instead of the traditional formaldehyde, has several benefits. Larger amounts of sorghum flour can be blended Planned Accomplishments with wheat flour for bread making if sorghum is malted be- fore milling. All projects were active and reached their plannedgoals. Initial results in production and marketing of sorghum in Review of Program Botswana show government agricultural support initiatives and alternative employment opportunities adversely affect There were several significant achievements in this fund- sorghum production. A survey instrument has been pre- ing phase: pared to provide more detail.

The Memorandum of Understanding with the SMIP pro- The INTSORMIL Southern Africa collaborative re- ject was signed in October 1998, enabling funds to be dis- search project is now well structured to address many of the bursed to collaborating NARS scientists for collaborative regional constraints to sorghum(S) and pearl millet(M) pro- research. duction and utilization, and is now fully integral with other regional S&M activities, from the planning stage to Projects on production and marketing constraints, ergot, co-funding agreed research projects. and entomology were started. Publications The regional collaborative program was favorably re- viewed by the MTSORMIL External Evaluation Panel Beta, Trust 1999. Processing of polyphenol-rich sorghum for food. PhD. March 1-13,1999. Diss. University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa. 187 pp Training Year 21 TRAINING INTSORMIL gives high priority to training host country All 5 1 students worked directly with INTSORMIL prin- scientists who will have major responsibilities for sorghum cipal investigators on INTSORMIL projects. These stu- and millet research in their home countries. Training is also dents are enrolled in graduate programs in six disciplinary provided for young U.S. scientists who plan for careers in areas, agronomy, breeding, pathology, entomology, food international development work. quality, and economics (Figure 4).

The most frequently used mode of training is graduate The number of INTSORMIL funded students has de- study for advanced degrees, with the students' research creased gradually over the years. This is related to de- forming an integral part of an INTSORMIL project. During creases in program budget and the loss of U. S. Principal the year covered by this report, 5 1 students from 22 different Investigators. In 1993-1994 there were 25 U.S. PISwiththe countries were enrolled in an INTSORMIL advanced de- program and in 1999-2000 there are 19. gree program. Approximately 73% of these students come from countries other than the USA which shows the empha- Graduate degree programs and short-term training pro- sis placed on host country institutionaldevelopment (Figure grams have been designed and implemented on a case by 1). case basis to suit the needs of host country scientists. Five post doctoral scientists and nine visiting host country scien- INTSORMIL also places a high priority on training tists were provided the opportunity to upgrade their skills in women which is reflected in Figure 2. In 1999-00,3 1% of this fashion during 1999-2000. all INTSORMIL graduate participants were female. Eigh- teen of the total 51 students received full INTSORMIL The following table is a compilation of all INTSORMIL scholarships. An additional 14 students received partial training activities for the period July 1, 1999 through June INTSORMIL funding and the remaining 19 students were 30, 2000. fimded from other sources as shown in Figure 3.

Honduras 2 7 - .. U.S. . (Ij.

Figure 1. Participants by Country Figure 2. Participants by gender

Economics I- 4

Figure 3. Source of Funding Figure 4. Discipline Breakdown Year 21 INTSORMIL Training Participants Name Country Univ. Discipline Advisor Degree Gender Funding* Regassa, Teshome Ethiopia UNL AgronIPhysiol Maranville PHD M 0 Cimino, Suzanne U.S. UNL Agronomy Mason MSC F P Marnan, Nouri Niger UNL Agron/Physiol Mason PHD M P Seibou, Pale Burkina Faso UNL Agronomy Mason MSC M I

Carvalho, Carlos H.S. Brazil PRF GeneticsIBioTech Axtell PHD M P Nduulu, Lexingtons Kenya PRF Breeding Axtell PHD M I Grenier Cecile France PRF Striga Physiology Ejeta PD~ F 0 Gunaratna, Nilupa U.S. PRF Breeding Ejeta MSC F I Mohammed, Abdalla Sudan PRF Breeding Ejeta PHD M P Phillips, Felicia U.S. PRF Breeding Eieta MSC F 0 Rich, Patrick U.S. PRF Strim Biology Eieta PD~ M I

Coulibaly, Sidi Bekaye Mali TTU Breeding RosenowIPeterson PHD M P Sibene, Dena Mali TAM Breeding Rosenow VS' M I Teme, Niaba Mali TTU Breeding Rosenow MSC M I Mogorosi, Michael Botswana UNL Breeding Andrews VS' M I Setimela, Peter Botswana UNL Breeding Andrews PHD M 0

Kazianga, Harounan Burkina Faso PRF Economics Sanders PHD M 0 Tahirou, Abdoulaye Niger PRF Economics Sanders PHD M 0 Vitale, Jeff U.S. PRF Economics Sanders PHD M I Wubeneh, Nega G. Ethiopia PRF Eonomics Sanders MSC M I

