Outline of Linguistics February 4, 2012

Contents

SOCI>Linguistics ...... 5 SOCI>Linguistics>Kinds ...... 5 SOCI>Linguistics>Communication ...... 5 SOCI>Linguistics>Communication>Physical ...... 6 SOCI>Linguistics>Communication>Verbal ...... 7 SOCI>Linguistics>Structure ...... 7 SOCI>Linguistics>Language ...... 7 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Kinds ...... 9 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Kinds>Phonetic ...... 9 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Kinds>Affix ...... 9 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Kinds>K Sound ...... 10 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Kinds>Morphemes ...... 10 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Kinds>Morphemes>Combination ...... 10 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Kinds>Replacement ...... 10 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Beginnings ...... 11 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Beginnings>Theory ...... 11 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Reading...... 12 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Divergence ...... 12 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Family...... 12 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Family>Africa ...... 13 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Family>Americas ...... 13 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Family>Americas>Central America ...... 13 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Family>Americas>North America ...... 14 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Family>Americas>South America ...... 14 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Family>Asia ...... 15 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Family>Asia>Caucasia ...... 15 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Family>Asia>Central Asia ...... 16 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Family>Asia>East Asia ...... 17 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Family>Asia>Southeast Asia...... 18 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Region ...... 18 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Transcription ...... 19 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Dialect ...... 19 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Dialect>Standard ...... 19 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Dialect>Mixed ...... 19 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Dialect>Style ...... 20 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Usage ...... 20 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Usage>Jargon ...... 20 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Theories ...... 21 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Theories>Private ...... 22 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Theories>Variation ...... 22 SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics ...... 22 SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Phoneme ...... 23 SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Phoneme>Similation ...... 24 SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Change ...... 24 SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Speaking ...... 24 SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Speaking>Style ...... 24 SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Modulation ...... 24 SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Modulation>Accent ...... 25 SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Modulation>Accent>Word ...... 25 SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Structure ...... 25 SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Articulation ...... 25

1 SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Consonant ...... 26 SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Consonant>Air ...... 26 SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Consonant>Point ...... 27 SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Consonant>Point>Lip ...... 27 SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Consonant>Stop ...... 27 SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Consonant>Stop>Fricative ...... 28 SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Consonant>Tap ...... 28 SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Consonant>Voice...... 28 SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Vowel ...... 28 SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Glide ...... 29 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar ...... 29 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Units ...... 29 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Inflection ...... 30 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Inflection>Morpheme ...... 30 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Inflection>Root ...... 30 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Inflection>Root>Sound ...... 30 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Inflection>Affix ...... 31 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Inflection>Regular ...... 31 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Inflection>Vowel ...... 31 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Inflection>Vowel>Strength ...... 31 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Inflection>Paradigm ...... 31 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax ...... 32 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Sentence ...... 32 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Sentence>Preposition ...... 33 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Adjective ...... 33 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Adjective>Article ...... 33 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Adjective>Degree ...... 34 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Adverb ...... 34 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Noun ...... 34 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Noun>Case ...... 34 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Noun>Kinds ...... 35 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Noun>Verbal ...... 35 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Noun>Gender ...... 35 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Noun>Number ...... 35 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Noun>Pronoun ...... 36 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Verb ...... 37 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Verb>Infinitive ...... 37 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Verb>Mode ...... 37 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Verb>Mood ...... 38 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Verb>Person ...... 38 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Verb>Tense ...... 38 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Verb>Voice ...... 38 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Parsing ...... 39 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Recursion ...... 39 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Kinds ...... 39 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Kinds>Context ...... 40 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Kinds>Substitution...... 40 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Kinds>Quantitative ...... 41 SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Kinds>Quantitative>Formal ...... 41 SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics ...... 42 SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Meaning ...... 43 SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Understanding ...... 44 SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Reference ...... 45 SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Reference>Kinds...... 45 SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Reference>Token ...... 45 SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Truth ...... 46

2 SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Factors ...... 46 SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Definition ...... 46 SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Metaphor ...... 47 SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Kinds ...... 47 SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Word ...... 48 SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Word>Structure...... 48 SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Word>Subjects ...... 48 SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Word>Relations ...... 48 SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Word>Kinds ...... 49 SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Word>Kinds>Natural ...... 49 SOCI>Linguistics>Symbol ...... 49 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing ...... 50 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Study ...... 50 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Method ...... 50 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Style ...... 50 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Alphabet...... 51 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Alphabet>Linear ...... 51 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Alphabet>Logogram ...... 52 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Alphabet>Logogram>Asia ...... 52 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Alphabet>Logogram>Japan ...... 52 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Alphabet>Kinds ...... 53 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Alphabet>Units ...... 53 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Alphabet>Letters ...... 54 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Alphabet>Letters>Sign ...... 54 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol ...... 54 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>Punctuation ...... 55 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>Proofreading ...... 56 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>Letter Accent ...... 57 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>General ...... 58 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>Characters ...... 58 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>Pictogram ...... 58 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>People ...... 62 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>Animal ...... 63 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>Plant ...... 64 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>Flag ...... 65 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>Magic ...... 65 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>Divination ...... 65 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>Hermetic ...... 66 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>China ...... 66 SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>Japan ...... 67 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages ...... 67 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English ...... 68 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Abbreviation ...... 68 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Adjective ...... 90 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Adjective>Amount ...... 91 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Adjective>Personal Trait ...... 92 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Adjective>Space ...... 133 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Adjective>State ...... 137 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Adjective>Time ...... 175 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Adverb Or Other ...... 178 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Affix...... 181 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Affix>Prefix ...... 181 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Affix>Suffix ...... 194 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Noun ...... 203 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Noun>Amount ...... 203 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Noun>Color ...... 204

3 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Noun>Group Of People ...... 208 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Noun>People ...... 212 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Noun>Personal Trait ...... 255 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Noun>Proper Noun ...... 273 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Noun>Region ...... 282 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Noun>Space ...... 286 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Noun>State ...... 288 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Noun>Time ...... 300 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Short Words ...... 302 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Verb ...... 303 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Verb>Communication ...... 328 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Verb>Intransitive ...... 347 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Verb>Movement ...... 357 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Arabic ...... 371 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Chinese ...... 371 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Dutch...... 371 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Farsi ...... 371 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Finnish ...... 376 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French ...... 376 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Adjective ...... 378 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun ...... 383 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun>Animal ...... 396 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun>Color ...... 403 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun>Drink ...... 403 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun>Food ...... 405 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun>House ...... 438 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun>Number ...... 444 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun>People ...... 445 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun>Plant ...... 450 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>German ...... 461 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>German>Number ...... 484 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Greek...... 484 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Hawaiian ...... 485 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Hebrew ...... 485 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Hindi ...... 485 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Italian ...... 485 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Japanese ...... 487 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Latin ...... 490 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Maori...... 499 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Norse ...... 499 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Portuguese ...... 500 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Quechua ...... 500 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Russian ...... 500 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Sanskrit ...... 500 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Sanskrit>Self ...... 508 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Sanskrit>Gods ...... 509 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Sanskrit>Life ...... 509 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Sanskrit>Matter Qualities ...... 509 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Sanskrit>Number ...... 510 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Sanskrit>Person ...... 510 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Sanskrit>Person>Caste ...... 511 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Scottish ...... 511 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Spanish ...... 511 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Spanish>Adjective ...... 515 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Spanish>Noun ...... 518 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Spanish>Noun>Day ...... 525

4 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Spanish>Noun>Number ...... 526 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Swahili ...... 527 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Swedish ...... 527 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Turkish ...... 527 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Vietnamese...... 527 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Yiddish ...... 529 SOCI>Linguistics>History...... 529 SOCI>Linguistics>History>Animal Language ...... 530 SOCI>Linguistics>History>Grammar ...... 531 SOCI>Linguistics>History>Invention ...... 536 SOCI>Linguistics>History>Language Origin...... 538 SOCI>Linguistics>History>Phonetics ...... 539 SOCI>Linguistics>History>Semantics ...... 539

Note: To look up references, see the Consciousness Bibliography, listing 10,000 books and articles, with full journal and author names, available in text and PDF file formats at http://www.outline-of-knowledge.info/Consciousness_Bibliography/index.html.

SOCI>Linguistics linguistics Social science {linguistics} can be about grammar, symbolism, writing systems, and language families. Linguistic levels are phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and discourse representation theory. Basic linguistic units are sounds, letters, hand signals, or electronic waves. Higher units are syllables, words, and sentences. contextualism Language meaning, truth, or use depends on context {contextualism} {token-reflexiveness} {externalism, linguistics}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Kinds comparative linguistics Language dialects and nearby languages vary continuously with distance {comparative linguistics}. descriptive linguistics Linguistics is descriptive {descriptive linguistics}, because no language is pure, correct, or unchanging. Languages have patterns. interlinguistics Languages have common elements {interlinguistics}. Language classes can use structural features {linguistic typology} or evolutionary features. Different languages have different grammars. All peoples have complex spoken language. Languages tend to maximize efficiency and clarity.

SOCI>Linguistics>Communication communication in linguistics Communicating {communication, linguistics} can be verbal or non-verbal. verbal Verbal communication involves volume, intonation, enunciation, pace, stress, and tone. non-verbal Non-verbal communication involves eye contact; smiling, frowning, and other facial expressions; body language; gestures; and speaker-listener proximity. purposes Communication conveys information, along channels, from one system part to another, to trigger receiving-part action based on sending-part state. Communication can induce behavior, facilitate behavior, imitate, monitor, organize, recognize, announce status, beg for food, offer food, conciliate, bond, groom, invite to groom, alarm, signal distress,

5 assemble, recruit, lead, incite to hunt, synchronize hatching, initiate migration, invite to play, initiate work, threaten, submit, appease, relieve sentinel, advertise for sex, court, sexual bond, copulate, announce post-copulation, inhibit reproduction, and inhibit castes. signals Society members continually communicate using signals. Signals are specific information, do not change meaning, and are about immediate events. Signals are reflex responses to stimuli. Signals are not symbols. symbols Mammals and birds have 10 to 40 different signals, such as danger and location calls, courtship rituals and displays, grooming, group or family signals, and personal communication between individuals. Primates and humans have 150 to 200 non-linguistic symbols, such as facial expressions. Animal communications repeat. Behavior, display, and signal redundancy and ritualization increase communication efficiency. Animals can use opposite signals, such as high or low and loud or soft, for opposite intentions or behavior. Animals can modify signals in different contexts. Only humans deliberately rearrange signals. animals Bird and mammal vocalizations indicate language phylogeny and ontogeny, some homologous and some analogous {homoplastic}. Bird and mammal vocalizations are for anti-predator behavior for groups. Animal languages seem to be involuntary responses. Groups can pay attention to same object or event, such as predators, and tune responses. Parrots can mimic but respond to objects only by association. Mammals have communication systems, but they have limited grammar and meaning [Mithen, 1996]. Apes know only associations, not word meanings. Apes cannot make sentences or word phrases and cannot understand spoken phrases or sentences. The bonobo Kanzi used and understood 150 words, typically to express desires or refer to present objects. Its word learning was instrumental association, with no grammar. Perhaps, it was not referential [Savage-Rumbaugh, 1986]. All primate societies have vocal signals. For example, gibbons have 12 standardized, meaningful calls [Premack, 1986] [Premack and Premack, 2003]. evolution Language evolved separately from culture, cognition, and thought, because language does not explain most mental functions. Cognitive and reflex functions build together. Brain modules mix functions. errors Speech errors typically substitute one phonological distinctive feature for another. mental state expression Faces and bodies can express information about feelings and thoughts {mental state expression}. All mental states are complex, regardless of expression complexity. phattic communication Languages have stock phrases and expressions {phattic communication, linguistics}, to further social relations and politeness. play signal Playful animals send signals {play signal} that indicate intention to play. reference in communication Vocalizations can refer to object or event categories {reference, communication}. Signals can imitate referents {mimetic reference, communication}. Signs or signals, such as alarm calls, can indicate referents {proxy reference, communication}. Signals, such as category words, can bring referents to mind without causing responses {conceptual reference, communication}. speech community Speaker communities {speech community} use same communication system. spoonerism Sentence sounds can interchange {spoonerism}|.

SOCI>Linguistics>Communication>Physical body language

6 Using body angles and movements {body language} can synchronize with words spoken or heard. Body language does not use visual imitation. Synchronization is the same for friends and strangers. pasimology People can communicate by gestures {pasimology}. proximity in speaking Speakers can alter distance to listeners {proximity}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Communication>Verbal enunciation speaking Verbal communication involves speech clarity {enunciation, speaking}. intonation speaking Verbal communication involves pitch range {intonation, speaking}. pace speaking Verbal communication involves voice speed {pace, speaking}. stress Verbal communication involves voice emphasis {stress, speaking}. tone Verbal communication involves voice emotion {tone, speaking}. volume Verbal communication involves voice loudness {volume, speaking}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Structure langue Languages have pattern or syntax sets {langue}. parole in language Languages have actual word expression {parole, speech}. pragmatics Language is for social situations and can persuade, question, declare, and order {pragmatics, linguistics}|. Social situations determine sentence forms. Narrations use phrase sequences. Relations use nested and inverted phrases. Metaphors and models relate relations.

Zipf law The most-common words are shortest. Logarithm of word frequency versus word length is a straight line with slope one {Zipf's law} {Zipf law}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language language in linguistics Speaking, listening, reading, and writing {language}| use grammar and convey meaning. Language relates to mind, meaning, implications {implicature}, purposes, contexts, rules, social situations {pragmatics, language}, and physical world. Language syntactic and logical structures differ from generating and understanding language. Language has motives or intentions, carries information in a stable semantic system, and uses phonemic/phonetic/phonological, lexical, and syntactic codes. Reciprocal communications aid cooperation and define societies. Communication is necessary for social behavior. Communication changes behavior probabilities in other species members, in adaptive ways. Languages and tools have subtask hierarchies.

7 grammar and semantics Language involves following rules and thinking rationally. Societies have common languages and thinking. Linguistic units have contexts and rules. Rules differ at phonological, syntactical, grammatical, and meaning levels. Semantic relations are more important than grammatical, which are more important than phonological. primary language Spoken language {primary language} always comes before written language. Writing systems depend on spoken- language units. Written language typically does not affect spoken language. aspects Externalized language {E-Language} is actual spoken words about concepts. Internalized language {I-Language} is coded brain information for concepts. number of languages There have been 4500 to 7000 languages, with many in Africa. Jungles have isolated regions and so many languages. purposes Language refers to objects and events, expresses human emotions, commands action, uses metaphors in poetry and for sacred and mysterious, has stock phrases and expressions to further social relations and politeness {phattic communication, society}, and has meta-linguistic meanings. Speech has situations with speakers and listeners. Speech happens only if speaker intends to affect audience. Speakers and listeners use information about what they believe and want in current context. purposes: assistance Speech often involves asking for help or information. People ask themselves questions and get answers. purposes: information Language can access declarative information. Humans talk to themselves, both sotte voce and silently, as well as others. However, talking is sequential and slow compared to unconscious cognition. Talking depends on current thoughts. purposes: survival Language can aid group survival, but it also can cause instability or not be important. brain Broca's area, left inferoparietal, left parieto-occipital, left posterior hemisphere, planum temporale, right hemisphere, and Wernicke's area relate to language. posture Speech depends on upright posture, which allows tongue position shifts and pharyngeal-tract lengthening. handedness Humans starting 300,000 years ago probably had cerebral dominance, because skulls are asymmetric and people inherit brain and skull shape. Human skulls mold to brain. Right-handedness first appeared in Lower Old Stone Age, when tool making became common [Jaynes, 1976]. Language is typically in left hemisphere. memory Memory may require language. Language production and comprehension require short-term memory. Memory involves sense of self and change {extended consciousness}. Self depends on sense qualities, proprioception, and sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems [Damasio, 1999]. consciousness Using language requires sensation and perception for feedback. Automatic speech does not require awareness. People without language ability can still be conscious, so consciousness does not need symbols, syntax, and grammar. Image creation does not need language, memory, or reasoning [Damasio, 1999]. self-consciousness Only humans are self-conscious and have feelings, because only they have language [Macphail, 1999] [Quine, 1953] [Quine, 1974] [Quine, 1990]. nomenclature Subjects use words {nomenclature}|. translation in language Translations {translation, language} can be word for word {literal translation}. Translations {free translation} can emphasize meaning, not detail.

American Sign Language

8 Languages {American Sign Language} (ASL) can use signs that stand for whole words and phrases, unlike spoken or written languages. phonology Sign language has phonology, because signs have components: hand shapes, body locations, hand and arm movements, and hand orientation. morphology Sign language has morphology, because tense has distinct spatial patterns. syntax Sign language has syntax of word orders, space locations, and movement directions. Sign order is not important in American Sign Language. Different objects are in different space regions to distinguish them. Signs can have different directions to show relations. Spatial processing in sign language is separate from other visual-spatial brain abilities. biology Deaf children who see sign language from birth first sign at five or six months old. Sign language production and comprehension use same brain regions as spoken language. Left hemisphere is dominant. Brain-region damage leaves similar production and comprehension deficits.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Kinds finite-form language Indo-European, Semitic, Finno-Ugric, and most languages {finite-form language} use definite or indefinite subjects. Other languages {infinite-form language} use no person distinction. formal language In computer languages {formal language, grammar}, signs have unique meanings, references, and senses. Languages that contain demonstratives, such as "that", allow signs to have different senses and so cannot be formal languages. logical language Fundamental vocabulary {logical language} can have only tautologies {logical locution} or observations {observation predicate}. radical language Languages {radical language} can have words that are radicals, so grammar and syntax use word order. subordinating language Languages {subordinating language} can group around main word and can have particles or words that can express grammar or semantic relations. verb language Languages {verb language} can use verb sentences.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Kinds>Phonetic tone language Languages {tone language} can have meaning that comes from pitch changes. whistling language Guanches people use Silbo Gomera language {whistling language} on Gomera Island in Canary Islands.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Kinds>Affix classificatory language Bantu language {classificatory language} nouns have classes. Class prefixes precede all words associated with nouns. inflecting language

9 Latin and Greek {inflecting language} {flexional language} can have words with suffixes. Suffixes represent several morphemes, so morphemes are not separate. juxtaposing language Languages {juxtaposing language} can use prefixes as classifiers to show grammatical relations.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Kinds>K Sound centum language Proto-Indo-European guttural k sound has changed to k sound in Greek, Italian, Celtic, Germanic, Hittite, and Tokharian {centum language}. satem language Proto-Indo-European guttural k sound has changed to sibilant s in Balto-Slavic, Albanian, Armenian, and Indo- Iranian languages {satem language}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Kinds>Morphemes agglutinating language Languages {agglutinating language} can have words that use morpheme sequences, so words have separate morphemes. Turkish and most languages are agglutinating languages. amalgamating language Languages {amalgamating language} can have fused roots and affixes, not separate and independent word parts, so words do not have separate morphemes.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Kinds>Morphemes>Combination analytic language Vietnamese and most Chinese language {analytic language} {isolating language} words are invariable. Words can represent different morphemes in different sentence contexts. logogram Written Chinese characters represent meanings, not sounds. Chinese symbols are meaning units {logos, alphabet} {logographic script}. First logograms were indicators {indicative sign}, such as stick-figure pictures {pictorial sign} or counting strokes. Logograms are now invariable monosyllables. Plurals and tense are optional monosyllables. combination Symbols can combine with other symbols to make polysyllabic words. If two logograms combine, meanings combine. Compound characters use one part {determinative} {signific} {radical part} for main meaning, which is the basis for arranging characters in dictionaries. Compound characters use another part {borrowed character} for extra sound {phonetic, Chinese}. Phonetic compounds are 95% of Chinese characters. Phonetic compounds with same borrowed character can differ in pronunciation, because phonetic meaning is more important than sound. Asian languages Japanese and Korean, languages unrelated to Chinese, use Chinese characters. synthetic language Languages {synthetic language} can have words that are morpheme combinations, so inflections show grammar. Languages {polysynthetic language} can have words that represent whole sentences, such as verbs combined with morphemes.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Kinds>Replacement substratum of language Languages can replace another language {substratum, language} as dominant language. Substratum changes the newly dominant language {substratum theory}. superstratum of language

10 Languages {superstratum} can replace another language.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Beginnings grooming and language Perhaps, language replaced grooming {grooming} as social groups became larger [Dunbar, 1996]. imitation and language Perhaps, imitation abilities associate with larger brains and language {imitation and language} [Blackmore, 1999]. vocalization Human language probably evolved from primate graded calls {vocalization}. In Homo habilis, advanced vocal cords and brain language areas allowed better communication. metaphorical stage Before words existed, context gave meaning to sounds {metaphorical stage}. Later, sounds carried meaning without context. word origin Before protolanguage, there were words for objects and events {word origin}. Perhaps, words originate by onomatopoeia or sound-symbolism [Smith, 1985]. prelanguage Before language {prelanguage}, brains must have ideas of number, case, gender, noun, verb, modifier, tense, gerund, infinitive, particle, preposition, and article. Before language, brains must have spatial and temporal ideas, such as line, group, boundary, figure, background, movement, ascending, descending, association, attraction, and repulsion. protolanguage Before language, there were semi-semantic and semi-syntactic word-association rules {protolanguage}. Rules order words into subject-verb-object, make broader categories from objects, use categories to specify objects, and combine words and gestures. Later, word associations evolved to associate words and speech-part categories and then make complete sentences [Corballis, 2002]. Probably, language first described situations. Then language described speaker thoughts. Then language described hearer characteristics and thoughts. ursprache Language came from protolanguage {ursprache}. creative language Earliest language was essentially natural, poetic, and creative {creative language}. Later languages were more logical, artificial, and precise. convention and words Social convention adopts words {word, convention} {convention, word} [Bloom, 2000].

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Beginnings>Theory boo-hoorah theory Perhaps, words express attitudes and try to cause attitudes {boo-hoorah theory}. gestural theory Perhaps, manual gestures can have meaning and syntax {gestural theory}, and brain language centers control first arm movements and then vocal tract. Speech frees hands and arms and allows communication at night [Browman and Goldstein, 1991]. interjectional theory

11 Perhaps, human speech began as reactions to pains or emotions {interjectional theory} [Bickerton, 1981] [Bickerton, 1990] [Bickerton, 1995] [Chagnon, 1992] [Smith, 1985]. onomatopoeic theory Perhaps, human speech began as sound imitations {onomatopoeia} {onomatopoeic theory} [Bickerton, 1981] [Bickerton, 1990] [Bickerton, 1995] [Chagnon, 1992] [Smith, 1985]. sing-song theory Perhaps, human speech began from meaningless chants {sing-song theory} [Bickerton, 1981] [Bickerton, 1990] [Bickerton, 1995] [Chagnon, 1992] [Smith, 1985]. sound-symbolism Perhaps, words began from sounds used in physical activities, sound quality or tone changes, and sound metaphors {sound-symbolism} [Smith, 1985]. synesthetic bootstrapping theory Angular gyrus and TPO connect vision and hearing sense qualities to cause synesthesia. Hand and mouth motor areas are adjacent and move similarly {synkinesia}. Visual areas link to Broca's motor area. Emotional vocalizations start from right hemisphere and anterior cingulate. Perhaps, visual-auditory, hand-mouth, and mouth-visual brain areas evolve to work together {synesthetic bootstrapping theory}. Perhaps, tool-making steps became syntax and nested phrases {hierarchic embedding} [Ramachandran, 2004]. yo-he-ho theory Perhaps, human speech began from spontaneous work grunts {yo-he-ho theory} [Bickerton, 1981] [Bickerton, 1990] [Bickerton, 1995] [Chagnon, 1992] [Smith, 1985].

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Reading reading People read one word at a time {reading}. Learned eye movements do not relate to other tasks. sounding out Reading starts with transforming letters into sounds {phonological, word} and building rules {sounding out}. whole-word recognition Reading includes remembering words {lexical} as wholes {look-and-say} {whole-word recognition}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Divergence comparative method Current and ancient language words, grammar, and morphology differences {comparative method} can indicate preceding languages, back to Indo-European. glottochronology Word differences allow calculating language-divergence dates {glottochronology}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Family language family Languages {language family} derived from proto-languages in different regions. Japanese, Korean, Andamanese, Bithynia, Cappadocia, Crete, Cyprus, Elam, Etruria, Lydia, Sumeria, North Australian, and South Australian aboriginal languages do not relate to other languages. Korean and Japanese languages are similar to Altaic and Turkish.

Esperanto mixed European languages {Esperanto language}.

12 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Family>Africa

Afro-Asiatic Afro-Asiatic {Afro-Asiatic language family}, in north Africa and Arabia, includes Semitic languages in Arabia and five other branches in north Africa.

Bantu languages Bantu {Bantu language family} started in east Nigeria and Cameroon in west Africa [-3000] and spread to equatorial and south Africa, and includes Swahili in east Africa, Zulu in southeast Africa, Congo, Luba-Lulua, Luganda or Ganda, Nyanja or Nyasa, Kafir, and 80 to 100 more languages. In Bantu classificatory languages, nouns have classes, and noun classes have prefixes, which precede all words associated with noun.

Hamito-Semitic Hamito-Semitic {Hamito-Semitic language family}, in Arabia and northwest Africa, includes Semitic and Hamitic. Semitic Semitic includes East Semitic and West Semitic. East Semitic includes only Akkadian. West Semitic includes Southern Semitic and Northern Semitic. Southern Semitic includes North Arabic, South Arabic, and Ethiopic. Ethiopic includes Ethiopic or Ge'ez, Tigrina or Tigray, Tigie, Amharis, Atgobba, Gafat, Gurage, and Harani. Northern Semitic includes Maltese, Canaanite, and Aramaic. Canaanite includes Hebrew, Phoenican, and Moabite. Aramaic includes Eastern Aramaic and Western Aramaic. Eastern Aramaic includes Syriac in Iraq, Turkey, and Iran; extinct Babylonian Judeo-Aramaic; Mandaean; and Harranian. Western Aramaic includes extinct Old Aramaic, Biblical Aramaic, Palestinian Aramaic, and Samaritan. Hamitic Hamitic includes Egyptian, Libyo-Berber, and Kushitic. Egyptian includes Egyptian and Coptic. Libyo-Berber includes Berber and extinct Libyan. Berber includes Tuareg, Kabyl, Shluh, Zenaga, Zenete, and extinct Guanehe. Kushitic includes Somali and Galla in Ethiopia. Perhaps, Kushitic belongs to Afro-Asiatic language family.

Hottentot-Bushman Hottentot-Bushman or Khoin {Hottentot-Bushman language family}, in southwest Africa, includes Nama or Hottentot and San or Bushman.

Khoisan languages Khoisan {Khoisan language family}, in south Africa, includes Khoi, San, Hadza, and Sandawe in Tanzania.

Niger-Congo Niger-Congo {Niger-Congo language family}, in west-central Africa, includes Nigerian and Congan languages as one branch and Bantu as eastern branch. Xhosa is in south Africa.

Nilo-Saharan Nilo-Saharan {Nilo-Saharan language family}, in upper Nile River and Sahara Desert in Africa, includes Ethiopian, Libyan, and west Sahara languages.

Sudanese-Guinean Sudanese-Guinean {Sudanese-Guinean language family}, in central and west-central Africa, includes Ewe in Togoland and Gold Coast, Efik, Hausa in Sudan and Nigeria, Mandingo, Mende, Masai, Nubian, Twi, Yoruba, Fon in Dahomey, Ibo or Bo in southeast Nigeria, and Ubangi. Ubangi includes Banda, Mitlu, and Zande.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Family>Americas

Americas languages Americas languages {Americas languages} are in Central, North, and South America.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Family>Americas>Central America

Mayan languages

13 Mayan {Mayan language family} includes Mayan.

Zapotec language Zapotec {Zapotec language family} includes Zapotec.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Family>Americas>North America

Algonquian Algonquian {Algonquian language family}, in north USA, includes Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Hitwan or Californian Algonquian, Central Algonquian, and Eastern Algonquian. Central Algonquian includes Fox, Illinois, Kickapoo, Miami, Menomini, Montagnais, Ojibway or Chippewa, Sank, Potawatomi, Shawnee, and Cree.

Athapascan Athapascan {Athapascan language family}, in west-central USA, includes Apache-Navajo, Dene, and Hupa-Matole.

Hokan Hokan {Hokan language family} was in California.

Iroquois languages Iroquois {Iroquois language family}, in northeast USA, includes Iroquois, Cherokee, Huron or Wyandot, Tuscarora, Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, and Seneca.

Muskogee Muskogee {Muskogee language family}, in southeast USA, includes Muskogee or Creek, Choctaw, and Seminole.

Na-Dene language family Na-Dene {Na-Dene language family}, in Alaska, northwest Canada, and southwest USA, includes Dene.

Natchez-Muskogean Natchez-Muskogean {Natchez-Muskogean language family}, in southeast USA, includes Muskogee or Creek, Choctaw, and Seminole. Perhaps, it is in Amerind language family.

Oto-Manguean Perhaps, Oto-Manguean {Oto-Manguean language family}, in Mexico and southwest USA, is in Amerind language family.

Penutian Penutian {Penutian language family} was in California.

Shoshonean Shoshonean {Shoshonean language family}, in south USA and north Mexico, includes Shoshone, Comanche, Pueblo, and Ute. Perhaps, it is in Uto-Aztecan family.

Sioux languages Sioux {Sioux language family}, in Minnesota, Nebraska, and Dakotas in USA, includes Assiniboin, Biloxi, Crow, Dakota, Iowa, Kansas, Katawba, Mandan, Missouri, Ogalala, Omaha, Osage, Oto, Ponka, Teton, Wahpeton, Winnebago, and Yankton.

Uto-Aztecan Uto-Aztecan {Uto-Aztecan language family}, in Mexico and west USA, includes extinct Aztec or Nahuatl. Perhaps, it is in Amerind language family.

Yukian Yukian {Yukian language family} was in California.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Family>Americas>South America

14

Araucan Araucan {Araucan language family}, in Chile, includes Araucan.

Arawak Arawak {Arawak language family}, in Caribbean and northwest South America, includes extinct Arawak. Perhaps, it is in Amerind language family.

Aymara Aymara {Aymara language family}, in Ecuador and Bolivia, includes Aymara.

Carib languages Carib {Carib language family}, in Caribbean, includes Carib. Carib replaced Arawak.

Quechua Quechua or Kechua {Quechua language family}, in Peru, includes Inca.

Tupi-Guarani Tupi-Guarani {Tupi-Guarani language family}, in Brazil and Paraguay, includes Tupi in Brazil and Guarani in Paraguay.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Family>Asia

Asia languages Asia languages {Asia languages} are in Caucasia, East Asia, and Southeast Asia.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Family>Asia>Caucasia

Balto-Slavic Balto-Slavic or Slavic {Balto-Slavic language family}, Indo-European language in east Europe, includes East Slavic, West Slavic, and South Slavic. East Slavic includes Russian or Great Russian, Ukrainian or Little Russian, and White Russian. West Slavic includes Polish, Lithuanian, Lettish or Latvian, Czech, Lusatian or Wend or Sorbian, Kaszub, and extinct Polabian. South Slavic includes Slovak, Serbo-Croatian, Bulgarian, Slovene, Church Slavonic or Old Bulgarian or Old Slavonic, and extinct Old Slavic.

Celtic language Celtic {Celtic language family}, Indo-European language in England, includes Goidelic, Brythonic, and extinct Gaulish. Goidelic includes Irish or Irish Gaelic, Scots Gaelic, and Manx. Brythonic includes Welsh, Breton, and Cornish.

Germanic languages Germanic or Teutonic {Germanic language family}, Indo-European language in Germany, includes West Germanic, North Germanic, and East Germanic. West Germanic includes Dutch, German, Flemish, Afrikaans, and Anglo- Friscian. Anglo-Friscian includes English and has Friscian in Netherlands. North Germanic includes Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Faroese, and Gotlandic or Gutnian. East Germanic includes extinct Gothic, Burgundian, and Vandal.

Germanic sound shift Proto-Germanic and other Indo-European languages {Germanic sound shift} separated before 1. High German and Low German separated from -100 to 800.

Iberian languages Iberian {Iberian language family}, in Spain, includes Basque and extinct Aquitanian.

Indo-European languages

15 Indo-European languages {Indo-European language family} started in Ukraine and Anatolia, near Black Sea and Caucasus Mountains, as Proto-Indo-European [-4000] and had same complexity as current languages. Indo-European has inflection, is synthetic, and has three genders. Indo-European includes Germanic, Italic, Indo-Iranian, Celtic, Balto-Slavic, extinct Thraco-Phrygian, extinct Hittite, Greek, Albanian, Illyrian, Tokharian in Chinese Turkestan, Armenian, North Caucasian, and South Caucasian. Proto-Indo-European has two main branches. branch: 4000 years ago Hittite and Luvian [-2000] came directly from one Proto-Indo-European branch. branch: 5200 years ago Tocharian A and Tocharian B [-500] branched [-3500] from the other Proto-Indo-European branch. Later branch [-3200] branched [-2500] into Welsh and Old Irish [-500] and into Latin [-1000] and Umbrian and Oscan [-500]. Later branch [-3000 to -2500] branched [-2000] into Albanian and into Gothic [1] and later Old English and Old High German [500]. Later branch [-3000] branched [-1800] into Ancient Greek and Classical Armenian. Later branch [-2500] branched [-1800] into Vedic and Old Persian and into Prussian [1000] and Latvian and Lithuanian [1300].

Indo-Iranian Indo-Iranian {Indo-Iranian language family}, Indo-European language in Iran and India, includes Iranian and Indic. Iranian Iranian includes Iranian or Farsi or Persian, Urdu, Kurdesh, Pushtu or Afgani, Ossetic, Baluchi, extinct Avestan, Khotanese, and Old Sakian. Indic Indic includes Apabhramsa, Hindustani, Bengali, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Bhili, Khandesi, Assamese, Sinhalese in Ceylon, Kashmiri, Nepali or Gurkhali, Romani or Gypsy, Gujarati, Oriya, Sindhi, Pahari in lower Himalayas, Marathi, Bihari, and extinct Old Indic or Sanskrit. Hindustani includes Urdu and Hindi. Hindi includes Western or standard Hindi and Eastern Hindi. Marathi includes Konkani dialect. Bihari includes Bhojpuri, Maithili, and Magahi. scripts India has 14 major languages. Urdu and Kashmiri use modified Arabic scripts. Hindi, Sanskrit, and Marathi use Devanagari script. Punjabi uses Gurmukhi script. Bengali uses Bengali script. Script symbols can be syllables.

Italic language Italic {Italic language family}, Indo-European language in Italy, includes Latino-Faliscan, Osco-Umbrian, and Sabellian. Latino-Faliscan includes Latin. Latin includes Romance languages West Romance and East Romance. West Romance includes French, North Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, Provençal, Sardinian, and Rumansch or Rhetian. East Romance includes Romanian, South Italian, and extinct Dalmatian. Osco-Umbrian includes Oscan and Umbrian. Sabellian includes Marsian, Sabine, and Volscian.

North Caucasian North Caucasian {North Caucasian language family}, Indo-European language in Caucasus, includes Eastern Caucasian or Checheno-Lesghian and Western Caucasian or Abasgo-Kerketian.

South Caucasian South Caucasian or K'art'velian or K'art'uli'ena {South Caucasian language family}, Indo-European language in Caucasus, includes Georgian, Laz, Mingrelian, and Svanian.

Thraco-Phyrgian Thraco-Phyrgian {Thraco-Phyrgian language family}, Indo-European language in north Greece, includes extinct Thracian, extinct Old Phyrgian, and extinct New Phrygian.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Family>Asia>Central Asia

Dravidian languages

16 Dravidian {Dravidian language family}, started in India [-2000], includes Tamil-Kurukh, Kui-Gondi, Telugu in east and southeast India, and Brahui. Tamil-Kurukh includes Tamil in Ceylon and south India, Malayaan, Tulu, Kurukh, and Kanarese. Kui-Gondi includes Kui, Gondi, Bhili, Kolimi, and Naiki.

Elamo-Dravidian Elamo-Dravidian {Elamo-Dravidian language family}, started in Iran [-6000] and then went to India, includes Elamite and Dravidian.

Man languages Man {Man language family}, in north Burma, southwest China, and north Indochina, includes Man.

Ural-Altaic Ural-Altaic or Turanian {Ural-Altaic language family}, started in Ural Mountains [1000] and includes Finno-Ugrian or Uralic and Altaic. Ural Finno-Ugrian or Uralic includes Finnish-Lapponic, Ugric, Ob-Ugrian, Permian, and Samoyedic. Finnish-Lapponic includes Lapp, Cheremiss, Mordvin, Finnish, Estonian, Karelian, Ingrian, Livonian, Ludian or Ludish, Olonetzian, Vepsian, and Votian. Ugric includes Hungarian or Magyar. Hungarian reached Hungary [892], from Ural Mountains. Ob-Ugrian includes Ostyak and Vogal. Permian includes Votyak and Zyrican. Samoyedic includes Samoyed, Yurak, Kamessian, and Tugvy. Altaic Altaic includes Turkish, Manchu-Tungus, and Mongol. Altaic [1000 to 1300] came from central Asia steppes to Europe and Turkey. Turkish includes Eastern Turkish or Altaic, Western Turkish, Central Turkish, and Southern Turkish. Eastern Turkish or Altaic includes Altaic, Abakan, Baraba, Karagas, Soyonian, Uighur, and Tartar. Western Turkish includes Bashkir, Chuvash, Irtysh, and Kirghiz. Central Turkish includes Chagatai, Kashgar, Sart, Taranchi, Uzbeg, and Yarkand. Southern Turkish includes Osmanli, Azerbaijani, Anatolian, Balkar, Kumik, and Turkoman. Manchu-Tungus includes Manchu and Tungus. Mongol includes Western Mongol, Northern Mongol, Eastern Mongol, Tangut, Shara, Afghan Mongol, and Yakut. Western Mongol includes Kalmuk. Northern Mongol includes Buryat. Eastern Mongol includes Khalkha.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Family>Asia>East Asia

Eskimo-Aleut Eskimo-Aleut {Eskimo-Aleut language family}, in Arctic northeast Asia and northwest North America, includes Eskimo and Aleut.

Hyperborean language Hyperborean or Paleo-Asiatic {Hyperborean language family}, in northeast Asia, includes Chukchi-Kamchadal, Ainu, and Gilyak. Ainu and Gilyak do not relate to Chukchi-Kamchadal, except by location. Chukchi-Kamchadal includes Chukchi, Kamchadal, and Koryak.

Miao-Yao Miao-Yao or Hmong-Mien {Miao-Yao language family}, started in China and Vietnam [-1000], includes Red Miao, White or Striped Miao, Black Miao, Green or Blue Miao, and Yao. Spread from south China over southeast Asia. Vietnamese Hmong speak it.

Sino-Tibetan Sino-Tibetan or Indochinese {Sino-Tibetan language family} started in China [-4000], spread from north China to south China and southeast Asia, and includes Chinese, Tibeto-Burmese, Lo-lo-Bodo-Naga-Kachin, extinct Pyu, and Thai or Tai-Kadai [-1000 to 1500]. Chinese Chinese includes written Wen-li, national standard Kuo-yu, North Mandarin in Beijing, Wu along Yangtse river, Chinese, Cantonese or Yueh in Kwangtung, and Min in Fukien. Burma

17 Tibeto-Burmese includes Tibeto-Himalayan and Arakan-Burmese. Tibeto-Himalayan includes Tibetan or Bhotian, literary Balti, and Himalayan. Himalayan includes Toto, Lepcha or Kong, and Gurung. Arakan-Burmese includes Arakanese, Burmese or Maghi, Kuki-Chin, and Old Kuki. Kachin Lo-lo-Bodo-Naga-Kachin includes Lo-lo-Mo-so, Kachine or Singhpho, and Naga-Kuki. Lo-lo-Mo-so includes Lo-lo and Mo-so. Thai Thai includes Siamese, Karen in Burma, and Shan dialects. Shan or Siamese includes Khamti, Lao Lu, Khun, and Ahom. Alternatively, Tai-Kadai includes Thai and Laotian.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Family>Asia>Southeast Asia

Austro-Asiatic Austro-Asiatic or Southeast Asiatic {Austro-Asiatic language family}, started in southeast Asia and India [-3000], includes Mon-Khmer, Annamese-Muong, and Munda or Kolarian. It spread from southeast China over southeast Asia and India. Mon-Khmer includes Khmer or Cambodian, Mon, and Cham. Annamese-Muong includes Annamese or Vietnamese and Muong. Munda or Kolarian includes North Munda and South Munda.

Austronesian language Austronesian {Austronesian language family}, in South Pacific Islands [-3000], has mainly Malayo-Polynesian, as well as Melanesian, Micronesian, and Indonesian or Malayan language families. Austronesian has three other families on Taiwan, which spread from Taiwan to Indonesia and Polynesia. Polynesian Polynesian is in Hawaii, Samoa, and Tahiti, and among New-Zealand Maori. Bali is in Bali. Batak is in Samoa. Buginese is in Celebes. Dayak is in Borneo. Malagasy is in Malagasy. Malay is in Malaysia. Sundanese is in Sundan Islands. Javanese is in Java. Indonesian is in Indonesia. Tagalog is in Philippines. Bicol, Bontok, Ilocano, Macassar, and Maduran are other Polynesian languages. Western Malayo-Polynesian and Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian also exist. Language similar to Manyan is in Madagascar. Melanesian Melanesian is in Fiji, Solomon, and New Hebrides. Micronesian Micronesian is in Caroline, Gilbert, Marshall, Marianne, and Yap. Indonesian Indonesian or Malayan includes Bisaya or Visaya in Philippines and Formosan in Taiwan.

Papuan languages Papuan {Papuan language family}, in New Guinea, Bougainville, and New Britain includes Papuan.

Tasmanian language Tasmanian {Tasmanian language family}, in Tasmania, is extinct.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Region isogloss At regional boundaries {isogloss}, languages can differ in one feature only. isograph Geographic regions {isograph} can have uniform general language features. language isolate Some languages {language isolate} do not relate to other languages. polyglot Regions can contain several languages {polyglot}|.

18 SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Transcription

Romanization Spoken-language or writing-system transcriptions can use Roman script {Romanization}.

Romic Sweet's phonetic-transcription system {Romic} uses Romanization.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Dialect dialect Language pronunciation {dialect}| depends on social class and geographic region. brogue Irish and Scottish English have dialects {brogue}|. idiolect Individuals have language {idiolect}. koine Close-knit groups in closed areas surrounded by larger areas can use dialects {koine}. mother tongue Colonists and settlers can use home-country language {mother tongue}. patois Languages {patois}| can be local dialects. provincialism Regions have local dialects {provincialism}. sociolect Communities have languages {sociolect}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Dialect>Standard standard language Educated people use formal language {standard language}.

King's English Language {King's English} can be exact, standardized English. nonstandard language Groups can use language {nonstandard language} in informal ways.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Dialect>Mixed creole dialect Simplified colonizer languages {creole}| become trade or contact languages and can become the only colony language. lingua franca Speakers of several languages can use mixed language {lingua franca}| in shared geographic region. Italian, with some Arabic and Greek, was in Mediterranean area. lingua general brazilica

19 Contact vernaculars {lingua general brazilica} can be in Brazil.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Dialect>Style

High style Style {High} can be from highlands or be a literary form.

Low style Style {Low} can be from lowlands or after higher "Golden Age".

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Usage cant Language {cant}| can repeat set expressions. cliche Language {cliché}| can repeat too often to be informative. colloquialism Language {colloquialism}| can be common regional expressions. gobbledygook Language {gobbledygook} can be unclear and wordy, intentionally by politicians. motherese Dialects {baby talk} {motherese} can be high-pitched and singsong, with lengthened vowels and high inflection. parlance Words can be in common use {parlance}|. slang Language {slang} can be popular terms that quickly fade from use. vernacular Language {vernacular}| can be in common use. vulgar speech Common activities use common speech {vulgar speech} {common speech} {non-literary speech}, while writing and rituals used formal speech. vulgarity Language {vulgarity} can be obscene.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Usage>Jargon argot Language {argot}| can be jargon of underworld or lower social classes. jargon Language {jargon}| can be professional vocabulary. journalese Journalists have jargon {journalese}|. liturgical language Religious services can use language {liturgical language}.

20

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Theories dialogism Perhaps, meaning comes from dialogues {dialogism} {dialogic}, which have social and cultural settings. Settings use different languages {heteroglossia}, such as legal, political, economic, and personal languages. Persons result from social dialogues [Bakhtin, 1983] [Bakhtin, 1986]. fact-value distinction Words can cause emotions {emotive meaning} {evaluative meaning} {prescriptive meaning} or carry cognitions {descriptive meaning}. Language can be about facts or about values {fact-value distinction} [Stevenson, 1963]. language of thought Perhaps, all thoughts use the same language {language of thought} {mentalese}, which differs from actual languages. Brain concepts are in languages, software programs, or virtual machines. Software is not physiological, mechanical, or phenomenological but has information content. logic Logical forms are probably not the language of thought. statements Perhaps, concepts and propositions are language-of-thought contents. syntax Phonology, phonetics, morphology, word-order rules, syntactic-redundancy rules, and parsing rules are not necessarily in the language of thought. Syntactic-redundancy rules are for pronouns, agreement, and case. Perhaps, language of thought has syntax and all proposition types. token Perhaps, qualities are tokens in language of thought. significative behavior Consciousness, complex behavior, complex mental processes, and language depend on ability to use tools and signs {significative behavior}. Words start as emotion expressions, then designate concrete objects, and later have abstract meaning. People have potential capacities {potential development zone} {zone of potential development} that develop in societies. language development Techniques {Vygotsky-Sakharov technique} {Vygotsky-Hanfman-Kasanin test} can track language development. Language develops from sign use into sign system. Semantics develops, and sign meanings change. Children think by memorizing, but adults memorize by thinking. People gain ability to solve problems by themselves and with aid from teacher or parent {social prompting}. goals In situations, tools and signs reach goals, usually with feedback. culture Higher mental processes require social settings to develop. Socialization processes lead to consciousness. Human conscious behavior relates subject of experience to social environment. Phenomena are large and complex relation- network parts {ascending to the concrete}, not irreducible personal experiences [Vygotsky, 1930]. situation semantics Language is about situations and about relations among communicators {situation semantics} [Barwise and Perry, 1983]. symbolic interactionism Language develops from first gestures and then grooming and other physical interactions [Mead, 1934]. Creativity, self, and reason arise from social life, which uses language reflexively. Language and symbolic interaction {symbolic interactionism} can cause humans to be self-conscious. truth of expression In first-order languages, sentence truth {truth, expression} is provable from sentence-part semantic relations. All languages can transform into first-order languages, so speakers can have truth-theory. In first-order languages, meaning

21 depends on truth-conditions. Beliefs and other intentions are mental states with contrasts. Speakers speak intentionally [Davidson, 1980]. verification principle Fundamental language-element meanings rely on subjective experiences. More-complex language meanings derive from language element meanings, using verification methods. Statement meanings depend on verification methods. Statements are meaningful only if observations and calculations can verify them {verification principle} {verifiability principle} [Ayer, 1936] [Ayer, 1940] [Ayer, 1963]. methods Science facts can be verifiable by observation or experiment. Analytic logic and mathematics statements can be true by language rules. Ethical statements convey emotion or attitude and are not verifiable or analytic. Other statements are meaningless.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Theories>Private private language Perhaps, consciousness is a personal language {private language}, with syntax and grammar, for communicating with oneself. However, internal language independent of human social life cannot describe mental contents [Hunter, 1973] [Wittgenstein, 1953], because language presupposes public rules and symbols. private language argument Languages are for shared-things communication. Private worlds can have no language, and private words have no meaning {private language argument}. In private languages, knowing and not knowing are meaningless [Hunter, 1973] [Wittgenstein, 1953]. Words about conscious states can only be about observable inclinations to behave, not about subjective experience. Public terms must be publicly verifiable. Languages must be public and about public things. beetle in a box If people have private worlds, minds are like small boxes with moving objects inside {beetle in a box} [Wittgenstein, 1953]. language game Language has many functions {language game}. For example, language can state facts and define contexts. family resemblance Referents can be constant only in contexts. Contexts give referent features and functions, which supply meaning. Referents can be similar in some ways {family resemblance}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Language>Theories>Variation mechanistic theory Physiology differences cause speech to be variable {mechanistic theory}. mentalistic theory Mental differences cause speech to be variable {mentalistic theory}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics phonetics Speech has acoustic parameters {phonetics}|, such as amplitude, duration, frequency, and timbre. Acoustic parameters correspond to sound contrasts used to discriminate among speech features. Speech production and perception parameters are the same. sound types Sound types are consonants, sonants or semivowels, vowels, stops, continuants, aspirates, voiced, and unvoiced. categories

22 People identify and label perceptual features by sharpening boundaries. People can discriminate among features along many dimensions. People group sounds into rhythms based on sound loudness, length, and pitch. Louder, longer, and higher-pitch sounds are accents. process Labeling/identifying and discrimination are two aspects of one mechanism. Special mechanisms make and perceive speech. Perhaps, reverse of production gives perception {motor theory of speech perception}. articulation Vocal cords, lungs, pharynx, tongue, nose, teeth, and lips make speech sounds. All people can make all speech sounds, but at different pitches and timbres. Lungs, pharynx, tongue, nose, teeth, and lips modify speech sounds. African languages can use clicks. Languages can use inhaled sounds. Nasalization and other vowel modifications do not change speech-sound basis. phonetic law Language has sound shifts over time. statistics People learn words by sound-sequence frequency distributions. sciences People can study acoustic-signal structure {acoustic phonetics} or how people produce sounds {articulatory phonetics}. animals Animals can perceive human speech sounds. formant Most sound energy is in several frequency bands {formant}|, which differ among people because vocal tract resonates at different frequencies. Lowest-frequency formant is main formant. phonogram Instruments {phonogram, graph}| can record speech sounds. phonology Speech is a linear sequence of phonological distinctive features {phonology}| {segmental phonology}, which concatenate into discrete phonemes, which concatenate into syllables, which concatenate into words. Sign language uses physical movements as phonology. prosody in phonology Speech uses stress, rhythm, and tone patterns {prosody, grammar}|.

SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Phoneme phoneme Speech sounds are phonological units {phoneme}|. Phonemes are not separate and independent but have sequences. Phonemes have context. People recognize phonemes only in context, because preceding and succeeding phonemes indicate current phoneme. phonological distinctive features Phonemes have or lack nine features. Phonemes can use consonants, vowels, pitches, silences, intonations, and stresses. Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and y. Consonants are b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, and z. Voiced consonants are b, d, g, and z. Unvoiced consonants are p, t, k, and s. Nasal consonants are m and n. Non-nasal consonants are b, k, and s. Constricted-lip vowels and consonants are oo, w, p, and m. Unconstricted-lip vowels and consonants are i, e, k, and n. number People can pronounce 40 phonemes [Jaynes, 1976]. Languages typically have 12 to 67 phonemes. Phoneme number and substitutability do not relate to language type, whether isolating, agglutinative, flexional, analytic, synthetic, or polysynthetic. mora Phoneme parts can have different tonal changes {mora}.

23 radical phoneme Phonemes {radical phoneme} can be word bases, with basic meaning.

SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Phoneme>Similation assimilation in grammar Similar phonemes can become more similar or identical {assimilation, grammar}, by changing sound features. dissimilation in grammar Similar phonemes can become less similar {dissimilation}, by changing sound features.

SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Change sound shift Over language history, sound-context phonological distinctive features can change to other distinctive features {sound shift}. Phoneme changes follow regular recurrent rules. Functional, autonomous, or spontaneous causes can change paradigmatic sounds. Nearby phonemes can change syntagmatic sounds. drift in phonetics Sounds have diachronic changes {drift, phonetics}. gemination Speech can double sounds to lengthen them {gemination}. lenition Consonants between vowels can change {lenition}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Speaking locution People make sounds {locution}|. enunciation clarity Speech has clarity {enunciation, clarity}|. phone as sound People make {phonation} rudimentary vocal sound units {phone}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Speaking>Style shibboleth Linguistic attributes {shibboleth} can distinguish speaker nationality. solecism People can use sounds idiosyncratically {solecism}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Modulation intonation modulation Speech has pitch changes {intonation, modulation}|. Intonation emphasizes sentence parts, for example, signaling difference between declarative sentence and question. Speech amplitude and rhythm do not necessarily change. pitch of sound Speech sounds have relative rise and fall of vocal-cord vibration frequency {pitch, speech}. Speech sounds can rise, fall, rise then fall, or have no pitch change.

24 release of sound Speech organs can move to rest position {release, speech}. rounded phoneme Phonemes {rounded phoneme} can use rounded lips. sandhi in phonetics Phonological marks {sandhi, phonetics} can be at morpheme boundaries. Neighboring sounds or grammatical functions can alter sounds. Sounds between words can fuse {external sandhi}. Sounds in words can change {internal sandhi}. English and Finnish do not show sandhi in spelling. Sanskrit can show or omit sandhi. Tonal languages alter tones {tone sandhi}. Mandarin has high monotone, rising tone, falling-rising tone, and falling tone.

SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Modulation>Accent accent of syllable Stresses {emphasis, phonetics} {accent, phonetics}| can be on word syllable positions or sentence word positions. Languages typically place stress {fixed stress} on same syllable or word position. Word stresses are main accent and secondary accent. Accent can be on first syllable {initial accent} {initial stress}, last syllable {terminal stress} {terminal accent}, next-to-last syllable {penult syllable}, or second-to-last syllable. chromatic accent Pitch changes {chromatic accent} can be for emphasis. qualitative accent Accents {qualitative accent} can be stress and pitch changes. quantitative accent Accents {quantitative accent} can be duration changes.

SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Modulation>Accent>Word oxytone Languages {oxytonic language} can have majority of words accented on last syllable {oxytone}|. paroxytone Languages {paroxytonic language} can have majority of words accented on next-to-last syllable {paroxytone}|. proparoxytone Languages {proparoxytonic language} can have majority of words accented on second-to-last syllable {proparoxytone}|.

SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Structure metric structure Speech rhythm can be metrical {metric structure}. prosodic structure Word and sentence series stress contours can be hierarchical {prosodic structure}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Articulation articulation Vocal tract can produce speech sounds by vibrating vocal chords, positioning tongue and lips, and changing cavity shapes {articulation}|. People know 850 speech sounds. obstruction

25 Airflow-obstruction locations affect articulation. Airflow-obstruction levels affect articulation. sequence Preceding and succeeding sounds affect speech sounds. parts Speech uses jaw, lips, tongue front and back, soft palate, and teeth ridge {vocal tract, speech}. Vocal tract has mouth {oral tract} and nose {nasal tract}. articulation basis Language speech-organ neutral or normal positions can differ. articulator Tongue, teeth, lower lip, and lips {articulator} have tips, blades, middles, and backs. point of articulation Articulators can touch lips, teeth, teeth ridge, hard palate, soft palate, uvula, pharynx, or glottis {point of articulation}. Articulation-point changes change consonants but not vowels. coarticulation Articulation speech sounds overlap in typical patterns {coarticulation}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Consonant click sound Air inspirations are speech sounds {click sound} in Bushman, Hottentot, and Kafir-Sotho Bantu-family languages. digamma Speech can use sound w {digamma}. flap sound In Japanese, sounds {flap sound} can mix English l and r. initial mutation sound In Celtic languages, initial consonants can change {initial mutation}, using aspiration, nasalization, or lenition, depending on previous-word final sound or on sentence position. liaison in speech Pronounce ordinarily silent final consonant of word if next word begins with vowel {liaison, speech}|. lisp speech Speech can pronounce s as th and z as zth {lisp}|. oral consonant Consonants {oral consonant} can use only oral cavity.

SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Consonant>Air aspirate consonant Consonant h {aspirate}| is mostly moving air, without vocal-cord use. Breath puffs {aspirated consonant}, like h sounds, can follow some consonants. In Greek, aspiration or rough breathing can precede initial vowels and r. Such breathing has ' sign. spirant as consonant Consonants {spirant} {continuant} have no air blockage by tongue, teeth, or lips. liquid consonant Consonants {liquid consonant}|, such as l and r, can have no airflow change.

26 vocalic consonant Liquid consonants l and r and nasal consonants m and n {vocalic consonant} begin with vowel sounds.

SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Consonant>Point alveolar consonant Alveolar ridge behind teeth {alveolar sound} makes b, t, and n. palatal consonant Consonants {palatal consonant} can put tongue near hard palate. velar consonant Consonants {velar consonant} can place tongue back near velum soft palate: g, k, and ng. uvular consonant Consonants {uvular consonant} can place tongue back near uvula. pharyngeal consonant Consonants {pharyngeal consonant} can phonate at pharynx.

SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Consonant>Point>Lip bilabial consonant Consonants {bilabial consonant}, such as b, p, m, and w, can use both lips. labial consonant Consonants {labial consonant} can use one lip.

SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Consonant>Stop affricate consonant Blocked then allowed obstruction {affricate consonant} makes ch and j. glide Slight obstruction makes w or y {glide, sound}. glottal stop Consonants can involve glottis {glottal stop}. glottal sound Sounds {glottal} {laryngeal} can be like Oriental and African language h's or glottal stops. implosion in speech Speech can use complete air-passage closure {implosion, speech}|. lateral consonant Slight obstruction makes l or r {lateral consonant}. nasal consonant Consonants {nasal consonant}| can use nose. Mouth obstruction and nasal opening makes n, m, and ng. plosive consonant Consonants {stop consonant} {plosive} can use air release after complete air blockage by tongue, teeth, or lips: b, p, d, t, g, and k. Hindi has stop consonants {dental stop consonant} that touch teeth or {retroflex stop consonant} that use tongue to bend up and back.

27 SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Consonant>Stop>Fricative fricative consonant Consonants {fricative} can partially block airflow, using tongue, teeth, or lips: s, z, f, v, th, and sh. Fricative consonants can be sibilant. sibilant consonant Fricative consonants {sibilant} can put tongue on hard palate.

SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Consonant>Tap tap in articulation Articulation movements can be taps {tap, articulation}. rolled consonant Consonants {rolled consonant} can use rapid tapping of tongue front on teeth, or of uvula against tongue back, usually to make sound r. trill Tongue, lips, or uvula can make multiple taps {trill}|, rather than one tap.

SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Consonant>Voice voiced Vocal-chord vibration {voiced consonant} makes b, m, z, l, and r. voiceless No vocal chord vibration {voiceless consonant} makes p, s, and ch. soft consonant Voiceless consonants {soft consonant} can have voice. sonant Voiced consonants and semivowels {sonant} are similar. unvoiced sound Some speech sounds {voiceless sound} {unvoiced sound} do not use vocal cords.

SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Vowel vowel in phonetics Vowels {vowel}| typically begin at vocal cords. Vowels can have tongue highest part in front or back, mouth open or closed, and lips round or spread out. Vowels have distinguishing acoustic properties {vowel quality}. Spanish and many languages have only five vowels: ah = a, ay = é, ee = i, oo = u, and oh = o. connecting vowel Inserted vowels {connecting vowel} can make pronunciation easier. pure vowel Eleven vowels {pure vowel} always sound the same, in all syllables. Five vowels {diphthong, vowel} sound different in different syllables. semivowel Consonants can be vowel-like. w and y {semivowel} {semi-vowel} are not equivalent to full vowels. shwa

28 Indistinct vowels {shwa} {neutral vowel} have upside-down e sign. A Hebrew sign {mobile shwa} indicates upside down e sound. A Hebrew sign {latent shwa} indicates no vowel sound. twang Vowels can resonate {sonorous} {twang}| or have nasal sound. voiced vowel Vocal-cord vibration {voiced} makes vowels. Consonants are typically voiceless. vowel point In Hebrew and Arabic, marks {vowel point} below or near consonants indicate which vowel to use.

