The Green Building Envelope Vertical Greening
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The Green Building Envelope Vertical Greening “The design os” Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Technische Universiteit Delft, op gezag van de Rector Magnificus prof.ir. K.C.A.M. Luyben, voorzitter van het College voor Promoties, in het openbaar te verdedigen op dinsdag 28 juni 2011 om 10:00 uur door Marc OTTELÉ civiel ingenieur geboren te Rotterdam Dit proefschrift is goedgekeurd door de promotor: Prof. dr. ir. E.M. Haas Copromotor: Dr. ing. H.D. van Bohemen Samenstelling promotiecommissie Rector Magnificus Voorzitter Prof. dr. ir. E.M. Haas Technische Universiteit Delft, promotor Dr. ing. H.D. van Bohemen Technische Universiteit Delft, copromotor Prof. dr. M. Köhler Fachhochschule Neubrandenburg Prof.dr.ir. A.A.J.F. van den Dobbelsteen Technische Universiteit Delft Prof. ir. C.A.J. Duijvestein Technische Universiteit Delft Prof. dipl. ing. J.N.J.A. Vambersky Technische Universiteit Delft Dr. ir. A.L.A. Fraaij vml.Technische Universiteit Delft Prof. dr. ir. K. van Breugel Technische Universiteit Delft, reservelid ISBN: 978-90-9026217-8 Keywords: green façades, vertical green, sustainability, fine dust, thermal resistance, ESEM Printed by SiecaRepro, the Netherlands Coverdesign: Vesselin A. Kolev, Arch. MSc. Copyright © 2011 M. Ottelé All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from the author. The Green Building Envelope Vertical Greening - i - "If the bee disappeared off the surface of the globe then man would only have four years of life left. No more bees, no more pollination, no more plants, no more animals, no more man." Albert Einstein - ii - Table of contents List of symbols ......................................................................................................................... v 1 Green building envelopes in city ecology ....................................................................... 1 1.1 General introduction ..........................................................................................................1 1.2 Research objectives...........................................................................................................5 1.3 Research questions ...........................................................................................................5 1.4 The thesis methodology and chapter scheme......................................................................6 2 Vertical surfaces (façades, walls and noise barriers) ..................................................... 8 2.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................8 2.2 Overview of Vertical Green.................................................................................................9 2.3 Vertical green; an historical view ......................................................................................12 2.4 Definition of Vertical Green ..............................................................................................16 2.5 Classification of climbing (plant) types used for façade greening ........................................17 3 Vertical Green and its environmental impact ............................................................... 21 3.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................21 3.2 General introduction concerning air polluting substances ...................................................25 3.2.1 Particulate matter (PMx).........................................................................................25 3.2.2 Carbon dioxide (CO2).............................................................................................28 3.2.3 Acidifying substances.............................................................................................29 3.3 Current methods to reduce atmospheric pollution..............................................................30 3.3.1 Catalytically processes ...........................................................................................30 3.3.2 Electrical precipitation............................................................................................31 3.3.3 Vegetation ............................................................................................................32 3.4 The general benefits of vertical green...............................................................................33 3.4.1 Air quality improvement.........................................................................................33 3.4.2 Ecological aspects .................................................................................................36 3.4.3 Protection against driving rain and sun radiation .....................................................37 3.4.4 Temperature regulation and insulating properties....................................................37 3.4.5 Sound adsorption and noise reduction ....................................................................42 3.4.6 Social impact.........................................................................................................45 3.4.7 Costs ....................................................................................................................45 3.5 Risks of vertical green .....................................................................................................47 3.5.1 Moisture problems.................................................................................................47 3.5.2 Damage and deterioration .....................................................................................48 3.5.3 Maintenance .........................................................................................................52 4 From theory to an experimental approach; quantifying the benefits........................... 54 4.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................54 4.2 Ecological Engineering, Greening of vertical walls and roofs of buildings in the urban area...55 4.3 Quantifying the deposition of particulate matter on climber vegetation on living walls .........65 4.4 The development of an ESEM based counting method for fine dust particles and a philosophy behind the background of particle adsorption on leaves...............................................................81 4.5 Comparing ivy (Hedera helix) leaves with different materials on PMx adsorption capacity, using an ESEM based counting method.......................................................................................92 4.6 Concrete as a multifunctional ecological building material: A new approach to green our environment ........................................................................................................................... 104 5 Vertical Green and building physics ........................................................................... 115 5.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................115 5.2 Plants and their role in (building) physics........................................................................117 iii 5.3 Thermal aspects of vertical green................................................................................... 123 5.3.1 The theoretical influence of a “green” exterior surface resistance ........................... 123 5.3.2 What does it means to the insulation properties of buildings? ................................ 126 5.3.3 Reflection and summary of the theoretical calculations .......................................... 134 5.4 Vertical greening systems and their effect on air flow and temperature near the façade .... 137 5.5 Experimental approach; quantifying thermal behaviour of vertical greening concepts ........ 153 5.5.1 Measuring Hedera helix (direct façade greening principle)...................................... 161 5.5.2 Measuring Hedera helix (indirect façade greening principle) ................................... 167 5.5.3 Measuring Living Wall System; based on planter boxes.......................................... 173 5.5.4 Measuring Living Wall System; based on mineral (stone) wool ............................... 179 5.5.5 Measuring Living Wall System; based on aminoplast foam .....................................186 5.5.6 Measuring Living Wall System; based on felt layers with pockets............................ 192 5.5.7 Analysis and discussion of measuring different vertical greening systems................ 199 6 Sustainability aspects of vertical green...................................................................... 208 6.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................208 6.2 Comparative life cycle analysis for green façades and living wall systems.......................... 210 7 Synthesis and Conclusions ......................................................................................... 233 7.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................233 7.2 Achievements of this research.......................................................................................