Gorena, Roberto Luis U.S. TAM Entomology PetersonITeetes PHD Boire, Soualika Mali TAM Entomology GilstrapITeetes PHD Kadi Kadi, Hame Nlger TAM Entomology GilstrapITeetes MSC Lingren, Scott U.S. TAM Entomology Teetes PHD Jensen, Andrea U.S. TAM Entomology Teetes PHD Canillo, Mario Argentina MSU Entomology Pitre MSC Cordero, Roberto Nicaragua MSU Entomology Pitre MSC Johnson, Zeledon Nicaragua MSU Entomology Pitre MSC

Aboubacar, Adam Niger PRF Food QualitylUtil Hamaker PD' Bugusu, Betty Kenya PRF Food QualitylUtil Hamaker PHD Maladen, Michelle India PRF Food QualityIUtil Hamaker MSC Mix, Nadege France PRF Food QualitylUtil Hamaker MSC Awika, Joseph Mobutu Kenya TAM Food QualitylUtil RooneyIWaniska MSC Bueso, Francisco (Javier) Honduras TAM Food QualityIUtil RooneyIWaniska PHD Gordon, Leigh Ann U.S. TAM Food QualityIUtil Rooney MSC Leon-Chapa, Martha Mexico TAM Food QualityIUtil RooneyIWaniska MSC Maurer, Giselle U.S. TAM Food QualityIUtil Rooney BSC Mitre-Dieste, Marcelo Mexico TAM Food QualitylUtil Rooney MSC Zelaya, Nolvia Honduras TAM Food QualitylUtil RooneyIWaniska MSC

dos Santos, Claudia Brazil KSU Pathology Claflin vs' Narvaez, Dario Colombia KSU Pathology Claflin PHD Chulze, Sofia Argentina KSU Pathol/Mycology Leslie vs' Jurgenson, Jim U.S. KSU PatholIGenetics Leslie vsl Hanson, Amy U.S. KSU PatholIGenetics Leslie MSC Kereny, Zoltan Hungary KSU PathollGenetics Leslie PD~ Lee, Yin-Won South Korea KSU Pathology Leslie vs' Neumann, Melody Canada KSU Pathol/Mycology Leslie vs' Rheeder, John South Africa KSU Pathology Leslie vs' Salah, Amgad Egypt KSU Pathology Leslie PHD Silva, Gabriella Uruguay KSU PatholIGenetics Leslie vs' Zeller, Kurt P. U.S. KSU Pathology Leslie PD= Kollo, lssoufou Niger TAM Patholopv Frederiksen PHD

KSU = Kansas State University I = Completely funded by INTSORMIL * MSU= Mississippi State University P = Partially funded by INTSORMIL PRF = Purdue University 0 = Other source TAM= Texas A&M University 'VS = Visiting Scientist TTU = Texas Tech University 2~~ = post DOC~OGII UNL= University of Nebraska - Lincoln Years 18-19-20 and 21 Training INTSORMIL gives high priority to training host country All 2 13 students work directly with INTSORMIL princi- scientists who will have major responsibilities for sorghum pal investigators on INTSORMIL projects. These students and millet research in their home countries. Training is also are enrolled in graduate programs in six disciplinary areas, provided for young U.S. scientists who plan for careers in agronomy, breeding, pathology, entomology, food quality, international development work. and economics (Figure 4).

The most frequently used mode of training is graduate The number of INTSORMIL funded students has de- study for advanced degrees, with the students' research creased gradually over the years. This is related to de- forming an integral part of an INTSORMIL project. During creases in program budget and the loss of U.S. Principal the years covered by this report, 2 13 students from 33 differ- Investigators. In 1993-1994 there were 25 U.S. PIS with the ent countries were enrolled in an INTSORMIL advanced program and only 19 in 1999-2000. degree program. Approximately 77% of these students come from countries other than the USA which shows the Graduate degree programs and short-term training pro- emphasis placed on host country institutional development grams have been designed and implemented on a case by (Figure 1). case basis to suit the needs of host country scientists. Eigh- teen post doctoral scientists and 22 visiting host country sci- INTSORMIL also places a high priority on training entists were provided the opportunity to upgrade their skills women which is reflected in Figure 2. During the period of in this fashion during this four year period. 1997-2000, 22% of all INTSORMIL graduate participants were female. Seventy nine of the total 2 13 students received The following tables are a compilation of all full INTSORMIL scholarships. An additional 62 students INTSORMIL training activities for the period of July 1, received partial INTSORMIL funding and the remaining 72 1996 through June 30,2000. students were fimded from other sources as shown in Figure 3.