SOCI>Linguistics>Phonetics>Glide glide in speech Articulation changes can have transitional sounds {glide}|. off-glide Speech can return oral cavity to neutral position {off-glide} {final glide}. on-glide Speech can move into position for phoneme {on-glide} {initial glide}. bridge-sound Sounds {bridge-sound} between affixes and roots can ease pronunciation.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar grammar All utterances have syntax and paradigms {grammar}|. Grammar includes syntax and inflexion. Language knowledge is a finite system of rules operating on fundamental elements, which interact to determine an infinite number of expressions, with phonetic forms, meanings, and structural properties. relations Grammar is about linguistic-unit relations, not meaning. Grammar expresses location, direction, time, number, familiarity, possibility, contingency, possession, agency, purpose, necessity, obligation, and existence or non-existence. relations: space concepts All grammars indicate spatial location and motion. Sentence linguistic-unit relations reflect physical object and event relations in space and time. Physical relations reflect required grammar type: linear/regular or unrestricted, contracting or non-contracting, and context-sensitive or context-free. Complex concepts use spatial-location and motion concepts. relations: time concepts Space and time have similar representations. innate Many fundamental grammar properties are innate, but people have different language elements and mental representations. grammatical sense People sense {grammatical sense} that word strings are grammatical. Grammatical sense depends on words fitting into familiar connection frameworks. repetition People tend to use same word relationships. context Contexts are unit relations. Context can be syntax rules about relations between grammar units. Context can be contrast rules about which linguistic units can replace grammar units. For constant number of linguistic units, number of relations is inversely proportional to number of paradigms.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Units

29 linguistic unit Languages have units {linguistic unit} at different levels: phonemes, words, phrases, and sentences. For both hearing and speaking, people use words, not morphemes, as language units. lexical concept Basic language units are finite concepts {lexical concept}, such as subjects, verbs, objects, prepositions, adjectives, and adverbs. Words replace lexical concepts.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Inflection inflection Grammar includes word-phoneme relations {inflexion} {inflection}|. Inflection is also about sound stresses. syllable English has 1000 to 2000 phoneme combinations {syllable}|. Syllables {closed syllable} {blocked syllable} {checked syllable} can end in consonants. Syllables {open syllable} can end in vowels. accidence in grammar Inflection can show case, tense, and number {accidence}|. reduplication in grammar Sound repetition {reduplication} is for tense in Greek and for plurals in Malay.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Inflection>Morpheme morpheme Words have phonological units {morpheme}|, such as word roots, prefixes, suffixes, infixes, and qualities. Morphemes are not separate and independent but have sequences. Phonological units can have preferred order or no order. Succeeding-morpheme probability depends on preceding morphemes. People recognize morphemes only in context, because preceding and succeeding morphemes indicate current morpheme through associations and sound cues. form in grammar Morphemes can be alone {free form} {form, grammar}. Free morphemes can be in complex forms {underlying form}. Morphemes attached to words can have only one meaning {bound form}. morphology in grammar Rules can combine morphemes {morphology, grammar}|. Morphological rules can indicate case, tense, and number {inflectional morphology} or make new words {derivational morphology}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Inflection>Root root in grammar Word parts {root, word}| hold main meaning. stem in grammar Roots {stem, word}| can add thematic suffixes. base in grammar Roots or stems {base, word} can add inflectional endings.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Inflection>Root>Sound determinative sound Sounds {determinative sound} added to roots can specify word aspects.

30 formative sound Sounds {formative, grammar} added to roots can change meanings or derive new words.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Inflection>Affix affix noun Words can add sounds {affix, word}|. infix Formatives {infix}| can be within words. prefix Modifiers {prefix, affix}| can be before words. suffix Modifiers {suffix}| can be after words. thematic suffix Stem roots can add suffixes {thematic suffix}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Inflection>Regular regular verb Words can follow usual noun declension {regular noun} or verb conjugation {regular verb}. heteroclite Words {heteroclite} can have irregular declension or conjugation.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Inflection>Vowel vowel change Vowels change over time {vowel change}. Internal vowels can change qualitatively, change duration, or mute, to change meaning {vowel gradation}. Vowels in next syllables can cause internal-vowel changes {vowel mutation}. Nearby sounds can make vowels become diphthongs {vowel fracture}. ablaut Similar words that vary in accent can then vary at vowel {ablaut}, such as irregular verb tenses. syneresis Two vowel sounds can fuse into one sound {syneresis}. yodization Pure vowels, such as "i" and "e", can change to semivowels {yodization}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Inflection>Vowel>Strength strong word Internal vowel changes can show verb past tense or noun plurals or oblique case {strong word}. weak word Rather than internal vowel changes, suffixes can show verb past tense or noun plurals or oblique case {weak word}, as in Germanic languages.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Inflection>Paradigm contrast in grammar

31 Spoken language is a phoneme series. Phonemes are not separate and independent sounds but have specific sound sequences. Phonemes have contexts. Contexts determine possible phoneme substitutions {contrast, grammar} {paradigm, grammar}, which have different probabilities or strengths. Substitutions can change next-phoneme contexts. All utterances have paradigms. Words and spoken language have morpheme series, which have paradigms. People first learn frequently used grammar contrasts, which resist change most. marked in grammar In context paradigms, linguistic units can be more distinct {marked, grammar} {positive, grammar} or more general {unmarked, grammar} {neutral, grammar}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax syntax Sentence forms {syntax}| {syntagmatic} relate linguistic units. Syntax relations reflect relations in world and mind. Languages use syntax forms: linear/regular or unrestricted, contracting or non-contracting, and context-sensitive or context-free. All utterances have syntax. roles Sentences have nested or embedded phrases. Phrases have roles or sentence slots {phrase structure} {argument structure}. Roles include subject, verb, object, agent, theme, goal, source, instrument, beneficiary, time, and place. Syntax uses lexical categories, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, prepositions, and adverbs. Syntax uses phrasal categories, such as noun phrases, verb phrases, prepositional phrases, and sentences. phonology Syntactic structure substitutes words for lexical concepts to make phonological structure. idiom Expressions {idiom}| {idiomatic} can have special meaning. interjection Words {interjection}| can be placeholder words, surprise words, or emphasized words: ah, hey, oh, no, say, well, and wow. Some languages do not have interjections. lexicon Syntactic structure relates to phonological structure through language words {lexicon}|.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Sentence sentence in grammar Sentences {sentence, grammar}| have positions. Sentence positions can have required order {linear sentence}. parts of speech Nouns are words for objects. Verbs are words for actions. Adjectives are words for attributes {parts of speech}|. grammatical category Subjects, verbs, objects, modifiers, and other speech parts {grammatical category} fill sentence positions. conjunction in sentences Words {conjunction, grammar}|, such as "and" and "or", can denote connections between two words or clauses. Conjunctions {coordinating conjunction} can connect same-type words: and, but, for, not, or, so, yet. Conjunction pairs {correlative conjunction} can connect same-type words: both/and, either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also, and whether/or. Conjunctions {subordinating conjunction} can connect subordinate clauses: after, as, as well as, because, if, in order that, provided, since, so, so that, than, that, though, unless, when, why. Some languages do not have conjunctions. phrase of sentence Words {phrase, sentence} can substitute for speech parts.

32 clause Subsentences {clause} can substitute for speech parts. Clauses {subordinate clause} can depend on other clauses.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Sentence>Preposition preposition Words {preposition}| can denote sentence word relations. There are 80 to 100 prepositions. Some languages do not have prepositions. Phrases {prepositional phrase} can be about other sentence words {object, preposition}. space Prepositions can be about spatial location: on, in, near, at, and above. Prepositions can refer to object axis above or below vertical axis, distance from axis, or direction from axis. Prepositions can describe object motions related to location descriptions, such as motion paths and where paths begin and end. shape No prepositions require knowledge of figure shapes. object No prepositions require knowledge of reference objects, except axis, or figure parts. Spatial configurations can be non-stereotypical or ambiguous. time Prepositions can be about time. possession Prepositions can be about possession. grammar Prepositions can be grammatical markers. postposition Preposition-like words {postposition} can be after verbs.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Adjective adjective Words {adjective}| can modify nouns. adjective order In English, selector, determiner, order, number, size/shape/color, and classifier precede noun {adjective order}. predicate adjective Adjective phrases {predicate adjective} can pair with copulas. With no copula, phrases are predicates.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Adjective>Article article Adjectives {article}| can specify nouns. Some languages do not have articles. definite article Articles {definite article} can be "the". demonstrative article Articles {demonstrative article} can be "this", "that", "these", and "those". determiner of noun Articles, pre-articles, and post-articles {determiner} determine nouns. indefinite article Articles {indefinite article} can be "a" or "an". partitive article

33 Articles {partitive, article} can be "some". prearticle Words {prearticle} can be similar to articles but not as specific: some, many, several, much, most, all, each, both, and every.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Adjective>Degree degree in syntax Degree {degree, grammar}| can be superlative or comparative degree. comparative degree Between two, one is better {comparative degree}|. superlative degree Among choices, one is best {superlative degree}|.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Adverb adverb Words {adverb}| can modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. conjunctive adverb Adverbs {conjunctive adverb} can introduce clauses: accordingly, furthermore, however, moreover, therefore. qualifier Adverbs {qualifier}| can modify adjectives qualitatively: very, bit, rather, and somewhat,. quantifier Adverbs {quantifier, grammar}| can modify adjectives quantitatively.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Noun noun Words {noun}| can refer to persons, ideas, places, or things. Nouns can be about sensed things {concrete noun} or about ideal things {abstract noun}. apposition After noun phrases, noun phrases {apposition}| {appositive} with similar meaning can be between commas. nominal sentence Nouns can be main sentence parts {nominal sentence}. noun complement Nouns {noun complement} {complement, noun} can complete verbs.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Noun>Case case of noun Nouns have sentence uses {case, noun}|. grammar Nouns can be subjects {subjective case}. Nouns can be direct objects {objective case}. Nouns can show possession {possessive case}. Nouns can be indirect objects {nominative case}. Nouns can be adjectives {adnominal case}. Nouns can be objects used {instrumental case}. Nouns can be help to, or cause of, actions {agentive case}. Nouns can be accompaniments {comitative case}. Nouns can be hypothetical or conditional {subjunctive case}. meaning

34 Besides these grammatical functions, nouns can indicate space and time relations, prepositional object, person addressed, or place {locative case}. Nouns can be separate from rest of sentence {absolute case}. Nouns can be for becoming or transforming into something {factive case}. Nouns can name uninflected word form {common case}. types Cases can be nominative case, vocative case, and all other cases {oblique case}. substantive noun Nouns {substantive noun} can be adjectives.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Noun>Kinds common noun Nouns {common noun}| can be about classes or general things. Common nouns are not proper nouns and are not pronouns. proper noun Nouns {proper noun}| can be about particular thing or specific, named things.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Noun>Verbal gerund Verbs {gerund}| can be in noun form, as continuing actions, and can govern case. Verbals {gerundive} {verbal adjective} can be adjectives, typically after direct objects. Only Indo-European languages have gerunds. participle Verbs can be in noun form {participle}|, as completed actions. supine noun Verbal nouns {supine noun} can have unusual inflection. verbal noun Verbs {verbal, grammar}| can be nouns or adjectives, such as in infinitives, participles, gerunds, gerundives, and supines.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Noun>Gender gender in syntax Nouns can be male, female, or neutral {gender}|. Russian, Greek, Latin, and German use three genders. Languages can use two genders, male and female. Swahili uses six genders. Gender refers to social roles and other meanings besides biology. Some languages do not use gender. natural gender system In gender systems {natural gender system}, animate objects can be actual gender, and inanimate objects can be neuter. epicene Nouns {epicene} can be for male or female gender.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Noun>Number number of noun Nouns are singular or plural {number, grammar}. The idea of counting is in all languages. Chinese and Vietnamese do not use noun number categories but denote number by classifier words. Classical Greek, Sanskrit, and some Slavonic languages use number 2 {dual number}, as well as singular and plural. Fijian uses number 3 {trial number}. auxiliary numeral

35 If used with cardinal numbers, numerals can indicate classes {auxiliary numeral}, as in Japanese. count noun Nouns {count noun} can be enumerable. Count nouns can take indefinite articles and are plural. Bounded nouns, nouns about events, and telic nouns are similar to count nouns. mass noun Nouns {mass noun, syntax}| can be singular but about divisible objects. Mass nouns are similar to plural nouns. Unbounded nouns, nouns about processes, and atelic nouns are similar to mass nouns. numeral Numbers {numeral, noun}| can be cardinal, ordinal, iterative, multiplicative, or partitive. compound noun Nouns {compound noun} can combine two or more things, using connected nouns or more than one noun. collective noun Nouns {collective noun}, such as "orchestra", can be about sets of similar things.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Noun>Pronoun pronoun Nouns {antecedent, noun} {referent, noun} {pronoun}| can substitute for nouns. Pronouns agree with referents in number, person, and gender. Pronoun references should be to antecedents. Pronoun references should be unambiguous. Pronoun references should be definite. Pronoun references should be specific. person of noun Nouns can refer to speaker, hearer, others, or viewpoint {person, grammar}. All languages use person categories. Person is I, we, you, he, she, it, or they. Pronouns {exclusive personal pronoun} {inclusive personal pronoun} can delineate groupings. demonstrative pronoun Pronouns {demonstrative pronoun} can point to referents: this, that, these, and those. indefinite pronoun Pronouns {indefinite pronoun} can be general: some, someone, somebody, something, any, anyone, anybody, anything, everyone, everybody, everything, other, another, either, neither, all, many, few, each, both, one, none, nobody, and nothing. intensive pronoun Pronouns {intensive pronoun} can be for emphasis: myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself, itself, and themselves. interrogative pronoun Pronouns {interrogative pronoun} can be in questions: who, whose, what, whom, which, when, where, why, and how. obviative Pronoun forms {obviative} can refer to new third persons. personal pronoun Pronouns {personal pronoun} can substitute for people or things: I, me, my, mine, we, us, our, ours, you, your, yours, he, him, his, her, his, hers, it, its, they, them, their, and theirs. reflexive pronoun

36 Pronouns {reflexive pronoun} can show action on themselves: myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself, itself, and themselves. relative pronoun Pronouns can connect clauses to antecedents {relative pronoun}: that, which, who, whom, and whose.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Verb aspect of verb Verbs describe actions as completed, ongoing, or not completed {aspect}|. Aspect can be about action frequency, regularity, start, or type. Aspect relates to tense and mood. Aspect in Russian and Greek refers to completed or incomplete actions. Aspect in Greek can refer to short action length or future action. Not all languages use aspect. auxiliary verb Verbs {auxiliary verb} can convey tense and mood when used before perfect "have", progressive "be", or passive "be": can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, and would. copula Verbs {copula, grammar}| {linking verb} can link subject and complement: am, are, be, is, was, been. Verbs {substantive verb} can be "to be" and equivalents. Verb "to have" denotes possession. Verb "to be" denotes class member, having class, place, or time, or having existence. Verbs "to have" and "to be" carry only tense, mood, and aspect. Some languages do not use "to have" and/or "to be". familiar form in syntax Verbs can show kinship or familiarity {familiar form}. predicate Adjectives or verbs {predicate, grammar}| can state something about subjects or objects. Adjectives are about qualities and states. Verbs are about actions or states. Adverbs modify both adjectives and verbs. Simple predicates have one verb or verb phrase. reflexive verb Verbs {reflexive verb} can have subject and object. verb sentence Finite verbs can be main sentence parts {verb sentence}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Verb>Infinitive infinitive Verbs {infinitive}| can be secondary verbs. Infinitives typically have no person or number. Some languages have personal infinitives, with person and number. split infinitive Infinitives {split infinitive} can have an adverb between "to" and verb.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Verb>Mode mode of verb Verbs have different activity types {mode, verb}|. transitive verb Verbs {transitive verb}| can describe actions involving subject and direct object. intransitive verb Verbs {intransitive verb}| can denote class by common noun, describe class by adjective, or equate classes.

37 semi-transitive verb Verbs {semi-transitive verb} can have no passive but have direct objects.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Verb>Mood mood of verb Verbs are in statements, commands, wishes, questions, obligations, subjectives, exclamations, or possibilities {mood, verb}. Moods {conditional mood} can be for conditions. Not all languages use mood. Mood and tense relate. modal verb Verbs {modal verb} can directly show mood: may, can, will, shall, ought, must, and need. force in grammar Questions, exclamations, assertions, and other verbal phrases have different effects {force, grammar}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Verb>Person impersonal verb Verbs {impersonal verb} can use third person singular to denote action by unspecified agents. personal verb Verbs {personal verb} can be about I, us, you, he, she, it, or they.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Verb>Tense tense of verb Verbs describe actions in past, present, or future {tense, verb}|. Present, simple past, and future tense are main tenses {primary tense}. Tense {simple tense} can have no auxiliary. Not all languages use tense. Mood and tense relate. historical present Present tense {historical present} can stand in relation to past. perfect tense Actions or states can result from past actions or states {perfect tense}. pluperfect Actions or states can be about past {pluperfect} {past perfect tense}. preterit Tense can express that action was in past {preterit}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Verb>Voice voice of verb Verbs can be active, passive, or middle {voice, verb}|. Some languages do not have passive voice or middle voice. Languages with no passive voice can use voice {inactive voice}. active voice Verbs can describe subject actions {active voice}|. middle voice Verbs can describe actions that affect subject but objects do not act {middle voice}. passive voice Verbs can describe object actions on subjects {passive voice}|.

38

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Parsing parsing People can analyze words or sentences grammatically {parsing, grammar}|. sentence analysis Analyzing sentences {sentence analysis} involves substituting, expanding, removing ungrammatical productions, removing non-generative productions, and removing non-terminal symbols from end. Because sentences are complex, hearers can analyze same sentence in different ways. subject, verb, and object Each of the six possible sequences of subject, verb, and object appears in at least one human language. types String analysis can be bottom up or top down. Bottom-up analysis scans grammar rules to see if any apply to input string. Top-down analysis hypothesizes output sentences or phrase structures and tries to generate input string, trying grammar rules and backtracking if rule fails. sentence diagram Top-down parsers start with rules with variables and find places that match rules. Bottom-up parsers start with constants and make variables based on rules. Tree structures {parse tree, sentence} show how rules apply. Diagrams {sentence diagram, sentence} show sentence structures. Sentences can have different parse trees.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Syntax>Recursion recursive function grammar Because words, phrases, and sentences nest, grammar rules can use terms about themselves {recursion, grammar} {recursive function}|. In quantitative grammars, recursive functions {composition, grammar} can combine current function value f and second function value g to make new current function value f: f = f + g. Recursive functions {primitive recursion} can add one to current function value: f = f + 1. Recursive functions {minimalization} {multiple recursion} can modify current function value so it approaches a limit, typically using mu operator. Because quantitative grammars involve only integers, quantitative grammars can be algorithms. iteration Similar events or operations can repeat {iteration}|. For verbs, Hungarian and Finnish languages, but not English, have an iterative marker to convey sense of repetition, which acts semantically like a plural marker. nested phrase In speech, ends of nested or interrupting phrases {nested phrase}| typically have no marks. standard form of grammar Grammars can have no loops {standard form}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Kinds categorical grammar Grammars {categorical grammar} can relate speech categories by how categories modify other categories. Verbs, including adjectives, modify nouns. Adverbs modify verbs. Adverbs modify adverbs. constituent grammar Sentence words have a hierarchy of possibly concatenated smaller groups {constituent grammar} {immediate constituent grammar}. parts of speech Constituent grammar uses subject and predicate as fundamental categories. Other grammatical categories derive from them. rules

39 Rule sequences build word-group hierarchies. Sentence types have grammar rules, which speakers use for sentence generation, and which hearers use for sentence analysis. Sentence-type rules put high-level word groups in sequences. Sentence-type rules can have necessary parts, optional parts, and branching parts. Second-level grammar rules order words in word groups. Third-level grammar rules order words in subgroups, and so on. transformational grammar Grammars {transformational grammar} {generative grammar} can generate sentence patterns by mappings at levels. Language comprehension uses same levels and rules. structures Sentences have fundamental structure {deep structure} and structure {surface structure} mapped from deep structure. Deep structure relates grammatical units of simple, representative sentences, sometimes using semantic rules. Surface structure relates word categories, like constituent grammar does, and phonological rules affect it. Deep structure resolves ambiguities left open by surface structure. Predicate calculus is a transformational grammar. innate Perhaps, children learn language using innate brain function to decode syntax. universal grammar Super-rules can relate particular rules {universal grammar}. All children can learn all languages.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Kinds>Context

Backus-Naur form grammar Unrestricted and context-free grammars {Backus-Naur form grammar} allow symbol replacement with symbols or letters. context-free grammar Previous input and output can have no affect on output {context-free grammar}. Only current state determines output. context-sensitive grammar Current state and previous input and output can determine output {context-sensitive grammar}. finite state machine Input string and current state can determine output {finite state machine}. linear grammar Previous input can determine output, with no need to go backward or forward to find context or current state {linear grammar}. regular grammar Previous input about sentence and input string can determine output, with no need to go backward or forward to find context or current state {regular grammar}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Kinds>Substitution contracting grammar Simpler strings can substitute for more-complex strings {contracting grammar}. Simpler strings cannot replace strings {non-contracting grammar}. normal-form grammar Grammars {normal-form grammar} can allow symbols to become two symbols, for example, replacing sentence symbols with noun and verb symbols. standard-form grammar Grammars {standard-form grammar} can allow symbols to become one or two strings, for example, replacing speech-part symbols with letter strings.

40 well-formed grammar Grammars {well-formed grammar} can allow simple to complex substitutions.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Kinds>Quantitative quantitative grammar Grammar rules can be strings and functions, which take input strings and make output strings {quantitative grammar}. Strings can have unique integers, using Gödel numbering. String sets {enumerable set} can have unique integers. Quantitative grammars involve enumerable sets of input sentences, output sentences, and grammar rules. Recursive functions, algorithms, Turing machines, and Post axiomatic systems are mathematically equivalent ways to model quantitative grammars.

Post system Because quantitative grammars involve only integers, quantitative grammars {Post system} can be axiomatic systems, with axioms about strings and inference/grammar rules about speech parts.

SOCI>Linguistics>Grammar>Kinds>Quantitative>Formal formal grammar Grammars {formal grammar} can be quantitative.

Chomsky hierarchy Language processing and computer coding rely on grammar, which specifies sentence-structure rules. Parsing finds syntactical structure. Generating uses rules to create valid sentences. Syntax can have typical sentence structures {regular syntax}, for which words can substitute and which can be recursive {productive syntax}. grammars Noam Chomsky defined four generative-grammar classes, with different complexities {Chomsky hierarchy}. Type 0, with highest complexity, is General Grammars, such as Turing Machines. Type 0 grammars can be context-free, unrestricted, contracting, and freely substituting. Turing machines read input and write output anywhere on tape. Type 1 is Context-Sensitive Grammars, such as Linear Bounded Automata. Type 1 grammars can be context-sensitive, unrestricted, and non-contracting. Pushdown machines with finite tape read input and store output, after going backward and forward on tape until they find input string context that tells them what to do next. Type 2 is Context- Free Grammars, such as Pushdown Automata. Type 2 grammars can be context-free, unrestricted, and non-contracting. Pushdown machines read input and store output based solely on current state, without going backward or forward on tape. Type 3, with lowest complexity, is Regular Grammars, such as Finite State Automata. Type 3 grammars can be context-free or context-sensitive, regular, linear, and non-contracting. Finite-state machines read input tape, with no storage, until they find input string that tells them what to do next. computer language Computer languages must be deterministic, so parsing look-ahead is finite. Parsing non-deterministic languages requires trying all rules and/or guessing. Most unambiguous and ambiguous recursive transition networks are non- deterministic and cannot map to deterministic recursive transition networks. Non-deterministic finite state automata can map to deterministic finite state automata. generative grammar Grammars can have variables, which can have actions and include start symbols. Grammars can have constants, which can have no actions. Grammatical symbols are either variables or constants. Grammars can have rules of going from existing variable series to new variable/constant series. Generative grammars use finite sets of variables, constants, and rules. relation Grammar relations involve persons or things {direct object} and time. Relations can be states or events. States are know, believe, or have. States have experiencing subjects. Events involve agents {subject, relation}, instruments "with", beneficiaries "for", and places "on, in, at, above, below", moving, and communicating. States and events determine subject phrases. Events determine verb phrases. To communicate, write, or speak involves recipient "with or to", language "in", and/or topic "on or about". To move or walk involves source "from" and destination "to".

General Grammar

41 In type 0 {General Grammar}, rules start with variables and productions can be unbounded and context-sensitive. General Grammars are recursively enumerable. General Grammars are equivalent to Turing Machines.

Context Sensitive Grammar In type 1 {Context Sensitive Grammars}, rules start with variables, and productions are the same length or longer. Rules depend on nearby symbols. Context-sensitive grammars are equivalent to Linear Bounded Automata {non- deterministic Turing Machine}, which have left and right end markers that have no replacements and so bound strings. Context-sensitive grammars are recursive. Context-sensitive grammar-recognition algorithms are Pspace-complete and so can never complete. Context-free grammars plus symbol tables can model context-sensitive grammars.

Context-free Grammar of Chomsky In type 2 {Context-free Grammar}, rules start with variables and produce variable-and-constant series. Variables are start symbols for grammar subsets. Context-free grammars can accommodate parentheses. Rules do not depend on nearby symbols. Context-free grammars are equivalent to Recursive Transition Networks, which can refer to other transition networks. parsing Top-down parsers start with rules with variables and find places that match rules. Bottom-up parsers start with constants and make variables based on rules. Tree structures {parse tree, grammar} show how rules apply. Diagrams {sentence diagram, grammar} show sentence structure. Sentences can have more than one parse tree. ambiguity No universal algorithm can determine if context-free grammars are unambiguous or ambiguous or make ambiguous ones unambiguous. number Languages can have more than one context-free grammar. normal form Context-free grammars can have special forms {normal form, grammar}. Normal forms {Chomsky normal form} can have rules that make one variable into two variables or one constant, with no empty strings. Normal forms {Griebach normal form} can have rules that make one variable into two constants or one empty string.

Regular Grammar of Chomsky In type 3 {Regular Grammar}, rules start with variables and produces constant-and-variable series {right linear grammar}, or variable-and-constant series {left linear grammar}. There is only one variable and it is on right or left. All other symbols are constants. Simple transition networks are equivalent to regular grammars. Finite state automata (FSA) model regular grammars, because they have start state, finite number of states, set of rules from one constant to another constant, and finite set of terminal states. Regular Grammars use regular expressions: empty strings, variables, or repeated regular-expression strings.

SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics semantics People can know meaning {semantics}|, by association and by insight, as information patterns become meaning. beginning The simplest, earliest semantics related noun subjects or objects to verbs, to express causes, sources, goals, locations, and actions [Smith, 1985]. observation Meaning is about sense qualities, so observables can relate to other observables. Observing systems can compare observations to memorized observations. Comparing develops new concepts and categories. Meaning requires knowing something about property, not just property value. For example, meaning requires knowing something about red, not just intensity. Observations can be true, complete, and consistent. Word sense and reference change over time, position, and context, so there are no necessary or a priori truths. context Different languages use different categories and different category divisions. Meaning depends on definitions {lexicography, semantics}. Meaning depends on word terminology used in subjects. The same expression can have different meanings in different situations. Symbols ground only in their symbol systems. factors

42 Meaning involves specific factors that words or sentences can have. Words or sentences have semantic vectors, giving factor strengths, typically zero. Perhaps, words and sentences have semantic tensors, giving factor strengths and interactions. Vector or tensor sets are contexts. ambiguity Human languages are complex and typically have ambiguity, but formal languages do not allow ambiguity. word in English English has 5000 to 10,000 basic words. onomatology People study name origins and meanings {onomatology}. polysemy Words can have multiple related meanings {polysemy}. production of speech Processes {production, speech} {speech production} result in saying what one means. Timed, parallel processes connect words and ideas to reach states or sequences that satisfy phonology, syntax, grammar, and semantics constraints. Mostly-automatic processes use word and phrase probabilities. Feedback and feedforward processes adjust expression to content, and vice versa, and change phonetic structure into pattern of motor-nerve signals to speech muscles.

SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Meaning meaning Words relate to perceptions and actions, how inference rules use them, how they relate to other words, and how grammar uses them {meaning}. Words have linked conceptual, phonological, syntactic, perceptual, and motor structures. behavior Meaning can be listener behaviors or reactions, including linguistic reactions. People have behavior patterns {gesture, meaning}, which cause behavior patterns that modify original behavior patterns. Meaning happens in social contexts. Objects do not have intrinsic meaning but only cause behavioral responses. natural relation Meaning can depend on natural and physical relations, independent of mind. causes Meaning can derive from causes and effects {causal theory of meaning}. context Meaningful messages carry context, which receivers use to decipher messages. Meaning can be only useful relative to systems of meanings or relationships. Meaning can be about effects on hearers or readers {tone, speech} {speech tone}, by context or intonation, to arouse, quiet, confuse, or understand. Meaning can be reference and sense understanding. conventions Cause-and-effect, similarity, and other relation concepts are social conventions {nomos}. Signs depend on social conventions and minds. factors Meaning can involve special factors or features. Factors can interact. Words, sentences, or paragraphs can have or not have factors or have them in different degrees. mental states Meaning can involve similarities and differences among mental states. pattern recognition Meaning can be pattern recognition. Objects have associated actions and attributes, which are necessary or sufficient conditions. Meaning is not perception, idea, description, or intention. indexing Meaning can involve indexing or labeling. representation and movement correlation

43 Meaning can be relations that correlate changes or body movements with brain-representation changes. Perception and action always correlate. Motor behaviors and sense generalizations and distinctions evolved in tandem. Decisions depend on meaning. association Meaning can be relations among situations, events, or objects and so are classifications or associations. Distinguishing signs can carry meaning about something else, such as act of fleeing. Distinguishing marks can have meaning by convention, such as the word "flee". Meaning can be all words or object associations. sense qualities Sense qualities provide symbol references and meaning. Feelings and perceptions have meaning based on sense qualities. Concepts have meaning derived from feelings and perceptions. shapes Meaning can derive from similarities of written shapes to natural shapes {picture theory of meaning}. sounds Meaning can derive from speech-sound and natural-sound similarities {onomatopoeic theory of meaning}. symbol Symbol meaning can be relations to other symbols, which include perceptual, behavioral, and logical information. On the other hand, because symbols themselves have no meaning, relations among symbols have no meaning. Perhaps, semantic data is only syntax and representation, because everything follows laws. sentence meaning Sentence meaning is new information about environment. Sentence context, including grammar, determines information and changes with new sentences or words. statement meaning Statements are either true or false, must not be vague or ambivalent, must not be paradoxes, and must refer to existing things and events. However, most seeming statements are not statements, because they use words with different meanings in different contexts. propositions Meaning can be propositional statements about objects. Meaning can be about sentence types: command, statement, or question. meaning domain Meaning is about kinship, color, flora, fauna, weights, measures, military, money, morals, or aesthetics {domain, meaning} {meaning domain}. meaning postulate Brain has innate fundamental concepts and combination and inference rules {meaning postulate}. Innate grammar has paradigm and syntax and can construct new sense perceptions, beliefs, and memories. property list Attribute or characteristic sets {property list} can give word meaning. Properties do not change, do not interact, and are separate and independent. use theory of meaning Meaning is communication, speaking, writing, and social-interaction uses {use theory of meaning}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Understanding comprehension of meaning Mental processes {comprehension, linguistics} find language meaning. conceptual structure Speakers code understanding of physical and social world into mental representations {conceptual structure, semantics}, including perceptions and behavioral patterns. Conceptual structure is independent of language. context of situation Children and adults interpret what they hear based on current situation, speaker intention, and audience {context, semantics}. If they understand situation, they can use language appropriate to that situation.

44 first-person judgment First-person judgments {first-person judgment} are judgments about humans in general, not just about speaker.

SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Reference reference in language Denotation relates word or phrase to world part, aspect, or situation {reference, semantics}. All languages refer to things and events. Different symbolic representations can use different languages [Black, 1962] [Butterfield, 1986] [Chomsky, 2000] [Deacon, 1997] [Fodor and Lepore, 1992] [Fodor, 1975] [Fodor, 1987] [Fodor, 1990] [Fodor, 1994] [Geschwind and Levitsky, 1972] [Gunderson, 1975] [Lakoff, 1987] [Loewer and Rey, 1991] [Millikan, 1984] [Millikan, 1993] [Pinker, 1997] [Peacocke, 1983] [Pinker, 2002] [Rey, 1991] [Rey, 1993]. demonstrative meaning Demonstratives {demonstrative} involving perception have no direct reference or sense to another person. Demonstratives involving first person have direct reference and sense to person. Demonstratives involving second persons, third persons, or objects require sense to determine meaning. intension Contexts, words, or phrases have references {intension, semantics}| {intensionality}. Intensional things do not have to be true or exist. In languages {intensional language}, extension can fail, because context does not allow identical sets to substitute. Contexts, words, or phrases also have sense or meaning. person in semantics Children learn difference between "you" and "I" and so self {person, semantics}. Children learn about themselves by understanding their relations to other things, not just by association, imitation, or frequency. color words Dani (New Guinea) has two colors {color words}: black-blue-green {cool color} and white-red-yellow {warm color}. Languages can have three colors: black, white, and red-yellow. Languages can have four colors: black, blue- green, white, and red-yellow. English has black, brown, purple (violet), blue, green, yellow, orange, red, pink, white, and gray. Russian has black, brown, purple (violet), blue, light blue {goluboy}, green, yellow, orange, red, pink, white, and gray. There is no known physiological basis for these categories.

SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Reference>Kinds conceptual reference References can be about signals that bring referent to mind without causing response {conceptual reference, semantics}, such as category words. mimetic reference References can be about signals that imitate referent {mimetic reference, semantics}, such as same sounds. proxy reference References can be about signals that indicate sign {proxy reference, semantics}, such as alarm calls.

SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Reference>Token token in semantics Objects and events {token, semantics} can persist over time, cause phenomena, and be category members. Tokens refer to category, show category-member uses, and define category. Tokens referring to physical objects have many predicates. token-reflexive rule Tokens of "I" refer to whoever produced them {token-reflexive rule}. "I" produces both word "I" and concept "I". References of tokens of "I" refer to token, so token-reflexives cannot identify persons.

45

SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Truth argument overlap Propositions represent situations. Propositions overlap {argument overlap} results in understanding. asymmetric counterfactual Environments allow some things and do not allow others {asymmetric counterfactual dependence}, and things have relations. Thoughts causally depend on relations among things. bivalence Statements are either true or false {bivalence}. equivocation fallacy in semantics Correct signs can have more than one meaning {fallacy of equivocation} {equivocation fallacy}. Signs with more than one meaning can cause errors in thought and language. extension of set Predicates denote subject or set properties {extension, semantics}. formal semantics Formal systems can study semantics {formal semantics}. Formal model-theoretic semantics can create models that make language true. Truth-theoretic semantics can find statements that are true for all models. Semantics {possible world semantics} can create fictional models. Situation semantics can study communicators and communication situations.

SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Factors semantic relations Meaningful relations {semantic relations} include pairs: origin-destination, action-actor, difference-cause, recipient- method, motive-obstacle, trajectory-instrument, object-vehicle, and time-place [Bilgrami, 1992]. semantic differential Words and phrases differ {semantic differential} in goodness or badness, strength or weakness, activity or passivity, sentence position, and relation to other words. semantic component Word sets can have common factors {semantic component}. Words have semantic components. No semantic component is in all languages. Language independently determines semantic components. homologue in semantics Objects {homologue}| can have similar structure.

SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Definition definition in language Defining words {definition, semantics} {verbal definition} makes well-formed sound sets and points to objects. Objects have previously caused mental concepts to form in minds through visual or aural sense qualities. Mental concepts are word meaning. However, images are not necessarily concepts, thus requiring additional verbal information. Words can have circular definitions. Words can have legal definitions. parts Definitions can have essential portions {class, definition} and auxiliary portions {modifier, definition}. However, many words cannot be so defined. Words can require several essential or auxiliary parts. connotation

46 Word sense or context {connotation, semantics}| involves space, time, causes, actions, purposes, explanations, and problems. denotation References {denotation, definition}| relates words or phrases to world part, aspect, or situation. ostensive definition To show properties, definition can use examples or sample objects {ostensive definition, semantics}| {explanation by examples}. Ostensive definition can prove supposedly a-priori synthetic statements.

SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Metaphor metaphor in semantics Metaphors {metaphor, semantics} make analogies between two situations. context Context explains metaphor, because metaphor purpose was about context, not metaphor's usual meaning. similarity Metaphors use similarities between functions and structures, means and ends, conclusions and premises, effects and causes, and bodies and supports. understanding Understanding metaphorical language involves different language processes than comprehending literal language. Processes look at context, note that context does not allow literal word interpretation, and look for analogies, metaphors, and figurative language. interaction metaphor Meaning arises from actual-topic and analogous-topic interaction {interaction metaphor}. substitution metaphor Poetic or ornamental language can replace literal language {substitution metaphor}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Kinds bio-functionalism Representations represent as evolution designed them to do {bio-functionalism}. biosemantics Relation to behavior and/or evolution cause statements to have meaning {biosemantics}.

Cognitive Grammar Brain grammars {Cognitive Grammar} and semantics {Cognitive Semantics} can relate mental representations to language. Cognitive Grammar has rules to link syntactic categories {readjustment rule}, to link syntax and meaning {projection rule}, to link linguistic to non-linguistic concepts {correspondence rule, semantics}, and to infer concepts from other concepts logically, pragmatically, and heuristically. empirical semantics Word meanings are uses in situations {empirical semantics}. functional role semantics Meaning depends on possible cognitive uses {functional role semantics} {conceptual role semantics} {inferential role semantics} {procedural semantics}. hermeneutics To interpret texts, imagining others' experiences, in other locations and times, allows understanding of word and phrase meanings {hermeneutics}|. Physical data alone cannot explain human action, which needs mental-state analysis and interpretation. In studying and understanding, it is important to know writing style, intended audience, problem, and social and historical context. Writing can be formal or informal.

47 semiotic materialism People are entities that make signs {semiotic materialism}: "You are what speaks you." truth-conditional semantics Sentence meaning is conditions that make sentence true {truth-conditional semantics} {model-theoretic semantics} {Situation Semantics}. Only whole sentences have meaning.

SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Word parasynthesis Composition and derivation {parasynthesis} can form words.

SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Word>Structure word conceptual structure Words can have up to three open arguments {conceptual structure, word} {word, conceptual structure}. First argument is entity, such as event, object, or place. Second argument is token or type of event, object, or place. Third argument is relation. kernel of word Word parts {kernel, word} hold basic meaning.

SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Word>Subjects folk etymology Word changes can make words similar to familiar words, without regard to meaning or real etymology {folk etymology}. lexicography People make dictionaries and definitions {lexicography, words}|. terminology People study words used in subjects {terminology}|. vocabulary of words Average adult English-speaker knows ten to fifteen thousand object names {vocabulary, word}|.

SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Word>Relations acronym Words {acronym}| can have first letters of phrase words. antonym Words {antonym}| can mean the opposite of another word. cognate word Words {cognate word} in different languages can have same root. doublet word Words {doublet word} can derive from same word but be different in meaning. eponym Words {eponym}| can sound similar. heteronym

48 Same word spellings {heteronym}| can have different meanings and/or sounds. homonym Words {homonym}| can have same spelling and pronunciation as another word but have different meaning. paronym Words {paronym}| can derive from same word but have different meanings. pseudonym People can use names {pseudonym}| instead of real names. synonym Words {synonym, word}| can mean the same as other words.

SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Word>Kinds ghost word Made-up words {ghost word} can have errors in construction. loan word Words {loan word} can come from another language. neologism Words {neologism, word}| can be new or have new usages. partitive Words {partitive, parts}, such as "some", can denote parts. patronymic Names {patronymic}| can identify father.

SOCI>Linguistics>Semantics>Word>Kinds>Natural natural kind Terms {natural kind} can be person names or natural substances. rigid designator Terms {rigid designator}, such as person names or natural substances, can always mean same thing in physical and all other worlds.

SOCI>Linguistics>Symbol symbol in linguistics Physical objects or events {symbol, language} can cause perceptions that label, index, suggest, or reference other perceptions or concepts. form Nothing is intrinsically a symbol. Symbols can be diagrams, icons, physical objects, indexes, or names. Symbols can be singular terms, like proper nouns. Symbols can denote classes, like common nouns. Symbols can describe, like adjectives. Symbols can equate, like intransitive verbs. form: goals Symbol clusters can be goals, rewards, emotions, and memories. Emotions are symbolic reactions to symbol-cluster changes. Rewards are symbolic consequences of reaching goals. cause Marks or signs can stand for other objects and events by resemblance, through cause and effect, or by physical or mental connection. Symbols reference mental representations by rules, such as shape similarity, or by conventions, such as previous cultural references.

49 properties Symbols indicate objects and events. Symbols are signs, not what they physically are. Symbols are never more important than objects. Symbols are not concepts or definitions. Symbols have no meaning by themselves. relation Symbol-object relationships are one-way. Objects do not reference symbols. system Symbol sets can form reference systems, such as alphabets. Symbol sets can add rules to make languages for applying symbols. singular term Proper nouns {singular term} can designate particular objects.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing writing in linguistics Writing {writing system} can use pictograms in pictography, logograms in logography, or abstract signs in linear writing. Alphabet letters or characters have basic shapes. rebus principle Logograms can denote sounds {rebus principle}|. Added symbols can indicate intended words. boustrophedon Lines can alternate direction {boustrophedon}, always go left, always go right, go up and down, or always go down. acrophony First word sounds can be alphabet letters {acrophony, writing} {acrophonetic writing}. The first alphabet, Semitic, is an example.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Study grammatology People study writing {grammatology}. graphemis People study writing systems {graphemis}. orthography People study phonetic, syllabic, logographic, or ideographic alphabets {orthography}|. paleography People study old writing systems {paleography}. syllabary People can list written syllables {syllabary}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Method stenography Machine-typing methods {stenography}| can reduce number of letters for common words, to speed recording. tachygraphy Handwriting methods {tachygraphy} {shorthand} can reduce number of letters for common words, to speed recording.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Style

50 cursive writing Smooth flowing simplified handwriting {cursive writing}| is for everyday use. epigraphy Metal, stone, and clay have writing {epigraphy}. monumental writing Writing {monumental writing} can be on buildings and in official documents.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Alphabet alphabet Writing systems {alphabet, writing} use units that depend on sounds {phonetic alphabet, writing system}, syllables {syllabic alphabet, writing system}, or words {ideographic alphabet, writing system}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Alphabet>Linear

Arabic alphabet Arabic language uses a cursive alphabet {Arabic alphabet}, with words written right to left. Persian language uses Arabic alphabet plus four characters.

Aramaic alphabet Aramaic language developed an early alphabet {Aramaic alphabet}.

Cyrillic alphabet In Bulgaria, Cyril and Methodius derived a new alphabet {Cyrillic alphabet} from Greek, as they translated Bible from Greek into local languages in 9th century. Russia, Bulgaria, Serbia, and Ukraine use Cyrillic alphabet.

Devanagaii script In India, Sanskrit and Hindi in India use a script {Devanagaii script}.

Ethiopian alphabet Ethiopian language has a distinctive alphabet {Ethiopian alphabet}.

Germanic alphabet German language uses Roman alphabet {Germanic alphabet} plus special letters, such as ß.

Glagolitic alphabet Early Slavic languages used an alphabet {Glagolitic alphabet}.

Gothic alphabet In Bulgaria [300 to 400], bishop Ulfilas invented an alphabet {Gothic alphabet}.

Greek alphabet Alphabet {Greek alphabet} letters [-800] can be alpha, beta, gamma, delta, epsilon, zeta, eta, theta, iota, kappa, lambda, mu, nu, xi, omicron, pi, rho, sigma, tau, upsilon, phi, chi, psi, omega. Letters have uppercase and lowercase. Though a non-Indo-European language, Etruscan used Greek alphabet.

Hebrew alphabet Hebrew language uses a distinctive alphabet {Hebrew alphabet}.

Linear A alphabet Minoan syllabary {Linear A alphabet} had syllable symbols.

Linear B alphabet

51 Mycenae syllabary {Linear B alphabet} symbols were syllables with one consonant and one vowel. Mycenaeans introduced Linear B writing after they conquered Crete. ogham In Ireland [300 to 400], alphabet {ogham} was linear.

Pehlevi alphabet Old Persian [-200] used a script {Pehlevi alphabet}.

Phoenician alphabet Phoenicia had first linear alphabet {Phoenician alphabet} {West-Semitic alphabet} [-1700].

Roman alphabet In Italy [-700 to -600], alphabet {Roman alphabet} {Etruscan alphabet} was linear. rune of alphabet Early Germanic tribes developed signs {rune, letter}|. First six runic-alphabet letters are f, u, th, a, r, and k {futhark}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Alphabet>Logogram

Cherokee alphabet Sequoia or Sequoyah invented a syllabary {Cherokee alphabet} in North Carolina [1820].

Easter Island alphabet Easter Island had logograms {Easter Island alphabet}.

Hieroglyphic Hittite Hittite language had hieroglyphic logograms {Hieroglyphic Hittite}. hieroglyphics In Egypt [-3000], ideograph logograms {hieroglyphics, alphabet} were for consonants.

Indus Valley alphabet In Indus Valley [-2200], alphabet {Indus Valley alphabet} had logograms, not yet deciphered.

Mayan glyphs In Mexico, alphabet had logograms {Mayan glyphs}. proto-Elamite alphabet In Elam, alphabet had logograms {proto-Elamite alphabet}.

Zapotec alphabet In south Mexico, Zapotec language had logograms {Zapotec alphabet}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Alphabet>Logogram>Asia han'gul In Korea [1446], king Sejong invented script {han'gul}. hiragana Chinese can use cursive ideography {hiragana}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Alphabet>Logogram>Japan kana alphabet Japanese can use formal syllable-writing system {kana}.

52 kana majiri Japanese can use syllable-writing system {kana majiri}. Because it comes from hiragana, Chinese-ideogram translations use kana majiri. kanji Japanese syllable-writing systems {kanji} can have logograms. katakana Japanese syllable-writing system {katakana}, derived from Chinese ideograms, is for official documents and science.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Alphabet>Kinds ideographic alphabet Writing systems {ideographic alphabet, writing}| can use units about objects, not sounds. linear writing Writing systems {linear writing} can use sound-sign series. logography Writing systems {logography} can use logograms. phonetic alphabet Writing systems {phonetic alphabet, sounds}| can use units about sounds. pictography Writing systems {pictography}| can use pictograms. syllabic alphabet Writing systems {syllabic alphabet, linguistics} can use logograms about syllables.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Alphabet>Units glyph sign Alphabets can have word-like signs {glyph, sign}|. hieroglyph In ancient Egypt, pictographs {hieroglyph, picture}| represented words or syllables. ideogram Figures {ideogram}| {ideograph} can be for objects or symbols, not sounds. Ideograms can have added unpronounced semantic signs to denote categories. isotype Writing can have non-phonetic signs {isotype} of universal meaning. logogram Pictured objects {logogram}| can represent objects or sounds. Logograms can represent first word sounds {acrophony, logogram}. petroglyph Pictograms {petroglyph}| can be on rocks. phonetic symbol

53 In Chinese, symbols {phonetic, symbol} {phonetic complement} within compound ideographs can suggest pronunciation. pictogram Pictures {pictogram}| can denote objects and sounds.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Alphabet>Letters case in writing Letters can be full-size {uppercase} or smaller {lowercase} {case, writing}. contraction of words Words can use apostrophe to show letters that were left out {contraction, word} {word contraction}. ligature in writing Two letters can link {ligature, writing}| to improve appearance: ae, fi, ff, fl, oe, and tt. diphthong Two letters {digraph} {diphthong, letter}| can represent one sound. triphthong Three letters {triphthong} can represent one sound. zed Z {zed}. diacritical mark Letters can have additions {diacritical mark}| to basic shapes.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Alphabet>Letters>Sign hard sign A Russian letter {hard sign}, replaceable by apostrophe, is mute and is only in word middles. Bulgarian pronounces hard sign in word middles but not at word ends. soft sign Russian, Ukrainian, and Bulgarian have mute sign {soft sign}, with preceding consonant palatalized.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol ampersand & {ampersand}|. and symbol & {and symbol}. asterisk * {asterisk}|. at symbol @ {each symbol} {at symbol}|. broad arrow > {broad arrow}. care of symbol

54 % {care of}| {account of}. cents symbol ¢ {cents}|. copyrighted symbol (c) {copyrighted}|. cross symbol + {cross symbol}|. dagger † {dagger}|. dash symbol -- {dash symbol}|. dollar symbol $ {dollar}|. double dagger ‡ {double dagger}|. double quotation mark "..." {double quotation mark}|. etc. symbol &c. {etc.} {and so on}. index symbol hand with pointing index finger {index symbol}|. number symbol # {number symbol}|. percent symbol % {percent symbol}|. pipe | {pipe symbol}|. registered trademark (R) {registered trademark}|. section symbol § {section symbol}|. swung dash Tilde can have position like dash {swung dash}. trademark symbol (TM) {trademark}|.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>Punctuation apostrophe symbol

55 ' {apostrophe symbol}|. backslash Virgule can slant in opposite direction {backward slash} {backslash}|. brace symbol Brackets can be curly {brace symbol}|. bracket symbol [] {bracket symbol}| {square bracket symbol}. colon symbol : {colon symbol}|. ellipsis symbol ... {ellipsis symbol}|. exclamation point ! {exclamation point}|. full stop Statements can end with a mark {full stop} {period symbol}. hyphen - {hyphen}|. paragraph symbol ¶ {paragraph symbol}|. parentheses () {parentheses}|. question mark Questions end with ? {question mark}|. quotation mark "" {quotation mark}|. semicolon ; {semicolon}|. single quotation mark ' {single quotation mark}|. slant bar / {virgule} {slant bar}. slash / {slash}| {solidus, slash} {shilling, symbol}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>Proofreading close space sign Half-circle above space and half-circle below space {close space sign} mean close space. delete sign

56 / {delete sign} means delete character struck through. insert sign ^ {insert sign} means insert above caret. move sign Signs {move sign} mean move farther to left or right: [ ]. paragraph sign ¶ {paragraph sign} means start new paragraph. pound sign # {pound sign} means insert space.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>Letter Accent accent aigue ´ {accent aigue}. accent grave ` {accent grave}. acute accent ´ {acute accent}|. breve symbol Symbols {breve} over vowels can indicate shortened sound. caret ^ {caret}|. cedilla ç {cedilla}|. chevron ^ {chevron}|. circumflex ^ {circumflex}|. diacritic mark Marks {diacritic}| added to basic letters can change phonemes. grave accent ` {grave accent}|. macron ¯ {macron} over vowel indicates lengthened sound. quantity mark Diacritical marks {quantity mark} can show quantitative accents. Macron is long. Breve is short. tilde ~ {tilde}|. umlaut

57 ¨ {umlaut}| {diaeresis} {trema}. underscore _ {vinculum symbol} {underscore}|.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>General good luck charms Good luck charms {good luck charms} include shaking hands with chimney sweeps, rolling 7 on two dice, crossing fingers, and finding four-leaf clovers. Charms include horseshoes, horseshoe nail rings, Kewpie dolls, rabbit's feet, three monkeys, 4's, 7's, teddy bears, toadstools, and wishing wells. ribbons as symbols Ribbons {ribbons, contests} for contests are blue ribbon for first place, red ribbon for second place, white ribbon for third place, and other color ribbon for fourth place.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>Characters three of completion 3 {three of completion} is for beginning, middle, and end.

8 symbol eternity {8 symbol}.

9 symbol evil {9 symbol}.

A-1 symbol quality {A-1 symbol}.

SOS signal distress signal {SOS symbol}.

V sign victory {V sign}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>Pictogram all-seeing eye Eye {all-seeing eye} in triangle in circle is for vigilance. alpha and omega beginning and end {alpha and omega symbol}. ankh cross with top loop {ankh}|. ball and chain symbol bondage {ball and chain symbol}. ballot box symbol democracy {ballot box symbol}. bomb symbol nihilism or terrorism {bomb symbol}.

58 book and candle symbol knowledge {book and candle symbol}. bundle of arrows symbol unity {bundle of arrows symbol}. burning torch symbol knowledge {burning torch symbol}. caduceus symbol Medicine symbol has two snakes around pole {caduceus}|. calumet symbol peace {calumet symbol}. circle symbol eternity {circle symbol}. clasped hands symbol socialism {clasped hands symbol}. cornucopia symbol abundance {cornucopia symbol}. crown and scepter symbol monarchy {crown and scepter symbol}. distaff symbol domesticity {distaff symbol}. eye and nose symbol thoughtfulness {eye and nose symbol}. fasces symbol unity {fasces symbol}. fire and sword symbol war {fire and sword symbol}. five stars quality {five stars}. flabellum symbol papal authority {flabellum}. gargoyle symbol vigilance {gargoyle symbol}. gavel symbol democratic government {gavel symbol}. gong symbol beginning {gong symbol}. green cross symbol safety {green cross}.

59 hakenkreuz Nazism {hakenkreuz} {swastika}. hammer and sickle Communism {hammer and sickle}. hourglass symbol time {hourglass symbol}. infinite cross symbol eternity {infinite cross}.

Janus symbol beginning and end {Janus symbol}. lamp symbol nurse {lamp symbol}. mace symbol democratic government {mace symbol}. mask of comedy Masks {comedy mask} {mask of comedy}| can have smiles. mask of tragedy Masks {tragedy mask} {mask of tragedy}| can have frowns. micrometer symbol precision {micrometer symbol}. mirror symbol of truth truth {mirror symbol}. mortar and pestle symbol pharmacology {mortar and pestle symbol}|. nine gates of hell symbol evil {nine gates of hell symbol}. orb symbol monarchy {orb with top cross symbol}. palette symbol painting {palette symbol}|.

Phrygian cap symbol freedom {Phrygian cap symbol}. piggy bank symbol thriftiness {piggy bank symbol}. pillar symbol stability {pillar symbol}. raised fist symbol

60 threat {raised fist symbol}. raised gun symbol freedom {raised gun}. raised torch truth {raised torch}. red and white striped pole barber {red and white striped pole}. red cross symbol first aid {red cross}.

Rx take medicine {Rx symbol}|. scales and sword justice {scales with sword}|. skull and crossbones poison {skull and crossbones}|. skull and dagger symbol threat {skull and dagger symbol}. sundial symbol time {sundial symbol}. three balls symbol pawnbroker {three balls symbol}. tiara and keys symbol theocracy {tiara and keys symbol}. tower symbol stability {tower symbol}. triskellion progress {triskellion}. umbrella symbol divine power of Oriental leader {umbrella symbol}. weathervane symbol inconstancy {weathervane symbol}. whirlagig symbol inconstancy {whirlagig symbol}. white feather symbol cowardice {white feather symbol}. windmill symbol idealism {windmill symbol}.

61 yoke symbol bondage {yoke symbol}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>People

Amor epilogue {Amor}. angel symbol peace {angel, symbol}.

Cousin Michael Germany {Cousin Michael}.

Fama fame {Fama}.

Father Knickerbocker New York City {Father Knickerbocker}.

Father Time transience {Father Time}.

Grim Reaper death {Grim Reaper}.

Ivan symbol Russia {Ivan symbol}.

John Bull symbol England as cartoon person {John Bull}.

Justitia justice {Justitia}.

Lorelei seduction {Lorelei}.

Marianne France {Marianne}.

Mephistopheles devil {Mephistopheles}.

Pagliacci prologue {Pagliacci}. parson with umbrella prohibition {parson with umbrella symbol}.

Spirit of '76 USA revolution {Spirit of '76}.

St. George symbol courage {St. George symbol}.

62 Uncle Sam USA as cartoon person {Uncle Sam}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>Animal ant symbol diligence {ant symbol}. bear symbol strength {bear symbol}. beaver symbol diligence {beaver symbol}. beehive symbol industry {beehive symbol}. bulldog symbol tenacity {bulldog symbol}. bull symbol strength {bull symbol}. butterfly symbol inconstancy {butterfly symbol}.

Cerberus symbol vigilance {Cerberus symbol}. crab symbol perseverance {crab symbol}. crocodile symbol falsity {crocodile symbol}. dove symbol peace or innocence {dove symbol}. dragon vigilance {dragon}. eagle symbol courage {eagle symbol}. fox symbol slyness {fox symbol}.

Gallic cock symbol courage {Gallic cock symbol}. griffin symbol vigilance {griffin symbol}. lamb symbol innocence {lamb symbol}.

63 lion symbol courage {lion symbol}. mule symbol stubbornness {mule symbol}. owl symbol wisdom {owl symbol}. peacock symbol of vanity vanity {peacock symbol, vanity}.

Serpent Ouroboras biting tail eternity {Serpent Ouroboras biting tail to make circle}. serpent symbol for evil evil {serpent symbol}. squirrel symbol thriftiness {squirrel symbol}. tiger symbol of courage courage {tiger symbol, courage}. unicorn symbol virginity virginity {unicorn symbol, virginity}. whale symbol magnitude {whale symbol}. white swan symbol perfection {white swan symbol}. wivern vigilance {wivern}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>Plant almond symbol virginity {almond symbol}. laurel sign victory {laurel symbol}. lily symbol virginity {lily symbol}. oak branch sign victory {oak branch symbol}. olive branch symbol peace {olive branch symbol}. palm leaf symbol peace {palm leaf symbol}.

64 palm symbol achievement {palm symbol}. wreath symbol fame {wreath symbol}, with or without trumpet.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>Flag

Jolly Roger piracy {Jolly Roger}. red flag explosives or revolution {red flag symbol}. white flag of truce truce or surrender {white flag symbol}. yellow flag quarantine {yellow flag symbol}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>Magic hand of glory invisibility {hand of glory}. magic alphabet stylized alphabet {magic alphabet}. mandrake symbol invulnerability {mandrake symbol}.

Satan's ram {Satan's ram}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>Divination birds symbol augury {birds symbol}. crystal ball symbol gastromancy {crystal ball symbol}. fire symbol pyromancy {fire symbol}. palms symbol chiromancy {palms symbol}. serpents symbol augury {serpents symbol}. smoke symbol capnomancy {smoke symbol}. spirits symbol necromancy {spirits of the dead symbol}.

65 stars symbol astrology {stars symbol}. tea leaves symbol future {tea leaves symbol}. water symbol hydromancy {water symbol}. wind symbol aeromancy {wind symbol}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>Hermetic alchemic symbols Alchemic substances have symbols {alchemic symbols}. crucified rose {crucified rose}. crucified serpent {crucified serpent}. dragon of elements {dragon of elements}. fountain of youth {fountain of youth}. hermetic citadel {hermetic citadel}. hermetic sigil {hermetic sigil}.

Tarot cards Cards {Tarot cards} can add to the ordinary 52 to make 78 cards. Trump cards are for human attributes, desires, or events in life, such as Love trump, Devil trump, and Star trump. Four aces include rods for action, swords for struggle, cups for family, and pences for money. The Fool or Matto is the wild card. Tarot began in Milan, Italy, and Ferrara, Italy [1400 to 1500].

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>China bat symbol longevity and happiness {bat symbol}. cranes symbol longevity {cranes symbol}. dragon symbol good fortune and royalty {dragon symbol}. geomancer's compass {geomancer's compass}.

66 geomantic diagrams eight diagrams {geomantic diagrams}. geomantic hexagons sixty-four hexagons {geomantic hexagons}. pah-kwa Symbol against evil has a symbol {pah-kwa} on one side, a symbol {Monade} on other side, and yin-yang in middle. phoenix symbol peace and prosperity {phoenix symbol}. pine tree symbol longevity {pine tree symbol}. serpent symbol for creation creation {serpent symbol for creation}. three-legged toad symbol fortune and wealth {three-legged toad symbol}. tiger symbol China good gambling luck {tiger symbol, China}. tortoise symbol long life {tortoise symbol}. unicorn symbol China long life and fecundity {unicorn symbol, China}. yin-yang symbol creation-principle {yin-yang symbol}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Writing>Symbol>Japan horin-rimbo wheel of good law {horin-rimbo}. nade-takara-nusubi sacred knot of longevity {nade-takara-nusubi}. rising sun Japan {rising sun symbol}. three keys symbol love, health, and wealth {three keys symbol}. tomoye Shinto universe-revolution symbol {tomoye}. torii symbol Shinto purification symbol {torii symbol}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages

67 languages Languages {languages} are national.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English

English language English has abbreviations, adjectives, nouns, and verbs {English language}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Abbreviation

A and M agriculture and manufacturing {A and M}. a.k.a. also known as {a.k.a.}. a.m. ante meridiem {a.m.}.