Honduras 8 7

Mali 1 6 21 Figure 1. Participants by Country Figure 2. Participants by gender

Economics r ai

Figure 4. Discipline Breakdown Figure 3. Source of Funding Year 20 INTSORMIL Training Participants Name Country Univ. Discipline Advisor Degree Gender Funding* Regassa, Teshome Ethiopia M AgronIPhysiol Maranville PHD M 0 Traore, Samba Mali UNL Agronomy Mason PHD M P

Carvalho, Carlos H.S. Brazil PRF GeneticsIBioTech Axtell PHD Kapran, Issoufou Niger PRF Breeding Axtell PHD Ndulu, Lexingtons Kenya PRF Breeding Axtell PHD Gunaratna, Nilupa U.S. PRF Breeding Ejeta MSC Ibrahim, Yahia Sudan PRF Breeding Ejeta PHD Mohammed, Abdalla Sudan PRF Breeding Ej eta PHD Phillips, Felicia U.S. PRF Breeding Eieta MSC Rich, Patrick U.S. PRF Strig0 Biolo~ Ejeta PD~

Coulibaly, Sidi Bekaye Mali TTU Breeding RosenowIPeterson PHD M P Teme, Niaba Mali TTU Breeding Rosenow MSC M I Ipinge, S.A. Namibia UNL Breeding Andrews VS' M I Rai, K.N. India UNL Breeding Andrews VS' M P Setimela, Peter Botswana UNL Breeding Andrews PHD M 0 Tiryaki, Iskender Turkey UNL Breeding Andrews MSC M 0

Ndjeunga, Jupiter Cameroon UlUC Economics Nelson P D~ M P Coulibaly, Bakary Mali PRF Economics Sanders MSC M 0 Kazianga, Harounan Burkina Faso PRF Economics Sanders PHD M 0 Sidibe, Mamadou Senegal PRF Economics Sanders PHD M 0 Tahirou, Abdoulaye Niger PRF Economics Sanders PHD M I Vitale, Jeff U.S. PRF Economics Sanders PHD M I

Gorena, Roberto Luis U.S. TAM Entomology PetersonITeetes PHD Boire, Soualika Mali TAM Entomology GilstrapITeetes PHD Kadi Kadi, Hame Niger TAM Entomology GilstrapITeetes MSC Canillo, Mario Argentma MSU Entomology Pitre MSC Johnson, Zeledon Nicaragua MSU Entomology Pitre MSC Jensen, Andrea U.S. TAM Entomology Teetes PHD Katsar, Catherine Susan U.S. TAM Entomology PetersonITeetes PHD Lingren, Scott U.S. TAM Entomology Teetes PHD

Aboubacar, Adam Niger PRF Food QualityIUtil Hamaker PDI Bugusu, Betty Kenya PRF Food QualityIUtil Hamaker MSC Mix, Nadege France PRF Food Qual~tyIUtil Hamaker MSC Zhang, Genyi China PRF Food QualitylUtil Hamaker PHD Awika, Joseph Mobutu Kenya TAM Food QualityIUtil RooneyIWaniska MSC Barron, Marc U.S. TAM Food QualitylUtil Rooney BSC Leach, Michelle U.S. TAM Food QualitylUtil Rooney BSC Leon-Chapa, Martha Mexico TAM Food QualityIUtil RooneyIWaniska MS,C Medina, Jorge Nicaragua TAM Food QualityIUtil RooneyIWaniska VS Miranda-Lopez, Rita Mexico TAM Food QualitylUtil RooneyIWaniska PHD Rodriguez-Herem, Raul Mexico TAM Food QualitylUtil W.Rooney/Waniska PHD Quintero-Fuentes,Ximena Mex~co TAM Food QualityIUtil RooneyIWaniska PHD Zelaya, Nolvia Honduras F Food QualityIUtil RooneyIWaniska M SC

Narvaez, Dario Colombia KSU Pathology Claflin PHD Jurgenson, Jim U.S. KSU PatholIGenetics Leslie vs' Hanson, Amy U.S. KS U PatholIGenetics Leslie MSC Salah, Amgad Egypt KSU Pathology Leslie PHD Silva, Gabriella Uruguay KSU Genetics Leslie VS' Zeller, Kurt P. U.S. Ksu Pathology Leslie PD~ Kollo, lssoufou Niger TAM Pathology Frederiksen PHD Torres-Montalvo, Jose H. Mexico TAM Pathology Frederiksen PHD

* I = Completely funded by INTSORMIL KSU = Kansas State University P = Partially funded by INTSORMIL MSU= Mississippi State University 0 = Other source PRF = Purdue University 'VS = Visiting Scientist TAM= Texas A&M University 2~~ = Post Doctoral TTU = Texas Tech University UIUC University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign UNL = University of Nebraska - Lincoln Year 19 INTSORMIL Training Participants

Name Country Univ. Discipline Advisor Degree Gender Funding* Traore, Abdoulaye Mali UNL Agronomy Maranville PHD M I Kim, S. Young Korea UNL AgronIPhysiol. Maranville MSC M 0 Stockton, Roger U.S. UNL Agronomy Mason PHD M P Traore, Samba Mali UNL Agronomy Mason PHD M 0

Cmalho, Carlos H.S. Brazil PRF Breeding Axtell PHD Kapran, Issoufou Niger PRF Breeding Axtell PHD Ndulu, Lexingtons Kenya PRF Breeding Axtell PHD Ibrahim, Yahia Sudan PRF Breeding Ejeta PHD Melakebrhan, Admasu Ethiopia PRF Breeding Ejeta PD~ Mohammed, Abdalla Sudan PRF Breeding Ejeta PHD Mulatu, Tadesse Ethiopia PRF Breeding Ejeta MSC Rich, Patrick U.S. PRF Breeding Ejeta PD~ Tuinstra, Mitchell U.S. PRF Breeding Ejeta PD~ Katsar, Catherine Susan U.S. TAM Breeding PetersontTeetes PHD Rodriguez-Hererra, Raul Mexico TAM Breeding RosenowlRooney PHD Teme, Niaba Mali TTU Breeding Rosenow MS,C Ipinge, S.A. Namibia UNL Breeding Andrews VS Rai, K.N. India UNL Breeding Andrews vsl Setimela, Peter Botswana UNL Breeding Andrews PHD Tiryaki, Iskender Turkey UNL Breeding Andrews MSC

Ahmed, Mohamed M. Sudan PRF Economics Sanders PD~ M I Coulibaly, Bakary Mali PRF Economics Sanders MSC M 0 Kazianga, Harounan Burkina Faso PRF Economics Sanders M 0 Kebbeh, Moharned M. Gambia PRF Economics Sanders PH?VS M 0 Sidibe, Mamadou Senegal PRF Economics Sanders PHD M 0 Tahirou, Abdoulaye Niger PRF Economics Sanders PHD M I Vitale, Jeff U.S. PRF Economics Sanders PHD M I

Boire, Soualika Mali TAM Entomology GilstraplTeetes PHD Kadi Kadi, Hame Niger TAM Entomology Gilstrapfreetes MSC Calderon, Pedro Honduras MSU Entomology Pitre MSC Cordero, Roberto Nicaragua MSU Entomology Pitre MSC Johnson, Zeledon Nicaragua MSU Entomology Pitre MSC Vergara, Oscar Ecuador MSU Entomology Pitre MSC Jensen, Andrea U.S. TAM Entomology Teetes PHD Lingren, Scott U.S. TAM Entomology Teetes PHD

Aboubacar, Adam Niger PRF Food QualityNtil Hamakerlkutell PHD Bugusu, Betty Kenya PRF Food QualitylLltil Harnaker MSC Zhang, Genyi China PRF Food QualityNtil Hamaker MSC Acosta, Harold Colombia TAM Food QualityRltil Rooney PHD Asante, Sam Ghya TAM Food QualitylUtil Rooney PHD Barron, Marc U.S. TAM Food QualityNtil Rooney BSC Bueso, Francisco Javier Honduras TAM Food QualityNtil RooneylWaniska MSC Kunetz, Christine U.S. TAM Food QualityNtil RooneylWaniska MSIC Lee, Jae K. Korea TAM Food QualityRltil RooneylWaniska VS Leon-Chapa, Martha Mexico TAM Food QualityNtil RooneylWaniska MS,C Mateo, Rafael Honduras TAM Food QualtiyNtil RooneylWaniska VS Miranda-Lopez, Rita Mexico TAM Food QualitylLltil RooneylWaniska PHP Omueti, Olusola Nigeria TAM Food QualityNtil RooneylWaniska VS Quintero-Fuentes,Ximena Mexico TAM Food QualityNtil Rooney PHD

Narvaez, Dario Colombia KSU Pathology Claflin M P Jurgenson, Jim U.S. KSU PathollGenetics Leslie VSMS,C M 0 Hanson, Amy U.S. KSU PathollGenetics Leslie 'MSC F 0 Zeller, Kurt P. U.S. KSU Pathology Leslie PD~ M 0 Kollo, Issoufou Niger TAM Pathology Frederiksen PHD M I Torres-Montalvo, Jose H. Mexico TAM Pathology Frederiksen PHD M 0

* I = Completely funded by INTSORMIL KSU = Kansas State University P = Partially funded by MTSORMIL MSU= Mississippi State University 0 = Other source PRF = Purdue University 'VS = Visiting Scientist TAM= Texas A&M University 2~~ = Post Doctoral TTU = Texas Tech University UNL = University of Nebraska - Lincoln Year 18 INTSORMIL Training Participants

Name Country U n iv. Discipline Degree Gender Funding* Gutierrez, Patricio F. Ecuador UNL Agronomy PHD M I Masi, Cassim Zambia UNL Agronomy PHD M 0 Traore, Abdoulaye Mali UNL Agronomy Maranville PHD M I Maman, Nouri Niger UNL Agronomy Mason MSC M I Stockton, Roger U.S. UNL Agronomy Mason PHD M P Traore, Samba Mali UNL Agronomy Mason PHD M 0