AA alcoholics anonymous {AA}.

AAA American Automobile Association {AAA}.

AAU Amateur Athletic Union {AAU}.

AB bachelor of arts, or Alberta {AB}.

ABA American Bar Association {ABA}. abbr. abbreviation {abbr.}.

ABC American Broadcasting Company {ABC}. abr. abridged {abr.}. a-c air conditioning {a/c}. ac alternating current {ac}.

AD years anno domini {AD, year}.

Adm. administration {Adm.}. adv.

68 advertisement {adv.}.

AF air force {AF}.

AFB air force base {AFB}.

AFL-CIO American Federation of Labor - Congress of Industrial Organizations {AFL-CIO}. agt. agent {agt.}.

AKC American Kennel Club {AKC}.

AMA American Medical Association {AMA}. amt. amount {amt.}. anon. anonymous {anon.}.

AP Associated Press {AP}.

APB all points bulletin {APB}.

APO army post office {APO}. approx. approximately {approx.}. apt. apartment {apt.}. ar. arrivals {ar.}. arr. arrivals {arr.}.

ASAP as soon as possible {ASAP}.

ASCAP American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers {ASCAP}.

ASPCA American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals {ASPCA}.

69 assn. association {assn.}. asst. assistant {asst.}. att. attorney {att.}. attn. attention {attn.} {atty.}. aux. auxiliary {aux.}. avdp. avoirdupois {avdp.}.

Ave. avenue {Ave.}. avg. average {avg.}.

AWOL absent without leave {AWOL}. b barn barn {b, barn}.

BA bachelor of arts {BA}.

BBB Better Business Bureau {BBB}.

BBC British Broadcasting Company {BBC}.

BC before Christ {BC}. bldg. building {bldg.}. blvd. boulevard {blvd.}.

BMOC big man on campus {BMOC}.

BO body odor {BO}.

BOD biochemical oxygen demand {BOD}.

70

BP blood pressure {BP}. bros. brothers {bros.}.

BS bull shit {BS}.

BSA Boy Scouts of America {BSA}. bu. bureau {bu.}. b-w black and white {b/w}.

C of C Chamber of Commerce {C of C}.

CAB Civil Aeronautics Board {CAB}. cal. calories {cal.}.

Capt. captain {Capt.}.

CARE Cooperative for American Relief Everywhere {CARE}.

CBC Canadian Broadcasting Company {CBC}.

CBS Columbia Broadcasting Company {CBS}. cc cubic centimeters {cc}. ccw counterclockwise {ccw}.

CD certificate of deposit or compact disc {CD}.

Cdr. commander {Cdr.}.

CIA Central Intelligence Agency {CIA}. cie.

71 corporation {cie.}. c-o care of {c/o}.

CO commanding officer {CO}. co. company {co.}.

COD cash on delivery {COD}.

CPA certified public accountant {CPA}. cps centimeters per second {cps}.

CQ call to quarters {CQ}.

CRM customer relations management {CRM}. c-s chief of staff {c/s}.

CSF cerebrospinal fluid {CSF}. ct. count {ct.}. ctr. center {ctr.}. cu. cubic {cu.}. cw. clockwise {cw.}. cwt. hundredweight {cwt.}. cyl. cylinder {cyl.}.

DA district attorney {DA}.

DAR Daughters of the American Revolution {DAR}.

72 dbl. double {dbl.}.

DD demand draft or dishonorable discharge or doctor of divinity {DD}. dd. delivered {dd.}.

DDS Doctor of Dental Science {DDS}. dept. department {dept.}.

DFM design for manufacturability {DFM}.

DJ disc jockey {DJ}.

DLO dead letter office {DLO}. dn. down {dn.}.

DOA dead on arrival {DOA}. dr. doctor {dr.}.

DST daylight saving time {DST}.

DVM doctor of veterinary medicine {DVM}. dz. dozen {dz.}. e.g. exempli gratia or for example {e.g.}. ea. each {ea.}. ed. editor {ed.}.

EDA electronic design automation {EDA}.

EDT eastern daylight time {EDT}.

73

EENT eye ear nose and throat {EENT}.

EKG electrocardiogram {EKG}. el. elevation {el.}.

EMF electromotive force {EMF}.

EST Eastern Standard Time {EST}. et al. et alia or and others {et al.}. et seq. and following {et seq.}.

ETA estimated time of arrival {ETA}. ex. example {ex.}. exc. exchange {exc.}.

F temperature Fahrenheit {F, Fahrenheit}.

FAA Federal Aviation Authority {FAA}.

FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation {FBI}.

FCC Federal Communications Commission {FCC}.

FD fire department {FD}.

FDA Food and Drug Administration {FDA}.

FDIC Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation {FDIC}. ff. following {ff.}.

FFA

74 Future Farmers of America {FFA}.

FHA Federal Housing Authority {FHA}.

FICA Federal Insurance Contribution Act {FICA}.

FIFO first in first out {FIFO}. fl. fluid {fl.}. fps. feet per second or frames per second {fps.}.

Fr. French {Fr.}. freq. frequency {freq.}. frt. freight {frt.}. frwy. freeway {frwy.}. ft. foot {ft.}.

FTC Federal Trade Commission {FTC}. fwd. forward {fwd.}.

FYI for your information {FYI}.

GA general agent {GA}. gal. gallon {gal.}.

GAO General Accounting Office {GAO}.

GATT General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs {GATT}.

GCT Greenwich Civil Time {GCT}.

75 GHQ general headquarters {GHQ}.

GM General Motors {GM}.

GMT Greenwich Mean Time {GMT}.

GOP grand old party {GOP}. govt. government {govt.}.

GPA grade point average {GPA}. gpm. gallons per minute {gpm.}.

GPO Government Printing Office {GPO}.

GQ general quarters {GQ}. gr. grade {gr.}.

GSA General Services Administration {GSA}. gtd. guaranteed {gtd.}. hdqrs. headquarters {hdqrs.}. hdwe. hardware {hdwe.}. hf high frequency {hf}.

HMS ship her majesty's ship {HMS}. hon. honorable {hon.}. hp horsepower {hp}.

HQ headquarters {HQ}.

76 hr. hour {hr.}.

HS high school {HS}. ht. height {ht.}. hwy. highway {hwy.}. i.e. id est or that is {i.e.}. ib. ibidem or same place {ib.}. ibid. ibidem or same place {ibid.}.

ICBM intercontinental ballistic missile {ICBM}.

ICC Interstate Commerce Commission {ICC}.

ID identification {ID}. id. identification {id.}.

IFF identification friend or foe {IFF}.

ILO International Labor Organization {ILO}. imp. imperial gallon {imp.}. in. inch {in.}. inc. included {inc.}.

Ind. industry {Ind.}. inst. institution {inst.}. intl.

77 international {intl.}.

IOU I owe you {IOU}.

IR infrared {IR}.

IRS Internal Revenue Service {IRS}.

IU international units {IU}.

IUD intrauterine device {IUD}.

IV intravenous intravenous {IV}. jct. junction {jct.}. jg junior grade {jg}. jr. junior {jr.}.

JV junior varsity {JV}.

K of C Knights of Columbus {K of C}. kc kilocycles {kc}.

KKK Ku Klux Klan {KKK}.

KP kitchen patrol {KP}. kW kilowatts {kW}. kwh kilowatt hours {kwh}.

L.C. Library of Congress {L.C.}. lb. pound {lb.}.

78 lg. large {lg.}.

LIFO last in first out {LIFO}. ll. lines {ll.}.

LL.B. bachelor of law {LL.B.}.

LL.D. doctor of law {LL.D.}. loc. cit. place cited {loc. cit.}. log. logarithm {log.}. loq. speaks or loquitur {loq.}.

LPG liquefied petroleum gas {LPG}. lt. light {lt.}. ltd. limited {ltd.}.

MA abbreviation master of arts {MA}.

MC master of ceremonies {MC}.

MD medical doctor {MD}. mdse. merchandise {mdse.}.

Messrs. messieurs {Messrs.}. mfd manufactured {mfd}. mfg. manufacturing {mfg.}. mfr. manufacturer {mfr.}.

79 mgr. manager {mgr.}.

MIA missing in action {MIA}. misc. miscellaneous {misc.}.

Mlle mademoiselle {Mlle}.

MLM multilevel marketing {MLM}. People receive commissions from their own sales and from sales by people that they have recruited.

Mme madame {Mme}. mo. month {mo.}.

MP military police {MP}. mpg miles per gallon {mpg}. mph miles per hour {mph}.

MS manuscript {MS}.

Msgr. monsignor {Msgr.}.

MSS manuscript {MSS}.

NAACP National Association for the Advancement of Colored People {NAACP}.

NAM National Association of Manufacturers {NAM}.

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration {NASA}.

NATO organization North Atlantic Treaty Organization {NATO}.

NB note bene or note well {NB}.

80 NBA National Basketball Association {NBA}.

NBC National Broadcasting Company {NBC}.

NBS National Bureau of Standards {NBS}.

NCAA National Collegiate Athletic Association {NCAA}.

NCO non-commissioned officer {NCO}.

NEA National Endowment for the Arts {NEA}.

NFL National Football League {NFL}.

NHL National Hockey League {NHL}.

NLRB National Labor Relations Board {NLRB}. no. number {no.}. nos. numbers {nos.}.

NP notary public {NP}.

NSC National Security Council {NSC}.

NSF National Science Foundation {NSF}. nt. wt. net weight {nt. wt.}.

NW northwest {NW}.

NYC New York City {NYC}.

NYSE New York Stock Exchange {NYSE}. o-a on or about {o/a}.

81

OAS Organization of American States {OAS}. ob. obiter or incidentally {ob.}.

OC officer commanding {OC}.

OCS Officer Candidate School {OCS}. o-d on demand or overdraft {o/d}.

OD optometry doctor or officer of the day {OD}. op. opposite opposite or operation {op.}. op. cit. work cited {op. cit.}. opp. opposite {opp.}.

OS abbreviation ordinary seaman {OS}. o-s out of stock {o/s}. oz. ounce {oz.}. p.m. post meridiem {p.m.}.

PA public address public address {PA}.

PAL Police Athletic League {PAL}.

PBX private branch exchange {PBX}. pct percent {pct}.

PD police department {PD}. pd.

82 paid {pd.}.

PDQ pretty damn quick {PDQ}.

Pfc. private first class {Pfc.}. pg. page {pg.}.

PGA Professional Golfers Association {PGA}.

Ph.D. philosophy doctor {Ph.D.}.

PHS Public Health Service {PHS}. pj pajamas {pj}. pk park {pk}. pkg. package {pkg.}. pkwy parkway {pkwy}. pl. place or plural {pl.}.

PM post meridiem {PM}.

PO post office {PO}.

POE port of entry {POE}.

POW prisoner of war {POW}. pp. pages {pp.}. ppd. post paid {ppd.}.

PPI pages per inch or pixels per inch {PPI} {ppi}.

83 PPS post postscript {PPS}.

PR public relations {PR}. pr. pair or present {pr.}.

PS post script {PS}. pt. pint {pt.}.

PTA Parent-Teacher Association {PTA}.

Pvt. private {Pvt.}. pwr. power {pwr.}. q quart quart or quarter {q, quart}. q.t. secretly {q.t.}. q.v. which see or quod vide {q.v.}.

QED proved {QED}.

QM quarter master {QM}.

QT secret, or on the quiet {QT}. qt. quart {qt.}.

RAdm. rear admiral {RAdm.}.

RBC red blood cell {RBC}.

RC abbreviation Red Cross or Roman Catholic {RC}.

RD rural delivery {RD}.

84 rd. road {rd.}. recd. received {recd.}. reg. regular or regent or registered {reg.}.

RFD rural free delivery {RFD}.

RFP request for proposal {RFP}.

RIP rest in peace {RIP}. rm. room {rm.}.

RN registered nurse {RN}.

ROTC reserve officer training corps {ROTC}. rps revolutions per second {rps}.

RR railroad {RR}. rt. right {rt.}. rte route {rte}. rwy railway {rwy}.

SA Salvation Army {SA}.

SAC Strategic Air Command {SAC}.

SAE Society of Automotive Engineers {SAE}.

SB science bachelor {SB}.

SBA

85 Small Business Administration {SBA}.

Sc.D. science doctor {Sc.D.}.

SE southeast {SE}.

SEC Securities and Exchange Commission {SEC}. sec. section {sec.}. sect. section {sect.}. secy. secretary {secy.}. seq. sequence {seq.}. seqq. sequentia or the following {seqq.}. sf science fiction {sf}.

Sgt. sergeant {Sgt.}.

SJ Society of Jesus {SJ}. sm. small {sm.}.

SOP standard operating procedure {SOP}. sp. special {sp.}.

SPCA Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals {SPCA}.

SPQR Senate and People of Rome {SPQR}. sr. senior {sr.} {Sr.}.

SRO standing room only {SRO}.

86 SSS Selective Service System {SSS}.

St. street or saint street or saint {St.}. std. standard {std.}.

SW southwest {SW}. t ton ton {t}. tbs. tablespoon {tbs.}.

TKO technical knockout {TKO}.

TLC care tender loving care {TLC}.

TM transcendental meditation {TM}. tn ton {tn}. tpk. turnpike {tpk.}. tr. transitive or translated {tr.}. tsp. teaspoon {tsp.}.

TV television {TV}.

TVA Tennessee Valley Authority {TVA}. twp. township {twp.}.

U university union or university {U, university}.

U.S. United States {U.S.}.

UAW United Auto Workers {UAW}.

87 uhf ultra high frequency {uhf}.

UK United Kingdom {UK}.

UL Underwriters Laboratories {UL}.

UMW United Mine Workers {UMW}.

UN United Nations {UN}.

UNESCO United Nations Economic and Social and Cultural Organization {UNESCO}.

UNICEF United Nations International Children's Fund {UNICEF}.

UPI United Press International {UPI}.

USAF United States Air Force {USAF}.

USCG United States Coast Guard {USCG}.

USDA United States Department of Agriculture {USDA}.

USIA United States information Agency {USIA}.

USLTA United States Lawn Tennis Association {USLTA}.

USMC United States Marine Corps {USMC}.

USN United States Navy {USN}.

USO United Service Organization {USO}.

USP United States Pharmacopoeia {USP}.

USS United States Ship {USS}.

USSR

88 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics {USSR}. usu. usually {usu.}.

UV ultraviolet {UV}.

UW underwriter {UW}. v volt velocity or volt {v, volt}.

VA Veterans Administration {VA}.

VD venereal disease {VD}. vet veteran or veterinary {vet}.

VFD volunteer fire department {VFD}.

VFW Veterans of Foreign Wars {VFW}.

VIP very important person {VIP}. viz. see {viz.}.

VP vice president {VP}. vs. versus {vs.}.

VTOL vertical takeoff and landing {VTOL}. vv. vice versa {vv.}. w width work or week or width {w, width}.

WAC Women's Army Corps {WAC}.

WAF Women in Air Force {WAF}.

89 WAVES Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service {WAVES}.

WBC white blood cell {WBC}.

WC water closet {WC}.

WCTU Women's Christian Temperance Union {WCTU}. whsle. wholesale {whsle.}. wk. week {wk.}. w-o without {w/o}.

WPA Works Progress Administration {WPA}. wpm words per minute {wpm}. wt. weight {wt.}.

WW world war {WW}.

X Christ Christ {X, Christ}.

XL extra large {XL}. yd. yard {yd.}.

YMCA Young Men's Christian Association {YMCA}. yr. year {yr.}.

YWCA Young Women's Christian Association {YWCA}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Adjective adjective English Adjectives are about amount, personal traits, space, time, and states {adjective, English} {English, adjective}.

90 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Adjective>Amount appreciable somewhat large {appreciable}. bicameral two parts {bicameral}. big-ticket high-priced {big-ticket}. bountiful plentiful {bountiful} {bounteous}. capacious having large space {capacious}. cavernous having large space {cavernous}. copious large {copious}. cumulative additive additive {cumulative}. elephantine large {elephantine}. encyclopedic encompassing all information types {encyclopedic}. finite countable countable, limited {finite}. five-star top ranking {five-star}. hulking large {hulking}. imperceptible too small to sense {imperceptible}. inappreciable negligible {inappreciable}. incalculable too many to count {incalculable}. indiscernible too small to sense {indiscernible, small}. inestimable too high to give value to {inestimable}.

91 innumerable too many to count {innumerable}. insubstantial very small {insubstantial}. macroscopic large seeable without microscope {macroscopic}. miniature small {miniature}. minuscule small {minuscule}. monolithic large unified thing {monolithic}. multitudinous having many {multitudinous}. myriad having many {myriad}. nth item numbered n in series {nth}. paltry small {paltry}. vacant empty {vacant}. voluminous having large volume {voluminous}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Adjective>Personal Trait absorbed concentrating {absorbed}. absurd ridiculous {absurd, ridiculous}. abstemious abstaining {abstemious}. acerbic harsh {acerbic}. adamant unyielding {adamant}. affluent rich {affluent}.

92 aggrieved wronged {aggrieved}. aghast appalled {aghast}. agnate related through father {agnate}. alfresco nude {alfresco}. amatory sexually loving {amatory}. ambidextrous able to use both hands equally {ambidextrous}. ambivalent undecided {ambivalent}. ambulatory walking walking {ambulatory, walking}. amorous seeking and giving sexual love {amorous}. angular gangly gangly {angular}. answerable responsible {answerable}. anthropocentric perceiving only from human viewpoint {anthropocentric}. anthropomorphic attributing human characteristics to other things {anthropomorphic}. anticlerical against church doctrine {anticlerical}. apolitical not political {apolitical}. ardent eager {ardent}. ashen lacking blood in skin {ashen}. assertive stating preferences strongly {assertive}. atavistic old-fashioned {atavistic}.

93 audacious bold {audacious}. austere living simply {austere}. autogenous from same person {autogenous}. averse opposed {averse}. avuncular uncle-like {avuncular}. beady small {beady}. beardless young {beardless}. bisexual able to behave sexually as man or woman {bisexual}. brassy brash {brassy}. bumptious assertive {bumptious}. burly massive {burly}. buxom having large breasts {buxom}. carnal sensual {carnal}. carnivorous meat eating {carnivorous}. celibate not engaging in sexual intercourse {celibate}. cerebral adjective usually thinking {cerebral}. cheeky impertinent {cheeky}. clerical clerk or clergy about clergy or clerking {clerical}. cocksure

94 certain {cocksure}. coltish frisky {coltish}. come-hither come-here {come-hither}. communal shared shared {communal}. compliant yielding {compliant}. concerted working together {concerted}. congenital being born with {congenital}. conjugal about marriage {conjugal}. connubial about marriage {connubial}. consanguineous related {consanguineous}. consensual mutually agreed {consensual}. considerate thoughtful {considerate}. continent urination able to wait for urination {continent, control}. contrite repentant {contrite}. coping succeeding succeeding {coping}. corporeal about body {corporeal}. coy shy {coy}. crestfallen dispirited {crestfallen}. crusty gruff {crusty}.

95 cutaneous skin about skin {cutaneous}. defeatist accepting defeat {defeatist}. demonstrative gesturing gesturing {demonstrative, gesturing}. despairing having no hope {despairing}. destitute poor {destitute}. desultory directionless {desultory}. detached uncaring {detached}. devil-may-care carefree {devil-may-care}. devotional prayerful {devotional}. dewy-eyed tearful {dewy-eyed}. diffident timid {diffident}. disaffected no longer loyal {disaffected}. disconsolate sad and hopeless {disconsolate}. discriminating selective {discriminating}. disdainful proud {disdainful}. disinterested objective {disinterested}. dispassionate unperturbed {dispassionate}. dispirited disheartened {dispirited}. disquieted uneasiness {disquieted}.

96 distaff female female {distaff, female}. docile passive {docile}. doleful sad {doleful}. dolorous sad {dolorous}. dour sad {dour}. downbeat depressed {downbeat}. drab plain or not colorful {drab}. ducal about dukes {ducal}. dusky dark {dusky}. dyed-in-the-wool unchanging {dyed-in-the-wool}. earthy natural and common {earthy}. ebullient happy {ebullient}. effulgent radiant {effulgent}. effusive talkative {effusive}. elated very happy {elated}. elliptical roundabout roundabout {elliptical}. embattled struggling {embattled}. embittered bitter {embittered}. equivocal

97 hesitant {equivocal}. erogenous about sexual desire {erogenous}. erotic about sexual desire {erotic}. errant roving or immoral {errant}. erratic inconsistent {erratic}. escapist fantasizing {escapist}. ethnic cultural about cultures or races {ethnic}. exacting demanding {exacting}. expectant expecting {expectant}. exuberant lively {exuberant}. exultant rejoicing {exultant}. facetious flippant {facetious}. fallible possibly in error {fallible}. familial family about family {familial}. feisty aggressive {feisty}. fervent ardent {fervent} {fervid}. fey enchanted {fey}. filial children about children {filial}. flamboyant showy {flamboyant}.

98 flippant joking {flippant}. forsworn sworn previously {forsworn}. forward bold {forward}. fraternal brother about brothers {fraternal}. fraught distressed {fraught}. free-lance working for oneself {free-lance}. frenetic frantic {frenetic}. frolicsome playful {frolicsome}. fugitive fleeting {fugitive}. furtive stealthy {furtive}. garrulous talkative {garrulous}. gay happy {gay}. grandiloquent pompous {grandiloquent}. grandiose acting grand {grandiose}. gravid pregnant {gravid}. green-eyed envious {green-eyed}. gregarious sociable {gregarious}. grizzled gray {grizzled}. gustatory about taste {gustatory}.

99 guttural about throat {guttural}. habitable livable {habitable}. haggard gaunt {haggard}. halting hesitating hesitating {halting}. hangdog downcast {hangdog}. hard-bitten experienced {hard-bitten}. hard-boiled tough {hard-boiled}. hedonistic pleasure always pursuing pleasure {hedonistic}. herbivorous plant eating {herbivorous}. heretical holding unorthodox beliefs {heretical}. heterosexual sexually involved only with opposite sex {heterosexual}. hirsute hairy {hirsute}. honorific title {honorific}. horny lustful {horny}. housebroken able to wait to excrete outdoors {housebroken}. hubris pride {hubris}. hymeneal about weddings or marriages {hymeneal}. hypnotic fascinating causing sleep or fascination {hypnotic}. idolatrous

100 devoted {idolatrous}. impassioned passionate {impassioned}. impassive calm {impassive}. impecunious poor {impecunious}. imperious commanding {imperious}. impious not pious {impious}. implacable unyielding {implacable}. impolitic not tactful {impolitic}. impracticable not practical {impracticable}. improvident careless {improvident}. incommunicado located where one is not able to communicate {incommunicado}. indelicate insensitive {indelicate}. indigent poor {indigent}. indiscriminate random {indiscriminate}. indomitable undefeatable {indomitable}. inexorable unyielding {inexorable}. inner-directed motivated by one's own thoughts and feelings {inner-directed}. inscrutable enigmatic {inscrutable}. insensate unconscious {insensate}.

101 internecine among relatives {internecine}. intravenous in vein {intravenous}. intrusive interjected but unwanted {intrusive}. inveterate persisting {inveterate}. irate angry {irate}. irreconcilable unable to reach harmonious state between two parties {irreconcilable}. irresolute undecided {irresolute}. itinerant traveling {itinerant}. jaded desensitized {jaded}. jaundiced emotional {jaundiced}. jocose joking {jocose}. jocular joking {jocular}. jocund joking {jocund}. jubilant very happy {jubilant}. juvenile young young {juvenile}. kid glove handling with care {kid glove}. labored strained {labored}. lachrymose crying easily {lachrymose}. laconic terse {laconic}.

102 laggard lagging {laggard}. lame duck unre-electable {lame duck}. languid lazy {languid}. lascivious lewd {lascivious}. laureate honored {laureate}. leaden heavy {leaden}. leonine lion-like {leonine}. libidinous sexually desiring {libidinous}. livid red in the face {livid}. loath unwilling {loath}. loquacious talkative {loquacious}. lusty desiring sexual activity {lusty}. magisterial commanding {magisterial}. migratory always moving {migratory}. mimetic imitative imitative {mimetic}. ministerial acting like manager {ministerial}. moiling working {moiling}. monastic monkish {monastic}. moneyed

103 rich {moneyed}. mongrel mixed {mongrel}. mordant sarcastic sarcastic, trenchant {mordant}. morganatic about marriages between nobles and commoners in which spouse and children receive no titles {morganatic}. moribund dead {moribund}. morose sad {morose}. musing thinking {musing}. natal about birth {natal}. nationalistic too patriotic {nationalistic}. nauseous almost vomiting {nauseous}. nihilistic believing that values, ideas, and life are worthless {nihilistic}. non-committal not choosing {non-committal}. nonplused perplexed {nonplused}. nubile marriageable {nubile}. nuptial about weddings {nuptial}. nutritive giving nutrition {nutritive}. omnificent able to do anything {omnificent}. orgiastic reveling {orgiastic}. osseous about bones {osseous}.

104 otherworldly intellectual or imaginative {otherworldly}. partisan supporting faction {partisan}. passive inactive {passive}. paternalistic father-like {paternalistic}. pecuniary about money {pecuniary}. penitent repentant {penitent}. pensive being thoughtful {pensive}. perfunctory doing without caring {perfunctory}. pessimistic believing situation will end badly {pessimistic}. phobic being afraid {phobic}. piebald being spotted {piebald}. pious religious {pious}. piteous tending to cause pity {piteous}. pitiable tending to cause pity {pitiable}. pixilated drunk or eccentric {pixilated}. plaintive mournful {plaintive}. platonic not sexual {platonic}. plebeian common {plebeian}. poignant affecting {poignant}.

105 preadolescent pre-teenaged {preadolescent}. prepossessing impressing {prepossessing}. presumptive arrogant {presumptive}. proletarian working class {proletarian}. prolix wordy {prolix}. promiscuous several having more than one {promiscuous}. prone horizontal {prone}. protectionist protecting someone {protectionist}. prurient tending to arouse sexual feelings {prurient}. pubescent undergoing sexual maturation {pubescent}. puckish acting like Puck {puckish}. purulent containing pus {purulent}. pyknic short and stocky {pyknic}. querulous asking questions {querulous}. quixotic being idealistic {quixotic}. quizzical being puzzled {quizzical}. rabid being fanatical {rabid}. raffish being jaunty {raffish}. rakish

106 being jaunty {rakish}. ramrod being vertically straight {ramrod}. rapt paying attention {rapt}. raspy rough {raspy}. raucous noisy {raucous}. raunchy acting sexy {raunchy}. ravenous hungry {ravenous}. ravishing being beautiful {ravishing}. remorseless merciless {remorseless}. removed objective {removed}. repentant regretting {repentant}. repressed held back {repressed}. restive unable to stay still {restive}. reticent reluctant {reticent}. retiring shy {retiring}. reverential showing reverence {reverential}. rock-ribbed strong {rock-ribbed}. romantic impractical or always dreaming of romance {romantic}. sallow slightly yellow {sallow}.

107 salvable savable {salvable}. sanguinary about blood {sanguinary}. sardonic mocking {sardonic}. saturnine sardonic {saturnine}. savory tasty appetizing taste or smell {savory, taste}. scathing harsh {scathing}. sedate calm {sedate}. sedentary mostly sitting {sedentary}. sensate having senses {sensate}. sensitive perceiving even small things and being affected by them {sensitive, feeling}. sententious having important meaning {sententious}. sentient able to experience {sentient}. sesquipedalian using many syllables {sesquipedalian}. sheepish shy {sheepish}. sinewy strong but not massive {sinewy}. sloe-eyed having black eyes {sloe-eyed}. snaggletooth having sticking out tooth {snaggletooth}. snub-nosed having turned-up nose {snub-nosed}. somnolent sleepy {somnolent}.

108 soulful having feeling {soulful}. spare lean {spare, lean}. sportive playful {sportive}. stag alone alone {stag, alone}. staid restrained {staid}. stalwart strong and resolute {stalwart}. star-crossed having bad luck {star-crossed}. stately dignified {stately}. statuesque tall and shapely {statuesque}. stern strict strict {stern, strict}. stolid unemotional {stolid}. straitlaced acting only morally {straitlaced}. strapping tall {strapping}. strident harsh sounding {strident}. studied contrived {studied}. submissive acting according to another's will {submissive}. subordinate under {subordinate}. subservient servile {subservient}. subtle

109 able to make distinctions {subtle}. suggestible following other's suggestions {suggestible}. sultry sexy {sultry}. supercilious disdainful {supercilious}. supine lying down lying down {supine}. supple limber {supple}. swarthy dark {swarthy}. systemic about whole body {systemic}. taciturn uncommunicative {taciturn}. tempestuous tending to express temper {tempestuous}. tendinous about tendons {tendinous}. terse using few words {terse}. theatrical acting as if in theater {theatrical}. throaty coming from deep in throat {throaty}. timorous timid {timorous}. tongue in cheek facetious {tongue in cheek}. tremulous fearful {tremulous}. tweedy informal {tweedy}. unbridled free {unbridled}.

110 unctuous ingratiating {unctuous}. unilateral one side done by only one of two parties {unilateral}. unwitting not intentional {unwitting}. uxorious always deferring to one's wife {uxorious}. vehement insistent {vehement}. venerable old {venerable}. venial excusable {venial}. verbose wordy {verbose}. vestal chaste {vestal}. viable alive {viable}. visceral emotional emotional {visceral}. vociferous talking strongly {vociferous}. voluble talkative {voluble}. voluptuous having marked sexual features {voluptuous}. voracious very hungry {voracious}. waggish humorous {waggish}. wan pale, sad, or weak {wan}. wasted no energy {wasted}. whimsical odd {whimsical}.

111 white-collar office {white-collar}. wide-eyed naive {wide-eyed}. willowy thin and graceful {willowy}. wily sly {wily}. wistful yearning {wistful}. wizened old {wizened}. wry ironic {wry}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Adjective>Personal Trait>Bad aberrant not normal {aberrant}. abject wretched {abject}. abominable bad very bad {abominable}. abrasive irritating irritating {abrasive, irritating}. accursed having bad luck {accursed}. acidulous sour {acidulous}. acquisitive grasping {acquisitive}. aloof proud {aloof}. amoral without moral scruples {amoral}. anemic weak {anemic}. antisocial not sociable {antisocial}.

112 apprehensive anxious {apprehensive}. arch as haughty haughty {arch, haughty}. arrogant proud {arrogant}. artless natural {artless}. asinine stupid {asinine}. asocial not social {asocial}. atrocious bad {atrocious}. bald-faced brash {bald-faced}. bandy-legged bow-legged {bandy-legged}. bantam about person small and aggressive {bantam}. base common low {base, low}. baseborn not born to nobility {baseborn}. bellicose wanting to fight {bellicose}. belligerent aggressive {belligerent}. benighted ignorant {benighted}. bestial beast-like {bestial}. bigoted prejudiced {bigoted}. bilious irascible {bilious}. boorish

113 crude {boorish}. bovine cow-like {bovine}. brassbound unchanging {brassbound}. brazen bold {brazen}. brusque blunt {brusque}. bughouse crazy {bughouse}. bullheaded stubborn {bullheaded}. bullish optimistic or bullying {bullish}. bunco fast talking {bunco} {bunko}. caitiff cowardly {caitiff}. callous unfeeling {callous}. callow inexperienced {callow}. cantankerous irritable {cantankerous}. capricious impulsive {capricious}. captious faultfinding {captious}. catty spiteful {catty}. caustic critical sharp-tongued, critical {caustic, sharp-tongued}. cavalier uncaring carefree or uncaring {cavalier, uncaring}. chintzy gaudy and cheap {chintzy}.

114 churlish rude and surly {churlish}. clannish only interested in one's group {clannish}. closefisted not generous {closefisted}. cloying excessive {cloying}. combative wanting to fight {combative}. complacent smug {complacent}. compulsive impulsive {compulsive}. contentious argumentative {contentious}. contumacious rebellious {contumacious}. corpulent fat {corpulent}. covetous desirous {covetous}. crabbed irritable {crabbed}. crass coarse {crass}. craven cowardly {craven}. credulous gullible {credulous}. crotchety irritable {crotchety}. culpable responsible {culpable}. decadent enjoying luxuries {decadent}. delinquent not meeting law or requirement {delinquent}.

115 demoniac devil-like {demoniac}. demoted put in lower-level job {demoted}. dense understanding only slowly {dense}. depraved immoral {depraved}. derelict adjective failing to do duty {derelict, duty}. derisive mocking {derisive}. derogatory disparaging {derogatory}. designing scheming {designing, scheming}. despicable contemptible {despicable}. devious tricky {devious}. dictatorial always ordering {dictatorial}. dilatory delaying {dilatory}. diminutive short {diminutive}. disheveled poorly groomed {disheveled}. disingenuous deceitful {disingenuous}. dissolute immoral {dissolute}. divisive creating division {divisive}. doctrinaire dogmatic {doctrinaire}. dogmatic

116 following one theory {dogmatic}. donnish pedantic {donnish}. dowdy shabby {dowdy}. effeminate not manly or female-like {effeminate}. effete decadent {effete}. egocentric self-centered {egocentric}. evasive vague {evasive}. excruciating painful {excruciating}. execrable detestable {execrable}. exorable inexcusable {exorable}. faithless unfaithful {faithless}. fatuous foolish {fatuous}. feckless irresponsible {feckless}. feigned pretended {feigned}. flatulent pompous {flatulent}. fractious trouble-making {fractious}. froward disobedient {froward}. gauche tactless tactless {gauche, tactless}. gawkish awkward {gawkish}.

117 grasping greedy greedy {grasping}. gullible easily fooled {gullible}. hapless luckless {hapless}. hardheaded realistic or stubborn {hardheaded}. haughty proud {haughty}. heinous wicked {heinous}. hidebound conservative {hidebound}. high-hat snobbish {high-hat}. ignoble dishonorable {ignoble}. ignominious dishonorable {ignominious}. illiberal not liberal {illiberal}. immodest not modest {immodest}. incestuous having sexual intercourse with closely related person {incestuous}. incorrigible staying bad {incorrigible, staying bad}. indolent lazy {indolent}. infantile childish childish {infantile}. ingrate ungrateful {ingrate}. iniquitous sinful {iniquitous}. insolent disrespectful and rude {insolent}.

118 insufferable intolerable {insufferable}. insular small-minded or isolated {insular}. intransigent stubborn {intransigent}. invidious causing bad feelings {invidious}. irascible temperamental {irascible}. ironbound unchanging {ironbound}. jejune immature {jejune}. lecherous too sexually active {lecherous}. licentious immoral {licentious}. light-fingered thieving {light-fingered}. listless directionless {listless}. maladroit clumsy {maladroit}. maleficent evil acting {maleficent}. malevolent evil {malevolent}. maudlin too sentimental {maudlin}. mawkish too sentimental {mawkish}. melodramatic exaggerated {melodramatic}. mercenary money only for money {mercenary, money}. mercurial

119 quick tempered {mercurial}. meretricious vulgarly attractive {meretricious}. mincing affected {mincing}. monstrous very bad {monstrous}. mousy timid {mousy}. nefarious wicked {nefarious}. negativistic pessimistic {negativistic}. niggardly miserly {niggardly}. niggling petty or fastidious {niggling}. obdurate stubborn {obdurate}. obese fat {obese}. obsequious servile {obsequious}. obstreperous defiant {obstreperous}. obtrusive forcing on others {obtrusive}. obtuse stupid stupid and unable to understand {obtuse}. odious repugnant {odious}. officious offering advice {officious}. old-line traditional or conservative {old-line}. opinionated holding strong opinions {opinionated}.

120 opportunistic immorally or uncaringly taking advantage {opportunistic}. overweening overbearing {overweening}. pallid pale {pallid}. parochial provincial provincial {parochial}. pathetic pitiful pitiful {pathetic}. paunchy fat {paunchy}. pear-shaped having wide hips {pear-shaped}. pedestrian slow {pedestrian}. perverse persisting {perverse}. petty unimportant insisting on unimportant things {petty}. petulant being easily irritated {petulant}. picayune being petty {picayune}. pigeon-toed having turned-in feet {pigeon-toed}. pigheaded stubborn {pigheaded}. pompous pretentious {pompous}. ponderous heavy {ponderous}. porcine pig-like {porcine}. portly fat {portly}. predatory plundering plundering {predatory}.

121 pretentious pretending {pretentious}. prodigal erring {prodigal}. profligate wasteful {profligate}. provincial narrow-mindedness {provincial}. puerile being childish {puerile}. pugnacious wanting to fight {pugnacious}. purblind understanding only slowly {purblind}. puritan being morally strict {puritan}. pusillanimous being coward {pusillanimous}. rapacious avaricious {rapacious}. reactionary wanting to return to previous times {reactionary}. recalcitrant resisting advice {recalcitrant}. refractory obstinate obstinate {refractory, obstinate}. reprehensible very bad {reprehensible}. rude discourteous {rude}. sanctimonious showily pious {sanctimonious}. saurian reptilian {saurian}. scurrilous abusive {scurrilous}. seedy

122 shabby {seedy}. self-seeking thinking only about self {self-seeking}. self-serving acting to help oneself {self-serving}. senescent age-caused ability loss {senescent}. servile subservient {servile}. slavish subservient {slavish}. slothful lazy {slothful}. smug complacent {smug}. snappish speaking sharply {snappish}. snide disparaging {snide}. sophistic using questionable reasoning {sophistic}. sophomoric immature {sophomoric}. sottish drunk {sottish}. spineless coward {spineless}. stodgy acting only in uninteresting ways {stodgy}. stony emotionless {stony}. sullen morose {sullen}. surly sullen {surly}. tacky sticky {tacky}.

123 tendentious biased {tendentious}. testy irritable {testy}. torpid slow {torpid}. truculent wanting to fight {truculent}. tyrannical acting like tyrant {tyrannical}. unbending unchanging {unbending}. unconscionable excessive {unconscionable}. uncouth uncivilized {uncouth}. ungainly awkward {ungainly}. unkempt not well-groomed {unkempt}. unregenerate stubborn {unregenerate}. unsavory having poor morals {unsavory}. unstudied natural {unstudied}. untutored ignorant {untutored}. vacuous stupid {vacuous}. vainglory pride {vainglory}. vapid not lively {vapid}. venal corrupt {venal}. vindictive wanting vengeance {vindictive}.

124 virulent hostile {virulent}. volatile quick to anger {volatile}. wanton unrestrained {wanton}. waspish irritable {waspish}. willful doing whatever one wants {willful}. withdrawn having no emotion {withdrawn}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Adjective>Personal Trait>Good aboveboard sincere {aboveboard}. accomplished skilled {accomplished}. adept skilled {adept}. adroit skilled {adroit}. affable accommodating {affable}. agile nimble {agile}. amenable agreeable {amenable}. amiable pleasant {amiable}. amicable friendly friendly {amicable}. artful skilled {artful}. articulate adjective well-spoken {articulate, well-spoken}. assiduous diligent {assiduous}.

125 astute judging well {astute}. attentive attending {attentive}. august dignified {august}. autonomous independent {autonomous}. beatific bliss {beatific}. beneficent charitable {beneficent}. benevolent good-natured {benevolent}. bilingual knowing two languages {bilingual}. canny smart {canny}. chary careful {chary}. chaste modest {chaste}. chivalrous gallant {chivalrous}. circumspect careful {circumspect}. civil polite polite {civil}. cognizant knowing {cognizant}. collected calm {collected}. comely good-looking {comely}. communicative liking to communicate {communicative}. companionable

126 sociable {companionable}. composed calm {composed}. conversant knowledgeable {conversant}. convivial sociable {convivial}. cosmopolitan sophisticated {cosmopolitan}. courtly polite polite {courtly}. dapper well-dressed {dapper}. debonair jaunty and charming {debonair}. decorous proper {decorous}. deferential yielding to others {deferential}. deft skilled {deft}. demure modest {demure}. dexterous skilled with hands {dexterous}. diplomatic tactful tactful {diplomatic}. disarming making opponent feel at ease {disarming}. discerning discriminating {discerning}. discrete careful careful {discrete}. doughty brave {doughty}. droll funny {droll}.

127 eclectic interested in many different things {eclectic}. educable teachable {educable}. egalitarian supporting equality {egalitarian}. eminent noble noble, high {eminent}. empathic understanding {empathic}. engaging charming {engaging}. equable calm {equable}. erudite knowledgeable {erudite}. evenhanded just {evenhanded}. exemplary setting good example {exemplary}. expansive outgoing {expansive}. fastidious meticulous {fastidious}. fetching attractive {fetching}. fluent well-spoken {fluent}. frank plainspoken {frank}. gallant chivalrous {gallant}. genteel polite {genteel}. guileless sincere {guileless}. hale healthy {hale}.

128 heady alert {heady}. hospitable receptive {hospitable}. humane compassionate {humane}. humanitarian improving others' lives {humanitarian}. illustrious celebrated {illustrious}. impeccable correct {impeccable}. imperturbable calm {imperturbable}. indefatigable tireless {indefatigable}. intrepid brave {intrepid}. irreproachable never immoral {irreproachable}. jovial happy {jovial}. judicial careful careful {judicial}. judicious careful {judicious}. keen eager {keen}. laudable praiseworthy {laudable}. laudatory praising {laudatory}. learned knowledgeable knowledgeable {learned}. lettered well-read {lettered}. lily-white

129 pure {lily-white}. lissome lithe {lissome}. literate able to read or well-read {literate}. lithe graceful {lithe}. lucid clear clear {lucid}. mannered polite {mannered}. measured regular {measured}. meritorious deserving reward {meritorious}. methodical following method {methodical}. meticulous careful {meticulous}. moxie bravery {moxie}. munificent generous {munificent}. natty well-dressed {natty}. percipient perceiving well {percipient}. personable having good personality {personable}. perspicacious perceiving well {perspicacious}. perspicuous being perceived easily {perspicuous}. philosophic being objective {philosophic}. phlegmatic staying calm {phlegmatic}.

130 politic judicious {politic}. pragmatic practical {pragmatic}. prescient having foresight {prescient}. presentient having foreknowledge {presentient}. prestigious high status {prestigious}. progressive liberal working for progress {progressive}. rangy tall {rangy}. rational reason reasoning well {rational}. redoubtable formidable {redoubtable}. refined cultured {refined}. regal royal-like {regal}. reputable having good reputation {reputable}. reserved not outgoing {reserved}. resolute determined {resolute}. righteous acting morally {righteous}. sagacious wise {sagacious}. salutatory welcoming {salutatory}. sanguine calm calm {sanguine, calm}. sapient thinking well {sapient}.

131 sedulous diligent {sedulous}. self-effacing modest {self-effacing}. selfless not thinking about self {selfless}. sensible not acting unreasonably {sensible}. serene calm {serene}. solicitous concerned {solicitous}. studious often studying {studious}. temperate moderate moderate {temperate, disposition}. tempered experienced shaped by experience {tempered}. tenacious not giving up {tenacious}. unaffected natural {unaffected}. unassuming modest {unassuming}. unerring always correct {unerring}. unimpeachable always correct {unimpeachable}. urbane cultured {urbane}. vigilant alert {vigilant}. virile manly {virile}. winning charming {winning}. winsome

132 charming {winsome}. wiry strong and slim {wiry}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Adjective>Space abreast alongside {abreast}. acentric off-center {acentric}. adjacent beside {adjacent}. adjoining touching {adjoining}. alpine mountain {alpine}. ambient surrounding {ambient}. amorphous shape any-shaped {amorphous}. annular ring-like {annular}. anterior in front in front {anterior}. aquiline curved {aquiline}. ascendant going up {ascendant}. astral star about stars {astral}. asymmetric unsymmetrical not symmetrical {asymmetric}. axial adjective on axis {axial}. beveled angled {beveled}. bipartite having two parts {bipartite}. bulbous

133 bulb-shaped {bulbous}. buoyant floating {buoyant}. cattycorner diagonal from {cattycorner}. celestial about sky {celestial}. circuitous going around {circuitous}. coaxial axis having same axis {coaxial}. collinear on same line {collinear}. commodious having large interior {commodious}. conterminous having same end {conterminous}. contiguous touching {contiguous}. cosmic universal universal {cosmic}. coterminous having same end {coterminous}. crescent curved curved {crescent}. diametric about diameter {diametric}. discontinuous having gaps or angles {discontinuous}. elevated high high {elevated, high}. elysian heavenly {elysian}. equidistant having same distance from two other things {equidistant}. extraterrestrial not on Earth {extraterrestrial}.

134 fluted grooved {fluted}. foliate flower having flower shapes {foliate}. fusiform cigar-shaped cigar-shaped {fusiform}. gatefold having folded pages {gatefold}. helical screw-shaped {helical}. hyperborean polar polar {hyperborean}. inlaid inset {inlaid}. isometric measure equal measure in all dimensions {isometric}. isotonic having equal tension in all dimensions {isotonic}. lateral sideways sideways, to side {lateral, sideways}. manifold as many many {manifold, many}. meristic segmented {meristic}. misshapen misshaped {misshapen}. nether low {nether}. oblate ovoid flattened at poles {oblate}. oblique not direct {oblique, not direct}. oblong having width greater than height {oblong}. oriental eastern {oriental}. orotund round {orotund}.

135 ovate oval in three dimensions {ovate}. ovoid oval in three dimensions {ovoid}. penult next-to-last {penult, next-to-last} {penultimate}. planar flat flat {planar}. plexiform being overlapping network {plexiform}. precipitous steep {precipitous}. protean changing shape {protean}. pyriform pear-shaped {pyriform}. rotund round {rotund}. serial sequential sequential {serial}. serpentine winding winding {serpentine, winding}. serrate toothed {serrate}. serried crowded {serried}. singular special special {singular}. sinuous winding {sinuous}. stellate star star-shaped {stellate}. subjacent underneath {subjacent}. subterranean underground {subterranean}. toroid

136 torus {toroid}. tortuous winding {tortuous}. trackless having no markings {trackless}. transverse across across {transverse}. tripartite having three parts {tripartite}. tubular tube-like {tubular}. ubiquitous everywhere {ubiquitous}. ulterior outside the known {ulterior}. vallate having raised edges around lower area {vallate}. variform having various shapes {variform}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Adjective>State abysmal profound {abysmal}. academic impractical not practical {academic}. admissible acceptable {admissible}. advantageous giving advantage {advantageous}. aesthetic about beauty or art {aesthetic}. allegorical symbolic {allegorical}. ambiguous both having two meanings {ambiguous, both}. analogous similar {analogous, similar}. ancillary

137 added {ancillary}. anomalous abnormal abnormal {anomalous}. anonymous having no named author {anonymous}. antithetical opposite {antithetical}. apocryphal not authentic {apocryphal}. appellate about appeals {appellate}. applicable applying {applicable}. apposite appropriate {apposite}. apropos appropriate {apropos}. apt fitting {apt, state}. arbitrary capricious {arbitrary}. arcane esoteric {arcane}. arduous difficult {arduous}. arrant complete {arrant}. arresting interesting {arresting}. attributive adjective {attributive}. atypical untypical not typical {atypical}. auspicious favorable {auspicious}. authoritative from authority {authoritative}.

138 auxiliary supplementary supplementary {auxiliary}. avid eager {avid}. avowed vouched for {avowed}. backdoor behind back {backdoor}. backstairs behind scenes {backstairs}. bated held {bated}. benign adjective not harmful {benign}. bipartisan about two parties {bipartisan}. biting sharp {biting}. bittersweet happy and sad {bittersweet}. blithe carefree {blithe}. blue chip highest rank {blue chip}. blue ribbon first quality {blue ribbon}. blue-collar laborer {blue-collar}. bread-and-butter basic {bread-and-butter}. bucolic pastoral {bucolic, pastoral}. canonical orthodox orthodox {canonical}. categorical adjective absolute {categorical}. cathartic purgative {cathartic}.

139 catholic general {catholic}. charitable generous {charitable}. chimerical imaginary {chimerical}. chivalric about chivalry {chivalric}. circumstantial indirect or associative {circumstantial}. civic about citizenship {civic}. clandestine secret {clandestine}. clarion clear and alerting {clarion}. classic traditional traditional and high quality {classic} {classical}. climactic about climax {climactic}. cloak-and-dagger secret {cloak-and-dagger}. coequal equal {coequal}. cogent coherent {cogent}. coherent logical logical and connected {coherent}. cohesive sticking together {cohesive}. colloquial about informal expression {colloquial}. combinative combining combining {combinative}. combinatorial combining about combining {combinatorial}. commemorative

140 remembering {commemorative}. commensurable measurable in same way {commensurable}. commensurate corresponding {commensurate}. communicable transferable {communicable}. compatible working together well {compatible}. composite mixed mixed {composite}. comprehensible understandable {comprehensible}. comprehensive including everything {comprehensive}. conceptual ideas about ideas {conceptual}. concise brief {concise}. confluent coming together {confluent}. congruous harmonious {congruous}. conjectural about conjecture {conjectural}. considered thought out {considered}. constitutive essential essential {constitutive}. consubstantial having same substance {consubstantial}. consummate perfect and complete {consummate}. corporate about corporation {corporate}. covert secret secret {covert}.

141 credible believable {credible} {creditable}. cryptic coded {cryptic}. cutting sharp sharp {cutting}. deathless timeless {deathless}. declamatory declaiming about declaiming {declamatory}. definitive authoritative complete and authoritative {definitive}. defunct no longer existing {defunct}. delectable tasting good {delectable}. demonstrable provable {demonstrable}. discursive discourse about discourse {discursive}. disparate dissimilar {disparate}. dissociable separable {dissociable}. divergent separate starting from same place but going in different directions {divergent}. divers having variety {divers} {diverse}. dormant resting {dormant}. ecumenical universal {ecumenical}. efficacious effective {efficacious}. ejaculatory exclaiming {ejaculatory}. elastic flexible flexible {elastic}.

142 elective not required {elective}. elemental basic {elemental}. emblematic symbolic symbolic {emblematic}. embryonic beginning beginning {embryonic}. empirical observable observable {empirical}. endemic about place or group {endemic}. endogenous within {endogenous}. engrossing interesting {engrossing}. enigmatic puzzling {enigmatic}. epic important important {epic}. equitable fair {equitable}. equivalent equal equal {equivalent, equal}. erstwhile former {erstwhile}. esoteric understandable only by few {esoteric}. especial special {especial}. ethereal delicate {ethereal}. evocative evoking {evocative}. exceptionable unusually good {exceptionable}. excrescent

143 growing abnormally {excrescent}. excursive digressive {excursive}. exhaustive complete {exhaustive}. exigent urgent {exigent}. exogenous outside body {exogenous}. exorbitant too high {exorbitant}. exotic strange strange {exotic}. expedient ignored principles in reaching goal {expedient}. expeditious efficient {expeditious}. expendable discardable {expendable}. explanatory explain explaining {explanatory}. explicable explainable {explicable}. explicatory about explication {explicatory}. explicit specific specific {explicit}. expository exposition about exposition {expository}. expressive meaningful {expressive}. expurgatory about removing obscenity or controversy {expurgatory}. extemporaneous spontaneous {extemporaneous}. extensible extendible {extensible}.

144 extenuating excusable {extenuating}. extracurricular outside curriculum, such as sports and clubs {extracurricular}. extralegal outside law {extralegal}. extraneous inessential inessential {extraneous}. extrinsic from outside {extrinsic}. extrusive pushed through {extrusive}. facile easy {facile}. factitious artificial {factitious}. fancy-free carefree {fancy-free}. farcical about farce {farcical}. fatalistic resigned to fate {fatalistic}. feasible doable {feasible}. fecund productive {fecund}. federal national about united states, national {federal}. felicitous apt and flowing {felicitous}. fell falling {fell}. fertile able to produce {fertile}. festive celebratory {festive}. fictitious imaginary {fictitious}.

145 fictive imaginary {fictive}. fiscal money about money {fiscal}. fixed constant {fixed}. florid flowery {florid}. forensic about debates or legal proceedings {forensic}. forgettable insignificant {forgettable}. formalistic being formal {formalistic}. formative developing developing {formative, developing}. fortuitous lucky {fortuitous}. freestanding unsupported {freestanding}. full-dress with costumes {full-dress}. fulsome excessive {fulsome}. funerary about funerals {funerary}. funereal sad {funereal}. generic general {generic}. germane apt {germane}. germinal in early development {germinal}. gilt-edged highest quality {gilt-edged}. gospel

146 absolute {gospel}. graphic pictured explicitly pictured {graphic}. gubernatorial about governors {gubernatorial}. hairline narrow {hairline}. hallowed sacred {hallowed}. harmonious pleasant {harmonious}. heterodox unorthodox {heterodox}. heteronomous not autonomous {heteronomous}. holistic about whole {holistic}. hortatory about exhortation {hortatory} {hortative}. hypothetical possible {hypothetical}. idiopathic having unknown cause {idiopathic}. immaculate pure or clean {immaculate}. impacted unable to come out {impacted}. impalpable not understandable {impalpable}. impassable having no path through {impassable}. impenetrable unable to enter {impenetrable}. imperforate making hole {imperforate}. impermeable unable to enter {impermeable}.

147 impervious unaffected {impervious}. implausible not likely {implausible}. implicit assumed assumed {implicit}. inalienable inherent {inalienable}. incandescent bright bright {incandescent}. incarnate embodied {incarnate}. inchoate early early {inchoate}. incipient about to happen {incipient}. incommutable unchangeable {incommutable}. incongruous inconsistent or disparate {incongruous}. incontrovertible proven {incontrovertible}. indefeasible not voidable {indefeasible}. indeterminate not determined {indeterminate}. indicative pointing indicating, pointing {indicative, indicating}. indigenous native {indigenous}. indubitable not doubtable {indubitable}. ineffable indescribable {ineffable}. ineluctable inevitable {ineluctable}. inextricable stuck {inextricable}.

148 infectious easily transferred {infectious}. inflammatory inciting {inflammatory}. ingenious clever {ingenious}. ingrained habitual {ingrained}. inherent intrinsic {inherent}. inimitable impossible to imitate {inimitable}. innocuous harmless {innocuous}. inordinate too much {inordinate}. intelligible understandable {intelligible}. interdenominational shared by sects {interdenominational}. interdisciplinary involving several subjects {interdisciplinary}. interlocutory about trial decree {interlocutory}. intramural among groups within institution {intramural}. intrinsic essential essential {intrinsic}. inviolable unassailable {inviolable}. inviolate not assailed {inviolate}. irradicable not erasable {irradicable}. irrevocable not voidable and unchangeable {irrevocable}. keynote

149 most important {keynote}. latent potential potential {latent}. liberal generous {liberal}. lineal direct ancestry {lineal}. literal word word-for-word {literal}. literary about literature {literary}. liturgical ritual about ritual or liturgy {liturgical}. lucrative making money {lucrative}. mandatory required {mandatory}. marginal unimportant unimportant {marginal}. martial military military {martial}. materialistic concerned only about things {materialistic}. meet proper {meet}. mellifluous flowing smoothly {mellifluous}. menial about servants {menial}. mensurable measurable {mensurable}. modish stylish {modish}. modular component having components {modular}. monosyllablic having one syllable {monosyllablic}.

150 moot having no significance to argument {moot}. mundane ordinary {mundane}. mutable changeable {mutable}. nascent emerging {nascent}. nebulous formless {nebulous}. neoteric recent {neoteric}. nominal name named but not existing {nominal}. nomological about universal laws {nomological}. nondescript having no special features {nondescript}. normative about standard or custom {normative}. notable worthy {notable}. noted well-known {noted}. objective impersonal being impersonal {objective}. obligatory required {obligatory}. occidental western {occidental}. operational working working {operational}. opportune favorable {opportune}. optimal best best {optimal}. opulent luxurious {opulent}.

151 ornate highly decorated {ornate}. orthodox having traditional or received beliefs {orthodox}. ostensible seeming {ostensible}. overt public {overt}. pacific peaceful {pacific}. palliative symptom relieving {palliative}. palpable perceivable {palpable}. papal about pope {papal}. paranormal parapsychological {paranormal}. pardonable excusable {pardonable}. passing moderately {passing}. pastoral bucolic bucolic {pastoral, bucolic}. patent obvious obvious {patent, obvious}. patristic about early Christian churches {patristic}. peerless highest {peerless}. pegged categorized {pegged}. peremptory acting to stop another's action {peremptory}. periphrastic using circumlocutions {periphrastic}. perquisite

152 right or gratuity {perquisite}. pictorial picture using pictures {pictorial}. picturesque looking like nice picture {picturesque}. piquant provoking provoking emotion {piquant, provoking}. pithy short and expressive {pithy}. pivotal determining {pivotal}. placid calm {placid}. plastic changeable changeable {plastic, changeable}. plausible likely {plausible}. pliable easily changed {pliable}. pliant adaptable {pliant}. polysyllabic having more than one syllable {polysyllabic}. polytechnic including several technical subjects {polytechnic}. potent strong {potent}. practicable feasible {practicable}. precarious unstable {precarious}. precious valuable {precious}. preeminent first {preeminent}. premonitory signaling danger in the future {premonitory}.

153 preponderant greater {preponderant}. prescriptive restrictive {prescriptive}. presidial about garrison {presidial}. preternatural supernatural {preternatural}. prevalent widespread {prevalent}. primary first main or first {primary}. pristine pure and clean {pristine}. professed expressed {professed}. profound deeply insightful {profound}. prominent of high position {prominent}. pronounced marked {pronounced}. propitious favorable {propitious}. proportionate of correct proportions {proportionate}. proprietary owned or about proprietor {proprietary}. prosaic unimaginative {prosaic}. proverbial traditional {proverbial}. provident providing for the future {provident}. providential about divine providence {providential}. provisional temporary {provisional} {provisory}.

154 putative supposed {putative}. quantitative measured measured or counted {quantitative}. racy risqué {racy}. rarefied high {rarefied}. recrudescent reappear {recrudescent}. recumbent reclining {recumbent}. red-carpet first-class {red-carpet}. red-letter especially happy {red-letter}. redolent smelling {redolent}. redundant repeated {redundant}. refulgent shining {refulgent}. relative not absolute {relative}. remunerative making money {remunerative}. renascent reappearing {renascent}. replete filled {replete}. requisite required {requisite}. resonant echoing {resonant}. resplendent shining {resplendent}. restrictive

155 limiting {restrictive}. resurgent rising again {resurgent}. ribald vulgarly funny {ribald}. rife full {rife}. rifling handling quickly {rifling through things}. rigorous difficult {rigorous}. riotous funny {riotous}. risible laughable {risible}. roseate cheerful {roseate}. round robin Players play all other players {round robin}. round table conference conference with several speakers {round table}. routine easy {routine}. rump low quality {rump}. rustic simple {rustic}. sabbatical leave of absence for study {sabbatical}. sacrosanct sacred {sacrosanct}. safe-conduct document granting passage through region {safe-conduct}. salient sticking out {salient}. salubrious healthful {salubrious}.

156 salutary beneficial {salutary}. schematic diagrammatic {schematic}. scholastic about school {scholastic}. seasonable appropriate for season {seasonable}. sectarian about sects {sectarian}. secular not religious {secular}. seemly proper {seemly}. semblance similar to {semblance}. seminal seed-like {seminal}. semiotic symbol about signs and symbols {semiotic}. seriocomic comedy with serious aspects {seriocomic}. serviceable usable {serviceable}. simon-pure very pure {simon-pure}. societal about society {societal}. solvent money not bankrupt {solvent, about money}. soporific sleep-inducing {soporific}. sound solid having all parts working well {sound, functioning}. spasmodic irregular {spasmodic}. spectral ghost about ghosts {spectral}.

157 splendiferous splendid {splendiferous}. sporadic irregular {sporadic}. stentorian loud {stentorian}. stilted overly formal {stilted}. storied famous {storied}. strategic positioning placing in good position for next event {strategic}. stringent severe {stringent}. stygian about hell {stygian}. sublunary Earthly {sublunary}. substantive substantial substantial {substantive, substantial}. succinct brief and expressive {succinct}. suggestive suggesting sexual things {suggestive}. summary quick quick {summary}. superable able to be overcome {superable}. surreptitious secret {surreptitious}. surrogate substitute substitute {surrogate, substitute}. synoptic abstract {synoptic}. syntactic about syntax {syntactic}. tabular

158 in table {tabular}. tacit unspoken unspoken implication {tacit}. tactical done to gain immediate goal {tactical}. tangible substantial {tangible}. tantamount equivalent to {tantamount}. telegraphic much compressed or shortened {telegraphic}. telling forceful {telling}. tenable possibly correct {tenable}. tentative in uncertain state {tentative}. tenuous thin {tenuous}. textbook rule-based following rules {textbook, rule-based}. theocentric god-centered {theocentric}. thumbnail brief {thumbnail}. titular nominal {titular}. toothsome delicious {toothsome}. top drawer high quality {top drawer}. topical local {topical}. tractable easy to manipulate {tractable}. trenchant incisive {trenchant}.