Carvalho, Carlos H.S. Brazil PRF Breeding Axtell PHD M P Kapran, Issoufou Niger PRF Breeding Axtell PHD M I Ndulu, Lexingtons Kenya PRF Breeding Axtell PHD M I Ibrahim, Yahia Sudan PRF Breeding Ejeta PHD M I Melakebrhan, Admasu Ethiopia PRF Breeding Ejeta PD~ M I Mohammed, Abdalla Sudan PRF Breeding Ejeta PHD M P Mulatu, Tadesse Ethiopia PRF Breeding Ejeta MSC M P Tuinstra, Mitchell U.S. PRF Breeding Ejeta PD~ M I Katsar, Catherine Susan U.S. TAM Breeding PetersontTeetes PHD F P Rodriguez, Raul Mexico TAM Breeding RosenowlRooney PHD M P Teme, Niaba Mali TTU Breeding Rosenow MSC M I Wiltse, Curtis U.S. TAM Breeding Rosenow/Rooney MSC M P Jeutong, Fabien Cameroon UNL Breeding Andrews PHD M 0 Setimela, Peter Botswana UNL Breeding Andrews PHD M 0 Tiryaki, Iskender Turkey UNL Breeding Andrews MSC M 0

Coulibaly, Bakary Mali PRF Economics Sanders MSC M 0 Sidibe, Mamadou Senegal PRF Economics Sanders PHD M 0 Tahirou, Abdoulaye Niger PRF Economics Sanders PHD M I Vitale, Jeff U.S. PRF Economics Sanders PHD M I

Boire, Soualika Mali TAM Entomology Gilstrapfleetes PHD M I Kadi Kadi, Hame Niger TAM Entomology Gilstrapfleetes MSC M I Calderon, Pedro Honduras MSU Entomology Pitre MSC M 0 Cordero, Roberto Nicaragua MSU Entomology Pitre MSC M I Vergara, Oscar Ecuador MSU Entomology Pitre MSC M I Diarisso Yaro, Niamoye Mali TAM Entomology TeetesIPeterson PHD F P Jensen, Andrea U.S. TAM Entomology Teetes PHD F I Lingren, Scott U.S. TAM Entomology Teetes PHD M 0

Aboubacar, Adam Niger PRF Food QualityLJtil HamakerIAxtell PHD M I Buckner, Becky U.S. PRF Food QualityNtil Hamaker PHD F P Itapu, Suresh India PRF Food QuaIityRItil Hamaker PD~ M 0 Mamadou, Lewamy Niger PRF Food QualityNtil Hamaker MSC M P Zhang, Genyi China PRF Food Qualivtil Hamaker MSC M I Acosta, Harold Colombia TAM Food Quality/Util Rooney PHD M P Asante, Sam Ghana TAM Food QualityNtil Rooney PHD M P Bueso, Francisco Javier Honduras TAM Food Quality/Util RooneylWaniska MSC M 1 Floyd, Cherie U.S. TAM Food QualityNtil RooneyiWaniska PHD F P Kunetz, Christine U.S. TAM Food QualityIUtil RooneyiWaniska MSC F P Quintero-Fuentes, Ximena Mexico TAM Food QualityNtil Rooney MSC F P Seetharaman, Koushik India TAM Food QualityNtil RooneyiWaniska PHD M P Suhendro, Elly Indonesia TAM Food QualityNtil Rooney PHP F P Zhao, Haiyan China TAM Food Qualityllltil RooneylWaniska VS M 0

Diourte, Mamourou Mali KSU Pathology Claflin PHD M 0 Lu, Ming China KSU Pathology Claflin PHD M P Muriithi, Linus M. Kenya KSU Pathology Claflin PHD M 0 Narvaez, Dario Colombia KSU Pathology Claflin MSC M P Nzioki, Henry S. Kenya KSU Pathology Claflin MSC M 0 Arjula, Vaishali India KSU Pathology Leslie MSC F 0 Zeller, Kurt P. U.S. KSU Pathology Leslie PD* M 0 Kollo, Issoufou Niger TAM Pathology Frederiksen PHD M I Torres-Montalvo, Jose H. Mexico TAM Pathology Frederiksen PHD M 0

* I = Completely fbnded by INTSORMIL KSU = Kansas State University P = Partially funded by MTSORMIL MSU= Mississippi State University 0 = Other source PFG = Purdue University IVS = Visiting Scientist TAM= Texas A&M University 2~~ = Post Doctoral TTU = Texas Tech University UNL = University of Nebraska - Lincoln Appendices INTSORMIL Sponsored and Co-Sponsored Workshops 1979 - 2000