159 tutelary about tutoring {tutelary}. unceremonious with no politeness {unceremonious}. uncharted unknown or unexplored {uncharted}. unfrequented not visited {unfrequented}. unicameral having one legislative assembly {unicameral}. unparalleled unequaled {unparalleled}. unvarnished appearing as it is {unvarnished}. uplifting lifting spirit {uplifting}. vantage view {vantage}. vatic about prophesy {vatic}. verbal wordy using words {verbal}. vintage high quality {vintage}. violable breachable {violable}. votive fulfilling vow {votive}. weighty being important {weighty}. wondrous wonderful {wondrous}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Adjective>State>Bad abstruse hard to understand {abstruse}. acrid caustic {acrid}.

160 adverse unfavorable unfavorable {adverse}. amiss wrong {amiss}. apocalyptic predicting disaster {apocalyptic}. backhanded insulting {backhanded}. baleful ominous {baleful}. banal trite {banal}. barbarous brutal {barbarous}. barefaced brash {barefaced}. barren unproductive {barren}. blasted wasted {blasted}. bogus fake {bogus}. bootless useless {bootless}. clamorous loud and noisy {clamorous}. colorless uninteresting {colorless}. cosmetic only for appearance {cosmetic}. dank cold and wet {dank}. deleterious harmful {deleterious}. desolate uninhabited {desolate}. detrimental harmful {detrimental}.

161 dilapidated worn out or not repaired {dilapidated}. dire grave {dire}. disjointed unconnected {disjointed}. disproportionate larger in number or size {disproportionate}. draconian harsh {draconian}. egregious notably bad {egregious}. elegaic mournful {elegaic}. erroneous wrong {erroneous}. factious divisive {factious}. fallacious false {fallacious}. fetid foul-smelling {fetid}. flagging weakening {flagging}. forbidding ominous {forbidding}. frigid cold {frigid}. frivolous unimportant and extra {frivolous}. galling irritating {galling}. gamy smelling like dead game {gamy}. garish gaudy {garish}. ghastly

162 horrible {ghastly}. gratuitous extra and inapt {gratuitous}. grievous significant {grievous}. ill-starred bad luck {ill-starred}. immaterial not important {immaterial}. inane silly {inane}. inimical hostile {inimical}. insidious subtly harmful {insidious}. insipid bland {insipid}. intractable not resolvable {intractable}. inviable unmaintainable {inviable}. jerry-built poorly built {jerry-built}. kaput dead {kaput}. laborious requiring hard work {laborious}. labyrinthine complex {labyrinthine}. libelous damaging to reputation {libelous}. loathsome disgusting {loathsome}. ludicrous laughable {ludicrous}. lugubrious mournful {lugubrious}.

163 lurid sensational {lurid}. maddening frustrating {maddening}. malignant evil evil and spreading {malignant}. malodorous foul-smelling {malodorous}. mephitic foul-smelling {mephitic}. minatory threatening {minatory}. morbid gruesome or about disease {morbid}. mordacious biting {mordacious}. musty having moldy smell {musty}. noisome noisy {noisome}. nonviable non-maintainable {nonviable}. noxious damaging {noxious}. objectionable offensive {objectionable}. ominous threatening {ominous}. onerous burdensome {onerous}. otiose lazy or useless {otiose}. overblown excessive {overblown}. pandemic widespread epidemic {pandemic}. parlous dangerous {parlous}.

164 pejorative disparaging {pejorative}. pernicious destructive destructive {pernicious}. petrified unchanging unchanging, or scared {petrified}. prohibitive too high {prohibitive}. punitive punishing punishing {punitive}. putrid decayed {putrid}. questionable dubious {questionable}. rampant unstopped {rampant}. rank foul-smelling {rank, bad smelling}. ratty shabby {ratty}. recondite hard to understand {recondite}. remiss negligent {remiss}. repellent repulsive {repellent}. repugnant offensive {repugnant}. repulsive offensive {repulsive}. saccharine pleasant but dull {saccharine}. salacious lewd {salacious}. seamy sordid {seamy}. sere

165 withered {sere}. sham fake fake {sham, fake}. sinister ominous {sinister}. sodden wet {sodden}. sordid immoral or wretched {sordid}. specious seeming only seeming to be true {specious}. spurious false {spurious}. squalid sordid {squalid}. stark utter {stark}. sterile unproductive {sterile, unproductive}. superficial inessential not essential {superficial}. superfluous unneeded {superfluous}. tangential indirect not about main thing, indirect {tangential}. tedious boring {tedious}. tepid lukewarm {tepid}. trite common {trite}. turgid having too much {turgid}. untenable not possible {untenable}. untoward unfavorable {untoward}.

166 unwieldy Size or shape can make things difficult to manipulate {unwieldy}. unwonted unusual {unwonted}. venomous hateful {venomous}. vexatious annoying {vexatious}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Adjective>State>Physical State acoustic sound about sound {acoustic}. aeolian about wind {aeolian}. agrarian farming about farming {agrarian}. airy light {airy}. amphibious using water or land {amphibious}. aquatic about water {aquatic}. aqueous water about water {aqueous}. arable farmable {arable}. audible hearable {audible}. aural about hearing {aural}. auricular about hearing {auricular}. avian bird about birds {avian}. botanical about plants {botanical}. brackish somewhat salty {brackish}.

167 brushed slightly roughened {brushed}. chthonic about or under earth {chthonic}. clammy damp {clammy}. clinical precise precise {clinical}. coeval at same time {coeval}. combustible flammable {combustible}. culinary about cooking {culinary}. cutaway cross-section {cutaway}. dappled spotted {dappled}. decimal ten about ten {decimal}. diaphanous translucently thin {diaphanous}. dietetic about dieting {dietetic}. diffuse spread spread out {diffuse}. dog-eared turned down {dog-eared}. ductile stretchable {ductile}. dulcet sweet sounding {dulcet}. edible eatable {edible}. empyrean about sky or heaven {empyrean}. equine about horses {equine}.

168 eschatological about death or end of world {eschatological}. excretory about excretion {excretory}. fallow not planted {fallow}. favonian about west wind {favonian}. fenestrated having windows {fenestrated}. flaccid limp {flaccid}. flammable able to catch fire {flammable}. flocculent flaky {flocculent}. fulgent shining {fulgent}. gelatinous like gel {gelatinous}. gelid like gel {gelid}. gnarled knotted {gnarled}. gossamer delicate and thin {gossamer}. hairspring easily triggered {hairspring}. halcyon calm {halcyon}. hermetic sealed sealed {hermetic}. heterogeneous mixed mixed {heterogeneous}. heterologous same shaped or located but with different functions {heterologous}. high-tension

169 high voltage {high-tension}. hoary old or white {hoary}. homologous same having same structure and function {homologous}. hydroelectric electric and generated by falling water {hydroelectric}. hypersonic traveling faster than sound speed {hypersonic}. iridescent lustrous and many-colored {iridescent}. labile changeable changeable {labile}. landlocked having no port {landlocked}. lilting song-like {lilting}. limpid transparent {limpid}. lingual tongue about tongue or speaking {lingual}. liquescent liquid {liquescent}. luminescent producing light {luminescent}. luminous giving light {luminous}. lush verdant {lush}. lustrous shiny {lustrous}. luxuriant verdant {luxuriant}. lyrical song-like {lyrical}. malleable changeable {malleable}.

170 marine ocean about seas {marine}. maritime sea about sea and ships {maritime}. marmoreal marble-like {marmoreal}. matutinal morning {matutinal}. mealy granular {mealy}. mechanistic machine machine-like {mechanistic}. mensal about table {mensal}. monaural having one speaker or ear {monaural}. monochrome having one color {monochrome}. motley having several parts or colors {motley}. multifarious having many parts {multifarious}. mute emitting no sound {mute}. natant in water {natant}. nautical about ships and navigation {nautical}. navigable usable by boats {navigable}. nodular having nodes {nodular}. palatable having no bad taste {palatable}. palatial palace-like {palatial}. palatine about palace or royal powers {palatine}.

171 parti-colored having different colored parts {parti-colored}. particulate having particles {particulate}. pellucid clear {pellucid}. peripatetic walking walking {peripatetic}. permeable pervadable {permeable}. pervious permeable {pervious}. phallic shape about penis or penis shape {phallic}. pharmaceutical about medicines {pharmaceutical, medicine}. philharmonic symphony orchestra {philharmonic}. phonic about sound {phonic}. photic about light {photic}. pied patchy piebald or patchy {pied, patchy}. piercing shrill shrill {piercing}. piscatorial about fish {piscatorial}. pneumatic about gases {pneumatic}. polled clipped {polled}. polychrome having several colors {polychrome}. porous having pores {porous}. potable

172 safe to drink {potable}. prophylactic preventing {prophylactic}. pungent sharp tasting or smelling {pungent}. quiescent inactive {quiescent}. radiant glowing {radiant}. reticular network network-like {reticular}. rotary rotation about rotation {rotary}. rural country country {rural}. sacerdotal about priests {sacerdotal}. saline salty {saline}. saponaceous soapy {saponaceous}. sartorial about tailoring {sartorial}. scabrous rough {scabrous}. seismic about earthquakes {seismic}. sepulchral about tombs {sepulchral}. sheer transparent and thin {sheer}. spinous spiny {spinous}. static still not moving, or noise {static}. striated marked with parallel lines {striated}.

173 submersible submergible {submersible}. succulent juicy {succulent}. sylvan about forests {sylvan}. synthetic machine made {synthetic, machine made}. tart sour sour {tart, sour}. tenebrous dark {tenebrous}. terpsichorean about dancing {terpsichorean}. tertiary third third {tertiary}. thalassic about sea {thalassic}. thrice three times {thrice}. tonsorial about barbering {tonsorial}. tropic tropical {tropic}. tumescent swelling {tumescent}. turbid having suspended particles {turbid}, like dirty water. turbulent turmoil having turmoil {turbulent}. unalloyed pure {unalloyed}. ursine about bears {ursine}. variegated many-colored {variegated}. vegetal about vegetation {vegetal}.

174 vehicular about vehicles {vehicular}. verdant green {verdant}. vernal spring about spring {vernal}. vigesimal about number 20 {vigesimal}. vinaceous having vines {vinaceous} {vinous}. viscid dense and sticky {viscid}. viscous resisting flow {viscous}. vulpine about foxes {vulpine}. weathered worn {weathered}. wrought hammered hammered into shape {wrought}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Adjective>Time aestival in summer {aestival} {estival}. ancestral belonging to ancestors {ancestral}. ante-bellum before war {ante-bellum}. antediluvian before flood {antediluvian}. antic ancient {antic}. antiquated out-of-date {antiquated}. archaic old and unused {archaic}. arrhythmic irregular {arrhythmic}.

175 asynchronous not at same time {asynchronous}. biannual every two years {biannual}. bicentennial two centuries later {bicentennial}. centennial one century later {centennial} {centenary}. concomitant time at same time {concomitant}. concurrent time at same time {concurrent}. consequent as result {consequent, result} {consequential}. contemporaneous at same time {contemporaneous}. contemporary at same time {contemporary}. cursory quick {cursory}. diachronic over time {diachronic} over time. ephemeral only short time {ephemeral}. evanescent transitory {evanescent}. extant existing {extant}. feudal in Middle Ages {feudal}. fleeting transitory {fleeting}. glacial slow {glacial}. immemorial forever {immemorial}. imminent

176 soon after {imminent}. immutable unchanging {immutable}. impending soon after {impending}. incessant unceasing {incessant}. interminable unending {interminable}. intermittent at irregular times {intermittent}. posthumous after death {posthumous}. postprandial after meal {postprandial}. prefatory before {prefatory}. primal first first {primal}. primeval in early times {primeval}. primordial in early times {primordial}. procrustean changing {procrustean}. retral moving backward {retral}. retroactive in time applying at previous time {retroactive}. retrograde backward moving backward {retrograde}. revolving spinning on or around axis {revolving}. rotatory rotating {rotatory}. sesquicentennial 150 years after {sesquicentennial}.

177 successive repeatedly after {successive}. superannuated obsolete or retired {superannuated}. synchronic at same time {synchronic}. synchronous at same time {synchronous}. temporal time being about time {temporal}. time-lapse over time {time-lapse}. timeless always having same value {timeless}. transient passing passing through or away {transient, passing}. transitory short time {transitory}. valedictory farewell {valedictory}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Adverb Or Other albeit although {albeit}. anent regarding {anent}. anon soon {anon}. askance sideways {askance}. astern to rear or behind boat {astern}. asunder into parts {asunder}. athwart across {athwart}. avast hold on {avast}.

178 avaunt be gone {avaunt}. behind the eight ball in trouble {behind the eight ball}. behindhand behind in payments {behindhand}. betimes early {betimes}. clockwise rotating in same direction as clock {clockwise}. counterclockwise rotating in opposite direction as clock {counterclockwise}. downwind in same direction as wind is going {downwind}. ere before {ere}. forsooth in truth {forsooth}. forthwith at once {forthwith}. gamely pluckily {gamely}. hammer and tongs vigorously {hammer and tongs}. hand in glove in cooperation {hand in glove} {hand and glove}. haply by chance {haply}. hence away or therefore {hence}. henceforth from now on {henceforth}. heretofore previously {heretofore}. hither toward here {hither}. hitherto before now {hitherto}.

179 howbeit although or nevertheless {howbeit}. lest for fear that {lest}. lief willingly {lief}. meanly ignobly {meanly}. pace preposition not withstanding as preposition {pace, preposition}. perchance perhaps {perchance}. perforce necessarily {perforce}. posthaste speedily {posthaste}. save except for {save}. sidesaddle with both legs on one side {sidesaddle}. summarily speedily {summarily}. tallyho let's go {tallyho}. thither to there {thither}. timely well-timed {timely}. to wit namely {to wit}. trippingly quickly {trippingly}. twixt between {twixt}. unduly excessively {unduly}. upwind

180 from where wind came {upwind}. verily truly {verily}. yesteryear past times {yesteryear}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Affix affixes Affixes are prefixes or suffixes {affixes}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Affix>Prefix a- not or without or on {a-}. ab- away from {ab-}. acro- high or beginning {acr-} {acro-}. ad- toward {ad-}. aer- air or atmosphere {aer-} {aero-}. afore- earlier {afore-}. after- after {after-}. agro- agriculture {agro-}. allo- difference {allo-}. ambi- both {ambi-}. an- not {an-}. ana- up {ana-}. andr- male {andr-} {andro-}. ante- before {ante-}.

181 anthrop- human {anthrop-} {anthropo-}. anti- against or opposite {anti-} {ant-} {anth-}. aqu- water {aqu-}. arch- high {arch-}. archae- old {archae-} {archaeo-}. astr- star or space {astr-} {astro-}. audio- sound {audio-} {audi-}. aur- hearing {aur-} {auri-}. aut- independent {aut-} {auto-}. be- on or completely or causing {be-}. bi- two {bi-}. biblio- book {biblio-}. bio- history {bio-}. by- secondary or by {by-}. cac- noise {cac-} {caco-}. cata- unmoving {cata-} {cat-} {cath-}. cent- hundred {cent-} {cento-}. centi- hundredth {centi-}. centr-

182 center {centr-} {centro-} {centri-}. chem- chemical {chem-} {chemo-}. chrom- color {chrom-} {chromo-}. chron- time {chron-} {chrono-}. circum- around {circum-}. co- both {co-}. com- together {com-} {col-} {con-}. contra- against {contra-}. counter- opposite {counter-}. cross- transverse {cross-}. cry- cold {cry-} {cryo-}. crypt- hidden {crypt-} {crypto-}. cycl- circle {cycl-} {cyclo-}. cyt- cell {cyt-} {cyto-}. de- reverse or remove {de-}. deca- ten {deca-} {dec-}. deci- tenth {deci-}. demi- half {demi-}. dent- teeth {dent-} {denti-} {dento-}.

183 derm- skin {derm-} {derma-} {dermo-}. deut- two {deut-} {deuto-} {deuter-} {deutero-}. di- two {di-} {dia-} {dich-} {dicho-}. dis- negation or reversal {dis-}. duo- two {duo-}. dys- disease {dys-}. electr- electric {electr-} {electro-}. en- into or cover or cause {en-} {em-}. end- last or inside {end-} {endo-}. epi- above or around {epi-} {ep-}. equi- equal {equi-}. ethno- race {ethno-}. eu- normal {eu-}. ex- former {ex-}. exo- outside {exo-}. extra- outside or extra {extra-} {extro-}. ferro- iron {ferro-}. fore- front or before {fore-}. gam- mating {gam-} {gamo-}.

184 gastr- stomach {gastr-} {gastro-}. ge- Earth or soil {ge-} {geo-}. gen- produced or producing {gen-} {geno-}. gravi- weight {gravi-}. gyn- female {gyn-} {gyno-} {gynec-} {gyneco-}. gyr- spin {gyr-} {gyro-}. hem- blood {hem-} {hemo-}. hemi- half {hemi-}. hepta- seven {hepta-} {hept-}. heter- mixed {heter-} {hetero-}. hexa- six {hexa-} {hex-}. hol- whole {hol-} {holo-}. hom- human {hom-} {homo-}. home- same {home-} {homeo-}. hydr- water {hydr-} {hydro-}. hyper- more {hyper-}. hypn- sleep {hypn-} {hypno-}. hypo- less {hypo-} {hyp-}. ideo-

185 idea {ideo-}. idio- own or self {idio-}. in- not or in {in-} {il-} {im-} {ir-}. infra- beneath {infra-}. inter- among or mutual {inter-}. intra- within {intra-}. intro- inward or in {intro-}. iso- prefix equal {iso-, equal}. lingu- language {lingu-} {lingui-} {linguo-}. lith- stone {lith-} {litho-}. log- speaking {log-} {logo-}. long- long {long-}. lumin- light {lumin-} {lumini-} {lumino-}. macr- large {macr-} {macro-}. magnet- magnetism {magnet-} {magneto-}. mal- evil or bad {mal-}. matr- mother {matr-} {matri-} {matro-}. mechan- machine {mechan-} {mechano-}. medi- middle {medi-} {medio-}.

186 mega- large or million {mega-} {meg-}. megal- exaggerated {megal-} {megalo-}. mes- middle {mes-} {meso-}. meta- change or behind or middle {meta-, middle} {met-}. micro- small {micr-} {micro-}. milli- thousandth {milli-}. mini- small {mini-}. mis- bad or wrong or failed {mis-} {miso-}. mono- one {mon-} {mono-}. morph- shape {morph-} {morpho-}. multi- many {multi-}. nano- billionth {nano-}. nas- birth {nas-} {naso-} {nasi-}. necro- death {necr-} {necro-}. neo- new {ne-} {neo-}. nerv- nerves {nerv-} {nervi-} {nervo-}. neur- nerves {neur-} {neuro-}. noct- night {noct-} {nocti-} {nocto-}. non- not {non-}.

187 nucle- nucleus {nucle-} {nucleo-}. octa- eight {octa-} {octo-} {oct-}. ocul- eye {ocul-} {oculo-}. odont- teeth {odont-} {odonto-}. oleo- oil {ole-} {oleo-}. olig- few {olig-} {oligo-}. omni- all {omni-}. ont- existence or life {ont-} {onto-}. oo- egg {oo-}. ophthalm- eye {ophthalm-} {ophthalmo-}. oro- mouth {oro-}. ortho- correct or across from {orth-} {ortho-, correct}. oste- bone {oste-} {osteo-}. ot- vestibular system {ot-} {oto-}. out- outside or surpassing {out-}. ov- egg {ov-} {ovi-} {ovo-}. over- excessive {over-}. paleo- ancient {pale-} {paleo-}. pan-

188 all {pan-}. para- near or like {para-, near} {par-}. path- disease {path-} {patho-}. patr- nation or father {patr-} {patri-} {patro-}. ped- foot {ped-} {pedo-}. penta- five {penta-} {pent-}. per- containing the most {per-}. peri- around {peri-}. petr- rock or petroleum {petr-} {petri-} {petro-}. pharmaco- pharmaceutical {pharmaco-}. pheno- displaying {pheno-}. phil- love {phil-} {philo-}. phon- sound {phon-} {phono-}. phos- light {phos-}. phot- light or photography {phot-} {photo-}. phyl- tree-like {phyl-} {phylo-}. physi- natural or physical {physi-} {physio-}. phyt- plant {phyt-} {phyto-}. pico- trillionth {pico-}.

189 piezo- squeezing {piezo-}. pil- feather or hair {pil-} {pili-} {pilo-}. plan- flat {plan-} {plano-}. plasm- plasma {plasm-} {plasmo-}. pleio- many {pleio-} {pleo-} {plio-}. plen- full or abundant {plen-}. pluri- more than one {pluri-}. pneum- air or gas {pneum-} {pneumo-} {pneumat-} {pneumato-}. poly- many {poly-}. post- after {post-}. pre- before {pre-}. pro- substitute or in front {pro-}. prot- earliest {prot-} {proto-}. pseud- false {pseud-} {pseudo-}. psych- mind {psych-} {psycho-}. pyr- fire {pyr-} {pyro-}. quadri- four {quadri-} {quadr-} {quadru-}. radio- radiation {radio-}. re- repeat {re-}.

190 retro- going backward {retro-}. rhin- nose {rhin-} {rhino-}. rhod- red or rosy {rhod-} {rhodo-}. sacr- sacred {sacr-} {sacro-}. sarc- flesh {sarc-} {sarco-}. scat- excrement {scat-} {scato-}. schiz- split {schiz-} {schizo-}. sect- division {sect-}. seismo- earthquake {seismo-}. self- self {self-}. semi- half {semi-}. sesqui- one and a half or too long {sesqui-}. sex- six {sex-} {sexi-}. socio- society {socio-}. soph- knowledge {soph-}. spectro- spectrum {spectro-}. sten- narrow {sten-} {steno-}. step- related by remarriage {step-}. stere-

191 three-dimensional {stere-} {stereo-}. styl- writing or style {styl-} {styli-} {stylo-}. sub- under {sub-}. super- over {super-}. supra- above or beyond {supra-}. sur- added or above {sur-}. syn- together or group {syn-} {sym-}. synchro- simultaneous {synchro-}. taut- redundancy {taut-} {tauto-}. taxi- arranging in order {taxi-} {taxo-}. techno- technology {techno-}. tele- distance {tele-} {tel-}. telo- purpose {telo-}. ter- three {ter-}. term- end or final {term-}. tetra- four {tetra-} {tetr-}. theo- gods {the-} {theo-}. therm- temperature {therm-} {thermo-}. topo- features {top-} {topo-}.

192 tox- poison {tox-} {toxo-} {toxic-} {toxico-}. trans- transferring or across {trans-}. tri- three {tri-}. trop- turn {trop-} {tropo-}. turbo- rotation {turbo-}. twi- between {twi-}. ultra- farthest or highest {ultra-}. un- not or reverse {un-}. under- under {under-}. uni- one {uni-}. up- high or up {up-}. vari- variety {vari-} {vario-}. vice- second or representing {vice-}. well- good {well-}. xen- strange {xen-} {xeno-}. xer- dry {xer-} {xero-}. xyl- wood {xyl-} {xylo-}. zoo- animal {zoo-}. zyg- union or paired {zyg-} {zygo-}.

193

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Affix>Suffix

-ability able {-ability}.

-able able or inclined {-able}.

-ade sweetened {-ade}.

-age condition or collection {-age}.

-agogue leader {-agogue} {-agog}.

-al relating to or action {-al}.

-an relating to {-an} {-ian} {-ean}.

-ana collection {-ana}.

-ance action or quality {-ance} {-ancy}.

-andry husband {-andry} {-androus}.

-ar like {-ar}.

-arch leader {-arch} {-archy}.

-ard excessive {-ard} {-art}.

-arian believer {-arian}.

-arium place or machine {-arium}.

-ary associated {-ary}.

-ate having or deriving from {-ate} {-ated}.

-ation action or state {-ation}.

194

-ative nature of {-ative}.

-ator acting in specific way {-ator}.

-atory connected with or tending to {-atory}.

-biotic living {-biotic}.

-centric center {-centric}.

-chrome color {-chrome}.

-cide kill {-cide} {-cidal}.

-cracy ruler {-cracy}.

-crat government person {-crat}.

-cy quality or rank or action {-cy}.

-cyte cell {-cyte}.

-dom condition {-dom}.

-drome arena {-drome}.

-ectomy removal {-ectomy}.

-ed past tense {-ed}.

-ee recipient or resemblance {-ee}.

-eer working with {-eer}.

-en made of or resembling {-en}.

-ence

195 condition or action {-ence} {-ency}.

-eous resembling or essence of {-eous}.

-er comparative {-er}.

-ery place or collection or skill or condition {-ery}.

-es plural {-es}.

-escence light emitting {-escence} {-escent}.

-ese inhabitant or style or language {-ese}.

-esque manner {-esque}.

-ess female {-ess}.

-est superlative {-est}.

-et small {-et}.

-eth ordinal number {-eth} {-th}.

-ette small {-ette}.

-ey small or condition {-ey}.

-faction making {-faction} {-facient}.

-ferous producing or containing {-ferous}.

-fest festival {-fest}.

-fication making {-fication}.

-fold multiplication or division {-fold}.

196 -form shape {-form}.

-ful having or tending or full {-ful}.

-fy make or cause {-fy}.

-gamy mating {-gamy}.

-gen produced or producing {-gen} {-genic} {-genous} {-geny}.

-gon sided {-gon}.

-gram written or drawn {-gram}.

-graph written or drawn {-graph} {-graphic} {-graphy}.

-grapher writer or drawer {-grapher}.

-gynous female {-gynous} {-gyny}.

-hedral surfaced {-hedral} {-hedron}.

-hood group or condition {-hood}.

-ia disease {-ia}.

-ial about {-ial}.

-iana collection {-iana}.

-iatric medical {-iatric} {-iatrics} {-iatry}.

-ibility ability {-ibility}.

-ible able {-ible}.

-ic about {-ic} {-ical}.

197

-ician person {-ician}.

-ics science or art {-ics}.

-id body or particle {-id}.

-ile relation or ability {-ile}.

-in neutral {-in}.

-ine belonging to or resembling {-ine}.

-ing process or necessity or particle {-ing}.

-ion state or process {-ion}.

-ious full or property {-ious}.

-ish feature {-ish}.

-ism theory or state or process {-ism}.

-ist producer or student or exhibitor {-ist}.

-istic about {-istic}.

-ite native or member {-ite}.

-itis inflammation {-itis}.

-ity quality {-ity}.

-ive tendency {-ive}.

-ization process {-ization}.

-ize

198 cause or do {-ize}.

-kin small or short {-kin}.

-less lack {-less}.

-let small or for wearing {-let}.

-like similar {-like}.

-ling small or associated with {-ling}.

-lith stone {-lith} {-lithic}.

-logue speaking {-logue} {-log}.

-logy subject {-logy}.

-ly periodic or characteristic {-ly}.

-lysis dissolving {-lysis} {-lytic} {-lyze}.

-lyte dissolvable {-lyte}.

-mancy supernatural use of {-mancy}.

-mania enthusiasm {-mania}.

-manship skill {-manship}.

-ment product or action {-ment}.

-mer part {-mer} {-mere}.

-meter measuring {-meter} {-metric} {-metry}.

-morph shape {-morph} {-morphic} {-morphism} {-morphosis} {-morphous} {-morphy}.

199 -most most or nearest {-most}.

-ness condition {-ness}.

-nomy law {-nomy}.

-ode pathway {-ode}.

-odontia teeth {-odontia}.

-oid resembling {-oid}.

-on unit {-on}.

-onym word {-onym}.

-opsy examination {-opsy}.

-or doer {-or}.

-ory associated {-ory}.

-ose carbohydrate {-ose}.

-osis condition {-osis}.

-otic condition {-otic}.

-ous possessing or full of {-ous}.

-parous bearing {-parous}.

-path disease {-path}.

-pathy perception or disease {-pathy}.

-ped foot {-ped} {-pede}.

200

-phage eating {-phage} {-phagia} {-phagous} {-phagy}.

-phil affinity for {-phil} {-phile}.

-philia tendency {-philia} {-philic} {-philous}.

-phobe fear {-phobe} {-phobic}.

-phone sound {-phone} {-phony}.

-phore carrier {-phore} {-phoresis}.

-phrenia mental disease {-phrenia}.

-phyll leaf {-phyll}.

-phyte plant {-phyte} {-phytic}.

-plasia growth {-plasia}.

-plasm cell or tissue {-plasm} {-plast}.

-plastic plastic {-plastic}.

-pod foot {-pod}.

-polis city {-polis}.

-ry place or collection or feature {-ry}.

-s plural {-s}.

-scape scene {-scape}.

-scope observing {-scope} {-scopy}.

-sect

201 cut {-sect}.

-ship status or condition {-ship}.

-sis condition {-sis}.

-smith worker {-smith}.

-some feature or body or group {-some}.

-sophy knowledge {-sophy}.

-st superlative {-st}.

-stasis not moving or balanced {-stasis} {-stat}.

-ster doer or be-er {-ster}.

-stomy medical procedure {-stomy}.

-taxis movement {-taxis}.

-theism gods {-theism} {-theist}.

-thermy temperature {-thermy}.

-tomy cutting {-tomy}.

-trix female doer {-trix}.

-tron machine {-tron}.

-trophic nutrition or growth {-trophic} {-trophy}.

-tropic turn {-tropic} {-tropism} {-tropous} {-tropy}.

-tude condition or quality {-tude}.

202 -ty condition or quality {-ty}.

-ule small {-ule}.

-ure function or process {-ure}.

-urgy technology {-urgy}.

-vorous eating {-vorous}.

-ward direction {-ward}.

-ways position {-ways}.

-y feature or small {-y}.

-zoa individual {-zoa} {-zoan} {-zoic}.

-zygous union or paired {-zygous}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Noun nouns Nouns are about amount, persons, color, region, personal, space, time, or thing {nouns}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Noun>Amount attrition reduction in number {attrition}. baker's dozen thirteen {baker's dozen}. dearth lack {dearth}. decrement decrease {decrement}. denominator characteristic {denominator, characteristic}. deuce two two {deuce, two}. diminution

203 decrease {diminution}. goose egg zero {goose egg}. gradation gradually increasing stages {gradation}. increment small increase {increment}. infinitude infinite amount {infinitude}. menagerie mixed group {menagerie}. minutiae small details {minutiae}. modicum small amount {modicum}. moiety part {moiety}. nodule small lump {nodule, small lump}. nubbin small amount {nubbin}. paucity small amount {paucity}. plenitude plenty {plenitude}. surfeit plenty {surfeit}. triplicate three {triplicate}. trove collection {trove}. twain two {twain}. vestige small remainder {vestige}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Noun>Color alabaster color

204 white {alabaster, color}. amber color orange {amber, color}. aqua color blue {aqua}. aquamarine color blue {aquamarine, color}. auburn dark brown {auburn}. azure blue {azure}. baby blue blue {baby blue}. beige brownish white {beige}. cardinal color red {cardinal, color}. carmine red {carmine}. celadon light green {celadon}. cerulean greenish-blue {cerulean}. chartreuse color light yellow-green {chartreuse, color}. columbine color light gray {columbine, color}. crimson red with some blue {crimson, color}. ecru light tan {ecru}. fuchsia color purple-red {fuchsia, color}. gun-metal dark gray {gun-metal}. heliotrope color purple {heliotrope, color}.

205 indigo color ultramarine and deep blue {indigo, ultramarine}. khaki light brown {khaki}. lavender color violet {lavender, color}. magenta reddish-purple {magenta}. maroon brownish-red {maroon}. mauve light purple {mauve}. ochre dark yellow-brown {ochre}. olive color light green {olive, color}. oxblood red {oxblood}. platinum blonde silver {platinum blonde}. primrose color light yellow {primrose, color}. puce purple {puce}. roan brown speckled with gray {roan}. royal blue deep blue {royal blue}. ruddy red {ruddy}. russet reddish-brown {russet}. sable color black {sable, color}. saffron color yellow-orange {saffron, color}. salmon color pink {salmon, color}.

206 scarlet color red with some orange {scarlet}. sea green dark green {sea green}. sepia light brown {sepia}. sky blue light blue {sky blue}. slate color dark gray {slate, color}. sorrel color yellow-brown or reddish-brown {sorrel, color}. spring green green blue-green {spring green, color}. steel blue light blue {steel blue}. tan light brown {tan}. taupe brownish-gray {taupe}. tawny brownish-yellow or light yellow-brown {tawny}. teal blue dark greenish-blue {teal blue}. titian color reddish-gold or reddish-brown {titian}. topaz color dark yellow {topaz, color}. turquoise color blue blue-green {turquoise, color}. ultramarine indigo and deep blue {ultramarine, color}. umber brownish-red {umber}. varicolored many-colored {varicolored}. vermilion

207 red-orange {vermilion, color}. violet color bluish-purple {violet, color}. virescent green {virescent}. wallflower color yellowish-red {wallflower, color}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Noun>Group Of People assemblage assembly {assemblage}. body politic people in state {body politic}. brain trust advisers {brain trust}. cabal secret society {cabal}. cadre small trained group {cadre}. caucus meeting {caucus}. cavalcade parade {cavalcade}. century 100 soldiers {century, soldier}. chain gang prisoners {chain gang}. chamber of commerce business group {chamber of commerce}. coast guard coastal navy {coast guard}. collective group group living {collective}. colloquium seminar {colloquium}. commune group living {commune}. conclave

208 gathering {conclave}. congress legislature {congress}. consortium business group {consortium}. constituency people in political region {constituency}. contingent group small group {contingent, people}. convocation assembly {convocation}. cooperative people cooperating {co-op} {cooperative}. coterie small intimate group {coterie}. cotillion ball {cotillion}. council advisers {council}. coven small group {coven}. deputation small group sent from one group to another {deputation}. detachment group small group of soldiers {detachment, soldier}. detail small group of soldiers {detail}. diet legislature {diet, legislature}. duo two people {duo}. dynasty hereditary rulers {dynasty}. electorate people in political region {electorate}. ensemble of people small group of musicians {ensemble, people}.

209 entourage people traveling with someone {entourage}. expedition explorers {expedition}. faction political group {faction}. fifth column Subversive group can spy and commit sabotage {fifth column}. forum public discussion {forum}. fourth estate press (Edmund Burke) {fourth estate}. freemasonry secret fraternity {freemasonry}. front office receptionists {front office}. gala celebration {gala}. gauntlet Paths {gauntlet} can be between two lines of men who intend to injure. grange farmer association {grange}. guild group of skilled workers {guild}. harem concubines of one man {harem}. intelligentsia knowledgeable people {intelligentsia}. judiciary judges {judiciary}. kangaroo court court for predetermined judgment {kangaroo court}. kitchen cabinet informal advisers {kitchen cabinet}. kith friends {kith}. laity non-clerical people {laity}.

210 legion large group {legion}. old guard conservatives {old guard}. oligarchy society with several leaders {oligarchy}. papacy institution around pope {papacy}. parliament legilature legislature {parliament}. pecking order rank {pecking order}. polity political region under one government {polity}. populace people {populace}. popular front insurgents {popular front}. presbytery court of ministers and elders {presbytery}. presidium socialist-country permanent executive committee {presidium}. privy council royal advisers {privy council}. promenade walkers {promenade}. rabble low-ranking people as whole {rabble}. rally group assembly for purpose {rally, person}. regime ruler rulers {regime}. retinue attendants and followers {retinue}. seminar meeting of few students {seminar}. seminary

211 religious school {seminary}. senate assembly legislature {senate}. septet seven people {septet}. service club volunteer association {service club}. sextet six people {sextet, people}. shadow cabinet opposition cabinet {shadow cabinet}. soviet assembly {soviet}. standing committee permanent committee {standing committee}. steering committee committee to schedule larger group {steering committee}. symposium single-topic conference {symposium}. synod church-official council {synod}. task force group to accomplish task {task force}. tong gang {tong}. tribunal court {tribunal}. triumvirate three rulers {triumvirate}. troupe artistic group {troupe}. upper crust higher-class people {upper crust}. vanguard small group that leads larger {vanguard}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Noun>People aborigine

212 native {aborigine}. accessory person follower of leader {accessory}. ace person maximally skilled person {ace}. acolyte follower {acolyte}. activist politically active person {activist}. adjutant assistant {adjutant}. adolescent teenager {adolescent}. adulterer married person sexually active with another {adulterer}. adversary opponent {adversary}. aesthete art appreciating person {aesthete}. agitator inciter {agitator, person}. agnostic person suspending belief {agnostic}. alarmist person alarming others {alarmist}. albino person with no skin pigment {albino}. ally People {ally} can assist people. android robot {android}. anglophile person liking things about England {anglophile}. antichrist devil {antichrist}. apologist person person explaining dogma {apologist}.

213 apostate deserter {apostate}. apple polisher ingratiating person {apple polisher}. arbiter mediator {arbiter}. archenemy main enemy {archenemy}. aristocrat upper-class person with inherited wealth {aristocrat}. ascetic self-denying person {ascetic}. atheist non-believer in God {atheist}. autochthon aborigine {autochthon}. autocrat person exerting his or her power {autocrat}. automaton robot {automaton}. avatar archetype {avatar}. babu sir {babu}. bacchant drunkard {bacchant}. bachelor college degree holder or unmarried man {bachelor}. backbencher low-ranking legislator {backbencher}. balletomane ballet lover {balletomane}. banshee aggressive woman {banshee}. barbarian uncivilized person {barbarian}. barfly People {barfly} can frequent bars.

214 bastard illegitimately born person {bastard}. battle-ax large aggressive woman {battle-ax}. bawd prostitute {bawd}. beachcomber People {beachcomber} can walk beaches looking for artifacts. beau boyfriend {beau}. benefactor People {benefactor} can assist others. best man assistant to male at wedding {best man}. betrothed engaged female {betrothed}. biddy hen {biddy}. big brother domestic spy agency {big brother}. bigot prejudiced person {bigot}. bigwig dignitary {bigwig}. biped walker using two legs {biped}. black sheep prodigal person {black sheep}. blackguard immoral person {blackguard}. bloke man {bloke}. blood brother intimate male friend {blood brother}. blue blood aristocrat {blue blood}. bluenose

215 puritanical person {bluenose}. bluestocking female scholar {bluestocking}. bogy evil spirit {bogy} {bogie}. boor uncouth person {boor}. braggart boaster {braggart}. brahmin upper class upper class person {brahmin, aristocrat}. brass as officer military officer {brass, army}. brass hat high military officer {brass hat}. brethren male members of group {brethren}. bride female about to marry at wedding {bride}. bridesmaid assistant to bride at wedding {bridesmaid}. brigand pirate {brigand}. buccaneer pirate {buccaneer}. buck passer person not taking responsibility {buck passer}. buffoon clownishly behaving person {buffoon}. bumpkin naive person {bumpkin}. butterball fat person {butterball}.

Byronic hero Drama hero can be moody, alone, sensitive, bold, free, and melancholy {Byronic hero}. cad person behaving ungentlemanly {cad}.

216 camp follower Women {camp follower} can accompany male groups. carpetbagger People {carpetbagger} from another region can enter regions to make money. cat's-paw person used by another unwittingly {cat's-paw}. charlatan faker {charlatan}. chauvinist prejudiced person in favor own group {chauvinist}. cherub child with rosy face, or second-ranked angel {cherub}. churl rude surly person {churl}. cipher unimportant person {cipher}. clotheshorse People {clotheshorse} can have many clothes. cock of the walk proud person {cock of the walk}. cockney lower-class Londoner {cockney}. codger eccentric person {codger}. cohort companion {cohort}. colleague co-worker {colleague}. colleen young Irish woman {colleen}. commoner non-royal person {commoner}. communicant communion receiver {communicant}. compatriot fellow patriot {compatriot}. compeer peer {compeer}.

217 confederate ally {confederate}. confidant People {confidant} can receive intimate information. confrere brother-like person {confrere}. conscientious objector People {conscientious objector} can morally oppose being soldiers. coquette flirt {coquette}. coreligionist same-religion person {coreligionist}. correspondent letter writer {correspondent}. cosmopolite cosmopolitan person {cosmopolite}. coxcomb fop {coxcomb}. cracker person low-class farmer {cracker, person}. crank person irritable person {crank, person}. cream puff person timid person {cream puff, person}. cretin stupid person {cretin}. crone witch-like woman {crone}. cuckold man whose wife is unfaithful {cuckold}. curmudgeon blustery person {curmudgeon}. cynic person People {cynic} can believe that people always act selfishly. damsel young woman {damsel}. dandy

218 fop {dandy}. deadbeat debt non-repayer or lazy person {deadbeat}. decedent dead person {decedent}. deity god {deity}. demagogue leader arousing emotions and prejudices {demagogue}. demigod god-like person {demigod}. dependent person from whom another person pays expenses {dependent}. derelict person People {derelict, person} can act irresponsibly. deserter Soldiers {deserter} can leave without intending to come back. despot tyrant {despot}. devil's advocate People {devil's advocate} can argue the opposite for sake of argument. dignitary official {dignitary}. dike person lesbian {dike, person}. displaced person person forced to leave his or her country {displaced person} (DP). dissident disagreer {dissident}. dog in the manger person out of favor {dog in the manger}. dolt stupid person {dolt}. doormat timid person {doormat}. dotard stupid person {dotard}.

219 dowager widowed aristocrat {dowager}. drone person lazy person {drone, lazy}. drudge dull person {drudge}. dude city-dweller at ranch or farm {dude}. eager beaver enthusiastic worker {eager beaver}. eccentric person oddly behaving person {eccentric}. egoist People can think mainly about self {egoist}. egotist conceited person {egotist}. elf small magical person {elf}. epicure person knowledgeable about food and drink {epicure}. epigone creative-person imitator or follower {epigone}. exemplar person setting example {exemplar}. exile person sent out of his or her country {exile}. exponent as person explainer {exponent, person}. extrovert outgoing person {extrovert}. faerie fairy {faerie}. fall guy People {fall guy} can receive blame for actions they did not do. family man Fathers {family man} can put his family first. fancier People {fancier} can like specific objects.

220 fashion plate well-dressed person {fashion plate}. favorite son A person {favorite son} from a state can receive state-delegation votes. fellow traveler communist sympathizer {fellow traveler}. figurehead puppet {figurehead}. firebrand agitator {firebrand}. flunky lackey {flunky}. fold group group {fenced enclosure} {fold}. fop dandy {fop}. forebear ancestor {forebear}. foundling abandoned child {foundling}. four-flusher bluffer {four-flusher}. freebooter pirate {freebooter}. freethinker People {freethinker} can reject religious doctrine. gadfly provocative person {gadfly}. gamin homeless boy {gamin}. gastronome People {gastronome} can appreciate and know good food. gentile non-Jew {gentile, non-Jew}. ghoul ghost {ghoul}. gigolo

221 Men {gigolo} can please older women for money. godfather Men {godfather} can care for children or community. godhead god {godhead}. gold digger Women {gold digger} can want only money from men. golem Living beings {golem} can have no soul or be unable to speak. In Talmud, Adam was a golem before receiving a soul. A 17th-century myth was the Golem of Prague. Golem also means shapeless or not completely formed thing. gourmand People {gourmand} can enjoy good food. goy gentile {goy}. guttersnipe homeless poor child {guttersnipe}. half-brother man born to non-mother spouse of one's parent {half-brother}. half-sister woman born to non-mother spouse of one's parent {half-sister}. harpy shrew {harpy}. harridan Women {harridan} can speak harshly. harrier harasser {harrier}. hatchet man People {hatchet man} can do jobs too unpleasant for others. hayseed rube {hayseed}. headliner star {headliner}. heathen not Jew, Christian, or Muslim {heathen}. heel dishonorable man {heel}. heir People {heir} can be in line to inherit.

222 heir apparent People {heir apparent} can be inline to succeed a leader. hellcat wild woman {hellcat}. hellion wild woman {hellion}. heretic non-believer in orthodoxy {heretic}. hick rube {hick}. his nibs self-important person {his nibs}. huckster peddler or advertisement writer {huckster}. humanist humane person {humanist}. hussy immoral woman {hussy}. hypocrite People {hypocrite} can proclaim something but do the opposite. idolater devotee {idolater}. incendiary agitator {incendiary}. incumbent current officeholder {incumbent}. infidel person with no or different religion {infidel}. interlocutor questioner {interlocutor}. interloper intruder {interloper}. intermediary mediator {intermediary}. interrogator questioner {interrogator}. isolationist

223 People {isolationist} can want nation not to participate in international affairs. issei first-generation Japanese immigrants {issei}. jezebel wicked woman {jezebel}. kingmaker People {kingmaker} can influence who becomes political leader. knave ignoble man {knave}. knickerbocker New York City resident {knickerbocker}. la poete maudit Poet can have too much sensitivity and imagination {la poete maudit}. lackey servile person {lackey}. ladies' man Men {ladies' man} can dress and speak to please women. layman not clergyman {layman}. lecher sexually active man {lecher}. leftist socialist {leftist}. legman People {legman} can do project legwork. leper Behavior or appearance can cause others to avoid people {leper}, or people can have leprosy. leprechaun Irish elf {leprechaun}. lesbian Women {lesbian} can prefer sexual activity with females. lessee rent payer {lessee}. lessor rent collector {lessor}. libertarian People {libertarian} can believe in personal freedom for most situations.

224 libertine promiscuous person {libertine}. litigant person in lawsuit {litigant}. lothario seducer {lothario}. lout stupid uncivilized person {lout}. luminary important person {luminary}. maid of honor An unmarried woman {maid of honor} assists bride at weddings. malcontent discontented person {malcontent}. malefactor People {malefactor} can intend evil toward another. mark person People {mark, person} can bet foolishly. martinet People {martinet} can insist on discipline. martyr People {martyr} can die for causes. masher sexually aggressive man {masher}. mate person Australian buddy {mate}. maverick person People {maverick} can think or act differently than others. migrant People {migrant} can work in a succession of places. milksop timid man or boy {milksop}. minion dependent {minion}. minx coquette {minx}. misanthrope People {misanthrope} can dislike people.

225 miscreant villain {miscreant}. mogul business leader {mogul}. moppet child {moppet}. mossback conservative {mossback}. mountebank charlatan trickster or joker {mountebank}. mouthpiece person People {mouthpiece, person} can speak for another. mugwump People {mugwump} can be too independent and self-respecting. mulatto People {mulatto} can have a black parent and a white parent. mummy preserved dead person {mummy}. muscovite Moscow resident {muscovite}. muse person People {muse, person} can inspire. nabob wealthy or important person {nabob}. nationalist People {nationalist} can believe that nation should pursue its self-interest. nazi national socialist {nazi}. nightrider klansman {nightrider}. nisei second-generation Japanese in America {nisei}. nomad People {nomad} can travel with whole household among regions. nonage minority {nonage}. nymph

226 young woman {nymph}. octogenarian person in their eighties {octogenarian}. octoroon People {octoroon} can have a white parent and a quadroon parent or white grandparent and seven black grandparents. ofay white person {ofay}. ogre cruel person {ogre}. old school person with traditional values {old school person}. opposite number People {opposite number} can have the same position in another organization. pachuco Mexican-American teenage gangster {pachuco}. pacifist People {pacifist} can be always against war. pagan heathen {pagan}. papist Catholic {papist}. papoose baby held in carrier by native {papoose}. paragon excellence model {paragon}. paramour lover {paramour}. past master long-time master {past master}. patron person organization supporter {patron}. pauper poor person {pauper}. pedant People {pedant} can speak like books. pederast Men {pederast} can commit sodomy with boys.

227 peer person same-rank or same-accomplishment person {peer}. pensioner retired person {pensioner}. pessimist People {pessimist} can believe that bad outcomes will usually happen. philistine Art can have no effect on some people {philistine}. pickaninny black child {pickaninny}. piker Gamblers {piker} can bet only small amounts. pilgrim People {pilgrim} can travel to religious sites. pioneer People {pioneer} can be first to settle regions. pip good person {pip}. polemicist People {polemicist} can promulgate arguments. poltroon coward {poltroon}. popinjay vain talker {popinjay}. populist People {populist} can favor common people and/or their supposed ideas over wealthy or scholarly people. poseur People {poseur} can want to impress others. pretender People {pretender} can think that he or she can defeat or replace champion or leader. prig smug and small-minded person {prig}. proband People with disease can lead doctor to test other family members {proband}. progenitor ancestor {progenitor}. progeny

228 offspring {progeny}. proponent advocate {proponent}. prospect person prospective customer {prospect, person}. publican tavern drinker {publican}. pundit wit {pundit}. purist People {purist} can insist on following defined rules. pygmy short slight human {pygmy}. quadroon People can have one white grandparent and three black grandparents {quadroon}. quisling traitor {quisling}. racist prejudiced person {racist}. rake person immoral man {rake, person}. realist not idealist {realist}. recluse People {recluse} can stay away from public. recreant coward {recreant}. redneck south USA white laborer {redneck}. reprobate immoral person {reprobate}. rounder professional poker player {rounder}. roustabout unskilled laborer {roustabout}. royalist People {royalist} can be loyal to king.

229 rube simple-minded person {rube}. sad sack mistake-prone person {sad sack}. sage person wise person {sage, person}. sansei third-generation Japanese immigrants {sansei}. savant person knowing subject {savant}. scapegrace irresponsible person {scapegrace}. scaramouch boastful coward {scaramouch}. scion heir {scion}. scourge People {scourge} can cause widespread harm. seer prophet {seer}. septuagenarian person in his or her seventies {septuagenarian}. shade ghost {shade, ghost}. sharp cheater {sharp}. shrew person shrill ill-tempered woman {shrew, woman}. shyster tricky lawyer {shyster}. sibling brother or sister {sibling} (sib). silk-stocking aristocrat {silk-stocking}. skeptic People {skeptic} can doubt and question. sluggard slow person {sluggard}.

230 slyboots sly person {slyboots}. snake in the grass sneaky person {snake in the grass}. sob sister crybaby {sob sister}. social climber People can want to be in higher social classes {social climber}. sophist questionably reasoning person {sophist}. sophisticate knowledgeable person {sophisticate}. sot drunk {sot}. soul mate intimate {soul mate}. sounding board person People {sounding board, person} can listen to other's ideas. southpaw lefthander {southpaw}. specter ghost {specter}. spinster old unmarried woman {spinster}. spitfire abusive woman {spitfire}. sport person People {sport, person} can like to play. sprite elf or pixie {sprite}. squaw native woman {squaw}. starveling starving person {starveling}. stick-in-the-mud stodgy conservative {stick-in-the-mud}. stickler

231 People {stickler} can follow rules and insist that others do so. stooge person used by another {stooge}. stool pigeon police informer or spy {stool pigeon}. street arab city-street child {street arab}. stripling adolescent {stripling}. strumpet prostitute {strumpet}. stud person attractive man {stud, man}. stuffed shirt pompous person {stuffed shirt}. subject person person ruled by king {subject, monarchy}. subteen pre-adolescent {subteen}. suckling mammal not yet weaned mammal {suckling}. suffragette Women {suffragette} can agitate for right to vote. suitor Men {suitor} can want to marry a woman. supernumerary extra {supernumerary}. supplicant supplicating person {suppliant} {supplicant}. swain country boy or boyfriend {swain}. swell dandy {swell}. sybarite voluptuary {sybarite}. sycophant flatterer and attendant {sycophant}.

232 sylph slender graceful young woman {sylph}. tenant renter {tenant}. termagant shrewish woman {termagant}. tinhorn person unable to enforce his will {tinhorn}. towhead blond-haired person {towhead}. traditionalist People {traditionalist} can follow traditions. trencherman eater {trencherman}. troglodyte caveman {troglodyte}. troll Scandinavian cave dweller or dweller under bridges {troll} can have magical powers. turncoat People {turncoat} can switch loyalties. tyrant despot {tyrant}. tyro sophomore {tyro}. vagrant homeless person or public nuisance {vagrant}. varlet scoundrel {varlet}. vegetable brain dead {vegetable}. vegetarian People {vegetarian} can eat only fruits and vegetables. villain People {villain} can intend to harm another. virago harsh woman {virago}. virgin person Women {virgin} can have never had sexual intercourse.

233 visionary prophet {visionary}. visitant guest {visitant}. vixen evil bad-tempered woman {vixen}. voluptuary sensuous person {voluptuary}. voyeur People {voyeur} can secretly observe sexual events or objects. wag wit {wag}. waif homeless abandoned child {waif}. wallflower person timid person {wallflower, person}. ward person person under guardian or court {ward}. war-horse experienced person {war-horse}. water rat People {water rat} can love to swim. wench young woman {wench}. werewolf People {werewolf} can change into wolves. wetback Illegal immigrants can cross through water {wetback}. whipping boy scapegoat {whipping boy}. widower man whose wife died {widower}. wisenheimer wisecracker {wisenheimer}. wraith ghost {wraith}. xenophobe

234 nationalist {xenophobe}. yahoo brute {yahoo}. yes-man People {yes-man} can always agree with another. zealot People {zealot} can have devotion to a cause.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Noun>People>Profession abbe abbot {abbé}. abbess female abbot {abbess}. abbot church or monastery leader {abbot}. academician professor {academician}. accountant business record keeper {accountant}. acrobat gymnast {acrobat}. aide assistant {aide, assistant}. alderman church official {alderman}. ambassador permanent diplomatic-mission leader {ambassador}. anchorite religious hermit {anchorite}. anchorman news reader {anchorman} {anchorwoman}. antiquarian historian {antiquarian}. apothecary pharmacist {apothecary}. apprentice student of tradesman {apprentice}. archbishop

235 church official {archbishop}. archduke duke {archduke}. architect building designer {architect}. artisan skilled worker {artisan}. assistant professor beginning professor {assistant professor}. associate professor middle-stage professor {associate professor}. atheling Anglo-Saxon prince {atheling}. attorney general highest lawyer {attorney general}. bard Writers can be great poets {bard}. barker circus announcer {barker}. baron nobleman male low-level nobility {baron, noble}. beadle minor church official {beadle}. beautician People {beautician} can beautify others. beefeater English royal guardsman {beefeater}. bellboy hotel baggage carrier {bellboy}. bey Ottoman governor, Egyptian official, or Tunisian king {bey}. bishop high church official {bishop}. blacksmith iron wright or manual iron worker {blacksmith} {smith} {smithy}. boatswain ship deck officer {boatswain} {bosun}.

236 bobby policeman policeman {bobby}. boilermaker iron worker {boilermaker}. boniface innkeeper, hotel manager, nightclub owner, or restaurateur {boniface}. bookmaker bet arranger {bookmaker} {bookie}. bootblack shoe shiner {bootblack}. bouncer People {bouncer} can evict unruly patrons. brazier brass worker {brazier}. broker securities-trade arranger {broker}. bursar treasurer {bursar}. busboy People {busboy} can remove dirty dishes at restaurants. cabin boy captain's young servant {cabin boy}. caddie person person carrying golf bag for another {caddie, golf}. caesar ruler ruler {caesar}. call girl high-class prostitute {call girl}. captain middle-ranking military officer {captain}. chamberlain royal minister {chamberlain}. chancellor leader non-profit-institution leader {chancellor}. chancellor of exchequer treasurer {chancellor of the exchequer}. chandler dealer {chandler}.

237 chaplain minister to military or lay group {chaplain}. charwoman cleaning woman {charwoman}. chiropractor back doctor {chiropractor}. chorine chorus member {chorine}. civil engineer house, road, and other public-work designer {civil engineer}. clergyman low church official {clergyman}. cleric priest {cleric}. clinician doctor {clinician}. clothier clothing seller {clothier}. cobbler person shoemaker {cobbler, shoe}. collier coal miner {collier}. commissar communist official {commissar}. comptroller financial official {comptroller}. concertmaster first violinist {concertmaster}. concubine female sex partner {concubine}. confessor Priests {confessor} can listen to confessions. conservator guardian {conservator}. consort ruler's spouse {consort}. constable

238 sheriff {constable}. controller finance financial official {controller}. coolie indentured worker {coolie}. copyboy Young people {copyboy} can carry copy around newsrooms. copyreader People {copyreader} can proofread. counselor psychologist psychologist {counselor, psychologist}. county agent Public officials {county agent} can help farmers. courier deliverer {courier}. courtesan high-class prostitute {courtesan}. courtier court attendant {courtier}. couturier clothing designer {couturier}. coxswain boat steerer {coxswain}. croupier dice game manager {croupier}. crown prince man in line to throne {crown prince}. curate church official {curate}. curator art museum collection manager {curator}. cure parish priest {curé}. custodian janitor {custodian}. dauphin French king's oldest son {dauphin}.

239 day laborer unskilled laborer {day laborer}. deacon low church official or layman assisting minister {deacon}. dean faculty administrator senior group member {dean}. delegate elected representative {delegate}. deputy authorized assistant {deputy}. dick detective {dick}. disciple follower {disciple}. divine person clergyman {divine}. docent part-time teacher {docent}. domestic servant {domestic}. draftsman drawer {draftsman}. druid Celtic priest {druid}. drum major marching-band leader {drum major}. duchess person high female nobility {duchess, person}. duke high male nobility {duke}. earl middle male nobility {earl}. ecdysiast exotic dancer {ecdysiast}. elder person lay church official {elder, person}. elector voter in assembly {elector}.

240 emissary government agent sent to another country {emissary}. emperor ruler of more than one state {emperor}. engineer civil, electrical, chemical, or mechanical work designer {engineer}. envoy person government agent sent to another country {envoy, person}. equestrian horse rider {equestrian}. escort person accompanying another {escort}. esquire person with rank just below knight {esquire}. executive person administrator {executive}. extern People {extern} can work for organizations outside regular locations. factotum employee with many tasks {factotum}. fakir People {fakir} can perform to receive money. fellah Arab peasant {fellah}. fellow person scholarly-group member {fellow}. flak person advertising or marketing person {flak, person}. flapper jazz-age woman {flapper}. flatfoot detective {flatfoot}. footman servant {footman}. friar monk {friar}. front man

241 business representative {front man}. functionary official {functionary}. furrier fur seller {furrier}. gaffer old person electrician or old person {gaffer, old person}. general practitioner doctor {general practitioner} (GP). glazier glass worker {glazier}. gob sailor {gob}. goon thug {goon}. governess Women {governess} can teach wealthy-people's children. governor person state or province leader {governor, leader}. grandee noble {grandee}. gumshoe detective {gumshoe}. gun moll Women {gun moll} can accompany gangsters during crimes. haberdasher men's clothes and accessory seller {haberdasher}. hack person taxi driver {hack, person}. hacker Persons {hacker, person} can explore boundaries of what is possible in computing. ham person actor or amateur radio operator {ham, person}. handler Persons can schedule other-person's work {handler}. handmaiden noblewoman's woman servant {handmaiden}.

242 harlequin clown clown {harlequin}. harlot prostitute {harlot}. henchman partner in crime {henchman}. highwayman person roadside robber {highwayman}. hireling mercenary {hireling}. hoofer dancer {hoofer}. hooker prostitute {hooker}. hostler Locomotive operators {hostler} can work only in local yards. housemother Women {housemother} can supervise dormitories. informant People {informant} can impart information. in-patient hospital patient {in-patient}. inquisitor questioner from authority {inquisitor}. intern student worker {intern}. internist post-graduate medical worker {internist}. jester court humorist {jester}. jobber Job lot buyer sells for installation {jobber}. joiner furniture and cabinet maker {joiner}. journeyman master tradesman working for another {journeyman}. knight armored horsemen {knight}.

243 knight-errant wandering knight {knight-errant}. lady-in-waiting Noblewomen {lady-in-waiting} can attend queens or princesses. lama Tibetan or Mongolian monk {lama}. lapidary mineralologist {lapidary}. legate emissary {legate}. librettist libretto writer {librettist}. licentiate People {licentiate} can have obtained licenses. liege person vassal or lord {liege}. limey British sailor {limey}. loan shark Lenders {loan shark} can charge high interest and demand payment. longshoreman dockworker {longshoreman}. lord person feudal estate owner {lord}. lord chancellor highest chancellor {lord chancellor}. lyricist People {lyricist} can write lyrics. madam Women {madam} can have prostitution businesses. magdalen former prostitute {magdalen} {magdalene}. magistrate law administrator {magistrate}. magnate important or rich businessman {magnate, businessman}. maid-in-waiting

244 Unmarried noblewomen {maid-in-waiting} can attend queens or princesses. majordomo headwaiter {majordomo}. mammy nursemaid {mammy}. mandarin person high public official {mandarin}. marchese marquis {marchese}. marchioness marquise {marchioness}. margrave state ruler {margrave}. mariner sailor {mariner}. marshal People {marshal} can execute court orders. mason bricklayer or concrete worker {mason} {masonry}. matador bullfighter {matador, bullfighter}. matriarch family or clan female leader {matriarch}. matron elderly dignified woman {matron}. medical examiner Doctors {medical examiner} can examine bodies for causes of death. medium person spiritualist {medium}. mendicant beggar or poor friar {mendicant}. mentor teacher and encourager {mentor}. messiah savior {messiah}. middleman intermediary for sale {middleman}.

245 midshipman sailor {midshipman} {middy}. midwife Women {midwife} can aid baby delivery. miller grain grinder {miller}. milliner cloth seller {milliner}. moderator People {moderator} can mediate debates or conferences. moll Women {moll} can accompany gangsters. monger seller {monger}. monitor person People {monitor, person} can control other's movements in areas, or screens can allow monitoring. mortician funeral parlor owner {mortician}. mullah Muslim religion and law teacher {mullah}. mummer masked dancer {mummer}. nanny person Women {nanny} can care for wealthy parents' children. nark narcotics agent {nark}. naturalist People {naturalist} can observe and study nature. necromancer predictor of future and communer with dead {necromancer}. neophyte beginner {neophyte}. novice beginner or person training to take religious vows {novice} {novitiate}. nun woman in religious order {nun}. nuncio papal representative {nuncio}.

246 officiary official {officiary}. ombudsman People {ombudsman} can act on citizen complaints. optician People {optician} can measure for and sell glasses. oracle prophet {oracle}. orator formal speaker {orator}. out-patient person has procedure in hospital but does not stay {out-patient}. outrider horse riding attendant {outrider}. overlord region controller {overlord}. page messenger or errand person {page}. paladin knight-like person {paladin}. pallbearer casket carrier {pallbearer}. panderer liaison for sexual encounters {panderer}. panjandrum dignitary {panjandrum}. parliamentarian legislator {parliamentarian}. parson person minister {parson}. pastor minister {pastor}. patriarch family or clan male leader {patriarch}. patron saint saint for activity or entity {patron saint}. pawnbroker

247 People {pawnbroker} can loan or give money in exchange for keeping goods. pedagogue schoolteacher {pedagogue}. peon unskilled laborer {peon}. pharaoh Egyptian king more than 2300 years ago {pharaoh}. pharmacist People {pharmacist} can formulate and dispense drugs. pickup prostitute {pickup}. piece person woman {piece}. pimp Men {pimp} can schedule prostitutes. pitchman People {pitchman} can appear in advertisements. plainclothesman non-uniformed on-duty policeman {plainclothesman}. playwright People {playwright} can write dramas. pledge person prospective fraternity member {pledge, person}. plenipotentiary government representative {plenipotentiary}. poet laureate official poet {poet laureate}. pontiff pope {pontiff}. postillion Rider can guide horses pulling carriage {postillion}. postmaster post office administrator {postmaster} {postmaster general}. postulant People {postulant} {pre-novice} can prepare to become novices. potentate powerful person {potentate}.

248 potter clay worker {potter}. practical nurse Licensed nurses {practical nurse} can practice under registered nurses or physicians. preceptor teacher {preceptor}. prefect high official {prefect}. prelate bishop or high church official {prelate}. premier government leader in parliamentary systems {premier}. prexy president {prexy}. prince consort queen's husband {prince consort}. proctor exam supervisor {proctor}. procurator Roman provincial official {procurator} handled finances and emperor's estates. procurer pimp {procurer}. promoter person People {promoter, person} can stage productions. purser Ship officers {purser} can handle money. queen ruler woman {queen}. raconteur storyteller {raconteur}. realtor real estate broker {realtor}. rector parish priest, or school principal or headmaster {rector}. redcap porter {redcap}. regent board member {regent}.

249 registered nurse Nurses {registered nurse} can practice independently. registrar official recorder {registrar}. restaurateur restaurant owner {restaurateur}. rhetorician People {rhetorician} can study and use rhetoric. royalty noble person {royalty}. sacristan Sexton or assistant at liturgy handles vessels and vestments {sacristan}. saddler horse-equipment seller {saddler}. salutatorian People {salutatorian} can give the greeting at meetings. satrap Governors {satrap} can be responsible only to king. sawyer wood sawer {sawyer}. scop Medieval writers can be bards {scop}. scribe writer or copyist {scribe}. scrub reserve player {scrub}. scullion dishwasher {scullion}. seabee USA navy construction engineer {seabee}. second in dueling People {second, dueling} can assist duelists. second-story man house robber {second-story man}. selectman New England town official {selectman}. serf

250 peasant {serf}. sergeant at arms Officials {sergeant at arms} can keep order in courts or assemblies. servitor attendant {servitor}. sexton church caretaker {sexton}. shaman magician {shaman}. shamus detective {shamus}. sharecropper Tenant farmers {sharecropper} can pay rent in crops. sheik Arab leader {sheik}. shill swindler's accomplice {shill}. shipfitter ship building worker {shipfitter}. shogun Japanese first commander {shogun}. shop steward union member selected to represent workers {shop steward}. sibyl Prophetess {sibyl} was at Delphi. sideman musician {sideman}. signatory signer {signatory}. sire father or lord {sire}. skycap porter {skycap}. slattern prostitute {slattern}. sleuth detective {sleuth}.

251 solon person senator {solon}. sorcerer wizard {sorcerer}. sovereign king king {sovereign, king}. spelunker rock hunter {spelunker}. squatter People {squatter} with no title can settle on land. squire person noble attendant to knight {squire, person}. steam fitter heating, ventilation, and cooling system installer and repairer {steam fitter}. steeplejack People {steeplejack} can work on high structures. stevedore dockworker {stevedore}. steward household manager for estate {steward}. stonemason stone layer or wall builder {stonemason}. straight man comedian's foil {straight man}. straw boss foreman or temporary boss {straw boss}. streetwalker prostitute {streetwalker}. stylite Christian ascetics {stylite} lived on pillars. subaltern secondary-rank person {subaltern}. surgeon Physicians {surgeon} can be skilled in cutting and sewing tissue. sutler Suppliers {sutler} can get provisions for regiments. swab person sailor {swab, sailor}.

252 swami Hindu yogi {swami}. swashbuckler pirate or flamboyant man {swashbuckler}. sweep chimney sweeper {sweep}. syndic syndicate member {syndic}. tart person prostitute {tart, prostitute}. taxi dancer Dancers {taxi dancer} can receive customers' money to dance with them. teamster commercial driver {teamster}. teller money handler at bank {teller}. tetrarch secondary ruler or ruler of one-fourth of nation {tetrarch}. thane Anglo-Saxon lords {thane}. theoretician People {theoretician} can study and work on theories. thespian actor {thespian}. third party Disinterested persons {third party} can help two parties transact business. tinker People {tinker} can curiously modify machinery or objects, or be metal-item repairers. toastmaster People {toastmaster} can introduce speakers and propose toasts at meetings. toreador bullfighter {toreador}. torero matador or assistant {torero}. tout person horserace information giver {tout, person}. tragedian

253 actor in tragedies {tragedian} {tragedienne}. trollop prostitute {trollop}. truant officer Officials {truant officer} can apprehend students absent from school without permission. typesetter compositor {typesetter}. typographer compositor {typographer}. understudy Actors {understudy} can be ready to assume roles in case of incapacity. underwriter People {underwriter} can supply finances for activities or businesses. usurer high-interest-rate lender {usurer}. valedictorian People {valedictorian} can give farewell speeches. valet People {valet} can perform personal services. valetudinarian Sick persons {valetudinarian} can think only about their health. ventriloquist People {ventriloquist} can speak for a dummy. veterinarian animal doctor {veterinarian}. vicar Anglican clergymen {vicar} can lead parishes. vicegerent Rulers can claim to represent God {vicegerent}, or people can be substitutes. viceroy Governors {viceroy} can represent king. vigilante People {vigilante} can hunt suspected criminals without authorization. vintner winemaker {vintner}. viscount count's son or younger brother {viscount}.

254 vizier prime minister {vizier}. votary sworn to worship or serve {votary}. wainwright wagon builder {wainwright}. ward heeler local politician {ward heeler}. warden prison administrator {warden}. warlock witch {warlock}. wet nurse Women {wet nurse} can nurse babies for mothers. wildcatter People {wildcatter} can drill for oil on speculation. yeoman person assistant to dignitary {yeoman}. yogi Hindu meditation practitioner {yogi}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Noun>Personal Trait abandon noun no restraint {abandon, noun}. ablution washing {ablution}. abnegation denial to oneself {abnegation}. about face 180-degree turn {about face}. abstention abstaining {abstention}. abstinence abstaining {abstinence}. accession acceding {accession}. accolade praise {accolade}.

255 acrimony animosity {acrimony}. acuity perceptiveness perceptiveness {acuity, perceptiveness}. acumen insightfulness {acumen}. admittance entry {admittance}. adulation adoration {adulation}. aegis sponsorship {aegis}. affectation unnatural behavior designed to draw attention {affectation}. affinity as attraction attraction {affinity, attraction}. afflatus inspiration {afflatus}. affront insult {affront}. afterglow good feeling after action {afterglow}. agnomen additional name {agnomen}. aim goal {aim}. alacrity speed {alacrity}. allure attractiveness {allure}. altercation argument {altercation}. amity brotherly love {amity}. anarchy behavior without rules {anarchy}. anima spirit {anima}.

256 animadversion critical commentary {animadversion}. animosity antagonism {animosity}. antipathy indifference {antipathy}. aplomb poise {aplomb}. approbation disapproval {approbation}. ardor passion {ardor}. artifice artificial behavior {artifice}. asperity bad temper {asperity}. assumption assuming something {assumption}. atrocity very bad action {atrocity}. audacity boldness {audacity}. aura of person quality {aura, quality}. austerity spending sparingly {austerity}. avarice greed {avarice}. avidity eagerness {avidity}. avocation work that is not one's job {avocation}. baccalaureate lowest college degree {baccalaureate}. baptism initially performing difficult task {baptism of fire}. battle royal

257 competition among major rivals {battle royal}. bearing posture posture {bearing, body}. bedlam crazy behavior {bedlam}. blank check freedom {blank check}. bloodletting layoff {bloodletting}. boon favor {boon}. bravado pretended courage {bravado}. bravura excellent {bravura}. brinkmanship taking disagreement to fighting stage {brinkmanship}. bugbear irritant {bugbear}. busman's holiday vacation having or viewing activities similar to one's job {busman's holiday}. candor frank expression {candor}. caprice change of mind {caprice}. cardinal sin one of the seven deadly sins {cardinal sin}. cardinal virtue one of the seven important virtues {cardinal virtue}. career job type {career}. carriage posture {carriage}. chagrin embarrassment {chagrin}. charisma ability to inspire devotion from others {charisma}.

258 cheek boldness {cheek}. chicanery trickery {chicanery}. coat of arms heraldic shield {coat of arms}. coattail dependence {coattail}. cockles of the heart inner state {cockles of the heart}. cold shoulder ostracism {cold shoulder}. cold sweat nervous reaction to fear or pain {cold sweat}. comeuppance deserved punishment {comeuppance}. complaisance compliance {complaisance}. complicity acting as accomplice {complicity}. compunction remorse {compunction}. conceit pride pride {conceit, pride}. concupiscence lust {concupiscence}. consensus agreement among group members {consensus}. consuetude custom {consuetude}. coquetry flirting {coquetry}. coronation crowning {coronation}. countenance face face {countenance, face}. credence increasing belief {credence}.

259 credential certificate from authority authorizing work type {credential}. credulity readily believing {credulity}. crocodile tears pretended crying {crocodile tears}. crusade gathering people to achieve cause {crusade}. cupidity desire {cupidity}. curtsy bending knees to bow {curtsy}. custody control control {custody, control}. dead pan expressionless {dead pan}. dead reckoning setting course without using instruments {dead reckoning}. deadly sin one of the seven deadly sins {deadly sin}. debauchery immoral behavior {debauchery}. debility weakness {debility}. decorum behavior good behavior {decorum, good behavior}. deference deferring {deference}. demarche diplomatic tactic {demarche}. demeanor attitude toward others {demeanor}. demerit mark against {demerit}. demise death {demise}. deportment

260 attitude toward others {deportment}. depravity immorality {depravity}. depredation destroying {depredation}. desuetude disuse {desuetude}. device plan {device}. dilatation delay delaying {dilatation}. dilemma quandry quandary {dilemma, quandary}. discipline following rules {discipline, rule following}. discord disharmony {discord}. dishabille dishevelment {dishabille}. disposition temperament temperament {disposition, temperament}. dissolution immoral immoral behavior {dissolution, immorality}. distinction excellence excellence {distinction, person}. diversion time-passer {diversion}. divination foretelling {divination}. doctorate highest academic degree {doctorate}. domesticity liking home life {domesticity}. dominion rule {dominion}. dotage senility {dotage}.

261 drag cross-dressing cross-dressing {drag, cross-dressing}. dry run practice {dry run}. dudgeon resentment {dudgeon}. duplicity deception {duplicity}. duress coercion {duress}. earshot hearing distance {earshot}. edification learning {edification}. effigy likeness {effigy}. effrontery insolence {effrontery}. elbow grease energy {elbow grease}. endearment expressing affection {endearment}. enmity animosity {enmity}. entreaty urgent request {entreaty}. equanimity calm {equanimity}. eructation belching {eructation}. erudition knowledge {erudition}. escapade adventuring {escapade}. espousal expressing idea {espousal}. ethic moral principle {ethic}.

262 euphoria great happiness {euphoria}. evocation evoking feelings {evocation}. excursion trip {excursion}. execration loathing or protesting {execration}. exodus exit mass leaving {exodus}. expectation something expected {expectation, prediction}. exploit deed {exploit}. expulsion sending person out of country or location {expulsion}. expunction erasing {expunction}. facility skill {facility}. faculty ability ability {faculty}. family name surname {family name}. feeler Actions can try to ascertain people's ideas {feeler}. femininity feminine characteristics {femininity}. fidelity loyalty {fidelity}. figment imagined object or idea {figment}. fishing expedition attempting to elicit useful information {fishing expedition}. flagellation whipping {flagellation}. flag-waving

263 showing off patriotism {flag-waving}. foible minor personal weakness {foible}. foray raid or attempt {foray}. forethought planning {forethought}. frailty weakness {frailty}. free love sexual promiscuity {free love}. frivolity fun behavior {frivolity}. funk depression {funk}. furor uproar {furor}. gambit taking small loss to make larger gain {gambit}. gamesmanship gaining advantage by deception {gamesmanship}. genealogy ancestor list {genealogy}. gentility civilized behavior and politeness {gentility}. grace flow flowing movements {grace}. grimace facial expression during disgust or pain {grimace}. guile skillful deception {guile}. guise appearance {guise}. habiliment clothing {habiliment}. highroad moral and civilized behavior {highroad}.

264 hindsight knowledge of results {hindsight}. histrionics dramatic behavior {histrionics}. homage public respect {homage}. horoscope Astrology methods {horoscope} can try to predict future events. humility humbleness {humility}. hypocrisy doing the opposite of what one proclaims {hypocrisy}. idiosyncrasy eccentricity {idiosyncrasy}. ignominy dishonor {ignominy}. ilk type {ilk}. imbroglio difficult situation or misunderstanding {imbroglio}. impasse situation with no way out {impasse}. impediment obstruction {impediment}. imponderable idea that is hard to understand {imponderable}. imposition infliction {imposition}. inanition weakness {inanition}. inanity silly remark {inanity}. incursion movement into {incursion}. indirection no purpose {indirection}. infamy shame {infamy}.

265 iniquity sin {iniquity}. inkling hint {inkling}. inquisition investigation heresy investigation {inquisition}. insouciance calm {insouciance}. insubordination acting against one's leadership {insubordination}. intellect mind {intellect}. ire anger {ire}. ivory tower ignoring real situation {ivory tower}. jubilation great joy {jubilation}. kudos praise {kudos}. lam running away {lam}. languor laziness {languor}. lassitude torpor {lassitude}. latitude freedom freedom {latitude, freedom}. laurels rewards for action {laurels}. lechery high sexual activity {lechery}. lethargy indifference-caused slowness {lethargy}. levity humor {levity}. liaison link

266 link between people {liaison, link}. liberality generosity {liberality}. lineage ancestor succession {lineage}. lineament facial feature {lineament}. lip service saying one believes but not really {lip service}. loggerheads disagreement {loggerheads}. machination plot {machination}. magnanimity generosity {magnanimity}. maiden name name before marriage {maiden name}. mandate authorization {mandate}. mannerism behavior behavior peculiar to person {mannerism, behavior}. manumission bow {manumission}. masterstroke good action {masterstroke}. matronymic mother's name {matronymic}. megalomania feelings of power {megalomania}. mendacity untruthfulness {mendacity}. miasma failing to realize {miasma}. mien countenance {mien}. mirth humor {mirth}.

267 moniker name {moniker}. monomania obsession {monomania}. monotony boredom {monotony}. negritude blackness as culture {negritude}. notoriety dishonorable fame {notoriety}. obeisance obedience {obeisance}. odyssey journey {odyssey}. ordination ordaining {ordination}. ostentation showing off {ostentation}. pall gloom {pall}. pallor paleness {pallor}. paroxysm spasm {paroxysm}. penchant predilection {penchant}. peradventure doubt {peradventure}. perfidy treachery {perfidy}. perspective objectivity objectivity {perspective}. piety reverential behavior {piety}. pique irritation irritation {pique}. plain sailing situation in which one can perform one's intentions {plain sailing}.

268 plaudit praise {plaudit}. plight difficult situation {plight}. ploy strategy {ploy}. poise bearing {poise, bearing}. predilection disposition {predilection}. prerogative right {prerogative}. presentiment feeling that something will happen {presentiment}. pretense deceptive action {pretense}. privation lacking food, water, and/or shelter {privation}. probity integrity {probity}. proclivity tendency {proclivity}. profundity profound thinking {profundity}. propensity disposition {propensity}. propriety proper behavior {propriety}. protestation protesting {protestation}. puissance power {puissance}. pulchritude beauty {pulchritude}. punctilio observing formalities {punctilio}. purview

269 sight {purview}. quietus death {quietus}. rancor animosity {rancor}. rapport harmony with another {rapport}. rapture ecstasy ecstasy {rapture}. ratiocination reasoning {ratiocination}. recognizance recognition {recognizance}. recourse alternative {recourse}. rectitude moral behavior {rectitude}. refinement civilized behavior {refinement}. regimen behavior pattern {regimen}. remembrance remembering {remembrance}. renunciation renouncing {renunciation}. reprisal reaction reaction to punish {reprisal, punish}. repulsion repelling {repulsion}. reserve restraint {reserve, not acting out}. resolve noun determination {resolve, determination}. revulsion disgust with turning away {revulsion}. ruse trick {ruse}.

270 sacrilege abusing the sacred {sacrilege}. sally short quick action or sentence {sally}. scruple moral objection to behavior {scruple}. sensibility perception {sensibility}. sentimentality emotionality {sentimentality}. sheep's eye loving look {sheep's eye}. sloth laziness laziness {sloth, laziness}. sobriety not drunken behavior {sobriety}. solace comfort {solace}. solidarity supporting group goals {solidarity}. sour grapes feeling that unattained goal was really not worth reaching anyway {sour grapes}. spontaneity acting without planning {spontaneity, impulse}. strong suit person's best skill {strong suit}. submission submitting {submission}. succor help {succor}. surname family name {surname}. tedium boredom {tedium}. temerity rashness {temerity}. temperance not drinking alcohol {temperance}.

271 theatrics histrionics {theatrics}. thrall servitude {thrall} {thralldom}. throes struggle {throes}. torpor lethargy {torpor}. travail toil {travail}. trepidation fear {trepidation}. tribulation distress {tribulation}. troth fidelity {troth}. tryst lovers' meeting {tryst}. tumult crowd and noises {tumult}. turpitude depravity {turpitude}. tutelage tutoring {tutelage}. umbrage offense {umbrage}. vagary whim {vagary}. vanity pride pride {vanity, pride}. vendetta feud {vendetta}. veracity truthfulness {veracity}. vigil staying watchful all night {vigil}. virtuosity

272 high skill {virtuosity}. visage countenance {visage}. vital statistics body-health measurements {vital statistics}. volition will will {volition}. wake death watch death watch {wake}. wanderlust feeling that one needs to travel {wanderlust}. waterloo defeat defeat {waterloo}. wedlock marriage {wedlock}. wile trick {wile}. wont habit {wont}. yeoman's service good work {yeoman's service}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Noun>Proper Noun

Achilles' heel vulnerable point {Achilles' heel}. act of God disaster {act of God}.

Albion England {Albion}.

American Legion veterans' group {American Legion}.

American Plan room with full breakfast {American Plan}.

Anglia England {Anglia}.

Arcadia paradise rural paradise {Arcadia, paradise}.

Armageddon

273 world's end {Armageddon}.

Atlantis lost continent {Atlantis}.

Augustan Age general classic period {Augustan Age}.

Avalon paradise western island paradise {Avalon}.

Babbitt bourgeois bourgeois {Babbitt}.

Babylon sinful sinful place {Babylon, sinful}.

Baedeker guidebook {Baedeker}.

Beau Brummel dandy {Beau Brummel}.

Bronx cheer boo or raspberry {Bronx cheer}.

Chinese lantern paper lamp {Chinese lantern, lamp}.

Christendom states whose main religion is Christianity {Christendom}.

Christian name first name {Christian name}.

Cinderella rags to riches person {Cinderella}.

Columbia goddess goddess of wisdom and skill {Columbia, goddess}.

Court of St. James British royal court {Court of St. James}. cross the Rubicon take decisive step {cross the Rubicon}.

Davy Jones's locker sea bottom {Davy Jones's locker}.

D-day day action starts {D-day}.

Dewey decimal system library classification system {Dewey decimal system}.

274 Distinguished Service United States honor {Distinguished Service Medal}.

Don Juan lothario {Don Juan}. doubting Thomas skeptic doubter {doubting Thomas}.

Dutch go female pays {Dutch}.

Dutch uncle generous uncle {Dutch uncle}.

Eden paradise {Eden, paradise}.

El Dorado rich paradise {El Dorado}.

Emmy USA television award {Emmy}.

European plan room with no breakfast {European plan}.

Falstaff carouser {Falstaff}.

Faust person controlled by the devil {Faust}.

Ferris wheel vertical wheel ride at fair {Ferris wheel}.

Flying Dutchman ghost sailing ship {Flying Dutchman}.

Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse riders at the Apocalypse including conquest on white horse, war on red horse, famine on black horse, and plague on gray horse {Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse}.

Four Hundred high society {Four Hundred}.

Frankenstein mixed-origin monster {Frankenstein}.

Freemason secret-cult member {Freemason}.

Gargantua giant {Gargantua}.

Garrison finish

275 fast and successful conclusion {Garrison finish}.

Gibraltar land end last land {Gibraltar, end}. girl Friday female assistant {girl Friday}.

G-man FBI agent {G-man}.

Godspeed farewell {Godspeed}.

Goliath giant {Goliath}.

Greenwich time time standard {Greenwich time}.

G-string string panty {G-string}.

Havana cigar cigar {Havana, cigar}.

Hobson choice choosing between small thing and nothing {Hobson's choice} {Hobson choice}.

Holy Joe evangelist {Holy Joe}.

Horatius at the bridge strong defender {Horatius at the bridge}.

Indian club slim bowling-pin-shaped club {Indian club}.

Indian sign two fingers in V shown behind head {Indian sign}.

Ivy League elite {Ivy League}.

Jack Frost biting cold {Jack Frost}.

Jaycee Junior Chamber of Commerce member {Jaycee}.

Jekyll and Hyde alternating personalities {Jekyll and Hyde}.

John Barleycorn drunkard {John Barleycorn}.

276 John Hancock signature {John Hancock}.

John Henry signature signature {John Henry}.

Juliet female lover {Juliet}.

Kewpie doll small celluloid doll {Kewpie doll}.

Kiwanis service club {Kiwanis}.

Knights of Columbus Catholic service club {Knights of Columbus}.

Kris Kringle Santa Claus {Kris Kringle}.

Ku Klux Klan southern night riders {Ku Klux Klan}.

Latin Quarter city area where many people are from countries that use Romance languages {Latin Quarter}.

Left Bank artistic area {Left Bank}.

Legion of Honor French honorary society {Legion of Honor}.

Legion of Merit USA military honor {Legion of Merit}. life of Riley easy life {life of Riley}.

Lilith seductive female demon {Lilith}.

Lilliputian small {Lilliputian}.

Lloyd's of London insurance company {Lloyd's of London}.

Lucifer devil {Lucifer}.

M-1 rifle military rifle {M-1 rifle}.

Mae West lifejacket {Mae West}.

277

Mafia criminal organization {Mafia}.

Main Street small town {Main Street}. man Friday male assistant {man Friday}.

Mardi Gras Fat Tuesday before Ash Wednesday {Mardi Gras}.

Mark Hopkins teacher {Mark Hopkins}.

Mason-Dixon line border between Maryland and Pennsylvania {Mason-Dixon line}.

May Day first day in May {May Day}.

Mayday danger call {Mayday}.

Mayflower ship Pilgrim ship {Mayflower}.

McCarthyism unfairly hunting out communists and sympathizers {McCarthyism}.

McCoy genuine genuine article {McCoy}.

Medal for Merit Legion of Merit medal {Medal for Merit}.

Medal of Honor highest USA military honor {Medal of Honor}.

Mickey Finn poison drink {Mickey Finn}.

Moloch king requiring sacrifice {Moloch}.

Molotov cocktail bottle filled with flammable liquid {Molotov cocktail}.

Morse code telegraph code {Morse code}.

Mother Goose nursery rhymes {Mother Goose}.

Mother Hubbard

278 loose dress {Mother Hubbard}.

Mountie Royal Canadian Mounted Police person {Mountie}.

Mrs. Grundy propriety enforcer {Mrs. Grundy}.

National Guard USA reserve military force {National Guard}. nervous Nellie anxious person {nervous Nellie}.

New Deal economic reforms enacted during Great Depression {New Deal}.

Niagra overwhelming flow {Niagra}.

Oberon king of the fairies {Oberon}.

Occident western world {Occident}.

Odd Fellow service club {Odd Fellow}.

Old Glory USA flag {Old Glory}.

Old Nick devil {Old Nick}.

Orient eastern world {Orient}.

Oscar USA movie award {Oscar}.

PA system public address system {PA system}.

Paul Bunyan huge lumberjack {Paul Bunyan}.

Peeping Tom voyeur {Peeping Tom}.

Philadelphia lawyer top-quality lawyer {Philadelphia lawyer}.

Pollyanna People {Pollyanna} can be always sunny.

279 Prince of Wales man in line for British throne {Prince of Wales}.

Pullman car train sleeping car {Pullman car}.

Punch-and-Judy show marionette or puppet show {Punch-and-Judy show}. Punch is fat and short buffoon, and Judy is harassing woman.

Punchinello Punch or buffoon {Punchinello}.

Purple Heart USA medal for injury in battle {Purple Heart}.

Pyrrhic victory success but with high cost {Pyrrhic victory}.

Quai d'Orsay French diplomatic corps {Quai d'Orsay}.

Red Cross service organization for help in disasters {Red Cross}.

Rhodes scholar USA college student selected to study at Oxford University {Rhodes scholar}.

Rip Van Winkle person unaware of recent happenings {Rip Van Winkle}.

Robin Hood People {Robin Hood} can take from rich and give to poor.

Robinson Crusoe Isolated people {Robinson Crusoe} cannot come home.

Romeo lover male lover {Romeo}.

Rosetta stone key to understanding {Rosetta stone}.

Rotarian service club {Rotarian}.

Roughrider Soldiers {Roughrider} can have fought in Spanish-American War.

Salvation Army Religious service organizations {Salvation Army} can help needy.

Samaritan People {Samaritan} can stop to help unfortunate persons.

Samson strong man {Samson}.

280

Sancho Panza loyal servant or companion {Sancho Panza}.

Scheherazade storyteller {Scheherazade}.

Scotland Yard British detective police {Scotland Yard}.

Secret Service USA-president protectors {Secret Service}.

Section Eight housing voucher {Section Eight}.

Sermon on the Mount moral discourse {Sermon on the Mount}.

Shangri-la paradise {Shangri-la}.

Shylock greedy merchant {Shylock}.

Simon Legree slavedriver {Simon Legree}.

Stars and Bars Confederate flag {Stars and Bars}.

Stars and Stripes USA flag {Stars and Stripes}.

Star-Spangled Banner USA flag {Star-Spangled Banner}.

Statue of Liberty Statue of Columbia {Liberty Lighting the World} stands in New York City harbor {Statue of Liberty}.

Svengali magician or escape artist {Svengali}.

Swedish massage joint movements and long strokes {Swedish massage} {Swedish movements}.

Tam O'Shanter Scottish wool bonnet for men with pompom {Tam O'Shanter}.

Tammany corrupt political organization {Tammany}.

Tarzan natural man {Tarzan}.

Tin Pan Alley

281 jazz {Tin Pan Alley}.

Titania queen of the fairies {Titania}.

Tom Thumb small person {Tom Thumb}.

Tony USA drama award {Tony}.

Trojan horse gift Gift can gain advantage {Trojan horse}.

Tweedledum and Tweedledee no difference {Tweedledum and Tweedledee}.

Unknown Soldier honored unidentified soldier {Unknown Soldier}.

V-1 rocket {V-1}.

V-day victory day {V-day}.

Victoria Cross British military honor {Victoria Cross}.

Wall Street stock exchange and business center {Wall Street}.

Wandering Jew Mocker {Wandering Jew} of Jesus at his crucifixion must roam forever.

White House USA-president residence {White House}.

Whitehall British government district {Whitehall}.

William Tell accurate and daring marksman {William Tell}.

Xanadu paradise {Xanadu}.

Xanthippe Socrates' harassing wife {Xanthippe}.

Young Turk young unconventional artist or aggressive and ambitious person {Young Turk}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Noun>Region acreage

282 land {acreage}. airspace air above country {airspace}. archdiocese church geographic division {archdiocese}. autarchy autocracy {autarchy}. backwater stagnated area {backwater} {back water}. bailiwick bailiff's district {bailiwick}. barrio city area mainly occupied by Latin Americans {barrio}. beachhead controlled outpost {beachhead}. borough urban district {borough}. bowery city area where derelicts live {bowery}. byway not main road {byway}. canton district district in Switzerland {canton}. collective farm farm for commune {collective farm}. common public land in town {common}. concentration camp prison for political prisoners {concentration camp}. confederacy federation {confederacy}. diocese church district around several churches under bishop {diocese}. directorate area controlled by formal director {directorate}. empire region including several states ruled by emperor {empire}.

283 enclave country inside another country {enclave}. environs surroundings {environs}. expanse wide level land {expanse}. fleshpot lewd show {fleshpot}. free port port open to ships from all countries {free port}. frontage land facing water, buildings, or street {frontage}. greensward grassy area {greensward}. hamlet town {hamlet}. haven safe place {haven}. heartland central or main area {heartland}. hinterland outlying areas {hinterland}. jumping-off place location from which many people have traveled to another place {jumping-off place}. kibbutz farm commune in Israel {kibbutz}. lair animal den or cave {lair}. landfall area where dirt has been dumped to raise it {landfall}. limbo place in which one waits indefinitely with unresolved status {limbo}. locale place {locale}. march borderline between two regions {march}. nerve center building that receives communications {nerve center}.

284 parish church diocese or county in Louisiana {parish}. pasturage pasture {pasturage}. periphery edge {periphery}. plaza open area in town {plaza}. precinct district for police or elections {precinct}. prefecture area controlled by prefect or high official {prefecture}. principality area controlled by prince {principality}. purlieu outlying or neighboring area {purlieu}. quarry region land area that supplies rock {quarry, rock}. realm kingdom {realm}. red-light district area frequented by prostitutes {red-light district}. redoubt fort {redoubt}. republic state governed by elected officials {republic}. right-of-way land used by road, railroad, or utility {right-of-way}. rotten borough politically corrupt urban district {rotten borough}. sector as part land or other region {sector, land}. see area under bishop {see, bishopric}. seven seas all oceans {seven seas}. shire

285 English region {shire}. skid row city area with derelicts {skid row}. stamping ground person's home area {stamping ground}. stepping-off place location from which many people have traveled to another place {stepping-off place}. technocracy country governed by engineering bureaucrats {technocracy}. terminus end end {terminus}. three-mile limit area near shore controlled by nation {three-mile limit}. timocracy state requiring land ownership for citizenship {timocracy}. vista beautiful area for viewing {vista}. white way city street with nightclubs or theaters {white way}. zone of city City area {zone, city} can be designated for a purpose, such as light industry or housing {zoning}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Noun>Space acme highest position {acme}. adjunct adjoining addition {adjunct}. ambiance atmosphere {ambiance}. antipodes location opposite location on globe {antipodes, opposites}. apex highest position {apex, highest}. bedrock foundation {bedrock}. benchmark standard marker {benchmark, marker}. bookend

286 Weights {bookend} can prevent books from falling over on shelves. bottleneck in flow Processes have steps {bottleneck, flow} where flow slows and inventory builds. cache hidden hiding or storage place {cache, hidden}. conjuncture junction {conjuncture}. cornet horn horn-shaped object {cornet, horn}. crossbones two bones in X-shape {crossbones}. crux cross {crux}. disjunction as disjoint no junction, disjoint {disjunction, disjoint}. disproportion unbalanced ratio {disproportion}. distention expansion {distention}. dogleg path with angle {dogleg}. epicenter surface point above sphere inner point {epicenter}. facet face {facet}. freeboard distance between water and boat or dock surface {freeboard}. inroad encroachment {inroad}. interface Two surfaces can share a surface {interface}. itinerary path traveled {itinerary}. juncture junction {juncture}. juxtaposition two objects side-by-side {juxtaposition}.

287 lattice Two sets of parallel lines can overlap perpendicularly {lattice, structure}. nadir lowest position {nadir}. orb sphere sphere {orb, sphere}. propinquity nearness {propinquity}. scenario scene {scenario}. swath area cut by scythe {swath}. topography region elevations {topography}. uniformity same form {uniformity}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Noun>State aberration abnormality {aberration}. abolition ending situation {abolition}. acquisition of things something acquired {acquisition, acquired}. admeasure measure {admeasure}. admixture mixture {admixture}. affirmative yes {affirmative}. agenda meeting schedule {agenda}. agglomerate mixed collection {agglomerate}. amenity convenience {amenity}. anastamosis connection between two objects {anastamosis}.

288 anathema something shunned {anathema}. anodyne soothing agent {anodyne}. anomaly deviation from normal {anomaly}. antinomy metal used in alloys {antinomy}. apocalypse end revelation or world end {apocalypse}. apotheosis high ideal {apotheosis}. apparatus structure that has function {apparatus}. appellation name name {appellation, name}. appurtenance accessory {appurtenance}. archetype a type's original {archetype, original}. artifact manmade object {artifact}. assignation appointment for lovers to meet {assignation}. asylum safe safe haven {asylum}. auspice patronage {auspice}. babel speech cacophony {babel}. bacchanal drunken party {bacchanal}. bacchanalia drunken festival {bacchanalia}. back number previous edition {back number}. backlash reaction {backlash}.

289 bagatelle trifle {bagatelle}. balm soothing agent {balm}. banderole forked flag {banderole}. bane trouble cause {bane}. bar sinister diagonal from lower left to upper right {bar sinister}. barb insult insult {barb, insult}. behemoth enormous something {behemoth}. behest request {behest}. bellwether indicator {bellwether}. bill of goods worthless stuff {bill of goods}. bill of health good report {bill of health}. black art magic {black art}. blarney stone stone that makes one become smooth talker {blarney stone}. blue streak fast moving manner {blue streak}. bye automatic advancement to next round {bye}. cachet specialness {cachet}. cacophony loud noise {cacophony}. capitation per capita tax {capitation}. carnage

290 slaughter {carnage}. cataclysm disaster {cataclysm}. cession ceding {cession}. cincture belt around something {cincture}. clambake party {clambake}. clamor loud protest from many people at once {clamor}. clangor clanging {clangor}. clarity clearness {clarity, clearness}. compaction compression {compaction}. concert harmony {concert}. concord harmony harmony {concord}. conflagration fire fire {conflagration}. consignment assignment {consignment}. constituent component component, such as person in voting district {constituent}. continental breakfast coffee, tea, juice, and pastry {continental breakfast}. contradistinction contrast {contradistinction}. counterfoil payment record {counterfoil}. criterion standard {criterion}. cross section representative sample {cross section}.

291 crown colony English colony {crown colony}. cynosure object of interest {cynosure}. dead letter letter with unreadable or non-existent address {dead letter}. deadweight burden {deadweight}. debacle quick defeat {debacle}. decor room decorations {decor}. desolation uninhabited and forbidding land {desolation}. determinant decider decider {determinant, decider}. deterrent object that deters {deterrent}. dint cause {dint}. disparity difference difference {disparity, difference}. dispensation exemption {dispensation}. distinction difference difference {distinction, difference}. dodge trick {dodge}. donnybrook brawl {donnybrook}. drawing card object of interest {drawing card}. dross waste {dross}. ducat ticket {ducat}. duck soup easy task {duck soup}.

292 echelon level {echelon}. efflux flow {efflux}. elixir drink with good effects {elixir}. embellishment addition something added {embellishment, addition}. encumbrance burden {encumbrance}. end goal {end, goal}. enigma puzzle {enigma}. entity thing {entity}. epitome best example {epitome}. escutcheon shield with coat of arms {escutcheon}. etcetera and {etcetera}. exposure contact contact with {exposure, contact}. extravaganza spectacle {extravaganza}. facsimile copy {facsimile}. fairing solid piece used to smooth fluid flow {fairing}. fanfare preliminary promotion {fanfare}. felicity appropriateness and high quality {felicity}. fiasco failure {fiasco}. field day

293 day of fun {field day}. fig leaf covering for private matter {fig leaf}. fillip incentive {fillip}. first fruits initial rewards {first fruits}. first water highest quality {first water}. flotsam floating lost goods {flotsam}. fountainhead spring or source {fountainhead}. funicular railway cable car {funicular railway}. generality statement about non-specific things {generality}. hallmark mark indicating value {hallmark}. happenstance chance event {happenstance}. harbinger sign of things to come {harbinger}. heraldry study of ancestry and coats of arms {heraldry}. heresy statement contradicting orthodoxy {heresy}. holocaust great destruction {holocaust}. holy of holies most sacred thing {holy of holies}. hustings political campaign {hustings}. immersion putting underwater {immersion}. impetus stimulus {impetus}.

294 imprimatur authorization {imprimatur}. incongruity inconsistent inconsistent {incongruity}. inefficacy no effect {inefficacy}. infrastructure roads and utilities {infrastructure}. jetsam jettisoned or discarded goods {jetsam}. juggernaut large mass advancing {juggernaut, unstoppable}. kibosh stop {kibosh}. knell bell toll {knell}. legerdemain hand tricks {legerdemain}. libation drink {libation}. memorabilia objects from one's past {memorabilia}. misnomer wrong name {misnomer}. mythos story of group {mythos}. nemesis rival rival {nemesis}. nicety feature {nicety}. nonce present time {nonce}. nosegay small flower bunch {posy} {nosegay}. nostrum useless drug {nostrum}. nuance small difference {nuance}.

295 nub essence {nub}. offing near future {offing}. open sesame magic words {open sesame}. ordure excrement {ordure}. ornamentation embellishment {ornamentation}. pageantry show {pageantry}. panoply cover {panoply}. panorama wide view {panorama}. parity equality equality {parity, equality}. perdition hell {perdition}. phantasm phantom {phantasm, phantom}. pidgin language mixture {pidgin}. poetic justice just rewards {poetic justice}. pomp splendor {pomp}. potation drink {potation}. precursor something coming before {precursor, before}. prerequisite requirement requirement {prerequisite}. prototype example first example {prototype, first example}. provenance

296 source {provenance}. providence luck God can intervene to provide good luck {providence}. pyre Wood arrangements {pyre} can burn corpses at funerals. pyrotechnics fireworks {pyrotechnics}. quandary situation in which it is difficult to decide {quandary}. quarry person pursued object {quarry, pursued}. quintessence essential essence {quintessence, essence}. quondam former {quondam}. quonset hut shed with cylindrical tin roof {quonset hut}. rapine plunder {rapine}. reception party after wedding {reception}. reclamation reclaiming {reclamation}. redaction removing private or secret information from public document {redaction}. reflux backward flow {reflux}. refuge safe haven {refuge}. repast meal {repast}. repository storage place {repository}. rescission rescinding contract {rescission}. restitution equal-value restoration {restitution}.

297 rigor strictness strictness {rigor}. rite ceremony ceremony {rite}. roman candle fireworks type {roman candle}. rub problem, catch {rub, problem}. rubefacient irritating skin agent for pain relief {rubefacient}. rubric directions {rubric}. rudiment rule {rudiment}. sacred cow idea that no one can question {sacred cow}. sanctity holiness {sanctity}. secession withdrawing {secession}. seeing-eye dog dog that assists blind people {seeing-eye dog}. serendipity chance {serendipity}. seventh heaven happiness {seventh heaven}. signet seal {signet}. sinecure easy salaried job {sinecure}. spadework investigating {spadework}. specie coin {specie}. springboard place from which to dive into subject {springboard}. squalor dirty place {squalor}.

298 stalking-horse First bid {stalking-horse} only tests the market and does not expect to win. stead place {stead}. stirrup cup drinking cup with two handles {stirrup cup}. stock-in-trade regular business stock {stock-in-trade}. subterfuge trick {subterfuge}. supposition assumption {supposition}. sustenance sustaining substance {sustenance}. susurrus whispering sounds {susurrus}. synergism two things can work together to perform function {synergism}. synthesis combination combination {synthesis, combination}. talisman object conferring protection through magic {talisman}. tenet principle {tenet}. three R's reading, writing, and arithmetic {three R's}. touchstone criterion {touchstone}. tracery curved lines {tracery}. travesty imitation poor imitation {travesty, imitation}. trial balloon sample used to test people's reactions {trial balloon}. trumpery nonsense {trumpery}. uncial

299 Dark Ages rounded-letter alphabet {uncial}. underpinning foundation {underpinning}. vicissitude sudden change {vicissitude}. white elephant something no longer wanted {white elephant}. will-o'-the-wisp impossible goal {will-o'-the-wisp}. wisp faint or thin thing {wisp}. witch-hunt finding people with unorthodox beliefs {witch-hunt}. wroth wrath {wroth}. yellow peril threat to native people from increased Asian immigration {yellow peril}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Noun>Time abeyance something suspended temporarily {abeyance}. advent coming {advent}. aftermath result {aftermath}. antecedent in time something that preceded something else {antecedent, time}. antiquity times before Middle Ages {antiquity}. celerity quickness {celerity}. cessation ceasing {cessation}. chronology event sequence {chronology}. clockwork regularity {clockwork}. commencement

300 beginning {commencement}. curfew requirement that people stay home after a time {curfew}. dateline day and time {dateline}. dispatch quickness quickness {dispatch, done quickly}. dog days time when nothing exciting is happening {dog days}. dusk later twilight after sunset {dusk}. epoch short era {epoch}. era long period {era}. eve time evening or day before {eve}. finality end {finality}. foreboding preliminary feeling of danger or bad luck {foreboding}. forerunner precursor {forerunner}. foretaste preliminary sampling {foretaste}. foretoken preliminary sign {foretoken}. fruition completion {fruition}. hiatus impasse impasse {hiatus, impasse}. inception beginning {inception}. intercession period between two similar periods {intercession}. interregnum period between rulers {interregnum}.

301 jubilee joyful season or anniversary {jubilee}. novena devotional period of nine days {novena}. perpetuity forever {perpetuity}. portent preliminary information {portent}. respite postponement or short rest {respite}. salad days period of success {salad days}. silly season period of clowning {silly season}. small hours after midnight to dawn {small hours}. surcease ceasing {surcease}. swan song farewell performance {swan song}. time immemorial forever {time immemorial}. trimester one-third year {trimester}. zero hour time for starting action {zero hour}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Short Words word length 1 Adverbs are o {word length 1}. Articles are a. Nouns are i. word length 2 adjective Adjectives and articles are an, my {word length 2 adjective}. word length 2 adverb Adverbs are ah, aw, eh, er, ha, hi, ho, la, lo, no, oh, ow, uh, um {word length 2 adverb}. word length 2 common noun Common nouns are ad, ax, el, ex, id, os, ox {word length 2 common noun}. word length 2 conjunction Conjunctions are or {word length 2 conjunction}.

302 word length 2 preposition Prepositions are as, at, by, if, in, of, on, re, so, to, up {word length 2 preposition}. word length 2 proper noun Proper nouns are al, bo, ed, em, ev, hy, jo, ma, mo, pa, vi {word length 2 proper noun}. word length 2 verb Verbs are am, be, do, go, is {word length 2 verb}. word length 3 adjective Adjectives are any, bad, big, dry, far, fat, few, his, hot, low, mad, new, old, one, our, out, red, sad, ten, the, two, wet, apt, coy, dim, due, fey, gay, hep, hip, icy, lax, mum {word length 3 adjective}. word length 3 adverb Adverbs are baa, bye, eek, hey, not, now, oop, poo, too, ugh, wow, yes, ago, aha, aye, bah, ere, fro, gad, gee, heh, hey, huh, nay, sic {word length 3 adverb}. word length 3 common noun Common nouns are age, air, all, ant, ape, arm, art, bag, bat, bed, box, boy, bug, bus, can, car, cat, cow, cup, day, dog, dot, ear, egg, elf, end, eye, fan, fly, fox, fun, fur, gas, god, goo, gum, gun, ham, hat, her, him, hit, ice, ink, jam, jar, jet, job, key, law, leg, lid, lip, log, lot, man, map, men, mud, nap, net, nut, oil, owl, pan, pat, paw, pea, pen, pet, pig, pin, pot, rag, rat, row, rug, saw, sea, sun, tan, tie, toe, top, toy, war, way, you, zoo, ace, ads, ado, aft, ahs, aid, aim, ale, alm, alp, amp, arc, ark, ash, asp, ass, awe, awl, axe, ban, bar, bay, bet, bib, bid, bin, bit, boa, bog, bow, bra, bub, bud, bum, bun, cab, cad, cam, cap, cay, cob, cod, cog, cop, cot, cox, cub, cur, dab, dam, den, dew, die, din, doe, don, dud, dup, dye, ebb, eel, ego, elk, ell, elm, emu, eon, era, erg, eve, ewe, fad, fag, fee, fen, fez, fib, fig, fin, fir, fix, fob, foe, fog, fop, gag, gal, gap, gay, gel, gem, gig, gin, gob, goy, gut, hag, haw, hay, hem, hen, hex, hip, hod, hoe, hog, hub, hue, hum, hun, hut, ilk, imp, inn, ism, ire, jag, jaw, jay, jew, jib, jif, jig, jog, jot, joy, jug, lab, lad, lag, lam, lap, lee, lob, lox, lug, lye, mat, maw, mew, mil, mit, mix, mob, mod, mop, mug, mum, nag, net, nib, nip, nit, nob, nod, nub, nun, oaf, oak, oar, ode, orb, ore, pad, pal, pap, par, paw, pat, pay, pea, peg, pep, pew, pip, pit, pod, pot, pox, pro, pub, pug, pun, pup, pus, quo, rag, ram, rap, raw, ray, reb, ref, rep, rib, rig, rim, roc, rod, roe, rub, rum, rut, rye, sap, saw, sax, sex, sib, sip, sod, sot, sow, soy, sum, tab, tad, tag, tar, tat, tee, tic, tin, tip, tit, ton, tot, tow, try, tub, tux, urn, van, vat, vee, vet, vim, vow, vue, wad, wag, wax, web, wig, wit, woe, zed {word length 3 common noun}. word length 3 conjunction Conjunctions are and, but, how, let {word length 3 conjunction}. word length 3 proper noun Proper nouns are dad, mom, sis, abe, amy, ava, ben, bob, bud, dan, eli, eva, eve, fay, ian, ida, ike, ira, irv, jan, jay, jeb, jed, jim, joe, jud, kay, lee, lem, len, leo, lon, mae, max, may, meg, mel, nan, ned, pam, pat, peg, ray, rex, ron, roy, roz, sal, sam, sue, ted, tex, tim, tom, val, vic, viv, von {word length 3 proper noun}. word length 3 verb Verbs are act, add, are, ask, ate, beg, bet, bit, boo, buy, can, cry, cut, did, die, dig, dry, dug, eat, fit, fix, fly, fry, get, got, had, has, hid, hit, hop, hug, lay, lie, lit, met, mix, moo, mow, nag, pat, pay, pet, pop, put, ran, rip, rob, row, rub, run, sat, saw, say, see, set, sew, sit, tap, tie, tip, try, use, wag, was, win, zip, aid, ail, aim, bob, bop, bow, box, bud, bug, cap, caw, con, cup, dab, dam, dim, dip, don, dot, dub, dun, dye, ebb, eke, err, fan, fie, gab, gag, ham, hem, hew, hex, hie, hum, irk, jam, jar, jot, lag, led, lob, lop, lug, mar, mat, mob, mop, mow, mug, nab, nag, nap, net, nip, nix, nod, pad, pal, pan, par, pat, paw, peg, pen, pit, pry, pun, ram, rap, rat, rev, rib, rid, rig, rot, rue, sag, sap, sip, sob, sop, sow, sub, sue, sup, tag, tan, tap, tar, tax, tee, tip, top, tow, toy, tug, tut, vex, vie, vow, vue, wad, wax, wed, wet, woo, wow, zap {word length 3 verb}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Verb abase debase {abase}.

303 abdicate resign from throne {abdicate}. abduct kidnap {abduct}. abet aid {abet}. abhor intensely dislike {abhor}. abjure reject {abjure}. abominate hate {abominate}. abridge shorten {abridge}. abrogate reject {abrogate}. absolve remove sin or duty from {absolve}. abut stand next to {abut}. acclimate get used to {acclimate}. accommodate allow or adjust for {accommodate}. accord verb give {accord}. accouter dress {accouter}. accrue increase {accrue}. actualize make happen {actualize}. actuate set into action {actuate}. administer manage {administer}. adopt take as one's own {adopt}.

304 adorn decorate {adorn}. adulterate add something different {adulterate}. adumbrate cut short {adumbrate}. aerate add air to {aerate}. affect as change change {affect, verb}. alienate make go away {alienate}. allay reduce {allay}. alleviate lighten {alleviate}. ameliorate better {ameliorate}. animate make lively {animate}. antagonize make hostile {antagonize}. antedate precede {antedate}. appease doing part of what aggressor wants {appease}. appose face {appose}. appreciate like {appreciate}. apprehend understand or take into {apprehend}. appropriate take {appropriate}. arrogate take over {arrogate}. ascertain

305 determine {ascertain}. asphyxiate prevent from breathing {asphyxiate}. assail attack {assail}. asseverate sever from {asseverate}. assimilate fit among {assimilate}. attain gain {attain}. attenuate reduce {attenuate}. attire dress {attire}. automate do by machine {automate}. avail use {avail}. balkanize make into smaller incompatible parts {balkanize}. bastardize reduce from higher to lower value {bastardize}. beard catch {beard}. becalm calm {becalm}. bedizen dress or decorate with poor taste {bedizen}. beget produce {beget}. belay attack {belay}. betroth engage {betroth}. bleach make white {bleach}.

306 blockade prevent ships from entering or leaving {blockade}. bludgeon beat with stick {bludgeon}. blue-pencil edit {blue-pencil}. bootleg make or do something illegally {bootleg}. boycott not buy {boycott}. burnish polish {burnish}. buss kiss {buss}. buttonhole find and speak to {buttonhole}. cadge borrow {cadge}. calcify become hard by adding calcium {calcify}. cannibalize take parts from item to repair similar item {cannibalize}. card verb require document or line up fibers {card, verb}. case harden heat then put in water {case harden}. cashier fire {cashier}. castrate remove testicles or remove power {castrate}. cede give up something {cede}. cerebrate think {cerebrate}. christen baptize {christen}. clabber curdle {clabber}.

307 coagulate thicken {coagulate}. coddle pamper {coddle}. coerce force {coerce}. commandeer seize {commandeer}. comport carry oneself {comport}. conduce bring about {conduce}. confiscate take {confiscate}. conjure make appear {conjure}. consecrate make sacred {consecrate}. consign assign {consign}. constitute be part of {constitute}. constrain restrict {constrain}. contraindicate do not use or do {contraindicate}. co-opt take over {co-opt}. corrugate make have grooves {corrugate}. counter block or oppose {counter, verb}. countersign sign again {countersign}. cremate burn {cremate}. crenate

308 scallop {crenate}. crenellate indent {crenellate}. crimp squeeze {crimp}. croon sing {croon}. crosshatch mark with parallel perpendicular lines {crosshatch}. crucify make to take blame {crucify}. crystallize become clear {crystallize}. cuff beat {cuff}. curdle thicken {curdle}. debar exclude or banish {debar}. debase lower {debase}. debauch behave immorally {debauch}. debilitate weaken {debilitate}. decapitate remove head {decapitate}. decentralize move things away from one place to several spread out places {decentralize}. defile make dirty {defile}. deflate remove air from {deflate}. deflower have sexual intercourse {deflower}. defoliate remove flowers {defoliate}.

309 deform make worse shape {deform}. delimit limit {delimit}. delineate mark boundary {delineate}. demarcate mark {demarcate}. demilitarize reduce military presence {demilitarize}. demobilize send active soldiers home {demobilize}. demote move to lower position {demote}. denature change from original organic form {denature}. denude remove skin {denude}. depolarize reduce electric charge {depolarize}. deport carry oneself {deport}. deprecate remove from service {deprecate}. depredate prey on {depredate}. derive start with something and make something new {derive}. desiccate dry {desiccate}. despoil ruin {despoil}. dethrone remove king or champion {dethrone}. detoxify make not poisonous {detoxify}. dignify add prestige to {dignify}.

310 disabuse no longer believe {disabuse}. disbar take away lawyer license {disbar}. discern perceive {discern}. disdain be too proud to notice {disdain}. disembody remove essence {disembody}. disembowel remove intestines {disembowel}. disenfranchise take away vote {disenfranchise}. disinter remove from grave {disinter}. dismember remove arms and/or legs {dismember}. dispatch verb kill {dispatch, kill}. disport play or have fun {disport}. dispossess take away {dispossess}. dissociate no longer associate {dissociate}. distill make into essence {distill}. diversify have more parts {diversify}. domesticate make less wild {domesticate}. douse soak {douse}. downgrade reduce in value {downgrade}. dramatize

311 show {dramatize}. dry clean clean using perchloroethylene (perc) or other chemicals {dry clean}. earmark mark {earmark}. eat humble pie be humble {eat humble pie}. eclipse replace {eclipse}. efface verb erase {efface}. effect cause {effect}. emancipate free {emancipate}. emasculate remove manly qualities from {emasculate}. embalm soak in fluid {embalm}. embellish decorate {embellish}. embezzle steal {embezzle}. embody is example of {embody}. embolden make bold {embolden}. emboss mark {emboss}. embrocate rub with medicine {embrocate}. embroider sew design on or add nice details {embroider}. embroil involve {embroil}. emend change {emend}.

312 empower give power {empower}. emulate imitate {emulate}. emulsify mix {emulsify}. encompass include {encompass}. encumber burden {encumber}. endow give {endow}. enervate make weak {enervate}. enfranchise give vote to {enfranchise}. engender produce {engender}. engrave carve lines into {engrave}. enliven make lively {enliven}. enmesh trap {enmesh}. ennoble make noble {ennoble}. enshrine put into {enshrine}. entail cause {entail}. enthrall fascinate {enthrall}. enthrone put on throne {enthrone}. entice make interested {entice}. entomb put in tomb {entomb}.

313 entrain bring along with {entrain}. entrench stay even more solidly in one's position {entrench}. entrust trust {entrust}. entwine bind {entwine}. envenom poison {envenom}. envisage see {envisage}. envision see {envision}. epitomize show essence {epitomize}. eradicate erase {eradicate}. erode wear {erode}. escalate make more {escalate}. espy see {espy}. essay verb try {essay, verb}. estrange become as strangers {estrange}. etch cut grooves in {etch}. etiolate make weak {etiolate}. evict throw out {evict}. evince evoke {evince}. eviscerate

314 remove essence {eviscerate}. evoke cause {evoke}. exacerbate make worse {exacerbate}. excavate dig {excavate}. excrete pass out waste {excrete}. exhume take out of grave {exhume}. expedite assist {expedite}. expend spend {expend}. expiate atone {expiate}. expropriate take {expropriate}. expunge remove from {expunge}. expurgate remove from {expurgate}. exsanguinate remove blood from {exsanguinate}. extenuate lessen {extenuate}. externalize express {externalize}. extirpate destroy {extirpate}. exude give off {exude}. facilitate aid {facilitate}. fain disposed to or prepared to {fain}.

315 featherbed make easy {featherbed}. federate unite {federate}. felicitate make easy {felicitate}. ferment brew {ferment}. fertilize prepare to grow {fertilize}. festoon decorate {festoon}. flaunt show off {flaunt}. flay whip {flay}. foreordain predetermine {foreordain}. foreshorten shorten {foreshorten}. forgo give up {forgo} {forego}. formalize make formal {formalize}. foster support {foster}. freeze-dry freeze in alcohol and dry ice then dry {freeze-dry}. fudge verb cheat {fudge, verb}. furbish furnish {furbish}. galvanize energize {galvanize}. garnish verb decorate {garnish, verb}. garrison verb occupy place {garrison, verb}.

316 geld castrate {geld}. geminate pair or double {geminate}. generate create {generate, create}. gerrymander make into regions with no natural boundaries {gerrymander}. gestate develop {gestate}. ghostwrite write for someone else {ghostwrite}. gig frog immobilize {gig frog}. gild decorate {gild}. granulate make into grains {granulate}. haze make do silly things {haze}. hew stay close or cut {hew}. homogenize mix different things into one thing {homogenize}. hone sharpen {hone}. honeycomb make have holes {honeycomb}. humidify make air wet {humidify}. imbrue saturate {imbrue}. imbue saturate {imbue}. immolate burn {immolate}. immure

317 put in prison or tomb {immure}. impanel make group {impanel}. impeach remove from office {impeach}. impel force {impel}. imperil endanger {imperil}. implement do {implement}. impound take custody of {impound}. impregnate make pregnant {impregnate}. inaugurate begin {inaugurate}. incapacitate make incapable of doing {incapacitate}. incarcerate put in prison {incarcerate}. incise cut into {incise}. incorporate include {incorporate}. indenture enslave {indenture}. induce make to happen {induce}. inlay put into groove in surface {inlay}. innervate make weak {innervate}. inoculate protect against {inoculate}. inseminate make pregnant {inseminate}.

318 interlard mix in {interlard}. internalize think about {internalize}. interpolate locate between {interpolate}. irradiate expose to radiation {irradiate}. jilt leave lover {jilt}. ken recognize {ken}. knurl make knobby {knurl}. lacerate cut {lacerate}. laminate layer {laminate}. lave wash {lave}. leach suck {leach}. liquidate reduce to zero {liquidate}. lyophilize freeze-dry {lyophilize}. lyse decompose {lyse}. macerate chew {macerate}. machine verb cut and groove metal {machine, verb}. masticate chew {masticate}. mete give {mete}. mill grind {mill, grind}.