Name Where When

International Short Course in Host Plant Resistance College Station, Texas INTSORMIL PI Conference Lincoln, Nebraska West Africa Farming System West Lafayette, Indiana Sorghum Disease Short Course for Latin America Mexiw International Symposium on Sorghum Grain Quality ICRISAT International Symposium on Food Quality Hyderabad, India Agrimeteorology of Sorghum and Millet in the Semi-Arid Tropics ICRISAT Latin America Sorghum Quality Short Course El Batan, Mexico Sorghum Food Quality Workshop El Batan, Mexico Sorghum Downy Mildew Workshop Corpus Christi, Texas Plant Pathology CIMMYT Striga Workshop Raleigh, North Carolina INTSORMIL PI Conference Scottsdale, Arizona INTSORMIL-ICRISAT Plant Breeding Workshop CIMMYT Hybrid Sorghum Seed Workshop Wad Medani, Sudan Stalk and Root Rots Bellagio, Italy Sorghum in the '80s ICRISAT Dominican Republic/Sorghum Santo Domingo Sorghum Production System in Latin America CIMMYT MTSORMIL PI Conference Scottsdale, Arizona Primer Seminario National Sobre Produccion y Utilization del Sorgo Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic Evaluating Sorghum for Al Toxicity in Tropical Soils of Latin America Cali, Colombia First Consultative and Review on Sorghum Research in the Philippines Los Banos, Philippines INTSORMIL Graduate Student Workshop and Tour College Station, Texas International Sorghum Entomology Workshop College Station, Texas INTSORMIL PI Conference Lubbock, Texas Niger Prime Site Workshop Niamey, Niger Sorghum Seed Production Workshop CIMMYT lnternational Millet Conference ICRISAT Maicillos Criollos and Other Sorghum in Middle America Workshop Tegucigalpa, Honduras INTSORMIL PI Conference Kansas City. Missouri 2nd Global Conference on Sorghum/MilletDiseases Harare, Zimbabwe 6th Annual CLAIS Meeting San Salvador, El Salvador lnternational INTSORMIL Research Conference Scottsdale, Arizona INTSORMIL Graduate Student Workshop and Tour College Station, Texas ARC/INTSORMIL Sorghum/Millet Workshop Wad Medani, Sudan Workshop on Sorghum Nutritional Grain Quality West Lafayette, Indiana lmprovement and Use of White Grain Sorghums El Batan Mexico Sorghum for the Future Workshop Cali, Colombia INTSORMIL PI Conference Corpus Christi, Texas Social Science Research and the CRSPs Lexington, KY Seminario Internacional Sobre 10s Cultivos de Sorgo y Maiz Colombia sus Principales Plagas y Enfermedades Workshop on Adaptation of Plants to Soil Stresses Lincoln, NE Latin America Workshop on Sustainable Production Systems for Acid Soils Villavicencio, Colombia Latin America Sorghum Research Scientist Workshop (CLAIS Meeting) Villavicencio, Colombia Disease Analysis through Genetics and Biotechnology: An International Bellagio, Italy Sorghum and Millet Perspective INTSORMIL PI Conference Lubbock, Texas International Conference on Genetic Improvement of Sorghum and Pearl Millet Lubbock, Texas Global Conference on Ergot of Sorghum Sete Lagoas MG Brazil Conference on the Status of Sorghum Ergot in North America Corpus Christi, Texas Principal Investigators Meeting and Impact Assessment Workshop Corpus Christi, Texas Workshops

Name Where When 52. Regional Hybrid Sorghum and Pearl Millet Seed Workshop Niamey, Niger 9/98 53. INTSORMIL End Use Quality Assessment Workshop Pretoria, South Africa 12/98 54. Central America Regional Planning Workshop Zamorano, Honduras 10199 Acronyms

AAAlSFAA American Anthropological AssociationISociely for Applied Anthropology

ABA Abscisic Acid

ADC's Advanced Developing Countries

ADlN All Disease and Insect Nursery

ADRA Adventist Development and Relief Agency

A.1.D Agency for lnternational Development

AIDIH Agency for lnternational Development in Honduras

ALDEP Arable Lands Development Program

APHIS Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, U.S.

ARC Agricultural Research Corporation, Sudan

ARC Agriculture Research Council, South Africa

ARGN Anthracnose Resistant Germplasm Nursery

ARS Agricultural Research Service

AS A American Society of Agronomy

ASARECA Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa

ATlP Agricultural Technology Improvement Project

BAMB Botswana Agricultural Marketing Board

BIFADEC Board for lnternafonal Food and Agricultural Development and Economic Cooperation

BFTC Botswana Food Technology Centre

CARE Cooperative for American Remittances to Europe, Inc.

CAR0 Chief Agricultural Research Officer

CARS Central Agricultural Research Station, Kenya

CAT1E Centro Agron6mico Tropical de Investigaci6ny Enseiianza. Costa Rica

CEDA Centro de Ensefianza y Adiestramiento, SRN, Honduras

CEDlA Agricultural Document and Information Center, Honduras

CENTA Centro de Technologia de Agricola, El Salvador CFTRl Central Fwd Technological Research Institute - India CGlAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research

CIA0 Agricultural Research Center of the Lowlands, Mexico

ClCP Consortium for lnternational Crop Protection

ClDA Canadian lnternational Development Agency

ClAT lnternational Center for Tropical Agriculture, Colombia

ClLSS Interstate Committee to Combat Drought in the Sahel

ClMAR Centro de Investigacibnen Ciencias del Mary Limnologia, Costa Rica

ClMMM lnternational Maize and Wheat lmprovement Center

CIRAD Centre lnternational en Recherche Agronomique pour le D&veloppement CITESGRAN Centro lnternacional de Tecnologia de Semillas y Granos - EAP in Honduras Acronyms