319 mince verb moderate words {mince, verb}. mint verb make original {mint, verb}. mobilize make ready for action {mobilize}. modulate control {modulate}. mothball store or take out of action {mothball}. mottle spot or dapple {mottle}. mulch cover with organic matter {mulch}. mulct penalize or swindle {mulct}. muzzle verb quiet {muzzle, verb}. naturalize become citizen by swearing allegiance {naturalize}. necessitate require {necessitate}. negate cancel {negate}. notarize authenticate with official stamp {notarize}. nurture verb help grow {nurture, verb}. obviate make unnecessary {obviate}. opt choose {opt}. optimize make best {optimize}. orchestrate arrange {orchestrate}. originate

320 begin {originate}. overcome surmount {overcome}. palm steal {palm, steal}. pawn get money for object at pawn shop {pawn}. perpetrate commit {perpetrate}. perpetuate keep alive {perpetuate}. personify embody {personify}. peruse look at {peruse}. pervade be everywhere in {pervade}. pervert corrupt {pervert}. petrify make afraid {petrify}. picket verb stand outside business and protest labor policies {picket, verb}. pillage plunder {pillage}. plumb verb understand {plumb, verb}. plunder rob {plunder}. ply do {ply, verb}. poleax strike {poleax}. pollinate take pollen to {pollinate} {pollinize}. pommel verb beat {pommel, verb}.

321 ponder think about {ponder}. potentiate give power to {potentiate}. preclude block {preclude}. preempt block {preempt}. prefabricate make in factory instead of on site {prefabricate}. preoccupy think only about one thing {preoccupy}. preordain predetermine {preordain}. prime pump use water to create suction {prime pump}. procure obtain {procure}. proffer offer {proffer}. project stick out or forward {project}. propagate transmit or breed {propagate}. prorate calculated as percentage {prorate}. prostitute be base {prostitute}. protract prolong {protract}. pullulate be abundant or germinate {pullulate}. purloin steal {purloin}. purvey be everywhere in {purvey}. pyramid verb multiply {pyramid, verb}.

322 quadruple make four times more {quadruple, verb}. quantify measure or count {quantify} {quantitate} {quantize}. quarantine confine to region {quarantine}. quarter section into fourths {quarter}. quintuple make five times more {quintuple}. ravage pillage or devastate {ravage}. ravish carry off or rape {ravish}. raze demolish {raze}. realize make happen {realize}. recoup get back {recoup}. rectify make right {rectify}. redouble try even harder {redouble}. redress remedy {redress}. refurbish fix up {refurbish}. rehabilitate make return to previous state {rehabilitate}. reinstate put back {reinstate}. rejuvenate feel lively again {rejuvenate}. relegate assign or send {relegate}. relish verb

323 enjoy {relish, verb}. remit send payment {remit}. remunerate pay {remunerate}. render make {render}. renovate fix up more like new {renovate}. repair fix {repair}. repossess take back {repossess}. repress hold down {repress}. requite avenge or return {requite}. resolve verb decide {resolve, verb}. resurrect bring back {resurrect}. resuscitate revive {resuscitate}. retool get ready to do something again in new way {retool}. ruff trump {ruff}. sack verb cashier or destroy {sack, verb}. salve soothe {salve}. sanctify make holy {sanctify}. sandbag block {sandbag}. sate satisfy {sate} {satiate}.

324 scalp sell ticket bought to resell {scalp}. scarify scratch {scarify}. score verb scratch {score, scratch}. scotch verb decide not to do {scotch, verb}. scuttle decide not to do {scuttle}. secure guard or tighten {secure}. sextuple make six times more {sextuple}. shackle hamper or restrict {shackle}. shanghai kidnap kidnap {shanghai}. shave trim {shave}. shod shoe {shod}. slake satisfy {slake}. spawn originate {spawn}. spay neuter {spay}. spearhead lead {spearhead}. spoliate rob {spoliate}. sport wear {sport, verb}. squire verb escort {squire, verb}. stencil cut into {stencil}.

325 stipple dot or speckle {stipple}. stoke add fuel {stoke}. stratify make into layers {stratify}. streamline verb make simpler {streamline}. strong-arm bully {strong-arm}. subject verb subdue {subject, verb}. subjugate subdue {subjugate}. sublimate direct energy into socially acceptable activity {sublimate}. subvert undermine or corrupt {subvert}. suckle breastfeed {suckle}. suffer tolerate or endure {suffer}. sully dirty {sully}. survey look over {survey}. tarry stay {tarry}. tat verb lace {tat}. telegraph signal {telegraph}. temper moderate {temper}. titrate measure liquid {titrate}. tolerate

326 allow or endure {tolerate}. trammel hamper or hinder {trammel}. transcend rise or be above {transcend}. transfigure exalt {transfigure}. transfix impale or shock into stillness {transfix}. transfuse put fluid in {transfuse}. transmogrify change to different form {transmogrify}. transmute transform {transmute}. transplant move from one body to another {transplant}. transubstantiate transmute {transubstantiate}. traumatize wound {traumatize}. unearth dig up {unearth}. unnerve make anxious {unnerve}. uproot force to leave {uproot}. vamp refurbish {vamp}. vitrify make glassy {vitrify}. vivisect cut into living thing {vivisect}. waste use improperly or not well {waste, verb}. wean help become mature {wean}.

327 wing verb act spontaneously {wing, verb}. wrack wreck {wrack}. wreak cause or inflict {wreak}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Verb>Communication accede agree {accede}. accentuate emphasize {accentuate}. acclaim cheer {acclaim}. accost hail rudely {accost}. accredit give credit to {accredit}. acknowledge note {acknowledge}. acquiesce agree {acquiesce}. addle confuse {addle}. adduce ascertain {adduce}. adjourn close until next time {adjourn}. adjudge judge {adjudge}. adjudicate decide {adjudicate}. adjure advise {adjure}. admonish scold {admonish}. advocate support {advocate}.

328 affirm second {affirm}. afflict bother {afflict}. aggrandize glorify {aggrandize}. allege claim {allege}. allude refer {allude}. amend change {amend}. annul make void {annul}. anoint appoint {anoint}. appraise value {appraise}. apprise inform {apprise}. arbitrate mediate {arbitrate}. articulate verb express {articulate, verb}. ascribe attribute {ascribe}. assent agree {assent}. assert state strongly {assert}. assess judge {assess}. assuage calm {assuage}. assume presume {assume}. assure affirm truth of {assure}.

329 audit verb listen {audit, verb}. augur foretell {augur}. authenticate state that something is true {authenticate}. authorize give permission {authorize}. aver affirm {aver}. backbite be mean {backbite}. badger verb bother {badger, verb}. bait verb taunt {bait}. bandy say {bandy}. banter talk {banter}. becloud confuse {becloud}. bedevil bother {bedevil}. beguile fool {beguile}. belabor overdo {belabor}. beleaguer bother {beleaguer}. belie make false {belie}. bell mark {bell}. bemuse feel humored {bemuse}. berate

330 censure {berate}. bespeak show {bespeak}. betoken indicate {betoken}. blackball exclude {blackball}. blacklist banish {blacklist}. blandish state {blandish}. blaspheme speak against god {blaspheme}. bluster talk loudly {bluster}. bode indicate {bode}. bridle become angry {bridle}. bristle verb become angry {bristle, verb}. brook allow {brook}. browbeat badger {browbeat}. bruit say {bruit}. buffalo verb badger {buffalo, verb}. cajole persuade {cajole}. canonize make authoritative {canonize}. canvass poll {canvass}. capitulate give in {capitulate}.

331 carp verb complain {carp, verb}. castigate censure {castigate}. categorize put in groups {categorize}. caterwaul howl {caterwaul}. cavil quibble {cavil}. censure criticize {censure}. chasten scold {chasten}. chastise scold {chastise}. chide scold {chide}. cite refer to {cite}. clepe call or name {clepe} {yclept}. codify categorize and write {codify}. commend praise {commend}. commercialize try to sell {commercialize}. commiserate sympathize {commiserate}. commutate reverse direction {commutate}. commute pardon {commute}. con verb fool {con, verb}. conciliate pacify {conciliate}.

332 concur agree {concur}. condescend treat as lower class {condescend}. condole comfort {condole}. confabulate talk together {confabulate}. confer talk together {confer}. confute show as false {confute}. conjugate verb list verb variations {conjugate, verb}. connote mean indirectly {connote}. construe understand {construe}. contemn condemn {contemn}. contract verb agree {contract, verb}. correlate relate {correlate}. corroborate affirm {corroborate}. couch code {couch}. counsel verb advise {counsel, verb}. countenance verb approve {countenance, verb}. countermand rescind {countermand}. cozen deceive {cozen}. crab as complain

333 complain {crab, verb}. cue as indicate indicate {cue, verb}. debrief gather information from returned person {debrief}. decipher decode {decipher}. declaim orate {declaim}. decry condemn {decry}. defame damage reputation {defame}. deify glorify {deify}. demur disagree {demur}. denigrate disparage {denigrate}. denominate count {denominate}. denote define {denote}. depersonalize objectify {depersonalize}. depreciate reduce in value {depreciate}. deride ridicule {deride}. descry speak against {descry}. desecrate defile {desecrate}. designate choose or point to {designate}. detract take away from {detract}.

334 devalue reduce in value {devalue}. differentiate make distinction {differentiate}. digress speak about other than main point {digress}. disavow no longer stay loyal {disavow}. disclaim no longer claim {disclaim}. discomfit bother {discomfit}. disconcert upset {disconcert}. disparage put down {disparage}. dissemble talk falsely {dissemble}. dissimulate pretend {dissimulate}. dissuade persuade not to do {dissuade}. divulge reveal {divulge}. dress down disparage {dress down}. dun badger for payment {dun}. dupe fool {dupe}. edify teach {edify}. edit correct and improve {edit}. editorialize comment {editorialize}. educe deduce {educe}.

335 effuse gush {effuse}. elegize praise {elegize}. elicit draw out {elicit}. elide link {elide}. elucidate explain {elucidate}. enlighten teach {enlighten}. entreat plead {entreat}. enumerate count {enumerate}. enunciate articulate {enunciate}. equate make equal {equate}. equilibrate balance {equilibrate}. eschew renounce {eschew}. espouse advocate {espouse}. eulogize praise {eulogize}. exalt glorify {exalt}. excommunicate exclude from group {excommunicate}. exculpate declare innocent {exculpate}. execrate damn {execrate}. exhort

336 encourage {exhort}. exonerate declare innocent {exonerate}. expatiate express in detail {expatiate}. explicate explain {explicate}. expostulate expound {expostulate}. expound speak at length {expound}. extemporize speak spontaneously {extemporize}. extol praise {extol}. extort try to get money by threatening {extort}. fabricate make up {fabricate}. feign pretend {feign}. foment incite {foment}. formulate make {formulate}. forswear give up {forswear}. fulminate speak volubly {fulminate, verb}. gainsay oppose or declare false {gainsay}. gall irritate {gall}. generalize move from specific to general {generalize}. glower scowl {glower}.

337 grease the palm bribe {grease the palm}. harass bother {harass}. hark listen listen {hark}. harry bother {harry}. hawk verb market {hawk, verb}. hearken listen {hearken}. hector verb badger {hector}. henpeck nit pick {henpeck}. herald hail {herald}. hock verb sell {hock, verb}. hornswoggle cheat {hornswoggle}. hype tout {hype}. hyphenate make into higher sounding word {hyphenate}. hypothesize verb conjecture {hypothesize}. implicate point to {implicate}. implore plead with {implore}. importune bother {importune}. imprecate curse {imprecate}. impress make admire {impress}.

338 impugn attack {impugn}. impute imply {impute}. incense verb make angry {incense, verb}. incommode bother {incommode}. inculcate teach {inculcate}. indemnify absolve of responsibility {indemnify}. indict charge with crime or bad behavior {indict}. indoctrinate teach only one theory {indoctrinate}. inflect accent {inflect}. ingratiate try to make favorable impression {ingratiate}. insinuate imply {insinuate}. instigate start {instigate}. intimate suggest {intimate}. intone say {intone}. inveigh speak against {inveigh}. inveigle cajole {inveigle}. keelhaul rebuke {keelhaul}. kibitz comment {kibitz}. lambaste

339 criticize {lambaste}. lard verb mix in {lard, verb}. laud praise {laud, verb}. lionize admire {lionize}. litigate file lawsuit {litigate}. lobby verb advocate {lobby, verb}. malign say bad things about {malign}. manipulate try to control others {manipulate}. mesmerize fascinate {mesmerize}. mollify calm {mollify}. mollycoddle coddle {mollycoddle}. mortify humiliate {mortify}. muckrake expose corruption {muckrake}. nasalize sound through nose {nasalize}. nullify cancel {nullify}. obfuscate make difficult to understand {obfuscate}. opine verb say {opine, verb}. orate speak at length {orate}. ordain decree {ordain}.

340 ostracize shun {ostracize}. overstate exaggerate {overstate}. pacify calm {pacify}. palliate mitigate or extenuate {palliate}. pan verb criticize {pan, verb}. parrot verb repeat {parrot, verb}. parse understand {parse}. patronize condescend {patronize}. perjure lie under oath {perjure}. perturb bother or disturb {perturb}. pettifog quibble {pettifog}. philosophize be objective {philosophize}. phrase express {phrase, verb}. pigeonhole put into category {pigeonhole}. placate make calm {placate}. play hob bedevil {play hob}. polarize make people take opposed positions {polarize}. pontificate give opinion {pontificate}. portend foretell {portend}.

341 posit assume or hypothesize {posit}. prate prattle {prate}. prattle talk randomly {prattle}. prefigure foretell {prefigure}. presage foretell {presage}. presuppose suppose {presuppose}. profane denigrate sacred {profane}. profess state belief {profess}. prognosticate predict {prognosticate}. promulgate declare {promulgate}. proofread edit {proofread}. propitiate appease {propitiate}. proposition verb ask for sexual intercourse {proposition, verb}. propound expound {propound}. proscribe prohibit {proscribe}. purport appears {purport}. rail as complaining complain about {rail, verb}. rankle bother {rankle}. rant

342 complain {rant}. ratify approve {ratify}. rationalize give reason {rationalize}. rebuff reject or repel {rebuff}. rebuke criticize {rebuke}. rebut answer argument {rebut}. recant retract {recant}. recapitulate summarize {recapitulate}. recount tell {recount}. recriminate blame {recriminate}. redistrict redraw district boundaries {redistrict}. regale entertain {regale}. regurgitate repeat {regurgitate}. reify objectify {reify}. reiterate repeat {reiterate}. rejoin reply {rejoin}. remonstrate object {remonstrate}. renounce give up {renounce}. repine regret {repine}.

343 reprimand reproach {reprimand}. reproach criticize {reproach} {reprove}. repudiate reject {repudiate}. repute ascribe or suppose {repute}. rescind repeal {rescind}. resound echo {resound}. respond answer {respond}. retract take back {retract}. revere admire {revere}. revile hate {revile}. rhapsodize praise {rhapsodize}. rib kid {rib, verb}. roil disturb or stir up {roil}. romanticize idealize {romanticize}. rubber-stamp approve the same as previous person {rubber-stamp}. rue verb regret {rue, verb}. sell short underestimate value {sell short}. serenade sing to {serenade}. serialize make into parts in order {serialize}.

344 shakedown extort {shakedown}. showcase display {showcase}. shrive hear or receive confession {shrive}. signify mean {signify}. simper express shyly {simper}. simulate model {simulate}. skew verb distort {skew}. snivel whine {snivel}. snow verb flatter {snow, verb}. snub slight {snub}. sober become serious {sober}. soft-soap flatter {soft-soap}. solicit seek or ask for {solicit}. spurn reject {spurn}. stipulate specify {stipulate}. suborn induce to break law {suborn}. substantiate support or verify {substantiate}. subsume put into more general category {subsume}. sugarcoat

345 make seem OK {sugarcoat}. sulk withdraw sullenly {sulk}. supplicate plead {supplicate}. surmise infer {surmise}. suspire sigh {suspire}. table verb end discussion of motion {table, verb}. tax annoy {tax, bother}. tease bother playfully {tease}. temporize gain time {temporize}. thrum drone {thrum}. titillate stimulate or excite {titillate}. traduce humiliate {traduce}. transcribe write or record {transcribe}. translate change from one language to another or move in straight line {translate}. transliterate change into another alphabet {transliterate}. twit tease {twit}. typecast assign to same role {typecast}. typify represent by example {typify}. ululate lament {ululate}.

346 unbosom confide {unbosom}. upbraid criticize {upbraid}. upstage verb take over attention {upstage, verb}. usurp take over {usurp}. vacillate waver {vacillate}. validate verify {validate}. vaunt brag or boast {vaunt}. venerate revere {venerate}. vent verb express {vent, verb}. verbalize express {verbalize}. vilify malign {vilify}. vindicate justify or avenge or prove {vindicate}. vitiate corrupt or make ineffective {vitiate}. vituperate berate {vituperate}. vocalize sing {vocalize}. vouchsafe deign {vouchsafe}. whitewash conceal fault {whitewash}. write off deduct or enter as loss {write off}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Verb>Intransitive

347 abide stay {abide}. abound be in abundance {abound}. abscond steal {abscond}. abstain not vote {abstain}. acclimatize get used to {acclimatize}. accustom get used to {accustom}. adhere stick to {adhere}. affiance become engaged {affiance}. affiliate closely associate {affiliate}. aggress attack {aggress}. agonize worry over {agonize}. angle verb try for advantage {angle, verb}. appall make horrified {appall}. appertain pertain {appertain}. arborize become tree-like {arborize}. aspire have goal {aspire}. atone do something to make bad action right {atone}. attune tune {attune}. backslide return to former bad habits {backslide}.

348 barter trade {barter}. bind over transfer custody {bind over}. blanch pale become pale {blanch, become pale}. blazon become bright {blazon}. bootlick show servility {bootlick}. carouse party wildly {carouse}. cater serve {cater}. cavort play {cavort}. chafe have difficulty waiting {chafe}. cogitate think {cogitate}. cohabit live with {cohabit}. comprise have or be {comprise}. conceive think of {conceive}. connive scheme with others {connive}. cope adapt {cope}. cower cringe {cower}. culminate end {culminate}. dally play {dally}. defecate

349 excrete feces {defecate}. defer postpone {defer}. degenerate verb break down {degenerate}. deign condescend {deign}. deliberate think {deliberate}. delve dig {delve}. devolve derive {devolve}. disassociate no longer associate {disassociate}. domineer dominate {domineer}. economize save money {economize}. effervesce bubble {effervesce}. ejaculate spurt {ejaculate}. electioneer perform election activities {electioneer}. emaciate make thin {emaciate}. emblazon make bright {emblazon}. emote act {emote}. enamor love {enamor}. engorge eat {engorge}. engross interest {engross}.

350 ensue follow {ensue}. equivocate hesitate {equivocate}. err make error {err}. evangelize proselytize {evangelize}. eventuate happen eventually {eventuate}. evolve change slowly {evolve}. exemplify be example {exemplify}. exhilarate feel happy {exhilarate}. expectorate spit {expectorate}. expire die or end {expire}. extrapolate extend from {extrapolate}. fag act as servant {fag}. fawn submit to {fawn}. ferret verb dig out {ferret, verb}. fester verb get worse {fester, verb}. forage graze {forage, verb}. forbear refrain from doing {forbear}. foreclose end chance to take other options {foreclose}. forfend protect {forfend}.

351 forgather gather {forgather} {foregather}. fornicate have sexual intercourse {fornicate}. founder verb sink or stumble {founder}. fraternize socialize {fraternize}. fructify make fruitful {fructify}. gambol play {gambol}. germinate think about {germinate}. goldbrick be lazy {goldbrick}. grandstand verb show off {grandstand, verb}. grovel beg {grovel}. hark back return to {hark back}. harmonize make more together {harmonize}. hibernate withdraw {hibernate}. indwell live inside {indwell}. inebriate drink {inebriate}. infatuate fascinate {infatuate}. inure habituate to {inure}. irrupt increase or break {irrupt}. jibe

352 fit together {jibe}. languish be languid {languish}. luxuriate enjoy luxury {luxuriate}. malinger behave immorally {malinger}. masturbate give oneself sexual pleasure {masturbate}. matriculate graduate {matriculate}. mellow become gentle {mellow}. micturate urinate {micturate}. militate force {militate}. minister comfort or aid {minister}. mitigate make better {mitigate}. molder become decayed {molder}. moon verb dream about {moon}. moonlight work another job {moonlight}. mull think about {mull}. muse verb think {muse, verb}. nauseate make nauseous {nauseate}. obtrude impose {obtrude}. ogle look at {ogle}.

353 ossify become hard {ossify}. overcompensate go beyond necessary {overcompensate}. ovulate produce egg {ovulate}. panhandle beg {panhandle}. philander having many loves or having sexual relations with someone that one will not marry {philander}. pine long for {pine, verb}. politick perform political tasks {politick}. predispose dispose {predispose}. prevaricate hesitate {prevaricate}. privateer commit piracy {privateer}. procrastinate wait {procrastinate}. procreate beget {procreate}. proliferate become more in number {proliferate}. proselytize evangelize {proselytize}. protrude stick out {protrude}. putrefy become rotten {putrefy}. range as verb be anywhere in interval {range}. reciprocate return favor {reciprocate}. recollect remember {recollect}.

354 recompense pay for previous action by another {recompense}. redound return or affect {redound}. reflect think {reflect}. refrain verb not do {refrain, verb}. regress go back to previous state {regress}. reminisce think {reminisce}. renege fail to do promised act {renege}. repose rest {repose}. respire breathe {respire}. retch throw up {retch}. retrench dig in {retrench}. retrogress go backward {retrogress}. revel enjoy happiness {revel}. reverberate echo {reverberate}. revert go back to {revert}. ruminate think {ruminate}. salivate anticipate {salivate}. scintillate sparkle {scintillate}. secede

355 withdraw from group {secede}. sensitize make sensitive {sensitize}. shy avoid {shy, verb}. sock away save {sock away}. sough make murmur or rustle {sough}. souse drink {souse}. stagnate not grow {stagnate}. string along stay with {string along}. strive struggle {strive}. struggle exert energy {struggle}. stultify make ineffective {stultify}. sup eat {sup}. suppurate having pus {suppurate}. teem be abundant {teem}. teetotal not drink alcohol {teetotal}. tipple drink {tipple}. tithe contribute ten percent {tithe}. toady be obsequious {toady}. tope drink regularly {tope}.

356 traffic verb deal in {traffic}. transgress sin {transgress}. transmigrate transfer soul to new body {transmigrate}. truckle fawn {truckle}. vegetate do nothing {vegetate}. vie verb compete {vie, verb}. waft float on air or water {waft}. whelp give birth {whelp}. womanize chase women {womanize}. woolgather daydream {woolgather}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>English>Verb>Movement abandon verb leave {abandon, verb}. abate go down {abate}. ablate remove surface {ablate}. abort stop {abort}. abrade wear down {abrade}. accrete increase {accrete}. accumulate increase {accumulate}. adsorb take in {adsorb}.

357 affix verb stick on {affix, verb}. agglutinate stick together {agglutinate}. aggregate verb bring together {aggregate, verb}. alight land {alight}. align line up {align}. allocate give out {allocate}. amalgamate bring together {amalgamate}. amble walk slowly {amble}. anchor fix {anchor}. anneal align together {anneal}. annex verb add {annex, verb}. append add {append}. apportion give out appropriately {apportion}. aquaplane slide on water {aquaplane}. assay verb try {assay, verb}. augment add to {augment}. avert avoid {avert}. bail verb leave {bail, verb}. balk hesitate {balk}.

358 barnstorm travel around {barnstorm}. batten seal {batten}. bifurcate split {bifurcate}. billow puff out {billow}. bird dog follow {bird dog}. bisect split into equal parts {bisect}. bleed seep {bleed}. blister become pus {blister}. bottom reach bottom {bottom}. brandish wave {brandish}. breech go through {breech, verb}. burgeon grow {burgeon}. careen bounce back and forth {careen}. carom bounce off {carom}. catenate link {catenate}. circumnavigate navigate all the way around {circumnavigate}. circumscribe surround {circumscribe}. circumvent go around {circumvent}. cleave

359 split {cleave}. coalesce bring together {coalesce}. coast verb move without effort {coast, verb}. cohere stick together {cohere}. collate put in order {collate}. come about turn {come about}. commence begin {commence}. commingle mingle {commingle}. concatenate link {concatenate}. congregate come together {congregate}. conjoin join {conjoin}. contravene interrupt {contravene}. controvert change {controvert}. convoke call together {convoke}. convolute make turns {convolute}. cordon put rope around {cordon}. countervail counteract {countervail}. course verb run {course}. crane head extend neck upward {crane, verb}.

360 crop verb cut {crop, verb}. cull remove {cull}. daub dab {daub}. decamp leave {decamp}. decant pour {decant}. decelerate slow {decelerate}. decimate reduce {decimate}. deplane leave airplane {deplane}. desist cease {desist}. dilate make larger {dilate}. disband no longer stay together {disband}. disburse give to many people {disburse}. disembark get off {disembark}. disjoin separate joined parts {disjoin}. dissect separate into parts {dissect}. disseminate send out {disseminate}. dissipate spread out {dissipate}. distend bloat {distend}. diverge split {diverge}.

361 divert turn {divert}. divest get rid of {divest}. doff take off {doff}. dovetail fit together {dovetail}. ebb recede {ebb}. egress exit {egress}. elevate raise up {elevate}. elongate stretch {elongate}. emanate send from {emanate}. embark leave {embark}. embed put in {embed}. emigrate leave from country {emigrate}. emit send off {emit}. encroach push into {encroach}. engulf surround {engulf}. ensconce put in place {ensconce}. envelop surround {envelop}. erupt force out {erupt}. evade

362 avoid capture {evade}. evaginate turn pouch inside out {evaginate}. evert turn out {evert}. excise verb take out {excise}. exercise verb choose to perform option {exercise, verb}. expatriate leave country {expatriate}. export send out of country {export}. extract verb take from {extract, verb}. extradite take from one place and send to another {extradite}. extricate escape from {extricate}. extrude push through opening {extrude}. feint thrust {feint}. fishtail wobble at rear end {fishtail}. flag stop {flag}. flagellate verb whip {flagellate, verb}. flank get to side of {flank}. frequent go regularly {frequent}. furl fold {furl}. garner gather {garner}.

363 genuflect curtsy {genuflect}. gesticulate gesture {gesticulate}. gird surround {gird}. glean gather {glean}. goose step march stiffly {goose step}. gore puncture {gore}. gravitate move toward {gravitate}. gyrate turn {gyrate}. hie go to {hie}. hunker crouch {hunker}. imbibe drink {imbibe}. immigrate go into country {immigrate}. impale stick on point {impale}. impede block {impede}. implode explode but inward {implode}. infuse spread inside {infuse}. ingest swallow {ingest}. ingress go in {ingress}. initiate begin {initiate}.

364 inscribe write {inscribe}. intercalate fit between {intercalate}. intercede go between {intercede}. interdict stop {interdict}. interject insert {interject}. interpose put between {interpose}. introject insert {introject}. invaginate make concave {invaginate}. jaywalk cross street in middle of block {jaywalk}. jettison throw out {jettison}. joust fight {joust}. juxtapose place near to {juxtapose}. lance verb poke {lance, verb}. lash whip {lash}. levitate raise up {levitate}. ligate link {ligate}. limn whip {limn}. list tilt {list, verb}. lug

365 carry {lug}. lumber move slowly {lumber}. mass as gather gather {mass, verb}. mime imitate {mime}. moil churn {moil}. mount verb get on {mount, verb}. mouth verb say silently {mouth, verb}. mug show off {mug}. muster gather {muster}. mutate change {mutate}. occlude obstruct {occlude}. oscillate vibrate {oscillate}. osculate kiss {osculate}. outstrip go past {outstrip}. palpate touch {palpate}. palpitate touch {palpitate}. parry block thrust {parry, verb}. perambulate walk {perambulate}. peregrinate travel {peregrinate}.

366 perfuse spread through {perfuse}. permeate be all through {permeate}. permute change to different combination {permute}. preen groom oneself {preen}. prostrate lie horizontally {prostrate}. prune verb trim {prune, verb}. purge purify by removal {purge}. purl verb flow {purl}. radiate spread from center {radiate}. rally verb mass together for purpose or feel better {rally, verb}. ramify branch {ramify}. reconnoiter perform reconnaissance {reconnoiter}. reeve pass rope through hole {reeve}. rend tear {rend}. repatriate send back to country {repatriate}. replicate verb copy {replicate, verb}. reposit replace {reposit}. repulse repel {repulse}. resorb absorb {resorb}.

367 riffle shuffle or thumb through {riffle}. rifle verb rapidly sort through {rifle, verb}. root as dig dig {root, dig}. rove wander {rove}. rubberneck try to see {rubberneck}. scale as climb climb {scale, climb}. scud move swiftly and smoothly {scud}. secrete ooze {secrete}. sequester segregate {sequester}. sever cut {sever}. shadowbox practice boxing alone {shadowbox}. shank verb hit sideways instead of straight {shank, verb}. shinny climb {shinny}. shunt verb send on side path {shunt, verb}. situate place {situate}. skulk hide {skulk}. slink move furtively {slink}. smite hit {smite}. sojourn

368 journey {sojourn}. stanch stop {stanch}. start become startled {start}. stave repel {stave}. stem verb reduce {stem, reduce}. subjoin append {subjoin}. suffuse spread through {suffuse}. sunder tear {sunder}. superimpose add cover {superimpose}. supersede replace {supersede}. supervene ensue or follow {supervene}. supplant replace {supplant}. supplement add to {supplement}. surmount overcome {surmount}. swab verb wipe {swab, verb}. swaddle wrap {swaddle}. tamp pack {tamp}. tether tie {tether}. thresh thrash grain {thresh}.

369 throng mass together {throng}. transect divide {transect}. transpose verb interchange or reverse {transpose}. traverse travel {traverse}. trawl troll {trawl}. tread water wait {tread water}. trim cut {trim}. trundle verb roll {trundle}. tweak change slightly {tweak}. undulate wave {undulate}. unlimber prepare for action {unlimber}. vacate leave {vacate}. wane decrease {wane}. warp twist twist {warp, twist}. wax verb increase {wax, verb}. wend proceed {wend}. winnow remove undesired items {winnow}. withdraw move back {withdraw}. wrest pull away {wrest}.

370 writhe squirm or twist {writhe}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Arabic kismet fate {kismet}. salaam bow bow {salaam, Arabic}. sultan ruler {sultan}. sultana sultan's wife {sultana}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Chinese hang ying welcome {hang ying}. hong bao red envelope with money inside distributed at Lunar New Year {hong bao}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Dutch maelstrom whirlpool or violent situation {maelstrom}. mannequin dummy {mannequin}. stadtholder ruler {stadtholder}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Farsi

Persian alphabet Persian alphabet has the following sounds {Persian alphabet}, with their equivalent letter or sound in English. alef AH. beh B. peh P. teh T. seh SH. jim J. cheh CH. hehyeh jimi H. kheh KH. daal D. zaal Z. reh R. zeh Z. zheh ZH. sin S. shin SH. sad S. zad Z. ta T. za Z. ayn aspiration. ghayn Q. feh F. ghaf Q. kaf K. gaf G. lam L. mim M. nun N. vav O or V. hehyeh mimi H. yeh I or Y. hamzeh aspiration. ab in Farsi water {ab, Farsi}. afsaneh fantasy {afsaneh}. aga sir or mister {aga}. anar pomegranate {anar}.

371 atash fire {atash}. aval first {aval}. aziz dear {aziz}. bagh garden {bagh}. bahar spring {bahar}. baksheesh alms {baksheesh}. baleh yes {baleh}. bazar bazaar {bazar}. chahr 4 {chahr}. chai tea {chai}. dah 10 {dah}. do in Farsi 2 {do, Farsi}. dust friend {dust}. germez red {germez}. gharb west {gharb}. gol flower {gol}. gorub sunset {gorub}. haft in Farsi 7 {haft, Farsi}. hasht

372 8 {hasht}. hezar 1000 {hezar}. jome Friday {jome}. joonoob south {joonoob}. kakh palace {kakh}. ketab book {ketab}. khanom madam {khanom}. khodafez goodbye {khodafez}. koh mountain {koh}. madar mother {madar}. magus magician or wise man or high priest {magus}. mahi fish {mahi}. mast in Farsi yogurt {mast, Farsi}. na no {na}. namak salt {namak}. nan bread in general {nan}. no in Farsi new {no, Farsi}. noh in Farsi 9 {noh, Farsi}. noor light {noor}.

373 paiz fall {paiz}. panj 5 {panj}. pedar father {pedar}. pesteh pistachio {pesteh}. pul money {pul}. rooz day {rooz}. sabz green {sabz}. sabzi vegetables {sabzi}. sad 100 {sad, Farsi}. sahat hour {sahat}. sal in Farsi year {sal, Farsi}. salaam in Farsi hello {salaam, Farsi}. sard yellow {sard}. sefid white {sefid}. sefr zero {sefr}. seh 3 {seh}. shab night {shab}. shah king {shah}. sham in Farsi candle {sham, Farsi}.

374 sharab wine {sharab}. shargh east {shargh}. shayyad perhaps {shayyad}. shekar granulated sugar {shekar}. shemal north {shemal}. shirin sweet {shirin}. shish in Farsi 6 {shish, Farsi}. sib apple {sib}. siyah black {siyah}. sob in Farsi morning {sob, Farsi}. tabestan summer {tabestan}. tarik dark {tarik}. va in Farsi and {va, Farsi}. yah or {yah}. yek 1 {yek}. zamastan winter {zamastan}. zan wife or woman {zan}. zohr noon {zohr}.

375 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Finnish sauna steam bath {sauna}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French a bas below {á bas}. a outrance outrageous {á outrance}. a propos about subject {à propos}. au courant current {au courant}. au fait in the know or knowledgeable or skilled {au fait}. au naturel in natural state or in reality or with no seasoning or embellishments {au naturel}. au revoir goodbye {au revoir}. avant before {avant}. c'est la vie that's life {c'est la vie}. ci-devant former {ci-devant}. comme il faut proper {comme il faut}. de rigeur required {de rigeur}. de trop excessive or more than necessary or more than wanted {de trop}. deja before {déjà}. deja vu in French seen before {déjà vu, French}. du in French of the {du, French}. en banc

376 full court with all judges {en banc}. en bloc as group or together or as one thing {en bloc}. en garde on guard or be ready {en garde}. en masse in mass or as group or in one group {en masse}. en route in route or on the way {en route}. en suite in set or in sequence or as group {en suite}. en sus additional {en sus}. enfin finally {enfin}. etre being or to be {être}. faire be or do or make {faire}. flamber flame or burn {flamber}. gouter taste or try {goûter}. hors out of {hors}. hors de combat no longer participant, or out of battle {hors de combat}. je ne sais quoi indescribable characteristic or inexpressible or I do not know what {je ne sais quoi}. laissez let or leave {laissez}. manger in French eat {manger, French}. ne no or not {ne}. nee born or woman's maiden name {née}.

377 non compris not included {non compris}. par in French by or with {par, French}. par excellence best or excellent {par excellence}. plait in French please {plaît, French}. rendez go to {rendez}. repondez respond {répondez}.

RSVP in French please respond {RSVP}. sais know {sais}. sans in French without {sans, French}. selon according to {selon}. selon grosseur priced by size {S.G.} {selon grosseur}. selon poid priced by weight {S.P.} {selon poid}. sous under {sous}. vis-a-vis compared to or relative to or facing {vis-à-vis}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Adjective affame starved {affamé}. affine aged {affiné}. amuse amusing {amuse}. ancien old {ancien}.

378 aromate aromatic {aromate}. assoife thirsty {assoifé}. assorti assorted {assorti}. avant-garde modern or having new ideas in the arts {avant-garde}. baigne bathed {baigné}. blase indifferent {blasé}. chaine linked {chaîné}. chasse followed or chased {chassé}. chaud hot or warm {chaud}. chic in French stylish {chic, French}. complaisant complacent {complaisant}. complet filled or no vacancy {complet}. compris included {compris}. conseille advised or recommended {conseillé}. consommation available for consumption {consommation}. declasse lower class {declassé}. degage casual {degagé}. demode no longer fashionable {démodé}. dernier latest {dernier}.

379 developpe in French developed {développé, French}. distingue distinguished {distingué}. doux sweet {doux}. dur hard {dur}. efface turned or shaded {effacé}. effiloche frayed or shredded {effiloché}. esprit spirited {esprit}. faim hungry {faim}. faineant lazy {fainéant}. faux fake or false or incorrect {faux}. ferme closed closed {fermé}. fixe fixed or unchanging {fixe}. flottante floating {flottante}. formidable redoubtable {formidable}. fou very great {fou}. froid cold {froid}. garenne wild {garenne}. gauche in French left or socially incorrect {gauche, French}. grace

380 graceful {grâce}. gradue measured {gradué}. grand large, chief, or of high rank {grand}. gratuit free {gratuit}. gros coarse or granular {gros}. haute high {haute}. jeune young {jeune}. juste correct {juste}. leger light {léger}. longue long {longue}. ma in French my {ma, French}. macabre about death {macabre}. majeure major or superior or greater or overriding {majeure}. minerale mineral {minérale}. noble prized or expensive or noble {noble}. nonpareil unparalleled or best {nonpareil}. nouveau new or young {nouveau}. nouvelle new or young {nouvelle}. offert offered or given or free {offert}.

381 outre unconventional {outré}. ouvert open {ouvert}. ouvre open {ouvre}. passant passing {passant}. passe out-of-date {passé}. perdu lost {perdu} {perdue}. petit small {petit}. petite small or short {petite}. plie in French bent {plié, French}. primeur new or first or fresh {primeur}. principal main {principal, French}. recherche rare and fine or pretentious {recherché}. releve in French lifted {relevé, French}. riche rich {riche}. risque risked, or sexual, or sexually suggestive {risqué}. sauvage wild or savage {sauvage}. sec in French dry or dried {sec, French}. seche dry or dried {sèche}. serre strong {serré}.

382 simple simple or plain or unmixed {simple}. soigne elegant {soigné} {soignée}. tiede lukewarm {tiède}. trop too much {trop}. verite true {vérité}. vieux old {vieux}. vivant living {vivant}. vu seen {vu}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun adieu goodbye or farewell {adieu}. affaire d'honneur involving honor {affaire d'honneur}. aide in French aid or assistance {aide, French}. amour love {amour}. amour propre self-respect {amour propre} {amour-propre}. ancien regime stodgy government {ancien régime}. apercu insight {aperçu}. appellation in French name {appellation, French}. appetit appetite {appétit}. apres-ski after skiing {après-ski}.

383 arc curve {arc}. arc en ciel rainbow {arc en ciel}. arrondissement district {arrondissement}. art deco decorative arts {art décoratif} {art déco}. beau geste nice gesture {beau geste}. beau ideal idealized form {beau ideal}. beaux-arts fine arts {beaux-arts}. belles lettres literature {belles lettres}. bete noire difficult person or problem or nemesis {bète noire}. bois woods or wild {bois}. bon appetit good appetite or good eating {bon appétit}. bon mot witty remark {bon mot}. bon voyage farewell or good journey {bon voyage}. bonhomie good companionship {bonhomie}. camaraderie good companionship {camaraderie}. campagne countryside {campagne}. carte blanche authorization to do whatever one likes or freedom to do {carte blanche}. cause celebre famous topic {cause celèbre}. champetre

384 rustic or country {champêtre}. chanson song {chanson}. charbon carbon {charbon}. chef d'oeuvre masterpiece {chef d'oeuvre}. choix choice {choix}. ciel sky {ciel}. cinema verite documentary film with no artistic embellishments {cinéma vérité}. colere anger {colère}. combat combat or action {combat}. communique message {communiqué}. conge bow or leave-taking {congé}. contretemps argument {contretemps}. cote coast coast {côte, coast}. coup blow or strike or success {coup}. coup de grace finishing action that kills person or ends conflict {coup de grâce}. coup de main sudden action against enemy {coup de main}. coup de theatre dramatic action {coup de théatre}. coup d'etat in French government overthrow {coup d'état, French}. couture fashion or sewing {couture}.

385 cri talk or news {cri}. critique in French critical analysis {critique, French}. cul-de-sac area with only one exit, or dead-end street {cul-de-sac}. debut first appearance or performance {début}. decolletage cleavage or low neckline {décolletage}. decollete low neckline {décolleté}. degustation tasting or sampling {dégustation}. dejeuner lunch {déjeuner}. denouement in French events after climax {denouement, French}. dernier cri latest news or what is in fashion {dernier cri}. detente state of cordiality {détente}. diner dinner or dine {dîner}. disant saying {disant}. discretion discretion {discrétion}. donnee givens or principles {donnée}. dossier person's file {dossier}. double entendre sound with two meanings, or two intentions with one meaning common and other risqué {double entendre}. eau water {eau}. eclat brilliant success {éclat}.

386 elan flair {élan}. encore additional work played after formal conclusion or again {encore}. ennui boredom {ennui}. entendre hearing {entendre}. entente cordiality {entente}. entier whole or entire {entier}. entr'acte period between acts {entr'acte}. esprit de corps morale or team spirit {esprit de corps}. estime importance {estime}. estival in French summer {estival, French}. etat state {état}. etoile star or star-shaped {étoilé}. expose exposing a fact or situation {exposé}. facon way or method {façon}. fait knowledge or fact or ready to eat {fait}. fait accompli deed accomplished or already completed and not undoable {fait accompli}. faubourg district formerly outside city limits {faubourg}. faux pas misstep or foolish action or socially incorrect behavior {faux pas}. fete

387 festival {fête}. film noir movie filmed in dark settings {film noir}. fin end {fin}. fin de siecle in French end of 19th century {fin de siècle, French}. finale in French final or end {finale, French}. finesse skill {finesse}. fleur-de-lis three-petal lily shape {fleur-de-lys} {fleur-de-lis}. fleuve river {fleuve}. folie folly {folie}. folie deux craziness in love {folie à deux}. force in French strength or force {force, French}. force majeure overriding force or event {force majeure}. forte main skill {forte, skill}. gaffe socially incorrect behavior {gaffe}. garde guard {garde}. genre in French type or kind {genre, French}. gout in French taste {goût, French}. grandeur glory {grandeur}. grosseur size {grosseur}.

388 guerre war {guerre}. haute couture designer clothing or fashion {haute couture}. haute cuisine cooking like chef {haute cuisine}. hauteur haughtiness {hauteur}. idee fixe People can have idea that others and events cannot change {idée fixe}. ile island {ile}. jalousie jealousy jealousy {jalousie, jealousy}. joie joy {joie}. joie de vivre joy of living, or quality of happiness and energy {joie de vivre}. jour day {jour}. lac lake {lac}. laissez-faire in French unregulated {laissez-faire, French}. lamelle thin strip or layer {lamelle}. largess generosity {largess} {largesse}. larme teardrop or drop {larme}. lese majeste affront {lese majesté}. lieu place {lieu}. mal badness or sickness {mal}. mal de mer seasickness {mal de mer}.

389 malaise depression {malaise}. maniere style {manière}. manque unfulfilled ambition {manqué}. marque mark or logo {marque}. matinee morning, or day's first movie or play showing {matinée}. memoire memory {mémoire}. mer ocean or sea {mer}. mesalliance marriage to inferior {mésalliance}. metier trade or skill {métier}. micro-onde microwave {micro-onde}. milieu setting {milieu}. mode as style style {mode, style}. montagne mountain {montagne}. mot in French word {môt, French}. mot juste appropriate word or phrase or apt word {môt juste}. moue pout {moue}. moyen-age middle age {moyen-âge}. mystique aura or charisma {mystique}. nage

390 swimming {nage}. naivete innocence {naiveté}. naturel nature or reality {naturel}. navette little boat {navette}. neige snow {neige}. noblesse nobleness {noblesse}. noblesse oblige Nobility can have an obligation {noblesse oblige} to help less-fortunate persons.

Noel Christmas {Noël}. nom name {nom}. nom de guerre name used as warrior {nom de guerre}. nom de plume pen name {nom de plume}. nord north {nord}. oeuvre work, set of works, or main thing {oeuvre}. onde wave {onde}. pair par or parity {pair}. parti pris bias or taking sides {parti pris}. pas in French step {pas, French}. pas de deux in French dance for two people {pas de deux, French}. pastiche work that uses parts with different styles {pastiche}.

391 pays country {pays}. paysan country {paysan}. pet in French flatulence {pet, French}. petit dejeuner breakfast {petit déjeuner}. piece piece or part or portion {pièce}. piece de resistance best or final part or masterpiece {pièce de résistance}. pirouette in French turn {pirouette, French}. pis aller last chance, or everything at its worst {pis aller}. plat du jour special of the day {plat du jour}. plein air outdoors {plein air}. poid weight {poid}. point tip or point {point}. pourboire tip {pourboire}. premiere first performance {premiere}. prix price {prix}. prix fixe fixed price or fixed-price menu {prix fixe}. prix net service included {prix net}. propos subject or purpose {propos}. propre self {propre}.

392 queue line line {queue, line}. quoi what {quoi}. raison reason or purpose {raison}. raison d'etre purpose of life or function, or reason for being {raison d'être}. rapprochement reconciliation {rapprochement}. rationale reason {rationale}. recette recipe {recette}. reclame acclaim or seeking acclaim {reclamé}. regime diet {régime}. renaissance rebirth of culture {renaissance}. rendezvous date or appointment or meeting {rendezvous}. repartie repartee or retort {repartie}. repas meal {repas}. repertoire skill set, or set of works to perform {repertoire}. reprise recurrence {reprise}. resistance stamina or ability to resist {résistance}. revanche revenge {revanche}. reverie daydreaming {reverie}. revue

393 show with skits {revue}. rigueur rigor {rigueur}. riposte rejoinder {riposte}. riviere river {rivière}. roche rock {roche}. rue in French street {rue, French}. sang-froid composure or emotionlessness {sang-froid}. savoir know-how or skill {savoir}. savoir faire skill or social gracefulness {savoir-faire}. seance spiritualist meeting {séance}. service in French meal or serving {service, French}. siecle century {siècle}. sobriquet affectionate nickname {sobriquet}. soi-disant claim about oneself {soi-disant}. soiree evening or evening party or get-together in evening {soirée}. soixante-neuf sixty-nine {soixante-neuf}. sortie armed attack {sortie}. soupcon small amount {soupçon}. soupir sigh {soupir}.

394 source as spring spring {source, spring}. succes success or cake {succès}. succes d'estime important success {succès d'estime}. succes fou great success {succès fou}. suite as sequence sequence {suite, French}. table d'hote multiple-course fixed-price meal or open table or boarding {table d'hôte}. tableau scene {tableau}. tableau vivant scene with silent and still actors {tableau vivant}. terre ground {terre}. tete-a-tete intimate conversation or two-person private conversation {tête-à-tête}. toilette dressing or grooming or clothes or toilet or face and hair preparation {toilette}. touche scored point or touched or pricked {touché}. tour turn or tower {tour, French}. tour de force skilled performance or something accomplished skillfully {tour de force}. tout in French all {tout, French}. trompe trick {trompe}. vapeur steam {vapeur}. vent in French wind {vent, French}. vie in French life {vie, French}.

395 vivre living {vivre}. vol flight {vol}. volonte will or discretion {volonté}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun>Animal abatis giblets {abatis}. abats organ meats {abats}. agneau lamb {agneau}. aile wing or white breast meat {aile}. alouette in French lark {alouette, French}. anchois anchovy {anchois}. ane donkey {ane}. anguille eel {anguille}. araignee de mer spider crab {araignée de mer}. arete fish bone {arête}. biche female deer {biche}. brochet pike {brochet}. caille quail quail {caille}. calmar squid {calmar}. canard in French duck {canard, French}.

396 carpe carp {carpe}. casseron cuttlefish {casseron}. cerf stag or male deer {cerf}. cervelle brain {cervelle}. chapon capon {chapon}. chat in French cat {chat, French}. cheval horse or horse meat {cheval}. cheveux hair {cheveux}. chevre goat {chèvre}. cochon pig {cochon}. colombe dove {colombe}. coq mature rooster {coq}. coq de bruyere wood grouse {coq de bruyère}. coque shell {coque}. coquillages shellfish {coquillages}. coquille shell {coquille}. coquille Saint-Jacques sea scallop {coquille Saint-Jacques}. corail coral {corail}. crabe

397 crab {crabe}. crete bird comb {crête}. crevette shrimp {crevette}. crustace crustacean {crustacé}. cul haunch or rear {cul}. dindon turkey {dindon}. ecrevisse freshwater crayfish {écrevisse}. eperlan smelt {eperlan}. escargot land snail {escargot, snail}. espadon swordfish {espadon}. faisan pheasant {faisan}. fletan halibut {flétan}. foie liver {foie}. germon albacore tuna {germon}. gesier gizzard {gésier}. gibier game {gibier}. gigue in French haunch {gigue, French}. grenouille frog {grenouille}. grive thrush {grive}.

398 groin in French snout {groin, French}. haddock in French small cod {haddock, French}. hareng herring {hareng}. hirondelle swallow {hirondelle}. homard lobster {homard}. huitre oyster {huître}. jambon leg leg {jambon, leg}. jarret knuckle {jarret}. jaune d'oeuf yolk {jaune d'oeuf}. lamproie lamprey eel {lamproie}. langouste spiny lobster or rock lobster or crawfish {langouste}. langoustine small crayfish {langoustine}. lapin rabbit {lapin}. lieu noir pollack {lieu noir}. lievre hare or wild rabbit {lièvre}. magret breast {magret}. maquereau mackerel {maquereau}. mauviette wild meadow lark or skylark {mauviette}. merle blackbird {merle}.

399 merlu hake {merlu}. moelle beef marrow {moëlle}. mollusque mollusk {mollusque}. moufflon wild sheep {moufflon}. moule mussel or mold {moule}. mouton mutton or sheep {mouton}. museau muzzle {museau}. oeuf egg {oeuf}. oie goose {oie}. oreille ear {oreille}. os in French bone {os, French}. ostrei oyster {ostréi}. oursin sea urchin {oursin}. paleron shoulder {paleron}. palombe wild pigeon or dove {palombe}. papillon butterfly {papillon}. patagos clam {patagos}. patte crayfish {patte}. peau

400 skin {peau}. pelerine scallop or coquille Saint-Jacques {pèlerine}. perche perch {perche}. perdrix partridge {perdrix}. physique body {physique}. pied in French foot {pied, French}. pilchard in French large sardine {pilchard, French}. pince claw or tong {pince}. pintade guinea fowl {pintade}. plaice in French flatfish {plaice, French}. plume feather or plume or quill or pen {plume, French}. poil fur {poil}. poisson fish {poisson}. poitrine breast {poitrine}. poule chicken or hen {poule}. poulet in French chicken {poulet, French}. poulpe octopus {poulpe}. poussin chick {poussin}. queue tail tail or oxtail {queue, tail}.

401 raie skate or ray {raie}. ramier wild pigeon {ramier}. rascasse rockfish {rascasse}. rognon kidney {rognon}. sandre pickerel {sandre}. sanglier wild boar {sanglier}. sansonnet starling or thrush {sansonnet}. sarcelle teal {sarcelle}. sardine in French small sardine {sardine, French}. saumon salmon {saumon}. seiche cuttlefish {seiche}. supion cuttlefish {supion}. taureau bull {taureau}. tendron tendon {tendron}. tete head {tête}. thon tuna {thon}. thon germon albacore {thon germon}. thon rouge bluefin tuna {thon rouge}. toro bull {toro}.

402 tortue turtle {tortue}. truite trout {truite}. vache cow {vache}. ventre belly or stomach {ventre}. vessie bladder {vessie}. vis face {vis}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun>Color blanc white {blanc}. bleu color blue {bleu, color}. blond light color {blonde} {blond}. gris gray {gris}. jaune yellow {jaune}. noir black {noir}. rose color in French pink {rose, French color}. rouge in French red or red cosmetic powder or red polishing powder {rouge, French}. vert green {vert}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun>Drink aperitif sweet or slightly bitter before-dinner drink {apéritif}. biere beer {bière}.

403 boire drink {boire}. boisson drink {boisson}. bordelaise red wine, bone marrow, and shallot sauce {bordelaise}. cafe au lait espresso and steamed milk {café au lait}. cafe filtre filtered coffee {café filtre}. cafe liegeois coffee with whipped cream or coffee ice cream with whipped cream {café liègeois}. cafe noisette espresso with little milk {café noisette}. cafe serre strong espresso {café serré}. calvados in French apple brandy, from Normandy {calvados, French}. cidre cider {cidre}. cremant sparkling wine {crémant}. creme de cacao in French chocolate liqueur {crème de cacao, French}. creme de cassis black currant liqueur {crème de cassis}. creme de menthe in French mint liqueur {crème de menthe, French}. digestif after-dinner drink {digestif}. eau-de-vie fruit brandy {eau-de-vie}. express espresso {express}. grand creme large espresso and milk {grand crème}. grand cru very good wine {grand cru}.

404 imperiale four-liter wine bottle {imperiale}. infusion herb tea {infusion}. jerez sherry {jerez}. kir crème de cassis and wine. kir royal is crème de cassis and champagne {kir}. kirsch in French wild black cherry liqueur {kirsch, French}. kummel caraway seed liqueur {kummel}. lait milk {lait}. madere Madeira {madère}. mirabelle plum brandy {mirabelle}. pastis anise liqueur, such as Pernod and Ricard {pastis}. pineau des Charentes sweet fortified wine {pineau des Charentes}. porto port {porto}. rhum rum {rhum}. rose wine in French rare or pink wine {rosé, French wine}. vin wine {vin}. xeres sherry {xérès}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun>Food a la basquaise with tomato and sweet pepper, as in Basque region {à la basquaise}. a la bohemienne with rice, tomato, onion, sweet pepper, and paprika, in bohemian style {à la bohémienne}.

405 a la bourgeoise with bacon and vegetables, as by middle class {à la bourgeoise}. a la bourguignon with red wine, onion, mushroom, and bacon, as in Burgundy {à la bourguignon}. a la bretonne with white bean, as in Brittany {à la bretonne}. a la flamande with stuffed cabbage leaf, carrot, turnip, potato, and bacon, as in Flanders {à la flamande}. a la francaise with pea, lettuce, small white onion, and parsley, as in France {à la française}. a la grecque with oil, lemon juice, and water, for cold vegetables, as in Greece {à la grecque}. a la hongroise with paprika and cream, as in Hungary {à la hongroise}. a la lyonnaise with onion, as in Lyon {à la lyonnaise}. a la madrilene with tomato, as in Madrid {à la madrilène}. a la menagere with onion, potato, and carrot {à la ménagère}. a la meuniere seasoned, floured, fried, and served with lemon, parsley, and melted butter {à la meunière}. a la mode de caen with apple liqueur or with cider, carrot, onion, leek, and spice, as in Caen {à la mode de caen}. a la navarraise with sweet pepper, onion, and garlic, as in Navarre {à la navarraise}. a la nivernaise with carrot and onion, as in Nevers {à la nivernaise}. a la parisienne with fried potato balls and vegetables, as in Paris {à la parisienne}. a la paysan with carrot, turnip, onion, celery, and bacon, as in country {à la paysan}. a la perigourdine with truffle and foie gras, as in Périgord in southwest France {à la périgourdine}. a la presse with juice from pressing carcass, plus red wine and/or Cognac {à la presse}. a la rouennaise

406 with blood sauce, as in Rouen {à la rouennaise}. a la royale with truffle and cream sauce {à la royale}. a la russe with pea, carrot, turnip, and mayonnaise, as in Russia {à la russe}. a la veronique with peeled white grapes {à la véronique}. a la zingara with tomato sauce, as by gypsies {à la zingara}. a l'espagnole with tomato, pepper, onion, and garlic, as in Spain {à l'espagnole}. a l'indienne with curry powder, as in East India {à l'indienne}. a l'orientale with saffron, tomato, and sweet red pepper, as in Orient {à l'orientale}. abricot apricot {abricot}. aioli mayonnaise and garlic {aïoli}. albufera sweet peppers in chicken stock {albuféra}. amandine with almond {amandine}. andouille tripe sausage {andouille}. ardennaise with juniper berries {ardennaise}. arpajon with dried beans {arpajon}. aumoniere filled crêpe tied like bundle {aumônière}. aurore tomato and cream {aurore}. ballotine deboned poultry {ballotine}. barbouillade eggplant dish or bean and artichoke dish {barbouillade}.

407 barder layer with uncured bacon {barder}. baron in French lamb legs and rear {baron, French}. batavia in French lettuce with broad, flat leaf {batavia, French}. batonnet small vegetable stick {bâtonnet}. bavaroise gelatin cream {bavaroise}. bearnaise butter, egg, shallot, wine, vinegar, and tarragon {béarnaise}. bechamel milk, butter, flour, onion, bay leaf, pepper, and nutmeg {béchamel}. bergamot in French orange or pear type {bergamot, French}. beurre butter or yellow {beurre}. beurre blanc butter, vinegar, white wine, and shallot {beurre blanc}. beurre cru raw butter {beurre cru}. beurre de Montpellier butter, olive oil, herbs, garlic, and anchovy {beurre de Montpellier}. beurre demi-sel salted butter {beurre demi-sel}. beurre noir browned butter {beurre noir}. beurre noisette slightly browned butter {beurre noisette}. blanc-mange almond milk and gelatin pudding {blanc-mange}. bonbon in French candy {bonbon, French}. bouchoteur with mussels {bouchoteur}. bouillon stock or broth {bouillon}.

408 bouquet garni in French fresh parsley, bay leaf, and thyme {bouquet garni, French}. brandade with mashed potato {brandade}. bretonne white wine, carrot, leek, and celery sauce {bretonne}. brouet soup {brouet}. brouillade stew or soup or scrambled eggs {brouillade}. brunoise finely diced vegetables {brunoise}. caraibes Caribbean chocolate {caraïbes}. carde Swiss-chard white rib or stalk {carde}. cary curry {cary}. cassonade soft brown sugar {cassonade}. celeri-rave celeriac or celery root {céleri-rave}. cereale cereal {céréale}. chanterelle pale orange wild mushroom {girolle} {chanterelle}. chartreuse in French braised partridge and cabbage or herb and spice liqueur {chartreuse, French}. chasseur in French hunter or white wine, mushroom, shallot, tomato, and herb sauce {chasseur, French}. chiffonnade shredded vegetables {chiffonnade}. chocolat chocolate {chocolat}. choron béarnaise sauce with tomatoes {choron}. choucroute

409 sauerkraut {choucroute}. civet in French game stew with blood {civet, French}. clafoutis black cherry and custard tart {clafoutis}. claire oyster bed {claire}. clamart pea garnish {clamart}. colombo in French tumeric, rice powder, coriander, pepper, cumin, and fenugreek {colombo, French}. confiture jam {confiture}. conserves au vinaigre pickled {conserves au vinaigre}. consomme in French clear soup {consommé, French}. conversation almond or cream tart with sugar glaze {conversation}. court-bouillon broth {court-bouillon}. couverture rich bittersweet chocolate {couverture}. crecy in French with carrot garnish {crécy, French}. crepes Suzette crêpe with orange liqueur flambée {crêpes Suzette}. crique potato pancake, from Auvergne {crique}. crudite raw vegetable {crudité}. cuisse leg or thigh or drumstick {cuisse}. diable devil or pepper-mustard sauce {diable}. dieppoise with white wine, mussel, shrimp, mushroom, and cream, as in Dieppe {dieppoise}.

410 dijonnaise with mustard, as in Dijon {dijonnaise}. duchesse with butter, egg yolk, and nutmeg {duchesse}. duglere white sauce with shallot, white wine, tomato, and parsley {dugléré}. duxelles sautéed chopped mushrooms and shallots in cream {duxelles}. echine sparerib {echine}. eglantine wild rose jam, from Alsace {eglantine}. en branche whole vegetable or herb {en branche}. fanes carrot, radish, or turnip greens {fanes}. financiere Madiera sauce with truffle juice {financière}. florentine with spinach {florentine}. folle with green bean and foie gras {folle}. forestiere with mushroom, bacon, and potato {forestière}. fricassee in French braised in wine or cream sauce {fricassée, French}. ganache chocolate and crème fraîche {ganache}. garni garnish or garnished {garni}. gaspacho cold soup of tomato, cucumber, onion, and sweet pepper, from Spain {gaspacho}. gnocchi choux paste, potato, or semolina dumplings {gnocchi}. gratin crust from baking or grated {gratin}. grelette with whipped cream {grelette}.