CLAlS Consejo Latin Americana de lnvestigadores en Sorgho

CMS Cytoplasmic Male-Sterility System CN lA Centro Nacional de lnvestigaciones Agricolas, Nicaragua CN PQ Conselo Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientifico e Tecnologico CN RA National Center for Agricultural Research, Senegal CORASUR Consolidated Agrarian Reform in the South - Belgium CRSP Collaborative Research Support Program

CSlR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research CSlRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Australia DAR Department of Agricultural Research, Botswana DARE Division of Agricultural Research and Extension - Eritrea DICTA Direction de Ciencia y Tecnologia Agricola - Mexico DR Dominican Republic DRA Division de la Recherche Agronomique, IER Mali DRI-Yoro Integrated Rural Development Project, Honduras-Switzerland EAP Escuela Agricola Panarnericana, Honduras EAR0 Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization EARSAM East Africa Regional Sorghum and Millets EAVN Extended Anthracnose Virulence Nursery ECHO Educational Concerns for Hunger Organization EEC European Economic Community

EEP External Evaluation Panel ElME Ensayo lnternacional de 10s Maicillos Enanos

ELlSA Enzyme-linked lmmunosorbent Assay EMBRAPA Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuaria, Brazil

EMBRAPA-CNPMS EMBRAPA-Centro Nacional para Maize e Sorgo ENA National School of Agriculture, Honduras EPIC Erosion Productivity Impact Calculator

ERSIIEC Economic Research Se~icellntemationalEconomic Development EZC Emgeographic Zone Council FA0 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States FEDEARROZ Federacibn Nacional de Arroceros de Colombia FENALCE Federacion Nacional de Cultivadoresde Cereales FHlA FundacionHondurena de lnvestigacion Agricola, Honduras FPX Federation of Agricultural and Agro-Industrial Producers and Exporters FSR Farming Systems Research FSRlE Farming Systems ResearchIExtension GASGA Group for Assistance on Systems Relating to Grain after Harvest GMB Grain Marketing Board

GOB Government of Botswana Acronyms

GOH Government of Honduras

GTZ German Agency for Technical Cooperation

GWT Uniform Nursery for Grain Mold

HlAH Honduran Institute of Anthropology and History

HOA Hom of Africa

IAN lnstitute Agronomia Nacional, Paraguay IANR lnstitute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska - Lincoln IAR Institute of Agricultural Research - Ethiopia

IARC lnternational Agriculture Research Center

IBSNAT lnternational Benchmark Soils Network for Agrotechnology Transfer

ICA lnstituto Colombiano Agropecuario/Colombian Agricultural lnstitute

ICAR Indian Council of Agricultural Research

ICARDA lnternational Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas

ICC International Association for Cereal Chemistry L-

ICRISAT lnternational Crops Research lnstitute for the Semiarid Tropics

lCTA lnstituto de Ciencias y Technologia Agricolas, Guatemala

IDlAP Agricultural Research lnstitute of Panama

IDIN lnternational Disease and Insect Nursery

lDRC lnternational Development Research Center

IER lnstitute of Rural Economy. Mali

lFAD lnternational Fund for Agricultural Development, Rome

IFPRl lnternational Food Policy Research lnstitute

l FSAT lnternational Food Sorghum Adaptation Trial

IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on Development

lHAH lnstituto Hondureno de Antropologia e Historia

llCA lnstituto lnteramericano de Cooperaci6n para la Agricultura

llMM lnternational Improved Maicillo Yield Trial

lITA lnternational lnstitute of Tropical Agriculture

lLCA lnstituto lnteramericanode Cooperaci6n para la Agricultura ILRl lnternational Livestock Research lnstitute - Niger INCAP lnstituto de Nutriaon de Centro America y Panama

1N.E.R.A. lnstitut dlEnvironnement et de Recherche Agricoles

INFOP National lnstitute for Professional Development

INlA lnstituto Nacional de lnvestigaaons &rimla, Mexico

INlAP National Agricultural Research Institute, Ecuador INIFAP lnstituto Nacional de lnvestigaaones Forestales Y Agropecuarias - Mexico INlPA National Agricultural Research Institute, Peru

INRAN Institut National de Recherches Agronomiques du Niger

INTA lnstituto Nicaraguense de Technologia Agropecuaria, Nicaragua

INTSORMIL lnternational SorghumlMillet, Collaborative Research Support Program (CRSP) Acronyms

IPA lnstituto de Pesquisas Agronomicas, Brazil

IPlA lnternational Programs in Agriculture, Purdue University IPM Integrated Pest Management lRAT lnstitute of Tropical Agriculture and Food Crop Research IRRl lnternational Rice Research Institute, Philippines ISAVN lnternational Sorghum Anthracnose Virulence Nursery ISC ICRISAT Sahelian Center