411 gribiche mayonnaise, caper, cornichon, hard-cooked egg, and herbs {gribiche}. herbes de Provence thyme, rosemary, summer savory, and bay leaf {herbes de Provence}. hollandaise butter, egg yolk, and lemon juice sauce {hollandaise}. imam bayaldi eggplant with sautéed onion, tomato, and spice {imam bayaldi}. jardiniere fresh cooked vegetables {jardinière}. juive aspic {juive}. jus juice {jus}. laitance roe {laitance}. languedocienne with tomato, eggplant, and wild mushroom {languedocienne}. lard in French bacon {lard, French}. larder in French add fat strips {larder, French}. macaire small fried or baked balls {macaire}. macaron macaroon {macaron}. maitre d'hotel sauce butter, parsley, and lemon sauce or with red wine and shallot {maître d'hôtel}. maltaise hollandaise sauce with orange {maltaise}. mandarine tangerine {mandarine}. mange-tout sweet pea or snow pea {mange-tout}. marc grape skin and seed liqueur {marc}. maree

412 tide or fresh food {marée}. marinade seasoned soaking and tenderizing liquid {marinade}. marine marinated {mariné}. marquise mousse mousse-like {marquise, mousse}. matignon mixed stewed vegetables {matignon}. meurette with red wine sauce {meurette}. miel honey {miel}. mimosa chopped hard egg yolks {mimosa, egg}. mirabeau with anchovy, pitted olive, and tarragon {mirabeau}. montmorency with cherry, as in Montmorency, Paris suburb {montmorency}. mousse in French whipped eggs and cream {mousse, French}. mousseline with butter, egg yolk, and whipped egg whites and cream {mousseline}. nicoise in French with tomato, garlic, onion, and orange zest or with tomato, green bean, anchovy, tuna, potato, black olive, capers, and artichoke, as in Nice {niçoise, French}. noilly vermouth sauce {noilly}. normande with seafood, cream, and mushroom or with apple cider or Calvados, as in Normandy {normande}. nougat in French roasted almond, egg white, and honey {nougat, French}. nouille noodle {nouille}. oeufs a la neige whipped egg whites poached in milk, with vanilla custard {oeufs à la neige}. palestine in French with Jerusalem artichoke {palestine, French}.

413 panisse fried chickpea pancake, from Provence {panisse}. parfait in French mousse {parfait, French}. parmentier with potatoes {parmentier}. pates pasta {pâtes}. peptie nugget or chip {péptie}. pequillo small red pepper, from Spain {pequillo}.

Perigueux with truffle and foie gras, as in Périgord in southwest France {Périgueux}. persillade chopped parsley and garlic {persillade}. pilaf in French rice with sautéed onion cooked in broth {pilaf, French}. pilau rice with sautéed onion cooked in broth {pilau}. pimente hot or peppery or spicy {pimenté}. piperade with pepper, onion, tomato, from Basque {pipérade}. pistou basil, garlic, and olive oil sauce, from Provence {pistou}. poivrade brown sauce of wine, pepper, vinegar, and strained vegetables {poivrade}. polenta cornmeal {polenta}. pommade thick smooth paste {pommade}. pommes de terre frites French fries {pommes de terre frites}. pommes de terre Pont-Neuf fried potatoes {pommes de terre Pont-Neuf}. pommes en l'air

414 caramelized apple slices {pommes en l'air}. potage soup {potage}. potpourri mixture or sweet-smelling herb mixture {potpourri}. praline in French caramelized almonds {praline, French}. printaniere diced spring vegetables {printanière}. provencale with garlic, tomato, and olive oil, as in Provence {provençale}. quatre epices ground ginger, nutmeg, white pepper, and clove {quatre épices}. quenelle dumpling {quenelle}. quiche egg and cream custard tart {quiche}. quiche lorraine bacon, egg, and cream tart, as in Lorraine {quiche lorraine}. rable saddle {râble}. ragout in French stew {ragoût, French}. ratatouille eggplant, zucchini, onion, tomato, pepper, garlic, and olive oil, from Provence {ratatouille}. ravigote thick vinegar, white wine, shallot, and herb sauce or mayonnaise, capers, onion, and herbs {ravigote}. rayon de miel honeycomb {rayon de miel}. reglisse licorice {réglisse}. remoulade mayonnaise, capers, mustard, herbs, anchovy, and gherkin or shredded celery root in mayonnaise {rémoulade}. rondelle round slice {rondelle}.

Rossini with foie gras and truffle {Rossini}.

415 roux in French flour and butter mixture {roux, French}. russe in French chopped vegetables in mayonnaise {russe, French}. sabayon whipped egg yolk, sugar, wine, and flavoring sauce {sabayon}. sablee sweet and rich {sablée}. saint-Germain with peas {saint-Germain}. salade salad or lettuce head {salade}. sale in French salt-cured or salted {salé, French}. sangue Corsica grape or herb black pudding {sangue}. sarladaise with truffle, as in Sarlat in Dordogne {sarladaise}. saute in French browned in butter, fat, or oil or fried in pan {sauté, French}. scarole escarole {scarole}. sel salt {sel}. sel gris unbleached sea salt {sel gris}. sel gros coarse salt {sel gros}. sel marin bleached sea salt {sel marin}. service a la francaise buffet style {service à la française}. service a la russe courses served in sequence {service à la russe}. smitane cream, onion, white wine, and lemon juice sauce {smitane}. soubise onion sauce {soubise}.

416 souffle in French baked puréed egg yolk and whipped egg white {soufflé, French}. soufflees puffed {soufflées}. soupe soup {soupe}. spatzel egg and flour noodle, from Alsace {spaetzle} {spetzli} {spätzel}. sucette lollipop {sucette}. sucre 1 sugar {sucre}. sucre 2 sweet {sucré}. supreme white sauce with veal or chicken juice {suprême}. tapenade black olive, anchovy, capers, olive oil, and lemon juice, from Provence {tapenade}. tarte pie or tart {tarte}. tarte Tatin caramelized apple pie {tarte Tatin}. thermidor in French with cream sauce {thermidor, French}. tourain garlic, onion, tomato, egg yolk, and vinegar soup, from southwest France {tourin} {tourrin} {tourain}. verdure in French green vegetables {verdure, French}. verdurette herb vinaigrette {verdurette}. vert-pre watercress and potato {vert-pré}. vichy with glazed carrot or mineral water {vichy}. vichyssoise in French cold leek and potato cream soup {vichyssoise, French}. vinaigre

417 vinegar {vinaigre}. vinaigrette in French oil, vinegar, salt, and pepper {vinaigrette, French}. viognier white Rhône grape {viognier}. zabaglione in French whipped egg yolk, sugar, wine, and flavoring sauce {zabaglione, French}. za'tar ground sesame seed, sumac berry, thyme, and salt, as in Middle East {za'tar}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun>Food>Bread a la provencale with garlic, parsley, and bread crumb, as in Provence {à la provençale}. allumette match or puff pastry strip {allumette}. azyme unleavened or unleavened bread or matzo {azyme}. baba au rhum in French sponge cake with rum syrup {baba au rhum, French}. baguette in French wand or stick-like bread {baguette, French}. barquette small boat or boat-shaped pastry {barquette}. batard large baguette {bâtard}. baton in French small baguette {bâton, French}. beignet doughnut or fried pastry or fritter {beignet}. biscuit in French cake or cookie {biscuit, French}. biscuit a la cuillere ladyfinger {biscuit à la cuillère}. blini small thick pancake for caviar {blini}. bouchee small pastry or vol-au-vent {bouchée}. boule bread

418 ball or large round bread {boule, bread}. bourdaloue poached fruit in pastry with vanilla custard {bourdaloue}. brioche in French muffin or bun or butter and egg yeast bread {brioche, French}. canape in French crustless bread, or hors d'oeuvre type {canapé, French}. chapelure bread crumbs {chapelure}. charlotte ladyfingers with custard or buttered bread with fruit compote {charlotte}. chausson filled pastry {chausson}. chichi deep-fried spiral bread dipped in sugar {chichi}. colbert egg and bread crumb coating for fried fish {colbert}. complete whole grain {complète}. couronne crown or bread ring {couronne}. crepe thin pancake {crêpe}. croquembouche cream-filled pastry with sugar glaze {croquembouche}. croute crust or pastry {croûte}. croutons toasted or fried cubed bread {croûtons}. dauphine mixed with choux pastry, formed into small balls, and fried {dauphine}. en chemise wrapped in pastry {en chemise}. farine flour {farine}. feuilletee puff pastry {feuilletée}.

419 financier small almond cake {financier}. galette pancake or cake or round flat pastry {galette}. gateau cake {gâteau}. gateau opera almond sponge cake with coffee and chocolate icing {gâteau opéra}. gaufre waffle {gaufre}. genoise sponge cake {génoise}. jalousie pastry venetian blind or small pastry lattice with almond paste and jam {jalousie, bread}. levain sourdough {levain}. madeleine in French small sweet cake {madeleine, French}. merveille hot sugared doughnut {merveille}. miche large round bread {miche}. mie interior, or bread crumb {mie}. mignardise small cake or pastry {mignardise}. mont blanc in French pastry with baked meringue, chestnut purée, and whipped cream {mont blanc, French}. natte woven bread loaf {natte}. paillasson fried pancake {paillasson}. pain in French bread or loaf {pain, bread}. pain de Genes almond sponge cake {pain de Gênes}. pain de mie rectangular white sandwich loaf {pain de mie}.

420 pain d'epices gingerbread {pain d'épices}. pain grille toast {pain grillé}. palmier palm or puff pastry in palm leaf shape {palmier}. pane breaded {pané}. pannequet rolled crêpe {pannequet}. paris-Brest large choux pastry with almonds and praline butter cream {paris-Brest}. pastiza cake {pastiza}. petit pain roll {petit pain}. petit-beurre butter cookie {petit-beurre}. petit-four cupcake or small cake or pastry {petit-four}. pompe bread or cake {pompe}. profiterole choux pastry with vanilla ice cream and hot chocolate sauce {profiterole}. rouille olive oil, garlic, chile pepper, bread, and fish broth sauce {rouille}. saupiquet bread and wine sauce {saupiquet}. savarin yeast cake in sweet syrup {savarin}. savoie sponge cake {savoie}. tartine open-face sandwich or buttered bread {tartine}. viennoise coated in egg, breaded, and fried {viennoise}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun>Food>Cooking

421 a la campagne in country style {à la campagne}. a la carte from menu or item by item {á la carte}. a la coque soft-cooked in shell {à la coque}. a la pression on tap {à la pression}. a l'anglaise boiled, as in England {à l'anglaise}. a point medium rare or ripe or ready to eat {à point}. aigre bitter or sour {aigre}. amer bitter or bittersweet {amer}. amuse-bouche appetizer {amuse-bouche}. amusegueule appetizer {amusegueule}. appellation d'origine controlee formal food definition {appellation d'origine contrôlée} (AOC). arose sprinkled or basted {arosé}. assaisonne seasoned {assaisonné}. assiette plate or platter {assiette}. attelet skewer {attelet}. au charbon de bois charcoal-grilled {au charbon de bois}. au jus in its natural juices {au jus}. bellevue beautiful presentation {bellevue}. bien cuit

422 well done {bien cuit}. biologique organic {biologique}. bis in French brown {bis, French}. blanch whitened or bleached {blanch}. bleu rare blue or very rare {bleu, rare}. boite de conserve can {boîte de conserve}. bonne femme home-style {bonne femme}. bouffi salted and smoked {bouffi}. bouilli boiled {bouilli}. braise in French braised {braisé, French}. braiser braise {braiser}. broche roasted on spit {broche}. brouille scrambled {brouillé}. brule caramelized or brown {brûlé}. buffet in French Dishes can be always available {buffet, French}. cafeine caffeine {caféine}. caille curdled curdled {caillé}. campagnard country-style {campagnard}. caramelise caramelized {caramelisé}.

423 casher kosher {casher}. casse-croute snack {casse-croûte}. casserole in French pot {casserole, French}. cassolette in small casserole {cassolette}. cloute studded {clouté}. concasse chopped coarsely {concassé}. congeler freeze {congeler}. cote chop chop {côte, chop}. craquant crunchy {craquant}. creme de la creme finest or something at highest level {crème de la crème}. cru raw {cru}. cuisine cooked cooked together {cuisiné}. cuit baked or cooked {cuit}. dariole truncated cone or oval-shaped baking mold {dariole}. deca decaffeinated {déca}. decafeine decaffeinated {décaféiné}. decortique shelled or peeled {décortiqué}. demi-sel slightly salted or unsmoked {demi-sel}. des in French diced {dés, French}.

424 desosse boned {désossé}. dore browned or golden brown {doré}. douce fresh or sweet {douce}. douceur sweet or dessert or sweetener as tip or bribe {douceur}. ecrase crushed or pressed {écrasé}. ecreme skimmed {écremé}. egoutee drained {égoutée}. emince thin sliced {emincé}. emonde skinned by blanching, for almonds and tomatoes {emondé}. en papillote in French in parchment paper {en papillote, French}. en robe de chambre boiled or baked in its skin {en robe de chambre}. en robe des champs boiled or baked in its skin {en robe des champs}. entree first course or main course {entrée}. entremets desserts {entremets}. epais thick {épais}. epaisse thick {épaisse}. escalope thin slice {escalope}. etoffe stuffed {étoffé}. etouffe

425 smothered or tightly covered {étouffé}. etuve smothered or tightly covered {étuvé}. faisande hung to age {faisandé}. farci stuffed {farci}. fermier from farm {fermier}. flambee in French lighted {flambée, French}. fondant in French melting {fondant, French}. fondue in French melted {fondue, French}. fort pungent or strong {fort}. fouet whisk {fouet}. fouettee whipped {fouettée}. fourre stuffed or filled {fourré}. fraiche fresh or chilled {fraîche}. frais fresh or chilled {frais}. fremi quivering {frémi}. frise curly {frisé}. frit fried {frit}. frite French fry {frite}. fritot small fried piece {fritot}.

426 friture fried food {friture}. fume smoked {fumé}. garniture garnish {garniture}. gazeuse carbonated {gazeuse}. gelee aspic or jelly {gelée}. givre frosted {givré}. graisse fat {graisse}. graisseron crackling {graisseron}. gras fat {gras}. grattelon crackling {grattelon}. gratton crackling {gratton}. grille in French grilled {grillé, French}. hors-d'oeuvre appetizer {hors-d'oeuvre}. huile oil {huile}. julienne in French slivered {julienne, French}. laitier commercial {laitier}. mache mashed {mâché}. maigre thin and lean {maigre}. marmite small covered pot or casserole or broth from casserole {marmite}.

427 melange mixture or blend {mélange}. mets dish or preparation {mets}. mi-cru half raw {mi-cru}. mi-cuit half cooked {mi-cuit}. mijote simmered {mijoté}. miroton slice {miroton}. moka coffee-flavored {moka}. mollet simmered {mollet}. morceau piece or small portion {morceau}. moulage mold {moulage}. moulu ground or milled {moulu}. nappe in French covered {nappé, French}. nourriture food {nourriture}. paillarde thick slice {paillarde}. pailles julienned and fried {pailles}. panache 1 mixed {panaché}. panache 2 plume or high style {panache}. parfum flavor {parfum}. piquant

428 sharp or spicy {piquant, French}. pique larded or studded {piqué}. poche poached {poché}. poele fried pan-fried {poêlé}. presse squeezed {pressé}. pression tap {pression}. puree chopped finely or crushed {purée}. rafraichi cool or chilled or fresh {rafraîchi}. ramequin small casserole or tart {ramequin}. rape grated grated or shredded {râpé}. rissole fried browned {rissolé}. roti roast {rôti}. rouelle angled slice {rouelle}. rouget red {rouget}. roulade roll {roulade}. roule rolled {roulé}. rouleau a patisserie rolling pin {rouleau à pâtisserie}. saignant rare {saignant}. saur smoked {saur}.

429 tendre tender {tendre}. torrefiee roasted {torréfiée}. tranche slice {tranche}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun>Food>Dairy au gratin in French with browned cheese {au gratin, French}. brie in French cow's milk cheese wheel {brie, French}. camembert in French aromatic cow's milk cheese {camembert, French}.

Chantilly sweet whip cream {Chantilly}. copeau shaving from chocolate, cheese, or vegetable {copeau}. creme cream {crème}. creme anglaise egg-custard cream {crème anglaise}. creme brulee custard with caramelized crust {crème brûlée}. creme chantilly sweet whip cream {crème chantilly}. creme fraiche thickened cream {crème fraîche}. creme patissiere custard filling {crème pâtissière}. croque-madame ham, cheese, and grilled egg sandwich {croque-madame}. croque-monsieur toasted ham and cheese sandwich {croque-monsieur}. dauphinoise baked with milk, garlic, cheese, and egg or with sliced potato, cream, and cheese or eggs {dauphinoise}. emmental cooked pressed mild cow's-milk cheese with big holes {emmental}.

430 flan custard lined with caramel or tart {flan}. fontainebleau in French soft white dessert cheese, from Ile-de-France {fontainebleau, French}. frangipane almond custard {frangipane}. fromage cheese {fromage}. gratinees with browned cheese {gratinées}. gruyere in French mild hard cooked cheese {gruyère, French}. lyonnaise in French with onions or with bouillon, port, egg, and cheese or with cubed bacon and soft-cooked egg {lyonnaise, French}. mornay in French cream sauce with egg yolk and cheese {mornay, French}. munster soft pungent cow's-milk cheese with red rind {munster}. neufchatel in French soft white cow's-milk cheese {neufchâtel, French}. pot-de-creme small custard {pot-de-crème}. raclette melted cheese, boiled potato, pickled cucumber, and onion, from Switzerland and Savoie {raclette}. risotto in French creamy rice with stock and cheese or mushroom {risotto, French}. roquefort in French blue veined sheep's milk cheese {roquefort, French}. savoyarde with Gruyère cheese or with sliced potato, bouillon, cheese, and butter {savoyarde}. triple creme cheese with more than 75 percent butterfat {triple crème}. yaourt yogurt {yaourt}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun>Food>Fruit a la imperatrice with candied fruit {à la impératrice}.

431 a l'imperatrice with rice pudding and candied fruit {à l'impératrice}. belle Helene poached fruit on ice cream with hot chocolate sauce {belle Hélène}. compote in French stewed fruit {compotier} {compote, French}. coulis vegetable or fruit purée {coulis}. creme plombieres fruit and egg white custard {crème plombières}. macedoine chopped mixed fruits or vegetables {macédoine}. marmelade fruit purée {marmelade}. nougat glace frozen whipped cream and candied fruit {nougat glacé}. plombiere vanilla ice cream, candied fruit, kirsch, and apricot jam {plombière}. ratafia nut-infused or fruit-infused brandy {ratafia}. romanoff macerated fruit, liqueur, and whipped cream {romanoff}. spoom whipped and frozen wine or fruit juice and egg white {spoom}. zeste citrus-peel colored part {zeste}, with no white pith.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun>Food>Ice a la mode stylish or with ice cream {à la mode}. bombe in French ice cream in layers {bombe, French}. cornet de glace ice cream cone {cornet de glace}. creme glacee ice cream {crème glacée}. frappe in French shaken with ice {frappé, French}.

432 glace 1 candied or iced or crystallized or glazed {glacé}. glace 2 ice or ice cream or mirror {glace}. granite in French sherbet or flavored ice {granité, French}. mystere ice cream dessert with cone or cake {mystère}. peche Alexandra poached peach with ice cream and strawberry purée {pêche Alexandra}. peche Melba poached peach with ice cream and raspberry sauce {pêche Melba}. sorbet sherbet {sorbet}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun>Food>Meat a la nicoise with meat, swiss chard, and cheese, as in Nice {à la niçoise}. a la strasbourgeoise with sauerkraut, foie gras, and salt pork, as in Strasbourg {à la strasbourgeoise}. a l'imperiale mussel, cockscomb, and crayfish {à l'impériale}. bercy fish stock, flour, butter, white wine, and shallot sauce {bercy}. bifteck steak {bifteck}. blanquette meat stew with white sauce and egg {blanquette}. boeuf beef {boeuf}. boudin sausage {boudin}. bouillabaisse in French fish soup of Marseille with olive oil, onion, garlic, tomato, parsley, and saffron {bouillabaisse, French}. boulangere cooked with meat {boulangère}. bourride fish soup with onion, tomato, garlic, herbs, olive oil, egg yolk, and aïoli {bourride}.

433 brochette in French skewer with meat and vegetable pieces {brochette, French}. canon in French marrow bone {canon, French}. capilotade meat cooked in sauce that becomes reduced {capilotade}. carbonnade beef braised in beer and onions {carbonnade}. carre rack or loin or crown roast {carré}. cassoulet white bean and meat casserole {cassoulet}. cebiche fish marinated in lime juice and seasoning {cebiche}. cervelas sausage {cervelas}. chateaubriand steak filet with sautéed potatoes and white wine, beef stock, butter, shallot, and herb sauce or béarnaise sauce {chateaubriand}. chevreuil deer or venison {chevreuil}. chipolata small sausage {chipolata}. confit meat cooked in its fat or juice, or fruit or vegetable in sugar, alcohol, or vinegar {confit}. cotelette cutlet {côtelette}. couscous semolina grains or steamed semolina grains, broth, vegetable, meat, and hot sauce, from North Africa {couscous}. croquette in French ground meat, vegetables, egg, and sauce coated in bread crumbs and fried {croquette, French}. darne rectangular fish filet or fish steak {darne}. daube meat, red wine, and onion stew, with tomato or garlic {daube}. demi-deuil in half mourning or poached chicken with truffles under skin or sweetbreads, truffles, and white sauce {demi-deuil}. demi-glace

434 light brown beef sauce {demi-glace}. en bellevue whole fish in aspic {en bellevue}. entrecote beef rib steak {entrecôte}. faux-filet sirloin steak {faux-filet}. flanchet flank {flanchet}. fond bottom or cooked meat juice {fond}. foyot béarnaise sauce and meat glaze {foyot}. friandise sweetmeat or petit four {friandise}. fruits de mer seafood {fruits de mer}. fumet in French fish stock {fumet, French}. galantine stuffed or rolled deboned meat glazed with gelatin {galantine}. gigot lamb leg {gigot}. gourmandises sweetmeats or candies {gourmandises}. hachis chopped meat or fish {hachis}. jambon ham ham {jambon, ham}. kiev stuffed meat with herb and garlic butter {kiev}. medaillon round slice {médaillon}. meli-melo assorted seafood {méli-mélo}. osso bucco veal {osso bucco}.

435 palette in French upper shoulder {palette, French}. pate 1 minced meat {pâté}. pate 2 pastry or dough {pâte}. pate a choux creamy pastry dough {pâte à choux}. pate brisee pie pastry {pâte brisée}. pojarski fried chopped meat or fish in cutlet shape {pojarski}. porc pork {porc}. porcelet suckling pig {porcelet}. pot bouilli simmered or poached beef or fish with vegetables {pot bouilli}. pot-au-feu in French simmered or poached beef or fish with vegetables {pot-au-feu, French}. poularde in French fatted hen {poularde, French}. quasi in French standing rump {quasi, French}. ris sweetbreads {ris}. rumsteck rump steak {rumsteck}. saindoux lard or pork fat {saindoux}. salmis roasted poultry with meat juice sauce {salmis}. salpicon sauce with vegetable, meat, or fish {salpicon}. saucisse small fresh sausage or sausage {saucisse}. saucisse de Francfort hot dog {saucisse de Francfort}.

436 saucisson large dried sausage, like salami {saucisson}. seviche fish marinated in lime juice and seasoning {seviche}. souris lamb shank {souris}. tartare chopped raw beef, with raw egg, capers, chopped onion, and parsley {tartare}. terrine earthenware crock, crock of ground meat and seasoning, or pâté in terrine {terrine}. tournedos center beef filet {tournedos}. travers spareribs {travers}. tripe in French innards {tripe, French}. veau veal {veau}. veloute veal, chicken, or fish stock, cream, and egg yolk sauce {velouté}. viande meat {viande}. vol-au-vent puff pastry shell with meat or fish in sauce {vol-au-vent}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun>Food>Nut a la cevenole with chestnut or mushroom, as in Cevennes {à la cévenole}. a la chatelaine with artichoke heart, chestnut purée, braised lettuce, and sautéed potato {à la châtelaine}. a la landaise with garlic, pine nut, and goose fat, as in Landes in southwest France {à la landaise}. buche de Noel log-shaped Christmas sponge cake with chestnuts and chocolate {bûche de Noël}. cacahouete roasted and/or salted peanut {cacahouète}. cerneau walnut meat {cerneau}.

437 coco blanc small white bean in shell or coconut {coco blanc}. saint-Hubert pepper sauce with chestnut and bacon {saint-Hubert}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun>House addition in French bill or tab {addition, French}. aide-memoire notes or summary {aide-mémoire}. ardoise blackboard {ardoise}. banc bench {banc}. barre in French bar {barre, French}. billet in French letter {billet, French}. billet-doux love letter {billet-doux}. boite can or bottle or box {boîte}. boite a gouter lunch box {boîte à goûter}. bol bowl {bol}. boudoir bedroom {boudoir}. bouilloire kettle {bouilloire}. bouteille bottle {bouteille}. bouton button {bouton}. caisse cash register {caisse}. caissette small box {caissette}.

438 camp military post {camp}. carafe in French pitcher {carafe, French}. carte card or menu {carte}. cendre ash or cinder {cèndre}. chaise longue in French chair with long seat for legs {chaise longue, French}. chapeau in French hat or small bread round with dough hat {chapeau, French}. chateau house {chateau}. chemise in French dress {chemise, French}. cheval-de-frise walls with barbed wire, spikes, or broken glass {cheval-de-frise}. coffre chest {coffre}. coiffe hat with lace {coiffe}. cologne in French light perfume {cologne, French}. confiserie candy shop {confiserie}. congelateur freezer {congélateur}. conservatoire conservatory {conservatoire}. corbeille architectural decoration looking like fruit or flower basket {corbeille} {corbeil}. corne d'abondance horn of plenty {corne d'abondance}. cornet in French cone {cornet, French}. couteau

439 knife {couteau}. couvert place setting with dishes, silver, glassware, and linen {couvert}. crepe de Chine silk {crêpe de Chine}. cruche jug {cruche}. cuillere spoon {cuillère}. cuisine kitchen kitchen or cooking or food style {cuisine}. cuisiniere stove {cuisinière}. culotte rump or trouser {culotte}. cure-dent toothpick {cure-dent}. damier checkerboard {damier}. demitasse in French small cup {demi-tasse, French} {demitasse, French}. dentelle lace {dentelle}. eau de cologne light perfume or toilet water {eau de cologne}. eau de toilette very light perfume {eau de toilette}. encre ink {encre}. fagot in French bundle {fagot, French}. fer a cheval horseshoe {fer à cheval}. ferme farm farm {ferme}. feu fire {feu}.

440 ficelle string {ficelle}. flute flute or thin champagne glass {flûte}. four oven {four}. four a micro-onde microwave oven {four à micro-onde}. fourchette fork {fourchette}. grande tasse mug {grande tasse}. grille-pain toaster {grille-pain}. hatelet skewer {hâtelet}. hotel hotel or establishment {hôtel}. louche ladle {louche}. lycee school {lycée}. magasin store {magasin}. maison house or restaurant {maison}. maisonette small house or two-story apartment {maisonette}. marche market or seasonable or available {marché}. menhir standing stone {menhir}. miroir mirror or glaze {miroir}. mitaine isolante mitt for oven {mitaine isolante}. mosaique mosaic {mosaïque}.

441 moulin in French mill {moulin, French}. note bill or tab {note, French}. nouveaute novelty {nouveauté}. objet d'art art object {objet d'art}. oeil-de-boeuf oval window {oeil-de-boeuf}. ouvre-boite can opener {ouvre-boîte}. paille stick {paille}. papier paper {papier}. papier colle pasted paper collage using paper cut into shapes {papier collé}. papier mache Paper soaked in paste and shaped and dried, or paper and paste mixture {papier-mâché}. papillote in French parchment paper or foil {papillote, French}. paquet package or parcel {paquet}. passe-partout passport {passe-partout}. pave paving stone {pavé}. peau de soie soft non-shiny fabric {peau de soie}. perle pearl {perlé}. philtre magic potion {philtre}. pied-a-terre temporary or second residence {pied-à-terre}. pissoir

442 public urinal {pissoir}. plat in French dish {plat, French}. plat cuisine dish or plate {plat cuisiné}. plateau in French platter {plateau, French}. poele pan frying pan {poêle}. porcelaine china {porcelaine}. porte-cochere carriage entrance {porte-cochère}. pot in French jar {pot, French}. pot gradue measuring cup {pot gradué}. prie-dieu prayer bench {prié-dieu}. proces-verbal official record {proces-verbal}. puit well {puit}. rape grater grater {râpe}. robe de chambre skin or jacket {robe de chambre}. robe des champs skin or jacket {robe des champs}. robinet tap {robinet}. roman in French novel or story {roman, French}. roman-fleuve novel series about community or family {roman-fleuve}. selle saddle {selle}.

443 serviette napkin {serviette}. soie silk {soie}. souvenir item associated with past event {souvenir}. spatule spatula {spatule}. tablette bar or piece {tablette}. tablier apron {tablier}. tasse cup {tasse}. theiere teapot {théière}. timbale small mold {timbale}. tourtiere pot with three legs {tourtière}. trompe l'oeil painting using unusual perspective or viewpoint {trompe l'oeil}. tuile roof tile or almond cookie {tuile}. turban in French ring mold {turban, French}. vaisselle dish {vaisselle}. verre glass {verre}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun>Number cent hundred {cent}. cinq five {cinq}. demi in French half, or half-bottle of wine {demi, French}.

444 deux two {deux}. dix ten {dix}. douze twelve {douze}. huit eight {huit}. mille thousand {mille}. neuf nine {neuf}. onze eleven {onze}. quart French quarter {quart, French}. quatre four {quatre}. sept in French seven {sept, French}. six in French six {six, French}. trois three {trois}. un in French one {un, French}. vingt twenty {vingt}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun>People agent provacateur instigator or provoker {agent provocateur}. aide-de-camp in French officer assistant {aide-de-camp, French}. ange angel {ange}. arrive newcomer {arrivé}.

445 artiste artist {artiste}. attache person aiding leader at military or diplomatic building {attaché}. au pair Non-family members {au pair} can live and eat free while cleaning and/or caring for children. beau monde fashionable society {beau monde}. belle beautiful woman {belle}. bloc block or unified group {bloc}. bon vivant High-living people {bon vivant} can happily consume all the good things in life. bouche mouth {bouche}. boulanger baker {boulanger}. bourgeois common people {bourgeois} {bourgeoise}. boutonniere dandy {boutonnière}. brunette woman with brown color hair {brunette}. canaille rabble {canaille}. chanteuse female singer {chanteuse}. charge d'affaires assistant or person dispatched by higher official to do or communicate something {chargé d'affaires}. coeur heart {coeur}. concierge house mistress {concierge}. connoisseur expert {connoisseur}. corps in French team or group {corps, French}.

446 cortege retinue or procession {cortège}. cou neck {cou}. cultivateur truck farmer or vegetable soup {cultivateur}. debutante girl formally entering society {debutante}. demimonde immoral social classes, lower-class group, or prostitutes {demimonde}. demoiselle unmarried woman or young lady {demoiselle}. derriere rump {derrière}. dilettante amateur {dilettante}. divorcee divorced female {divorcée}. dos in French back {dos, French}. doyen most senior man in group {doyen}. doyenne most senior woman in group {doyenne}. enfant child {enfant}. enfant terrible Young and unconventional artists or scholars {enfant terrible} can be forceful and iconoclastic. epaule shoulder {épaule}. epi ear {epi}. femme woman {femme}. femme fatale Men can be fatally attracted to beautiful women {femme fatale}. fiance

447 betrothed or engaged man {fiancé}. fiancee betrothed or engaged woman {fiancée}. gamine playful woman {gamine}. garcon waiter {garçon}. grande dame older respected woman {grande dame}. habitue social-establishment frequenter {habitué}. hote host {hôte}. il it or he {il}. ingenue naive young woman {ingenue}. je I {je}. jeune fille young woman {jeune fille}. joue cheek {joue}. langue in French tongue {langue, French}.

Madame mistress or brothel owner {Madame}. mademoiselle miss {mademoiselle}. maitre master {maître}. maitre d'hotel manager headwaiter or hotel manager {mâitre d'hotel}. maraicher market gardener or truck farmer {maraîchèr}. marchand merchant {marchand}.

448 marquess marquis {marquess} {marquis}. marquise person marquis' wife {marquise, person}. masseur male massager {masseur}. masseuse female massager {masseuse}. menage group {menage}. menagere housewife {ménagère}. mendiant mendicant {mendiant}. messieurs misters {messieurs}. meuniere miller's wife {meunière}. monseigneur prelate or prince {monseigneur}. monsieur mister {monsieur}. nonne nun {nonne}. nouveau riche Newly-rich and showing-off people {nouveau riche} can consume conspicuously and act socially like lower-class people. oeil eye {oeil}. parvenu People {parvenu} can have just attained higher social class but not yet been accepted by others. pecheur fisherman or about fish {pêcheur}. petit bourgeois lower middle class person {petit bourgeois}. protege protected, or person protected and trained by master, or pupil or person with sponsor or mentor {protégé}. reine

449 queen {reine}. religieuse nun {religieuse}. roi king {roi}. roue lecher {roué}. saboteur sabotaging person {saboteur}. sang French blood {sang, French}. sapeur fireman {sapeur}. seigneur feudal lord {seigneur} {seignior}. soi self {soi}. sommelier wine waiter {sommelier}. soubrette flirty woman {soubrette}. traiteur caterer or delicatessen {traiteur}. veneur huntsman {veneur}. vierge virgin {vierge}. vous you {vous}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>French>Noun>Plant acajou cashew nut {acajou}. agrume citrus fruit {agrume}. ail garlic {ail}. airelle

450 wild cranberry {airelle}. amande almond {amande}. ananas pineapple {ananas}. aneth dill {aneth}. anis anise or aniseed {anis}. anise etoile star anise or badiane {anise étoilé}. arachide peanut {arachide}. artichaut artichoke {artichaut}. asperge asparagus {asperge}. aubergine eggplant {aubergine, French}. aveline hazelnut or filbert {aveline}. avocat in French avocado {avocat, French}. avoine oat {avoine}. badiane star anise {badiane}. baie berry or peppercorn {baie}. banane banana {banane}. basilic basil {basilic}. bette Swiss chard {bette}. betterave beet {betterave}.

451 ble wheat {blé}. ble noir buckwheat {blé noir}. blette Swiss chard {blette}. branche stalk {branche}. brocoli broccoli {brocoli}. brugnon nectarine {brugnon}. buche log {bûche}. buisson bush {buisson}. cacao in French cocoa or chocolate {cacao, French}. cafe in French coffee {café, French}. cajou cashew {cajou}. camomille herb tea {camomille}. cannelle cinnamon {cannelle}. capre caper {capre}. capucine nasturtium {capucine}. cardamome cardamon {cardamome}. carotte carrot {carotte}. carvi caraway {carvi}. cassis black currant {cassis}.

452 celeri celery {céleri}. cerfeuil chervil {cerfeuil}. cerise cherry {cerise}. cerise noire black cherry {cerise noire}. champignon mushroom {champignon}. chene oak {chêne}. chicons du nord Belgian endive {chicons du nord}. chicoree curly endive or chicory {chicorée}. chicoree de Bruxelles Belgian endive {chicorée de Bruxelles}. chou cabbage {chou}. chou de Bruxelles brussels sprout {chou de Bruxelles}. chou de mer kale {chou de mer}. chou de Milan Savoy cabbage {chou de Milan}. chou frise kale {chou frisé}. chou vert curly green Savoy cabbage {chou vert}. chou-fleur cauliflower {chou-fleur}. chou-navet rutabaga {chou-navet}. chou-rave kohlrabi {chou-rave}. ciboule

453 spring onion or scallion {ciboule}. ciboulette chives {ciboulette}. citron lemon {citron}. citron vert lime {citron vert}. citronnelle lemon grass or lemon balm {mèlisse} {citronnelle}. citrouille pumpkin or gourd {citrouille}. cive spring onion {cive}. clementine small tangerine {clémentine}. coing quince {coing}. colza Rape mustard-plant seeds are for rapeseed oil {colza}. concombre cucumber {concombre}. coriandre coriander {coriandre}. cornichon gherkin or small pickle {cornichon}. cosse pod {cosse}. courge pumpkin or gourd or squash {courge}. courgette zucchini {courgette}. crambe sea kale {crambe}. cresson watercress {cresson}. criste marine sea algae {criste marine}.

454 curcuma turmeric {curcuma}. datte date {datte}. dents-de-lion dandelion {dents-de-lion}. echalote shallot {echalote}. endive in French Belgian endive or chicory green {endive, French}. epeautre spelt {épeautre}. epice spice {épice}. epinard spinach {épinard}. epine vinette highbush cranberry {épine vinette}. escarole in French bitter chicory-like green with thick and big leaves {escarole, French}. estragon tarragon {estragon}. fenouil fennel {fenouil}. feuille leaf {feuille}. feve bean {féve}. figue fig {figue}. fleur flower {fleur}. foin hay {foin}. fraise strawberry {fraise}. framboise raspberry {framboise}.

455 genievere juniper berry {genièvere}. gentiane gentian {gentiane}. germiny sorrel {germiny}. gingembre ginger {gingembre}. girofle clove {girofle}. gousse clove or bean {gousse}. grain grain or corn or seed {grain}. grappe cluster or bunch {grappe}. grenade in French pomegranate {grenade, French}. groseille red currant {groseille}. haricot in French bean {haricot, French}. hysope hyssop {hysope}. igname yam {igname}. kaki persimmon {kaki}. laitue lettuce {laitue}. laurier bay laurel or bay leaf {laurier}. legume in French vegetable {légume, French}. lentilles lentils {lentilles}. macis

456 mace {macis}. mais corn {maïs}. mangue mango {mangue}. marjolaine marjoram {marjolaine}. menthe mint {menthe}. morille morel mushroom {morille}. moutarde mustard {moutarde}. mure blackberry {mûre}. muscade nutmeg {muscade}. myrtille bilberry or blueberry {myrtille}. navet turnip {navet}. nefle medlar or Japanese loquat {nèfle}. noisette hazelnut {noisette}. noix nut or walnut {noix}. oignon onion {oignon}. oiselle sorrel {oiselle}. orge barley {orge}. origan oregano {origan}. ortie nettle {ortie}.

457 oseille sorrel {oseille}. pamplemousse grapefruit {pamplemousse}. panais parsnip {panais}. pasteque watermelon {pastèque}. pavot poppy {pavot}. pebre pepper {pèbre}. peche peach or fishing {pêche}. pepin seed {pépin}. persil parsley {persil}. petale petal or thin slice {pétale}. pignon pine nut {pignon}. piment red pepper or pimento {piment}. piment de Jamaique allspice {piment de Jamaïque}. piment doux sweet pepper {piment doux}. pimpernelle bitter salad green {pimpernelle}. pissenlit dandelion green {pissenlit}. pistache pistachio nut {pistache}. pistil in French thread or pistil {pistil, French}. pluche sprig {pluche}.

458 poire pear {poire}. poireau leek {poireau}. pois pea {pois}. pois chiche chickpea {pois chiche}. poivre pepper {poivre}. poivre de Jamaique allspice {poivre de Jamaïque}. poivre gris black peppercorn {poivre gris}. poivron sweet pepper {poivron}. pomme apple {pomme}. pomme de terre potato {pomme de terre}. potimarron pumpkin or gourd {potimarron}. potiron pumpkin or gourd {potiron}. pousse sprout {pousse}. prune in French plum {prune, French}. pruneau prune {pruneau}. radis radish {radis}. raifort horseradish {raifort}. raisin in French grape or raisin {raisin, French}. raisin de Corinthe

459 currant {raisin de Corinthe}. raisin de Smyrne sultana raisin {raisin de Smyrne}. raisin sec raisin {raisin sec}. rhuharbe rhubarb {rhuharbe}. riz rice {riz}. riz complet brown rice {riz complet}. riz sauvage wild rice {riz sauvage}. romarin rosemary {romarin}. ronce bush {ronce}. roquette rocket or arugula {roquette}. safran saffron {safran}. salee savory {salée}. salsifis salsify or oyster plant {salsifis}. sanguine in French blood orange {sanguine, French}. sarrasin buckwheat {sarrasin}. sarriette summer savory {sarriette}. sauge sage {sauge}. seigle rye {seigle}. serpolet wild thyme {serpolet}.

460 sesame sesame {sésame}. soja soy bean {soja}. son in French bran {son, French}. the tea {thé}. thym thyme {thym}. tilleul linden tree {tilleul}. tomate tomato {tomate}. topinambour Jerusalem artichoke {topinambour}. tournesol sunflower {tournesol}. trevise radicchio {trévise}. truffe truffle {truffe}. tulipe tulip {tulipe}. vanille vanilla {vanille}. varech seaweed {varech}. verveine lemon verbena {verveine}. vigne vine {vigne}. violette violet {violette}. viroflay spinach {viroflay}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>German

461 abendlandes west {abendlandes}. abgeleitet disinclined or unused {abgeleitet}. abhandlungen articles or contributions {abhandlungen}. abrisse stub {abrisse}. aerzte physicians {aerzte}. allgemeine general or common {allgemeine}. als as {als}. alte high or old {alte}. an in German to {an, German}. anfangs initial {anfangs}. angebot supply {angebot}. angewandte applied {angewandte}. angst People have sense of anxiety, dread, or anguish about having no control and facing life's vicissitudes {angst}. annahme assumption {annahme}. anschluss annexation {anschluss}. anweisung way {anweisung}. anwendung applications {anwendung}. arbeit work {arbeit}. artige example {artige}.

462 auf in German in or at or to {auf, German}. auf Wiedersehen goodbye {auf Wiedersehen}. aufbau structure or principle or formation {aufbau}. aufgabe task {aufgabe}. aufmerksamkeit concentration {aufmerksamkeit}. aufnahme recording or absorption {aufnahme}. auge eye {augen}. aus out of {aus}. ausdehnungs extension {ausdehnungs}. ausgeloste triggered {ausgelöste}. ausseres outer {äusseres}. autoritdt authority {autoritdt}. band in German volume {band, German}. bau construction {bau}. bearbeitet revised or adapted {bearbeitet}. begriff concept or idea {begriff}. begrundent justification {begründent}. begrundung reason or justification {begründung}. bei

463 by {bei}. beitrag contribution {beitrag}. beobachtung observation {beobachtung}. berechtigung authority or permission {berechtigung}. beredsamkeit eloquence {beredsamkeit}. bereichs scope or region {bereichs}. bern in German bear {bern, German}. berucksichtigung account {berucksichtigung}. besitz possession {besitz}. besitzes possessions {besitzes}. besonder special {besonder}. besondere particular or special {besondere}. besteht exists or has {besteht}. bestimmung vocation {bestimmung}. besuch visit {besuch}. betrachtung view or reflection {betrachtung}. betrouwbaarheid reliability {betrouwbaarheid}. bett bed {bett}. bevaegelse bed {bevaegelse}.

464 bewegung motion {bewegung}. bewusste conscious {bewusste}. beziehung relation {beziehung}. bild picture {bild}. bilder images {bilder}. bildung formation {bildung}. bin am {bin}. bis in German to {bis, German}. blitzkrieg overwhelming assault {blitzkrieg}. blossen bare or pure {blossen}. bogengang vestibular {bogengang}. bose evil {böse}. buch book {buch}. bund nation or society {bünd}. bundler league {bündler}. burg city {burg}. cursus course {cursus}. dame woman {dame}. dammerzustand mental state {dämmerzustand}.

465 damon spirit {dämon}. dargestellt representation {dargestellt}. darm intestine {darm}. das the {das}. dem in German on {dem, German}. den in German the {den, German}. denken thinking or thought {denken}. der the {der}. des in German of the {des, German}. deutsch German or nation {deutsch}. deutung interpretation or explanation {deutung}. dichtung poetry {dichtung}. die in German the {die, German}. dienste service {dienste}. diesseit side {diesseit}. ding thing {ding}. du in German thou {du, German}. durch through {durch}. eigenartigen

466 peculiar or particular or specific {eigenartigen}. eigentum own {eigentum}. einen a {einen}. einer in {einer}. einfachsten knee-jerk {einfachsten}. einfuhrung guide or introduction {einführung}. eingriffen intervention {eingriffen}. einheit unity {einheit}. einige some {einige}. einleitung introduction {einleitung}. einstimmung agreement {einstimmung}. einzige ego {einzige}. empfinduge sensation {empfinduge}. ende last or previous {ende}. engener narrow {engener}. entdeckung discovery {entdeckung}. entscheidbare decidable {entscheidbare}. entstehung creation or origin {entstehung}. entwicklung development or evolution {entwicklung}.

467 erfahrung experience {erfahrung}. erganzung supplement {ergänzung}. ergebnisse results {ergebnisse}. erkennungs cognition or recognition {erkennungs}. erlass decree {erlass}. ernst earnest {ernst}. ersatz fake {ersatz}. erwachse adult {erwachse}. erwartung expectation {erwartung}. erziehung education {erziehung}. es in German id {es, German}. fall event or method {fall}. farben color {farben}. faserverlauf fiber direction {faserverlauf}. feineren fine or subtle {feineren}. feld field {feld}. fesche naughty {fesche}. fester in German in {fester, German}. fieber fever {fieber}.

468 findung feeling {findung}. flamme flame {flamme}. forschung research {forschung}. frage question {frage}. frau wife {frau}. fraulein miss {fraulein}. frei freedom {frei}. freude joy {freude}. fuhrer leader {führer} {fuehrer}. fur for {für}. fuss foot {fuss}. gedachtnis memory {gedächtnis}. gedanken thoughts or reasonings {gedanken}. gefuhls feeling {gefühls}. gegen against {gegen}. gegenstand object {gegenstand}. gegenwartig present or current {gegenwärtig}. gegrundet established or based {gegründet}. geheim

469 secret {geheim}. gehirn brain {gehirn}. geist spirit {geist}. gemeinschaft community {gemeinschaft}. gemuth warm-hearted {gemüth}. geruch smell {geruch}. gesang song {gesang}. geschichte history {geschichte}. geschlechts genital or race {geschlechts}. geschlossene closed {geschlossene}. geschmack taste {geschmack}. gesellschaft society or institute {gesellschaft}. gesicht face {gesicht}. gesprache conversation {gespräche}. gewachse growth {gewächse}. gewebe growth {gewebe}. gewissheit certainty {gewissheit}. gewone community or common {gewone}. glaube belief {glaube}.

470 goldwahrung money {goldwährung}. grenz frontier or front or limit {grenz}. grosse great or large {grösse}. grossen general {grössen}. grund basis {grund}. grundlage foundation {grundlage}. grundlegung foundation {grundlegung}. grundzuge foundation {grundzüge}. gruppen group {gruppen}. gut good {gut}. hals throat {hals}. handel trade {handel}. handwortenbuch dictionary {handwörtenbuch}. heilige holy {heilige}. heilkunde medicine {heilkunde}.

-heit -head {-heit}. held hero or soldier {held}. her forth or forwards {her}. herd hearth or stove {herd}.

471 herdflamme hearth or stove {herdflamme}. herr mister {herr}. herrschende ruling {herrschende}. herz heart {herz}. hin back or backwards {hin}. hoden testes {hoden}. hoffnung hope {hoffnung}. horens hearing {hörens}. ich I or ego {ich}. ihr his {ihr}. ihre her {ihre}. ihren their {ihren}. im in {im}. inhalt content {inhalt}. inneres inner {inneres}. innerhalb within {innerhalb}. insbesondere in particular {insbesondere}. jahre year {jahre}. jahrestage

472 anniversary {jahrestage}. jeden any {jeden}. jenseits beyond {jenseits}. jungfrau young woman {jungfrau}. kaffeeklatch casual social group {kaffeeklatch}. kaiser caesar or emperor {kaiser}. kampf struggle {kampf}. keine denied {keine}.

-keit -hood or -ness {-keit}. kinder children {kinder}. klatch gossip {klatch}. knochen bone {knochen}. konig king {könig}. konnen can {können}. konnexitat connection {konnexität}. kopf head {kopf}. korn corn {korn}. korper German fields {körper, German}. korperbau physique {körperbau}.

473 kraft strength {kraft}. krank ill or sick {krank}. kreis circle {kreis}. kultur culture {kultur}. kunftigen future {künftigen}. kunst art {kunst}. kunztler artist or skilled worker {kunztler}. lage position {lage}. lanken sounds {lanken}. lauf race or run {lauf}. leben life {leben}. lebensraum living space {lebensraum}. lehrbuch textbook {lehrbuch}. lehre theory or doctrine {lehre}. lehrjahre apprenticeship {lehrjahre}. leib German body {leib, German}. leitung conduction or pipe {leitung}. licht light {licht}. liebe love {liebe}.

474 lumpen lowest class {lumpen}. mach make {mach}. macht power {macht}. malerei painting {malerei}. mass in German measure {mass, German}. mathis homage {mathis}. meinem my {meinem}. meister master {meister}. mengen human {mengen}. menschen set {menschen}. messen measurement {messen}. milzbrand anthrax {milzbrand}. mit with {mit}. modellierung modeling or shaping {modellierung}. monatschrifte monograph {monatschrifte}. nach to {nach}. nachbilder afterimage {nachbilder}. nacht night {nacht}. nasen

475 nose {nasen}. nebel fog {nebel}. neuer new {neuer}. ob if {ob}. ohr ear {ohr}. pflanz plant {pflanz}. praktische practical {praktische}. praxis in German practice {praxis, German}. prufung examination or research {prüfung}. putsch attempted government overthrow {putsch}. rathskeller restaurant below street level {rathskeller}. rauber robber or thief {rauber}. raum space {raum}. recht law or right {recht}. reden address or sermon {reden}. reich empire {reich}. reine in German reason or reasoning or logic {reine, German}. reise journey {reise}. reiter rider {reiter}.

476 richtung direction {richtung}. rinde skin or crust or cortex {rinde}. rollung in German rolling {rollung, German}. roman in German novel {roman, German}. sachsische Saxon {sächsische}. sang in German song {sang, German}. satz composition {satz}. satze propositions {sätze}. sauglings infants {säuglings}. schadel skull {schädel}. schaft assembly {schaft}. schall sonic {schall}. schauens visible {schauens}. scherz joke or jest {scherz}. schnell fast {schnell}. schuss ski downhill {schuss}. schwartz ski downhill {schwartz}. seele mind or soul {seele}. sehen vision {sehen}.

477 sein in German being, or its {sein, German}. seine in German his, her, or its {seine, German}. seit since {seit}. selig bless {selig}. sicht viewpoint {sicht}. sind are or exist {sind}. sinnes sense {sinnes}. sitten morals {sitten}. sittliche ethical {sittliche}. skizze delineation {skizze}. sollen ought or should {sollen}. spiegel mirror {spiegel}. spiel set speech {spiel}. sprache speech or language {sprache}. sprachgefuhl ear for correct speech {sprachgefühl}. sprachwissenschaft linguistics {sprachwissenschaft}. spuren trace {spuren}. stimme voice {stimme}. stimmung

478 mood or feeling {stimmung}. stoffen kinds or species {stoffen}. storung noise {störung}. streng stern or strict {streng}. studirende students {studirende}. stufe text {stufe}. summlung collection {summlung}. syntaktische syntax {syntaktische}. szenen scene {szenen}. tag in German day or assembly or parliament {tag, German}. tast touch {tast}. teil book or tale {teil}. thiere animals {thiere}. traum dream {träum}. tugend virtue {tugend}. turm tower {turm}. uber over or on {über}. ubergang origin {übergang}. ubungen exercises or tutorials {übungen}.

479 unbewusste unconscious {unbewusste}. und and {und}. unsterblichkeit immortality {unsterblichkeit}. unter under {unter}. untergang decline {untergang}. untersuchungen studies or examinations {untersuchungen}. urbewohner native or aborigine {urbewohner}. urteil judgment {urteil}. vaskischen forbidden {vaskischen}. verbesserung improvement {verbesserung}. verboten forbidden {verboten}. verdauung digestion {verdauung}. vererbung inheritance {vererbung}. verfall decay {verfall}. vergadering meeting {vergadering}. vergleichende comparative {vergleichende}. verhaltnis relationship {verhältnis}. verklarte transfigured {verklarte}. verletzte injured {verletzte}.

480 verminderung decrease {verminderung}. vermittelst using or via {vermittelst}. vernetzten systemic {vernetzten}. vernunft reason {vernunft}. verrichtung function {verrichtung}. verschiede various {verschiede}. versuch essay or experiment {versuch}. verwandter related {verwandter}. volk folk {volk}. volkslied folk song {volkslied}. vollstandig complete {vollstandig}. vom in German from the {vom, German}. von in German of or from {von, German}. vorgang scene or process {vorgäng}. vorgangen events {vorgängen}. vorlesung lecture {vorlesung}. vorschule pre-school {vorschule}. vorstellung presentation {vorstellung}. vorstudie

481 preliminary study {vorstudie}. vortrage lecture or talk {vorträge}. wachstum growth {wachstum}. wahrheit truth {wahrheit}. wahrnehmung perception {wahrnehmung}. wahrscheinlich probable {wahrscheinlich}. wahrung security {währung}. wald forest {wald}. walkure valkyries {walkure}. wandel change or difference {wandel}. wandlung transformation {wandlung}. waren were {waren}. was what {was}. wasser water {wasser}. wege ways {wege}. weihnachtsgabe Christmas {weihnachtsgabe}. weiner Vienna {weiner}. weis white {weis}. welche some {welche}.

482 welt in German world {welt, German}. weltanschauung worldview {weltanschauung}. wesen way or nature or essence {wesen}. wiederaufbau restoration {wiederaufbau}. wille intention {wille}. wir we {wir}. wird becoming {wird}. wirksam active or effective {wirksam}. wirksamkeit effectiveness {wirksamkeit}. wirkung activity {wirkung}. wissenschaften sciences {wissenschaften}. wund wound {wund}. wundartz surgery {wundartz}. wunderkind genius {wunderkind}. zahlen numbers {zahlen}. zeigeversuch tests {zeigeversuch}. zeit time {zeit}. zeitalters age or cultural time {zeitalters}. zeitschrift journal or magazine {zeitschrift}.

483 zeitung newspaper {zeitung}. zu to {zu}. zugleich together {zugleich}. zukunft future {zukunft}. zum its {zum}. zuordnung instrument {zuordnung}. zur on {zur}. zusatze addition {zusätze}. zweck instrument {zweck}. zweig path or branch {zweig}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>German>Number drei in German three {drei, German}. ein one {ein}. zwei in German two {zwei, German}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Greek demos common people {demos}. eidolon image or phantom {eidolon}. eureka I have found it {eureka}. hoi polloi common people {hoi polloi}.

484 lyceum school school {lyceum}. panacea cure-all {panacea}. plethora excess {plethora}. stigma mark mark {stigma, mark}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Hawaiian aloha goodbye or hello {aloha}. luau festival {luau}. wahine woman {wahine}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Hebrew manna authority or supernatural powers in person or object {manna}. selah concluding psalm word {selah}. seraph lowest angel {seraph} {seraphim}. shalom hello or goodbye {shalom} {shalom aleichem}. shofar ram's-horn trumpet {shofar}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Hindi sahib colonial-person title {sahib}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Italian aficionado avid fan {aficionado}. bambino child {bambino}. braggadocio bravado {braggadocio}.

485 bravo excellently done {bravo}. brio energy {brio}. cognoscente knowledgeable person {cognoscente}. con amore with love {con amore}. con brio with energy {con brio}. dolce sweetly {dolce}. falsetto high-pitched {falsetto}. finale in Italian performance last dance or song {finale, Italian}. ghetto city area where minority group lives {ghetto}. graffiti wall scrawls {graffiti}. grotto small cave or place like cave {grotto}. impresario show presenter {impresario}. inferno fire {inferno}. innuendo insinuation {innuendo}. lagniappe small gift {lagniappe}. literati well-read people {literati}. maestro in Italian master {maestro, Italian}. magnifico magnificent {magnifico}. monsignor honored priest {monsignor}.

486 padrone manager or proprietor {padrone}. peccadillo small fault {peccadillo}. piazza plaza {piazza}. primo composition first or main part {primo}. proviso provision {proviso}. rialto in Italian marketplace or theater district {rialto, Italian}. seraglio harem {seraglio}. signor mister {signor} {signore}. signora mistress {signora}. signorina miss {signorina}. simpatico sympathetic {simpatico}. sotto voce in undertone {sotto voce}. svelte slim {svelte}. torso body trunk {torso}. virtuoso master {virtuoso}. viva in Italian long live {viva, Italian}. viva voce word of mouth {viva voce}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Japanese amae reciprocity or interdependence in relationships {amae}.

487 banzai Japanese for Ten Thousand Years! {banzai}. bunke family branch, as opposed to main line {bunke}. bushido samurai code {bushido}. chado tea ceremony {chado}. Wa-kei-sei-jaku are the four tea-ceremony essentials: balance, respect, purity, and tranquility. Wabicha is tea-ceremony style. choaku punishment {choaku}. do in Japanese discipline {do, Japanese}. do-gaku-jitsu Learning involves: discipline, academics, and practice {do-gaku-jitsu}. furyu finding one's place as part of the whole {furyu}. gagaku traditional instrumental music {gagaku}. gaku academics {gaku}. geisha professional artist and conversationalist {geisha}. giri obligation or responsibility {giri}. giri-ningo tension between obligation or responsibility and personal feelings or desires {giri-ningo}. hara-kiri suicide {hara-kiri}. hokku one haiku poem {hokku}. honke main family, as opposed to branch {honke}. honne formal {honne}. iemoto highest person, position, or location in traditional art {iemoto}.

488 ikebana arranging flowers {ikebana}. in yin as opposite of, but interacting with, yo {in, Japanese}. jitsu practice {jitsu}. kaizen change for good {kaizen}. kakemono vertical scroll painting {kakemono}. kara-sansui style of gardening compared to empty mountain or stream {kara-sansui}. kazen reward {kazen}. kazen-choaku Teaching methods {kazen-choaku} can use rewarding virtue and punishing vice. kokuro heart {kokuro}. kokutai nationalism {kokutai}. ma in Japanese space between two things {ma, Japanese}. makoto sincerity {makoto}. mikado emperor {mikado}. mono awase matching worldly objects {mono awase}. mono no aware Consciousness of impermanence can cause feelings of nostalgia, beauty, and regret {mono no aware, Japanese}. monomane worldly-object imitation {monomane}. mu in Japanese absence {mu, Japanese}. ningo personal feelings or desires {ningo}. omote front {omote}.

489 origami paper folding {origami}. sabi ancient, mellowed, deep, or simple {sabi}. seiketsu clean {seiketsu}. seiri tidy {seiri}. seiso standard {seiso}. seiton orderly {seiton}. shibui restrained {shibui}. shitsuke disciplined {shitsuke}. shodo calligraphy {shodo}. sumi-e painting in ink with brush {sumi-e}. tatemae in Japanese informal {tatemae, Japanese}. tokonoma alcove used to display object {tokonoma}. ura back {ura}. wa harmony or balance {wa}. yo same as yang and opposite of, but interacting with, in, which is same as yin {yo}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Latin a fortiori forced {a fortiori}. ab initio in Latin from beginning {ab initio, Latin}. ad hoc expedient {ad hoc}.

490 ad infinitum forever {ad infinitum}. ad interim meantime {ad interim}. ad lib extemporaneous {ad lib}. ad loc. at cited location {ad loc.} {ad locum}. ad nauseum over and over {ad nauseum}. ad rem relevant {ad rem}. ad valorem by value {ad valorem}. alma mater college {alma mater}. alter ego alternate personality {alter ego}. alumna female graduate {alumna}. alumnus male graduate {alumnus}. animus disposition or animosity {animus}.

Anno Domini year after BC by Christian calendar {Anno Domini}. ante meridian before noon {ante meridian} (AM). aqua vitae liqueur {aqua vitae}. ave hail {ave}. bona fide in good faith {bona fide}|. carpe diem seize the day {carpe diem}. casus belli

491 cause of war or dispute {casus belli}. caveat in Latin beware of, or warning {caveat, Latin}. ceteris paribus other things being equal {ceteris paribus}. circa near time {circa}. cornucopia horn horn of plenty {cornucopia, horn} {horn of plenty}. cui bono self-interest {cui bono}. cum with with {cum}. cum laude with honor {cum laude}. curriculum vitae scholar's resume {curriculum vitae}. de facto in fact {de facto}|. de jure in accordance with law {de jure}|. de novo new {de novo}. desideratum desirable thing {desideratum}. e pluribus unum one out of many {e pluribus unum}. ejecta ejected matter {ejecta}. emeritus retired with same title {emeritus}. encomium tribute {encomium}. ergo therefore {ergo}. errata list of mistakes and their corrections {errata}.

492 erratum error {erratum}. et cetera and {et cetera}. ex cathedra with authority based on institution {ex cathedra}. ex libris from library of {ex libris}. ex officio outside one's formal position {ex officio}. ex parte Proceedings can have only one party present {ex parte}|. Ex parte means on one side only. ex post facto in Latin applying to time before publication {ex post facto, Latin}. exempli gratia for example {exempli gratia}. exeunt they exit {exeunt}. fasces bundle of rods {fasces}. fiat decree {fiat}. finis end {finis}. gratis free {gratis}. ibidem same {ibidem}. idem same {idem}. imperator emperor {imperator}. in abstentia in absence {in abstentia}. in extenso full-length {in extenso}. in extremis in dire circumstances {in extremis}.

493 in memoriam in memory {in memoriam}. in re about {in re}. in rem against {in rem}. in situ in same place {in situ}. in toto all {in toto}. in vacuo in vacuum {in vacuo}. in vitro in Latin in container {in vitro, Latin}. in vivo in living thing {in vivo}. inter alia among other things {inter alia}. inter se among themselves {inter se}. iota bit {iota}. ipso facto by the fact of being itself {ipso facto}. jus sanguinis Person's citizenship is the same as his or her parent's citizenship {jus sanguinis}. jus soli Birthplace determines person's citizenship {jus soli}. locum tenens physician or cleric substituting temporarily for another {locum tenens}|. magna cum laude high honors {magna cum laude}. magnum opus great work {magnum opus}. manes spirit god-like dead spirits {manes}. memento mori

494 reminder of death {memento mori}. mirabile dictu wonderful to tell or wonders be told {mirabile dictu}. modus operandi method or style {modus operandi}. modus vivendi way of living {modus vivendi}. moratorium suspension {moratorium}. mutatis mutandi necessary changes have already been made {mutatis mutandi}. ne plus ultra highest {ne plus ultra}. nexus in Latin connection or center {nexus, Latin}. nisi starting at future date unless condition changes or ends {nisi}. non compos mentis incompetent mentally {non compos mentis}. nota bene note well or N.B. {nota bene}. obiter dictum incidental opinion {obiter dictum}. odium aversion {odium}. onus burden {onus}. opprobrium disapproval {opprobrium}. optimum best best {optimum}. opus work {opus}. padre in Latin priest {padre, Latin}. palaestra public place for athletic training {palaestra}.

495 pari passu at same rate or in equal steps {pari passu}. passim frequently {passim}. pater father {pater}. paterfamilias male head of family {paterfamilias}. paternoster prayer or Lord's Prayer {paternoster}. pax peace {pax}. penates household gods {penates}. per annum each year {per annum}. per capita each person {per capita}. per contra in contrast or on the contrary {per contra}. per diem each day {per diem}. per mensem each month {per mensem}. per se in itself {per se}. persona personality public personality {persona}. persona non grata unacceptable person {persona non grata}. pieta Mary mourning the dead Jesus {pieta}. pons in Latin bridge {pons, Latin}. post hoc in Latin claiming that prior event caused later {post hoc, Latin}. post meridian after noon {post meridian} (PM).

496 post mortem after death, or after project conclusion {post mortem}. prima facie at first sight {prima facie}. primogenitor earliest ancestor {primogenitor}. primus inter pares first among equals {primus inter pares}. pro forma according to form {pro forma}. pro rata prorated or proportionate {pro rata}. pro tem temporary {pro tem} {pro tempore}. quasi in Latin resembling or almost {quasi, Latin}. quid pro quo tit for tat {quid pro quo}. rara avis rare bird or special case {rara avis}. re thing {re}. res in Latin things {res, Latin}. res gestae deeds {res gestae}. res judicata settled case {res judicata}. res publica public things such as state or public welfare {res publica}. rigor mortis stiff body after death {rigor mortis}. sac pouch pouch or spherical region {sac}. sanctum in Latin private or holy place {sanctum, Latin}. sanctum sanctorum

497 holy of holies {sanctum sanctorum}. sans in Latin without {sans, Latin}. scholium comment or note {scholium}. scintilla iota {scintilla}. semper fidelis always faithful {semper fidelis}. sic in Latin thus {sic, Latin}. sic passim thus everywhere {sic passim}. simulacrum resemblance {simulacrum}. sine die indefinitely {sine die}. sine qua non without which nothing or essential {sine qua non}. solus alone {solus}. status quo current state {status quo}. stria in Latin line or groove {stria, Latin}. sub rosa secret {sub rosa}. sui generis unique {sui generis}. sui juris able to make decisions {sui juris}. summa in Latin highest {summa, Latin}. summa cum laude highest honors {summa cum laude}. summum bonum greatest good {summum bonum}.

498 taedium vitae boredom {taedium vitae}. terra firma land or Earth {terra firma}. terra incognito unknown land or new area for study {terra incognito}. triumvir one of three equal rulers {triumvir}. ubi supra where mentioned above {ubi supra}. ultimatum final statement before party intends to take action {ultimatum}. ultimo in Latin in previous month {ultimo, Latin}. ultra vires outside authority of institution {ultra vires}. vade mecum handy reference {vade mecum}. verbatim word-for-word {verbatim}. via in Latin by way of, or using {via, Latin}. vice versa conversely {vice versa}. vide see {vide}. videlicet that is or such as {videlicet}. vox populi public opinion or voice of the people {vox populi}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Maori tiki first man, or god or ancestor wooden or stone image {tiki}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Norse skoal to your health {skoal}.

499 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Portuguese senhor mister {senhor}. senhora mistress {senhora}. senhorita miss {senhorita}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Quechua guano bird excrement {guano}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Russian apparatchik bureaucrat {apparatchik}. da in Russian yes {da, Russian}. glasnost openness {glasnost}. muzhik peasant {muzhik}. nyet no {nyet}. perestroika restructuring {perestroika}. politburo Communist party executive committee {politburo}. realpolitik practical politics {realpolitik}. tovarich comrade {tovarich}. troika threesome {troika}. tsar caesar {tsar} {tzar}. ukase decree {ukase}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Sanskrit

500 abhidhanottara female and male union {abhidhanottara}. agama traditional doctrine {agama}. ahimsa in Sanskrit non-violence or not killing or principle of no-harm {ahimsa, Sanskrit}. akara aspect {akara}. akhanda one undivided Essence or no time {akhanda}. amsa as part part {amsa, part}. anumana inference {anumana}. apoha exclusion {apoha}. ashram retreat {ashrama} {ashram}. ashramas The four stages of correct life {ashramas} are brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha, and sannyasa. avidya in Sanskrit ignorance of true reality {avidya, Sanskrit}. bhakti in Sanskrit self-surrender or emotional devotion {bhakti, Sanskrit}. bhavana meditation or "causing to become" {bhavana}. bodhi in Sanskrit enlightenment or awakening {bodhi, Sanskrit}. buddh aware {buddh}. buddhanusmrti Buddha-meditation recollection {buddhanusmrti}. buddhi perceiving and distinguishing intellect {buddhi}. caittasika Mental factors {caitesika} {caittasika} can describe uses of, and emotions about, objects. cakras

501 The twelve circles or centers of energy, in various body parts, have different consciousness types {cakras} {chakras} or wheels. chiranjivi Sage can still live in the world to help his devotees {chiranjivi}. chudamani crest-jewel {chudamani}. citta in Sanskrit mental factors or activities: buddhi, ahamkara, and manas {citta, Sanskrit}. daivam fate {daivam}. darshana school or system {darshana} {darsana}. dharana Concentrate consciousness on the One, absorb with deity, and feel oneness {dharana}. dhyana in Sanskrit meditation {dhyana, Sanskrit}. ekagrata concentration on one point {ekagrata}. ghatika moment of time {ghatika}. guhyasamaja secret assembly {guhyasamaja}. guptasadhana secret means {guptasadhana}. hamsa as tone tone {amsa, tone} {hamsa}. iccha divine will {iccha}. jiva "life" monads {jiva} are in people and things. jna knowing {jna}. jnanarnava ocean of knowledge {jnanarnava}. jnani non-theistic or non-devotional spirituality {jnani}. kaivalya integration, lost-faculty restoration, or isolation {kaivalya}.

502 kala time {kala, Hinduism}. kalpa Time {kalpa} can have one Adi Sandhi, then 14 manvantaras and their Sandhi Kalas, and be one day (1000 mahayugas) or night in life of Brahma. kalpana conceptuality or thought {kalpana}. kamaratna precious pleasure {kamaratna}. karma in Sanskrit action {karma, Sanskrit}. karuna in Sanskrit compassion {karuna, Sanskrit}. kaula Kaula School of Shaktism {kaula} {kularnava}. klesa suffering, or impairing self-manifestation {klesa}. krishna black {krishna}. kundalini coiled energy {kundalini}. lagna moments {lagna}. lamkara ornaments or teachings {lamkara}.

Lankavatara Sri Lanka {Lankavatara}. lila play or display {lila}. loka in Sanskrit light {loka, Sanskrit}. mahakaruna great compassion {mahakaruna}. mahanirvana great liberation {mahanirvana}. mahat great will, Buddha will, or determinative awareness {mahat}.

503 maitribhavana Loving-kindness meditation {maitribhavana}. mali garland or necklace {mali}. manas Mind recognizes sense activity and experience and becomes cognitive {manas}. mandala ring {mandala}. manjusri holy and beautiful {manjusri}. mantra Magic formulas {mantra, Hinduism} repeat sounds and concentrate mind on gods. Icon contemplation concentrates mind on gods. Meditation and concentration try to identify human mind with, or allow possession by, God or truth. mara death {mara}. marga in Sanskrit Way of knowledge or way of the monks {marga, Sanskrit} opposes ritual. matrikabheda ideological book house {matrikabheda}. matsya-nyaya law of the fishes {matsya-nyaya} or struggle for survival. maya in Sanskrit illusion or self-transformation or self-transmutation {maya, Sanskrit}. Spirits produce illusions, change forms, and perform magic. mula foundation {mula}. mutt religious institution {mutt}. nairatmya selflessness or loss of belief that one has self {nairatmya}. namarupa world of names and forms {namarupa}. neti neti "neither thus nor thus" and so not sensual and not conceptual {neti neti, Hinduism}. netra eye {netra}. nila dark blue {nila}.

504 niruttara having no better {niruttara}. nirvana in Sanskrit bliss and end of all desire {nirvana, Sanskrit}. paramita perfection {paramita}. pitaka basket {pitaka}. pradhana fundamental material substance {pradhana}. prajna in Sanskrit wisdom {prajna, Sanskrit}. praktri whole rebirth and release cycle {praktri, Hinduism}. Matter or nature evolves from within itself. At starts of cosmic eons, determinative awareness evolves, then ego evolves, and then mind evolves. These three constitute unconscious and inanimate Mind, which purusa animates into consciousness. pramana valid cognitive abilities: perception, inference, testimony, and analogy {pramana}. prana universe life-spirit {prana, Hinduism}. pranayama breath control {pranayama, Sanskrit}. pratyahara Sense numbing {pratyahara} involves focusing on interior and Self, rather than exterior world. pratyaksa perception {pratyaksa}. prema ecstatic love {prema}. preta ghost {preta}. purana ancient {purana, Sanskrit}. purusa selves with eternal inactive soul that animates inner Mind and transforms mental activity into conscious experience {purusa, Hinduism}. purva previous {purva}. rasa aesthetics {rasa}.

505 rig in Sanskrit praise {rig, Sanskrit}. rigpa awareness {rigpa}. rishi People can have received Vedas {rishi}. sakaravada aspect assertion {sakaravada}. sama in Sanskrit balance or equality or sameness {sama, Sanskrit}. samadhi in Sanskrit merging of mind with Brahman {samadhi, Sanskrit}. samatha quiescence or quiet attention to something {samatha}. samhita Veda section {samhita}. sammohana greatly bewildering {sammohana}. samprajanya awareness of attention to something {samprajanya}. samsara eternal birth and death round {samsara, Sanskrit}. Perception or attention is knowledge of differentiation. The pure consciousness of God constantly manifests individual selves and objects of ordinary world, as both efficient and material cause. samvarodaya rain {samvarodaya}. sannyasa complete renunciation {sannyasa}. sat in Sanskrit being or existence {sat, Sanskrit}. satya truth {satya, Hinduism}. selwa clarity or luminousness {selwa}. shastha rules {shastha}. shastra education or knowledge, usually used as suffix {shastra}.

506 siddhi in Sanskrit tricks or skills {siddhi, Sanskrit}. smrti mindfulness, awareness, or attention to something {smrti}. sri fortune {sri}. sulba alter {sulba}. sunyata in Sanskrit Void {sunyata, Sanskrit}. sutra short and unambiguous statement or aphorism or teachings {sutra}. sutta teachings or discourses {sutta}. svacchanda spontaneous {svacchanda}. tantra in Sanskrit In Hinduism, tantras {tantra, Sanskrit} are rituals and ideas, supposedly that Shiva gave to people. The One projects in two ways, as Shiva and Sakti, active male and passive female principles. Female is projected energy of male. tantraraja meditation {tantraraja}. tapas in Sanskrit psychic energy or spiritual fervor {tapas, Sanskrit}. tapasya self-inflicted act of suffering during tapas {tapasya}. tat tuam asi "That art Thou" {tat tuam asi}. tatemae in Sanskrit Communities have a group mind {tatemae, Sanskrit}, animated by consensus. Group mind takes precedence over individual mind. Minds must submit to gods' influences and interventions. tattva principles {tattva}. upadesa instruction {upadesa}. upanishad teaching of guru to disciple {upanishad, Sanskrit}. upeksa equanimity {upeksa}.

507 vajrapatala striking thunderbolt {vajrapatala}. vajrayogini female thunderbolt {vajrayogini}. varnada auspicious {varnada}. vayu Tantric Buddhism has wind meditations {vayu}. Tibetan Buddhism wind meditation {tummo} {gtum mo} makes body heat. veda knowledge {veda}. vijayottara seed {vijayottara}. vijnana in Sanskrit In Hinduism, highest state of consciousness {vijnana, Sanskrit} means plenitude-of-knowledge. vinashikha precise guitar {vinashikha}. vipasyana insight or meditation for insight {vipasyana}. viveka discriminative insight into true Self {viveka}. yagu sacrifice rituals {yagu}. yama in Sanskrit asceticism {yama, Sanskrit}. yoni womb or divine passage {yoni}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Sanskrit>Self ahamkara "I-maker" or ego {ahamkara}. antahkarana The unconscious and inanimate inner organ or Mind is constantly changing, moving, and being moved, in ordinary world of action and experience {antahkarana}. atman in Sanskrit self or inner self {atman, Sanskrit}. svaya self {svaya}.

508 SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Sanskrit>Gods asura titan {asura}. deva god {deva}. gandharva celestial musician {gandharva}. isvara Lord {isvara}. kumbhanda goblin {kumbhanda}. naga water god {naga}. raksasa giant monster {raksasa}. yaksas Dravidian fertility gods {yaksas}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Sanskrit>Life artha First area of life {artha} is material possessions, means of getting them, and needs and desires for them. Artha knowledge allows prosperity and survival against world dangers. Kings especially need artha. Arthasastra is Scriptural Texts of government. Arthasastra involves negotiation, aggression, bribery, treason, distrust, trickery, neglect, and proper tactics. Mandala of friends and enemies is an arthasastra principle. Enemies surround people. Around enemies is circle of friends. Enemies surround circle of friends, and so on. Circles keep everything in balance. dharma in Sanskrit The third area of human life {dharma, Sanskrit} is religious and moral duties. People can assimilate into society by playing their roles perfectly, without personality. People can follow laws exactly, with no choices to make. Social order depends on people performing their duties and roles. In this way, people can follow universal law and so gain virtue. People can live their lives as service to the One. People must do crafts in traditional ways. Crafts have gods. First books about dharma described Vedic-school social, ritual, and religious practices. kama Desire {kama} is second area of life. Kama is about pleasure and love. moksa Release {moksa, Hinduism} is the fourth area of human life. Moksa includes apavarga or completion, nivrtti or repose and passivity, and nirvrtti or bliss. Moksa is about redemption and spiritual release, which is life's final and ultimate aim. The first three areas of life are pursuits of the world. Moksa is release from world. Knowing or being conscious is knowledge of unified and true world.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Sanskrit>Matter Qualities guna matter qualities {guna}.

509 rajas as gunas Guna {rajas, gunas} can be passion and change. sattva Guna {sattva, Sanskrit} can be truth and goodness. tamas Guna {tamas} can be inertia.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Sanskrit>Number atharva fourth or steady or unmoving {atharva}. pancha five {pancha} {panca}. sapta seven {sapta}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Sanskrit>Person brahmacharya student {brahmacharya}. charya sage {charya}. grihastha householder {grihastha}. guru in Sanskrit Originally, people {guru, Sanskrit} taught Vedas. Now, teacher guides people in life. Pupils are obedient and reverent. They want to learn, never criticize, serve teacher, and have faith in teacher and his teaching. Gurus live their lives as models of Hindu philosophy. Compassion caused gurus to descend from enlightened state to illusory world to help others know true reality. Buddhism rejected the idea of gurus, in favor of personal reasoning. maharaja king or prince {maharaja} {maharajah}. manu in Sanskrit first man {manu, Sanskrit}. matri love or mother {matri}. raja ruler or prince {raja} {rajah}. rani princess or queen {rani} {ranee}. risi holy sage {risi}.

510 sadhu Hindu ascetic or monk {sadhu}. sambhara master {sambhara}. vanaprastha forest dweller {vanaprastha}. yogini female yogi {yogini}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Sanskrit>Person>Caste brahmin in Sanskrit priest {brahmin, Sanskrit}. ksatriya noble {ksatriya, Sanskrit} {khathruja, Sanskrit}. mahatma saint or sage {mahatma, Sanskrit}. pariah person with no caste {harajan, Sanskrit} {pariah, Sanskrit} {outcast, India}, whom no one should touch {untouchable, India}. sudra worker {sudra, Sanskrit}. vaisya merchant {vaisya, Sanskrit}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Scottish auld lang syne fond memories {auld lang syne}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Spanish a in Spanish to {a, Spanish}. adelante come in {adelante}. ahora now {ahora}. alli there {allí}. antes before {antes}. aqui

511 here {aquí}. como how {como}. con in Spanish with {con, Spanish}. creo think or believe {creo}. cuando when {cuando}. cuanto how much {cuanto}. de in Spanish of or from {de, Spanish} {del, Spanish}. de nada it's nothing {de nada}. decirme tell {decirme}. desde since {desde}. desea want {desea}. despacio slowly {despacio}. despues after {después}. disculpe excuse me {disculpe}. donde where {donde}. el the {el}. empuje push {empuje}. entiende understand {entiende}. equivocado wrong {equivocado}.

512 es in Spanish is {es, Spanish} {este}. gracias thanks {gracias}. grito yell {grito, yell}. gusta like {gusta}. habla speak {habla}. hace ago {hace}. hacer make {hacer}. halar pull {halar}. hasta until {hasta}. hermosura beauty {hermosura}. hola hello {hola}. hoy today {hoy}. la in Spanish the {la, Spanish}. las the {las}. llamo is called {llamo}. los the {los}. luego later {luego}. manana tomorrow {mañana}. mismo same or self {mismo}.

513 mostrarme show {mostrarme}. muy very {muy}. necesito need {necesito}. o in Spanish or {o, Spanish}. pale in Spanish pull {pale, Spanish}. para for {para}. pasa happen {pasa}. pase open {pase}. por in Spanish for {por, Spanish}. por favor please {por favor}. por nada you're welcome or it's nothing {por nada}. porque why {porque}. puede can {puede}. que what {que}. quien who {quién}. quisiera want {quisiera}. se in Spanish know {sé, Spanish}. si yes or so {si}. sin in Spanish

514 without {sin, Spanish}. solamente only {solamente}. tengo have {tengo}. tiene have {tiene}. un in Spanish a {un, Spanish} {una}. vamos let's go {vamos}. y and and {y}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Spanish>Adjective abierto open {abierto}. barato cheap {barato}. bene well {bene}. bien well {bien}. blanco white {blanco}. bonito in Spanish beautiful {bonito, Spanish}. bueno good {bueno}. caliente hot {caliente}. calor warm {calor}. cansado tired {cansado}. carmen carmine red {carmen}. caro

515 expensive {caro}. cerrado closed {cerrado}. feliz happy or merry {feliz}. feo ugly {feo}. frio cold {frio}. grande large {grande}. hambre hungry {hambre}. interesa interested {interesa}. libre free or available {libre}. limpio clean {limpio}. lleno full {lleno}. luce light {luce}. malo in Spanish bad {malo, Spanish}. mas more {más}. mejor best or better {mejor}. menos less {menos}. mi my {mi}. mucho much or many {mucho}. negro black {negro}.

516 nuestro our {nuestro}. nuevo new {nuevo}. ocupado occupied or not available {ocupado}. otro other {otro}. peor worst or worse {peor}. pequeno small {pequeño}. perdida lost or forgotten {perdida}. picosa spicy hot {picosa}. poco in Spanish few {poco, Spanish}. primero first {primero}. razon right or correct or reasonable {razón}. real in Spanish royal {real, Spanish}. rojo red or raw or rare {rojo}. sed thirsty {sed}. seguro sure or secure {seguro}. solo alone {solo}. su in Spanish your {su, Spanish}. sucio dirty {sucio}. tarde late {tarde}.

517 temprano early {temprano}. ultimo in Spanish last {ultimo, Spanish}. vacio empty or available {vacio}. yerba green {yerba}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Spanish>Noun accion action {acción}. aceite oil {aceite}. adios goodbye {adios}. agua water {agua}. aguila eagle {águila}. aldea village or town {aldea}. amigo friend {amigo}. amore love {amore}. ano year {año}. aurora in Spanish dawn {aurora, Spanish}. ayuda help {ayuda}. azucar in Spanish sugar {azucar, Spanish}. bano toilet or bathroom {baño}. bebe baby {bebe}.

518 beber drink {beber}. besame kiss {bésame}. blason honor {blasón}. burlador rake or cad {burlador}. busca quest {busca}. caballero cowboy {caballero}. cafe in Spanish coffee {café, Spanish}. camino highway {camino}. cancion song {cancion}. cantar song {cantar}. cena dinner or supper {cena}. cerveza beer {cerveza}. chien dog {chien}. cielo heaven {cielo}. cocido cook {cocido}. comida lunch {comida}. convidado stone {convidado}. cuarto room {cuarto}. cuchara

519 spoon {cuchara}. cuchillo knife {cuchillo}. cucuracha cockroach {cucuracha}. cuenta bill or check {cuenta}. cuento tale or story {cuento}. cuidad city {cuidad}. cuna cradle {cuna}. dama woman {dama}. desayuno breakfast {desayuno}. dias day or morning {días}. dime feelings {dime}. don sir {don}. dona madame {doña}. donna mademoiselle {donna}. duenna female chaperon {duenna}. entrada entrance {entrada}. escritor writer {escritor}. espanol Spanish {español}. extrano stranger {extraño}.

520 femenina woman {femenina}. fiesta festival {fiesta}. flore flower {flore}. fuente well {fuente}. fuerza force or power {fuerza}. gringo English-speaking person {gringo}. guerilla irregular soldier {guerilla}. hacienda main house of estate {hacienda}. hermano brother {hermano}. hielo ice {hielo}. hierba plant {hierba}. hombre man {hombre}. hora in Spanish time or hour {hora, Spanish}. hortelano manger {hortelano}. humo smoke {humo}. jabon soap {jabón}. leche milk {leche}. leyenda legend {leyenda}. libro book {libro}.

521 llave key {llave}. lucha struggle {lucha}. madre mother {madre}. maestro in Spanish teacher {maestro, Spanish}. mantequilla butter {mantequilla}. menina maid of honor or lady in waiting {menina}. mercado market {mercado}. mesero waiter {mesero}. momento minute or moment {momento}. mundo world {mundo}. nada nothing {nada}. navidad birth or Christmas {navidad}. nina girl {niña}. nino boy {niño}. ninos children {niños}. noches night or evening {noches}. nombre name {nombre}. oreja ear {oreja}. ovejuna

522 sheep {ovejuna}. padre in Spanish father {padre, Spanish}. pais country {país}. pan in Spanish bread {pan, Spanish}. parada stop or station {parada}. paraiso paradise {paraiso}. paso crossing {paso}. pedrera quarry {pedrera}. perdon pardon {perdón}. pescado fish {pescado}. pico corner {pico}. piedra stone {piedra}. pimienta pepper {pimienta}. playa beach {playa}. pollo as animal chicken {pollo, animal}. precio price {precio}. probadores fitting room {probadores}. puerco pork {puerco}. puerto gate or door {puerto}.

523 reina queen {reina}. res in Spanish beef {res, Spanish}. reyes king {reyes}. sal in Spanish salt {sal, Spanish}. salida exit {salida}. salud cheers {salud}. senor mister {señor}. senora mistress {señora}. senorita miss {señorita}. servilleta napkin {servilleta}. significa meaning {significa}. sino destiny or fate {sino}. sombrero Mexican straw or felt hat with wide brim {sombrero}. sueno vision or imagining {sueño}. tardes afternoon {tardes}. tarjeta card {tarjeta}. te in Spanish tea {té, Spanish}. tema theme {tema}. tenedor fork {tenedor}.

524 textura textbook {textura}. tiempo time {tiempo}. toalla towel {toalla}. todo all {todo}. trabajo work {trabajo}. usted you {usted}. vaquero cowboy {vaquero}. vaso glass {vaso}. ventilador fan {ventilador}. vida life {vida}. vino wine {vino}. viuda widow {viuda}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Spanish>Noun>Day

Domingo Sunday Sunday {Domingo}.

Jueves Thursday {Jueves}.

Lunes Monday {Lunes}.

Martes Tuesday {Martes}.

Miercoles Wednesday {Miércoles}.

Sabado Saturday {Sábado}.

525

Viernes Friday {Viernes}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Spanish>Noun>Number cero zero {cero}. cien hundred {cien} {ciento}. cinco five {cinco}. cuatro in Spanish four {cuatro, Spanish}. diez ten {diez}. doce twelve {doce}. dos in Spanish two {dos, Spanish}. mil thousand {mil}. millon million {millón}. nueve nine {nueve}. ocho eight {ocho}. once eleven {once}. seis six {seis}. siete seven {siete}. tres Spanish three {tres, Spanish}. uno one {uno}. veinte twenty {veinte}.

526

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Swahili ubuntu humane {ubuntu}. uhuru freedom {uhuru}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Swedish blabar blueberry {blåbär}. hallon raspberry {hallon}. smorgasbord buffet {smorgasbord}. sylt jam {sylt}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Turkish bayaldi fainted {bayaldi}. effendi sir {effendi}. emir political leader {emir}. imam in Turkish religious leader {imam, Turkish}. khan ruler {khan}. pasha officer {pasha}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Vietnamese

Vietnamese alphabet Vietnamese alphabetical order {Vietnamese alphabet} is a å â b c d d-with-line-through-middle e ê g h i k l m n o ô o' p q r s t u u' v x y. Vowels are a å â e ê i o ô o' u u' y. Consonants are b c d d-with-line-through-middle g h k l m n p q r s t v x. Diphthongs and triphthongs are ch gh gi kh ng ngh nh ph qu th tr. French Jesuit missionaries developed it, and it became common when Vietnam became a French colony [1864]. Vietnamese came from Cambodian and Mon (Thailand) languages, or from Lao and Thai languages, and has 70 million speakers. ban in Vietnamese friend {ba.n, Vietnamese}.

527 bong in Vietnamese ball {bo´ng, Vietnamese}. ca in Vietnamese fish {ca´, Vietnamese}. cho market {cho'.}. chua temple Buddhist/pagoda {chu`a}. cuoc show/performance/game/exhibition {cuoˆ.c}. cuoi wedding {cu'o'´i}. dong y oriental medicine {d-with-line-through-middle ông y´}. ho in Vietnamese surname {ho., Vietnamese}. hoa in Vietnamese flower {hoa, Vietnamese}. hoa hau beauty contest {hoa haˆ.u}. khong no {khoˆng}. lan orchid {lan}. le hoi ceremony/festival/holiday/group {leˆ˜ hoˆ.i}. me in Vietnamese mother {me., Vietnamese}. mong nail/claw/hoof {mo´ng}. mot in Vietnamese 1/a/an/each {moˆ.t, Vietnamese}. nam 1 male person {nam}. nam 2 year {naºm}. ngan hang bank {ngaˆn ha`ng}.

528 nu woman/female people {nu'˜}. sen lotus {sen}. su in Vietnamese monk Buddhist {su', Vietnamese}. tet lunar new year festival {teˆ´t}. toc hair {to´c}. trau buffalo/water buffalo {traˆu}. viec business/affairs/job/incident {vieˆ.c}.

SOCI>Linguistics>Languages>Yiddish schlemiel stupid error-prone person {schlemiel}. schmaltz maudlin art or music {schmaltz}. schmo stupid obnoxious person {schmo} {schmoe}. schnook dupe {schnook}.

SOCI>Linguistics>History

Sumerian linguists linguist Sumer -2000 Sumerian linguists started language study.

Linear B writing inventor Crete -1400 to -1300 Linear B writing [-1400 to -1300] Mycenaeans introduced Linear B writing after they conquered Crete. In Linear B writing, symbols are syllables with one consonant and one vowel. linguistics in history linguist Earth -1000 to 2007

529 Linguistics includes grammar, language families, language origins, phonetics, and semantics.

Henry Sweet [Sweet, Henry] linguist/philologist England 1877 to 1888 Handbook on Phonetics [1877]; Oldest English Texts [1885]; Icelandic Primer [1888] He lived 1845 to 1912.

Antoine Meillet [Meillet, Antoine] linguist USA 1912 to 1937 How Words Change Their Meaning [1912]; Introduction to Indo-European Comparative Linguistics [1937] He lived 1866 to 1936.

Kenneth Pike [Pike, Kenneth] linguist USA 1954 to 1960 Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Behavior [1954 to 1960: three volumes] He lived 1912 to 2000. Synonyms in different contexts are different idea instances {tagmeme} {tagmemics}. Behavior description can be for actor or inside {emic}. Behavior description can be for observer or outside {etic}. He invented a language {Kalaba-X constructed language}.

Marija Gimbutas [Gimbutas, Marija] linguist Lithuania/USA 1956 to 1965 Bronze Age Cultures of Central and Eastern Europe [1965] She lived 1921 to 1994. She invented Kurgan hypothesis [1956].

Joseph Greenberg [Greenberg, Joseph] linguist USA 1963 to 1987 Studies in African Linguistic Classification [1955]; Universals of Language [1963: editor]; Languages of Africa [1963]; Language in the Americas [1987] He lived 1916 to 2001 and classified world languages [1963] into four families: Niger-Kordofanian, Nilo-Saharan, Afro-Asiatic, and Khoisan. People came to Americas from Asia in three separate waves with different languages {Greenberg Theory}: Amerind, Eskimo-Aleut, and Na-Dene.

Francis P. Dineen [Dineen, Francis P.] linguist USA 1967 Introduction to General Linguistics [1967] He lived 1887 to 1891.

SOCI>Linguistics>History>Animal Language

R. Allen Gardner [Gardner, R. Allen]/Beatrix T. Gardner [Gardner, Beatrix T.] primatologist USA 1969 to 1989

530 Teaching sign language to an ape [1969]; Comparative psychology and language acquisition [1980]; Vocabulary Test for Chimpanzees (pan troglodytes) [1984]; Teaching Sign Language to Chimpanzees [1989: with T. E. Van Cantfort] Beatrix lived 1933 to 1995. After four years of training, the chimpanzee Washoe acquired over 100 signs of American Sign Language. It heard no other language. Some signs were for general classes, rather than specific objects and events. Some signs changed or extended. Washoe used sign order and substituted signs with similar meanings or shapes. However, no primates developed signing themselves. Humans had to teach them. Humans cued chimpanzees to make signs, and chimpanzees signed to get rewards. Chimpanzees signed to each other socially but not for rewards.

Francine G. Patterson [Patterson, Francine G.] primatologist USA 1978 to 1987 Linguistic capabilities of young lowland gorilla [1978]; Koko's Story [1987] She lived 1947 to ?. The gorilla Koko acquired over 250 signs of American Sign Language and learned spoken English comprehension.

Herbert Terrace [Terrace, Herbert] primatologist USA 1979 Nim [1979] The chimpanzee Nim Chimsky acquired over 125 simplified American-Sign-Language signs.

SOCI>Linguistics>History>Grammar

Panini linguist Gandhara (Kandahar), India -490 to -470 Eight Chapters [-490 to -470: 4000 sutras or grammar rules] He lived -520 to -460 and wrote Sanskrit grammar that had phonetic system and word analysis.

Stoic linguists linguist Greece/Italy -300 to -100 Stoic linguists studied logic, rhetoric, etymology, language origins, and relations among nouns, verbs, and articles.

Patanjali linguist/philosopher Tamil, India -200 to 200 Great Commentary [-200 to 200: about Panini's grammar]; Discourses on Yoga [-200 to 200: about Raja Yoga or Ashtanga Yoga, including Kaivalya Pada as fourth book] He wrote about Patanjali Yoga or Raja Yoga or Ashtanga Yoga, one of the Six Schools, Shad-Darsananas, or Classical Systems of Philosophy. Raja Yoga is meditation. Hiranyagarbha started Raja Yoga. Bhakti Yoga is devotions, prayers, rituals, and worship. Jnana Yoga is using reason to become free of seeing differences. Karma Yoga is service to others.

Katyayana or Varttika-kara or Vararuchi or Vararuci mathematician/grammarian/Vedic priest India -170 to -150 Discourses on Altar Construction [-170: about geometry and altar construction]; Critical Gloss [-170 to -150: about Panini's grammar]

531 He lived -200 to -140. He was in Aindra grammarian school and lived in northwest India.

Dionysius Thrax [Thrax, Dionysius] linguist Thrace, Greece/Alexandria, Egypt -120 Art of Grammar [-120] He lived -170 to -90, was Stoic, and wrote comprehensive grammar.

Marcus Terentius Varro [Varro, Marcus Terentius] or Varro Reatinus linguist Rome, Italy -50 On the Latin Language [-50: 25 books]; Agricultural Topics [-50: 3 books] He lived -116 to -27.

Apollonius Dyscolus [Dyscolus, Apollonius] linguist Greece 150 to 200 Syntax [150 to 200] He lived 100 to 200 and wrote about Greek syntax, starting systematic grammar study.

Aelius Donatus [Donatus, Aelius] linguist Rome, Italy 353 to 354 Major Arts [353 to 354]; Minor Arts [353 to 354: about the eight speech parts] He taught St. Jerome.

Priscian or Priscianus Caesariensis linguist/teacher Constantinople 500 Foundations of Grammar [500: 18 books about Latin grammar] He was Greek and from Caesarea (Cherchell, Algeria).

Sibuyeh or Sibawayh linguist Shiraz, Persia 790 Doctrine [790: Arabic grammar] He lived 760 to 793.

Sanskrit grammar linguistic school India 800 Twelve schools of grammatical theory developed, using phonetic systems and word analysis.

Abu Rayhan al-Biruni [al-Biruni, Abu Rayhan] or Abu Reyhan al-Biruni [al-Biruni, Abu Reyhan] or Biruni geographer/astronomer/scientist/linguist/mathematician Ghazni 995 to 1040 Definition [995 to 997]; Chronology of Ancient Nations [1000]; Shadows [1021]; Book of India [1030 to 1040]; Masudic Canon [1000 to 1040: astronomy and trigonometry]; Book of Pharmacy or Book of Medicinals [1000 to 1040:

532 Arab and Indian medicine]; Book of Precious Stones [1000 to 1040: minerals]; Elements of Astrology [1000 to 1040: mathematics and astronomy] He lived 973 to 1048, wrote grammar, and calculated latitude and longitude. He measured land in three dimensions {geodesy} {geodetics}.

Claude Lancelot [Lancelot, Claude]/Antoine Arnauld [Arnauld, Antoine] linguist Paris, France 1660 Port Royal Grammar [1660: all languages have similar structure] Lancelot lived 1616 to 1695. Arnauld lived 1612 to 1694.

Wilhelm von Humboldt [Humboldt, Wilhelm von] linguist Germany 1791 to 1828 Limits of State Action [1791]; Researches into the Early Inhabitants of Spain by the Help of the Basque Language [1821]; On the Dual [1828]; Heterogeneity of Language and its Influence on the Intellectual Development of Mankind [1828] He lived 1767 to 1835, wrote about ethics, and studied language types. The three structural-language types differ in morphology and syntax. Sanskrit is syntactically more complex than modern languages. Politics States should ensure property and lives.

Junggrammatiker or Neogrammarians linguistics school Leipzig, Germany 1870 to 1880 All sound changes follow rules, so certain phonetic laws are absolute. It included Karl Verner, Berthold Delbrück, August Leskien, Hermann Paul, Hermann Osthoff, Karl Brugmann, Eduard Sievers, and Wilhelm Braune.

George O. Curme [Curme, George O.] linguist USA 1905 to 1935 Grammar of the German Language [1905 and 1922]; College English Grammar [1925]; Grammar of the English Language III: Syntax [1931]; Grammar of the English Language II: Parts of Speech and Accidence [1935] He lived 1860 to 1948 and wrote about syntax.

Otto Jesperson [Jesperson, Otto] linguist Denmark 1922 Language [1922] He lived 1860 to 1943 and developed categorical grammar. Specific factors, such as maximum vocal-tract- constriction location, determine speech-sound articulation. Constriction completely closes for consonants like /p/. Nasal passage opens for consonants like /m/. Voicing onset time is immediate for /b/ but delayed for /p/.

John Rupert Firth [Firth, John Rupert] linguist England 1930 to 1937 Speech [1930]; Tongues of Men [1937] He lived 1890 to 1960 and developed prosodic analysis.

Leonard Bloomfield [Bloomfield, Leonard]

533 linguist USA 1933 to 1935 Language [1933]; Stressed Vowels of American English [1935] He lived 1887 to 1949 and was main developer of immediate constituent grammar and constituent structure.

Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz [Ajdukiewicz, Kazimierz] linguist/philosopher Poland 1935 to 1940 Syntactic Connexion [1935]; Empirical Basis of Knowledge [1940] He lived 1890 to 1963, helped develop immediate constituent grammar, and was analytic philosopher. The same data can have more than one closed and coherent independent description {conventionalism} {radical conventionalism}, from which people can choose based on simplicity, aesthetics, usefulness, ease, or evidence. Two basic syntax categories are sentences and singular terms, which can combine.

Louis Hjelmslev [Hjelmslev, Louis] linguist Denmark 1943 Prolegomena to a Theory of Language or Introduction to a Theory of Language [1943] He lived 1899 to 1965 and developed categorical grammar.

Charles Francis Hockett [Hockett, Charles Francis] linguist USA 1944 to 1958 Spoken Chinese [1944: with Chaoying Fang]; Course In Modern Linguistics [1958] He lived 1916 to 2001, was Bloomfield's student, and worked on transformational grammar.

Rulon Wells [Wells, Rulon] linguist USA 1947 Immediate Constituents [1947] He lived 1919 to ?.

Charles C. Fries [Fries, Charles C.] linguist USA 1949 to 1952 Coexistent phonemic systems [1949: with Kenneth L Pike]; Structure of English [1952] He lived 1887 to 1967 and studied grammar.

Yehoshua Bar-Hillel [Bar-Hillel, Yehoshua] linguist USA 1950 to 1971 On syntactic categories [1950]; Quasi Arithmetical Notation for Syntactic Description [1953]; Pragmatics of Natural Languages [1971: editor] He lived 1915 to 1975 and helped develop immediate constituent grammar.

Zellig S. Harris [Harris, Zellig S.] linguist Russia/USA 1951

534 Methods in Structural Linguistics [1951] He lived 1909 to 1992 and developed transformational grammar.

Sebastian Konstantinovich Shaumyan [Shaumyan, Sebastian Konstantinovich] linguist USA 1951 to 1965 Structural Linguistics [1951 to 1965] He lived 1916 to 2006 and helped develop transformational grammar {applicative-generative grammar}.

Morris Halle [Halle, Morris] linguist Latvia/USA 1952 Preliminaries to Speech Analysis [1952: with Roman Jakobson and Gunnar Fant]; On accent and juncture in English [1956: with Noam Chomsky and Fred Lukoff]; Sound Pattern of English [1968: with Chomsky] He lived 1923 to ?, was member of Prague School, and studied phoneme distinctive features.

Roman Jakobson [Jakobson, Roman] linguist Russia/USA 1952 Preliminaries to Speech Analysis [1952: with Morris Halle and Gunnar Fant] He lived 1896 to 1982, was member of Prague School, and studied phoneme distinctive features.

Noam Chomsky [Chomsky, Noam] linguist USA 1957 to 2000 Syntactic Structures [1957]; Review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior [1959]; Aspects of a Theory of Syntax [1965]; Language and Mind [1972]; Reflections on Language [1975]; Rules and Representations [1980]; Knowledge of Language [1986]; Language and the Problems of Knowledge [1988]; New Horizons in the Study of Language and Mind [2000] He lived 1928 to ?, studied unconscious and innate language structures, and developed transformational grammar to explain how brain makes language structures. Newborn brain has innate linguistic rules {universal grammar, Chomsky}. Learning a particular language, which has words, sets limited-range linguistic parameters. Expressed language {E-language} depends on internal language {I-language}. Grammars assign structures {logical form} to sentences. Grammars can generate just language sentences {observationally adequate grammar}, give some structure to all sentences {descriptively adequate grammar}, or give structure used by speakers to all sentences {explanatorily adequate grammar}.

Joachim Lambek [Lambek, Joachim] linguist USA 1958 to 1988 Mathematics of Sentence Structure [1958]; Categorial and categorical grammars [1988] He lived 1922 to ? and helped develop immediate constituent grammar.

Eric Partridge [Partridge, Eric] linguist New Zealand/England 1965 Usage and Abusage [1965] He lived 1894 to 1979.

Jerry A. Fodor [Fodor, Jerry A.]

535 linguist USA 1975 to 2000 Language of Thought [1975]; RePresentations [1981]; Modularity of Mind [1983]; Psychosemantics [1987]; Theory of Content and Other Essays [1990]; Holism: A Shopper's Guide [1992: with Ernest Lepore]; ELM and the Expert: Mentalese and its Semantics [1994]; Concepts [1998]; In Critical Condition [2000]; Mind Doesn't Work That Way [2000] He lived 1935 to ?. Putnam and Chomsky influenced him. He developed projection rules to try to formalize semantics and model semantic relations by syntax {proof theory, Fodor}. Brains think using symbol system with syntax and semantics {language of thought, Fodor} {mentalese, Fodor}. However, mental language must also have meaning and syntax. If mental language is meaningful, then regular language is meaningful, so why have mental language.

David E. Johnson [Johnson, David E.] linguist USA 1980 Arc Pair Grammar [1980: with Paul M. Postal] He lived 1946 to ? and studied grammar.

Derek Bickerton [Bickerton, Derek] linguist USA 1981 to 1995 Roots of Language [1981]; Language and Species [1990]; Language and Human Behavior [1995] Animal calls and signs are structural wholes and have no component parts. Hawaiian immigrants spoke pidgin, and their children spoke creole. Creoles all over world are mostly similar to each other, possibly indicating universal grammar, which has same default settings for creole and young children.

SOCI>Linguistics>History>Invention pre-cuneiform writing inventor Sumer -3500 pre-cuneiform writing In first writing system {pre-cuneiform}, styluses indented clay. cuneiform Sumer inventor Sumer -3500 to -2500 cuneiform writing [-3500 to -2500] Reed pens drew pictures that represented words or sounds on clay tablets {cuneiform writing}, to record trade and taxes. Pre-cuneiform developed into a system with 200 to 300 simplified sideways pictures. hieroglyphic script inventor Egypt -3100 to 394 hieroglyph Egyptian mdju netjer or words of the gods {hieroglyph, script} {hieroglyphics, script} {hieroglyphic script} developed as idealized or sketched picture ideograms, referring to animal characteristics and human gestures. Hieroglyphs face rightward in columns, to read down, or lines, to read right to left. Greeks called it hiera grammata (sacred letters) or ta hieroglyphica (sacred carved letters). Book of the Dead used cursive hieroglyphic script.

536 phonogram invented inventor Egypt -3100 to 394 phonogram Hieroglyphs {phonogram, sound} can stand for sounds. rebus phonograms inventor Egypt -3100 to 394 phonogram Phonogram series rebuses can be for concepts, opinions, beliefs, commands, requests, and logical relations. Rebuses can have extra end signs {determinative, rebus} to indicate rebus-series subject. hieratic script inventor Egypt -2500 hieratic script Cursive script {hieratic script} derived from cursive hieroglyphic script. After -600, it was only for religious documents, because demonic script replaced it. cuneiform Asia Minor inventor Asia Minor -1500 cuneiform writing [-1500] Cuneiform writing came from Sumer. demotic script inventor Egypt -600 demotic script Cursive script {demotic script} derived from hieratic script. Rosetta Stone has demotic, hieroglyphic, and Greek.

Coptic script inventor Egypt -300 Coptic script When Ptolemies ruled, script {Coptic script} was like Greek alphabet.

Louis Braille [Braille, Louis] inventor France 1821 to 1829 Braille [1821 to 1829] He lived 1809 to 1852. He invented a printing and writing system using six dots, in two vertical lines of three raised dots each, to represent 63 characters and allow blind people to read by touch {Braille} [1821 to 1829].

Ralph K. Potter [Potter, Ralph K.] linguist/inventor USA 1945

537 sonograph He lived 1895 to 1980 and invented sound recorder {sonograph} [1945].

SOCI>Linguistics>History>Language Origin language language Earth -70000 to -60000 Languages began, or at least became significant, 70,000 to 60,000 years ago.

African and Eurasian language divergence language Africa -70000 to -50000 African and Eurasian languages diverged 70,000 to 50,000 years ago.

Southeast Asian and Eurasian languages divergence language Southeast Asia -60000 to -40000 Southeast Asian and Eurasian languages diverged 60,000 to 40,000 years ago.

Na-Dene language Europe/Asia/Caucasia -13000 Perhaps, Chinese, Navajo, Basque, Etruscan, and some Caucasian-Mountain languages had a common ancestor {Na- Dene language}, 15000 years ago.

Nostratic language Europe/Asia -13000 Perhaps, Uralic, Altaic, and Indo-European languages had a common ancestor {Nostratic language}, 15000 years ago. Uralic was in northeast Europe. Altaic was in central Asia. Indo-European was in Anatolia, Turkey.

Proto-Indo-European language Russia -8000 to -6500 Languages {Proto-Indo-European language} began in central-Asia steppes among Kurgan horsemen, possibly from Nostratic and/or Na-Dene languages, 10000 to 8500 years ago. First Samara and Seroglazovo cultures, then Dnieper-Donets and Sredny Stog cultures of Scythians near lower Volga River to Dnieper River, in central Asia steppe at Urheimat, rode horses and had Proto-Indo-European language [-4500 to -4000]. From them developed Kurgan people [-5000 to -3000], who built kurg burial mounds and spread Proto-Indo-European language from southwest Russia {Kurgan hypothesis}, making Kurgan I, Kurgan II, and then Kurgan III. Maykop culture is in north Caucasus [-4000 to -2500]. Kurgan IV or Yamna culture is in steppe [-4000 to - 2500]. Globular Amphora culture began in east Europe [-2500]. Proto-Greeks went to Balkans [-2500]. Proto-Persians went there [-2500].

Chinese writing language China -5500 to -5000 First Chinese written characters were 7500 to 7000 years ago, along Yellow River.

538

Sumerian language Sumeria -5000 Languages {Sumerian language} began 7000 years ago. Sumerian is a separate language family. Akkadian belongs to Afro-Asiatic languages.

Indo-European language Anatolia, Turkey -4000 to -3000 Indo-European language began among farmers in Anatolia, Turkey, 6000 to 5000 years ago, possibly from Nostratic and/or Na-Dene.

Sanskrit language Pakistan -2000 Languages {Sanskrit language} began 4000 years ago in Pakistan.

SOCI>Linguistics>History>Phonetics

Jacob Grimm [Grimm, Jacob] linguist/philologist Berlin, Germany 1811 to 1837 High German Master Song [1811]; German Grammar [1819 to 1837] He lived 1785 to 1863. As language develops, sound usage shifts according to rules {Grimm's Law} [1822], accounting for sound pairing among languages.

Karl Verner [Verner, Karl] linguist Germany 1875 He lived 1846 to 1896. In all languages, sound changes follow same rules {Verner's Law} [1875].

Daniel Jones [Jones, Daniel] linguist/philologist England 1909 to 1918 Pronunciation of English [1909]; Outline of English Phonetics [1918] He lived 1881 to 1967 and invented International Phonetic Alphabet. Cardinal vowels have different articulation places, such as tongue height, mouth front or back, and rounded or unrounded lips.

Nikolai Trubetzkoy [Trubetzkoy, Nikolai] linguist Russia/Prague, Czech Republic 1938 Principles of Phonology [1939] He lived 1890 to 1938 and studied phonemes.

SOCI>Linguistics>History>Semantics

Isidore of Seville linguist

539 Seville, Spain 630 Etymologies or Origins [630] He lived 560 to 636 and translated.

Realist/Nominalist philosophic school Europe 1000 to 1400 Realist and Nominalist philosophers studied word and object relations, object classes, and human mind.

William Jones [Jones, William] linguist England 1783 to 1794 Sanscrit Language [1786: nonfiction]; Laws of Manu [1783 to 1794: translation from Sanskrit]; Recollection of Shakuntala [1783 to 1794: translation from Sanskrit of play by Kalidasa. Shakuntala was a beautiful woman.]; Account of Seasons or Cycle of Seasons [1783 to 1794: translation from Sanskrit of poem by Kalidasa]; Gita Govinda or Song of Govind or Song of Divine Love between Radha and Krishna [1783 to 1794: translation from Sanskrit of poem by Jayadeva. Govind is Krishna as Protector.] He lived 1746 to 1794 and related Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin by describing similarities among words [1786].

Neolinguists linguistics school Germany 1870 to 1880 Expressive aspects of language are dominant.

Michel Bréal [Bréal, Michel] linguist Paris, France 1897 Essay on Semantics [1897: Metaphors can cause language changes] He lived 1832 to 1915. Metaphors are common.

Vilhelm Erik Svedelius [Svedelius, Vilhelm Erik] linguist Sweden 1897 Analysis of Language [1897] He lived 1816 to 1889. Event and relation communications differ in meaning and grammar. Relation communications nest and invert phrases. Event communications can use word sequences in event order, with no transformations.

Edward Sapir [Sapir, Edward] linguist USA 1921 to 1929 Culture, Language, Personality [1921]; Status of Linguistics as a Science [1929] He lived 1884 to 1939. Language affects thinking {Sapir-Whorf hypothesis} [1929].

Otto Neurath [Neurath, Otto] linguist/philosopher Vienna, Austria/USA 1921 to 1935

540 Anti-Spengler [1921]; Scientific World-View [1929: with Hahn and Carnap]; Unified Science and Psychology [1933]; Meaning of Rational Consideration and Action [1935] He lived 1882 to 1945, was of Vienna Circle of Logical Positivism, and led Unity of Science Movement. Movement tried to unite sciences through characteristic actions. Epistemology People can have knowledge through subjective and historic means. Sentence meaning is the publicly accessible outcome {outcome, meaning} of publicly accessible procedures. Group beliefs establish outcomes and procedures, even in science. Cognitive and scientific meaning requires that sentence be expressible in logical language. People have constructed subjects of discourse without foundations, like boats {Neurath's boat} built while at sea.

Ivor A. Richards [Richards, Ivor A.] linguist/philosopher USA 1922 to 1936 Foundations of Aesthetics [1922: with James Wood]; Meaning of Meaning [1923: with C. K. Ogden]; Philosophy of Rhetoric [1936]; Practical Criticism [1936] He lived 1893 to 1979. He developed Basic English with C. K. Ogden. Metaphor has actual topic, analogy to that topic, something in common between the topics, and reason for using analogy.

Charles Kay Ogden [Ogden, Charles Kay] linguist USA 1923 to 1930 Meaning of Meaning [1923]; Basic English: A General Introduction with Rules and Grammar [1930] He lived 1889 to 1957 and studied semantics.

Alfred Korzybski [Korzybski, Alfred] linguist USA 1933 Science and Sanity [1933] He lived 1879 to 1950 and developed General Semantics, with Hayakawa.

Max Black [Black, Max] linguist Azerbaijan/England/USA 1933 to 1983 Nature of Mathematics [1933]; Language and Philosophy [1949]; Metaphor [1955]; Models and Metaphors [1962]; More about Metaphor [1979: in Metaphor and Thought]; Prevalence of Humbug [1983] He lived 1909 to 1988. Models and metaphors are similar in purpose and use. Different people interpret metaphors in different ways {interaction theory}.

Samuel I. Hayakawa [Hayakawa, Samuel I.] linguist Canada/USA 1938 Language in Thought and Action [1938] He lived 1906 to 1992 and helped develop semantics {General Semantics}, with Korzybski.

Charles William Morris [Morris, Charles William] linguist England 1938 to 1968 Foundations of the Theory of Signs [1938]; Signification and Significance [1968] He lived 1901 to 1979 and studied theory of signs {semiotics}, which has semantics, pragmatics, and syntactics.

541 Benjamin Whorf [Whorf, Benjamin] linguist USA 1940 Science and Linguistics [1940] He lived 1897 to 1941. Language affects thinking {Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, Whorf} [1940].

Ferdinand de Saussure [Saussure, Ferdinand de] linguist France 1949 Course of General Linguistics [1949] He lived 1857 to 1913 and founded modern structural linguistics {structuralism, linguistics} {structural linguistics}. Phonemes marks usage differences in sound or symbol systems. Phonemes are not physical, separate, independent elements. Word values are functions of exchangeable and non-exchangeable words {substitution, word} {word substitution}. Word connections provide word meanings, so word meaning depends on all word values. Speaker and listener vocabularies must be identical to convey full meaning in communication.

Mario Pei [Pei, Mario] linguist USA 1954 to 1965 Dictionary of Linguistics [1954: with Frank Gaynor]; Story of Language [1965] He lived 1901 to 1978.

Herbert Paul Grice [Grice, Herbert Paul] or Paul Grice [Grice, Paul] linguist England 1957 to 1975 Meaning [1957]; Causal Theory of Perception [1961]; Utterer's Meaning, Sentence Meaning, and Word-Meaning [1968]; Logic and Conversation [1975] He lived 1913 to 1988. Speaker meaning is what speaker intended to make happen to audience using words {conversation implicature}. Intention is to modify audience beliefs or behavior, and audience knows intention {reflexive intention}. Meaning is about speaker and hearer mental state. Speaker meaning is first and determining, above word or sentence meaning. Speaker meaning, linguistic meaning, or semantics follows from thoughts. Actual usage does not necessarily reflect thought. Speaker meaning and word meaning can differ.

Jerrold J. Katz [Katz, Jerrold J.] linguist USA 1963 Structure of a Semantic Theory [1963: with Fodor]; Semantic Theory [1971]; Integrated Theory of Linguistic Descriptions [1978: with Paul Postal]; Metaphysics of Meaning [1990] He lived 1932 to 2002 and developed projection rules to try to formalize semantics.

Carl Hempel [Hempel, Carl] philosopher USA 1965 to 1966 Aspects of Scientific Explanation [1965]; Philosophy of Natural Science [1966] He lived 1905 to ? and was logical empiricist. Description is result of physical laws. Explanation and prediction differ only in time, because facts are deducible from other facts and at least one law {covering-law model} {deductive-nomological model}.

542 Sentence meaning is the publicly accessible outcome of publicly accessible procedures. Group beliefs establish outcomes and procedures, even in science. Cognitive and scientific meaning requires that sentence be expressible in logical language. Psychology can treat internal states of people like black boxes, only checking stimuli and responses {methodological behaviorism}. Induction can lead to statements but can also lead to statement contrapositives. Contrapositive statements are general, while statements are specific. Evidence for contrapositive statement cannot support statement. For example, "All ravens are black" is logically the same as its contrapositive, "All not black things are not ravens", and both have support from each raven observation {paradox of the ravens, Hempel} {ravens paradox, Hempel}. Physical and material world concepts always change as people acquire new knowledge, so physicalism and functionalism are not static concepts {Hempel's dilemma}.

Saul Kripke [Kripke, Saul] linguist USA 1972 to 1982 Naming and Necessity [1972 and 1980]; Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language [1982] He lived 1940 to ?. Statements can be true and cannot be false {necessary truth, Kripke}, like arithmetical equalities. Statements can be true, though possible to be false {contingent truth}, like historical facts. Some necessary truths are not a priori, because people can learn identities later. Terms, such as person names or natural substances {natural kind, Kripke}, can always mean same thing in physical and all other worlds {rigid designator, Kripke}. Terms {non-rigid designator}, such as variables or descriptions, can allow different possible values in physical and/or all other worlds. People can use rigid designators to refer to same things to which previous persons referred {causal theory of reference, Kripke}. However, time can change references. Necessary identities involve two rigid designators, and contingent identities involve at least one non-rigid designator. Identity theories of mental state and physical state are either necessary identities or one term is non-rigid. They cannot be necessary, because people can imagine mental state, like pain, without physical state. They do not have non-rigid terms, because mental-state instance is essence, not property, and physical state specifies atom positions and motions. Proper names are always about same object. Proper names can be about people about whom people know nothing more and so have no sense, only reference. Proper names of people about whom people know something else have sense and reference. People can conceive of matter and consciousness as separate being, so they are both possible, and so must be different, not just different names for same thing or different levels in hierarchy of knowledge or being, because one is objective and one subjective. Mental states, representing ideas, cause linguistic responses, which report mental state using signs. Response pattern depends on similarity or relation, represented by mental state, which people do not necessarily consciously know. Because mental states vary widely, natural occurrences have incompatible expressions. People think and speak based on social word usage {anti-individualism}. Meaning is normative, as language communities make rules, and relates to individual dispositions. Perception is also necessary for communication about objects. People can have a priori knowledge of contingent things {mind, Kripke} and empirical knowledge of necessary truths {essence, Kripke}.

Paul M. Postal [Postal, Paul M.] linguist USA 1980 Arc Pair Grammar [1980: with David E. Johnson] He developed projection rules to try to formalize semantics.

John Macnamara [Macnamara, John] linguist USA 1982

543 Names for Things [1982] He studied naming.

David K. Lewis [Lewis, David K.] philosopher/linguist USA 1983 to 1986 Philosophical Papers [1983 and 1986]; General Semantics; On the Plurality of Worlds [1986] He lived 1941 to ?. Language and other social conventions developed unconsciously, not by agreement, to coordinate behavior. First, unstructured unrelated signals expressed intention. Later, signals gained structure. Then simple intentions used conventional form. Finally, sentences used these elements. Complex-expression meanings are functions of component meanings. Epistemology Roles in causing organism physical behaviors define mental concepts, states, events, and processes {causal theory of mental concepts}. Effects depend on their causes, so if there are no such causes, there are no such effects {counterfactual dependence}. Propositions are about possible worlds and cannot be about impossible worlds. Properties are about possible subjects of propositions, which can be individual or category sets. Metaphysics Reality is local physics, which makes everything else. Quantum mechanically possible worlds are actually real {modal realism, Lewis} and are separate in time and space.

544