ISRA lnstitute of Agricultural Research, Senegal ISVN lnternational Sorghum Wrus Nursery ITA lnstitut de Technologie Alimentaire, Senegal ITAT lnternational Tropical Adaptation Trials ITESM Monterrey lnstitute of Technology, Mexico ITVAN lnternational Tall Variety Adaptation Nursery JCARD Joint Committee on Agricultural Research and Development

KARl Kenya Agriculture Research lnstitute

KlRDl Kenya Industrial Research and Development lnstitute

KSU Kansas State University LASIP Latin American Sorghum Improvement Project, Mexico

LDC Less Developed Country LlDA Low Input Dryland Agriculture. LlFE League for lnternational Food Education

LU PE Land Use and Productivity Enhancement LWMP Land and Water Management Project MAFES Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station MC Maicillo Criollo ME Management Entity

MFC Mechanized Farming Corporation, Sudan MHM Millet Head Miner MlAC MidAmerica lnternational Agricultural Consortium MlPH Honduran lntegrated Pest Management Project MNR Ministry of Natural Resources, Honduras MOA Memorandum of Agreement MOA Ministry of Agriculture, Botswana MOALD Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development, Kenya MOU Memorandum of Understanding MRN Ministerio de Rewrsos Naturales, Honduras MSU Mississippi State University NAARP Niger Applied Agricultural Research Project NARO National Agriculturall Research Organization - Uganda NARP National Agricultural Research Project Acronyms

NARS National Agricultural Research System

NCRP Niger Cereals Research Project

NGO Non-Government Organization

NSF National Science Foundation

NSP National Sorghum Program

NSSL National Seed Storage Laboratory, Fort Collins, CO

NU University of Nebraska

0AS Organization of American States

0AU Organization of African Unity OlCD Office of InternationalCooperation and Development ORSTOM L'lnstitut francais de recherche scientifique pour le d6veloppement en wopdration - France PCCMCA Programa Cooperativo Centroamericano para el Mejoramiento de Cultivos Alimenticios

PI Principal Investigator

PL480 Public Law No. 480

PNVA Malien Agricultural Extension Service

PPRllDRSS Plant Protection Research InstitutelDepartment of Research and Specialist Services

PRF Purdue Research Foundation

PRIAG Regional Program to Strengthen Agronomical Research on Basic Grains in Central America

PROMEC Program for Research on Mycotoxiwlogy and Experimental Carcinogensis, South African Medical Research Council

PROFIT Productive Rotations on Farms in Texas PROMESA Proyecto de Mejoramiento de Semilla - Nicaragua

PSTC Program in Science & Technology Cooperation

PVO Private Volunteer Organization

QTL Quantitative Trait Loci

RADRSN Regional Advanced Disease Resistance Screening Nursery

RAPD Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA

RARSN Regional Anthracnose Resistance Screening Nursery

RFLP Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism

RFP Request for Proposals

RllC Rural Industry Innovation Centre, Botswana

ROCAFREMI RBseau Ouest et Centre Africain de Recherche sur le Mil, Niger ROCARS Reseau Ouest et Centre Africain de Recherche sur le Sorgho - Mali RPDRSN Regional Preliminary Disease Resistance Screening Nursery

RVL Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Frederiksberg, Denmark

SACCAR Southern African Centre for Cooperation in Agricultural Research

SADC Southern Africa Development Community

SAFGRAD Semi-Arid Food Grains Research and Development Project

SANREM Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Resource Management CRSP SARI Savannah Agricultural Research Institute - Ghana Acronyms

SAT Semi-Arid Tropics SDM Sorghum Downy Mildew SDMVN Sorghum Downy Mildew Virulent Nursery SlCNA Sorghum lmprovement Conference of North America SIDA Swedish International Development Agency SMlP Sorghum and Millet Improvement Program SMINET Sorghum and Millet Improvement Network

SPARC Strengthening Research Planning and Research on Commodities Project, Mali

SRCVO Section of Food Crops Research, Mali SRN Secretaria de Recursos Naturales, Honduras TAES Texas Agricultural Experiment Station

TAMU Texas A&M University

TARS Tropical Agriculture Research Station TC Technical Committee

TropSoils Tropical Soils Collaborative Research Program, CRSP UANL Universidad Autonoma de Nuevo Leon, Mexico UHSN Uniform Head Smut Nursery UNA Universidad Nacional Agraria - Nicaragua UNAN Universidad Nacional Aut6noma de Nicaragua UNAN-Leon - Nicaragua UNILLANOS Universidad Technologica de 10s Llanos UNL University of Nebraska - Lincoln UPANlC Union of Agricultural Producers of Nicaragua USA United State of America USAlD United States Agency for International Development USDA United States Department of Agriculture

USDWARS United States Department of Agriculturerrropical Agriculture Research Station

VCG Vegetative Compatibility Group WASAT West African Semi-Arid Tropics WASIP West Africa Sorghum Improvement Program WCAMRN West and Central African Millet Research Network (ROCAFREMI) - Mali WCASRN West and Central Africa Sorghum Research Network (ROCARS) - Mali WSARP Western Sudan Agricultural Research Project WVI World Vision International