KALEIDOSCOPE A photographic perspective A photographic in Europe on the 1950s

BLUE SKIES, RED PANIC A photographic perspective on the 1950s in Europe A photographic perspective on the 1950s in Europe BLUE SKIES,BLUE SKIES, REDBLUE RED SKIES, PANICPANIC RED PANIC A photographic perspectiveA photographic on the 1950s perspective in Europe on the 1950s in Europe BLUE SKIES, RED PANIC A photographic perspective on the 1950s in Europe looks through RED PANIC SKIES, BLUE looks through RED PANIC SKIES, BLUE contract number INEA/CEF/ICT/A2017/1568496 number contract European Facility programme of the European Union, Union, the European of programme Facility European contract number INEA/CEF/ICT/A2017/1568496 number contract Fifties in Europe Kaleidoscope is co-funded by Kaleidoscope the is co-funded Connecting Europe Fifties in European Facility programme of the European Union, Union, the European of programme Facility European Fifties in Europe Kaleidoscope is co-funded by Kaleidoscope the is co-funded Connecting Europe Fifties in BLUE SKIES, RED PANIC BLUE BLUE SKIES, RED PANIC BLUE A photographic perspective on the 1950s in Europe perspective A photographic A photographic perspective on the 1950s in Europe perspective A photographic “The fifties – they seemto have takenplace onElisabeth novelist aAmerican satisfy”. to sunnypower its and moment afternoonthe in driftingbelief a thatexcept you asked nothing of poodle the Vespa, the baby-boom, the of age iconic the on view the worded masterfully Hardwick decades the In memory. collective in obstinately settled has that kitchen laminated the and skirt that followed, the very real threats posed by the and the atomic bomb, have seemed history with revisit opportunityto unique a creates also elapsed time Yet significantly. recede to and a more fresh subtle pair shades of of meaning. eyes Europe, emerging an to 1950s the of photographers outstandingmost the of some of lenses the east liberty and west, between and euphoria. and repression, terror hovering “The fifties – they seemto have takenplace onElisabeth novelist aAmerican satisfy”. to sunnypower its and moment afternoonthe in driftingbelief a thatexcept you asked nothing of poodle the Vespa, the baby-boom, the of age iconic the on view the worded masterfully Hardwick decades the In memory. collective in obstinately settled has that kitchen laminated the and skirt that followed, the very real threats posed by the Cold War and the atomic bomb, have seemed history with revisit opportunityto unique a creates also elapsed time Yet significantly. recede to and a more fresh subtle pair shades of of meaning. eyes Europe, emerging an to 1950s the of photographers outstandingmost the of some of lenses the east liberty and west, between and euphoria. and repression, terror hovering

This volume has been produced by the Fifties in Europe Kaleidoscope project, funded by the European Union in the framework of the Connecting European Facility Programme Grant Agreement no. INEA/CEF/ICT/A2017/1568496 Start date: 1 September 2018 Partners: 10 Partners from 7 European countries Duration: 18 months Website: www.photoconsortium.net/50s-in-europe-kaleidoscope, fifties.withculture.eu Showcase: www.digitalmeetsculture.net/50s-in-europe-kaleidoscope Email: [email protected] Project Coordinator: KU Leuven Leader of Content selection and coordination: Photoconsortium EC Project Officers: Krzysztof Nichczynski, Kyriaki Tragouda

CC Creative Commons

The textual materials and the cover in this catalogue are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike. This means that the textual contents and the graphics of the cover can be re-used for any purpose, built upon and adapted, when proper attribution is given to the authors and new creations are licensed under the identical terms. Photographic contents are licensed individually, as indicated in the respective captions.

Authors Concept and texts: Sofie Taes Preface: Antonella Fresa, Frederik Truyen Graphics: Situ Xiaochun

Editing: Valentina Bachi, Pietro Masi

Printed by Grafitalia di Sandro Gherardini, Peccioli. Graphic design by Promoter S.r.l.

Printed in August 2019 © 2019 ICCU Istituto Centrale per il Catalogo Unico delle biblioteche italiane e per le informazioni bibliografiche Viale Castro Pretorio, 105 00185 Roma ISBN code: 978-88-7107-134-3 Blue skies, red panic A photographic perspective on the 1950s in Europe Introduction

Birthday party in the allotment garden, 1957 6 Stiftung Preußischer Kulturbesitz. CC-BY-SA Prof. Frederik Truyen KU Leuven, Cultural Studies President of Photoconsortium Network Association Management Board Member of Europeana

The visual image of the fifties

To enjoy, interpret and appreciate this online publishing - a main goal shared with rendering of a visual experience. Contrary exhibition it is important to understand Europeana, the digital cultural heritage to film, where the director controls duration the project in which it came to fruition. initiative with which we’ve been partnering and forces the experience of the viewer into Fifties in Europe Kaleidoscope is not an for years - and helped by the expertise the next frame, the photograph, as a still effort in writing the complex and dramatic network of Photoconsortium, we went on object, leaves a lot of liberty to the viewer history of the fifties. Sufficient sources have to investigate photographic remnants of to time their experience. The viewer has been published on major themes relating the fifties with a triple objective in mind: control. The photographer wanted to see to that era, such as the reconstruction of to explore the self-perception of people something and share it with others - it Europe, the decolonization, technological in the fifties as captured in photographs, needs to be recognizable and transferable. developments, and the east-west divide. the reception of these images as an iconic The viewer wants to see something in Neither is it an effort to write the history representation of the era and how we the photograph. He needs to relate. The of photography of the fifties, although it is perceive and engage with them today - their photographic image is in a way closer to our hope and conviction that this project venture into our collective memory. This imagination than it is to reality and fantasy. will contribute to a partial rewriting of could be understood as a typical exponent People in the fifties all around Europe the canonized history of photography of of cultural studies research influenced by wanted to capture who they were and an that period, which was almost entirely the possibilities of digital humanities. idea of who they might become. They shared written from a Western perspective and Photography is an amazing and a common vision for postwar recovery - of highly influenced by e.g. Magnum Photos. powerful medium. The photograph, how life after the war could be so much Our archives, on the other hand, contain whether made by an artist, professional, better than before - even though ideas on rich collections from Eastern and Central amateur or tourist alike, never just shows how to realize that vision differed across Europe as well. the “reality” as it is for grasp. First of all, Europe. The photograph of the airplane is What the project does aim at, is - starting it captures the incoming light through the exemplary in this respect: the destructive from privileged access to photographic lens; the machine frames it. Secondly, there technology of the war, which brought fear, heritage from both east and west - to create a is the selective eye of the photographer, who desperation and utter devastation and visual image of the fifties on different levels. wants to frame part of the visual experience. created a dystopian environment, also held a Building on the drive to give open access So there is the human control but also the promise to transform into an emancipatory, to archive content through digitization and control of technology. It is a very specific enabling force.

8 9 Dr. Antonella Fresa Promoter S.r.l. Director of Design and Implementation Vice-President Photoconsortium

Fifties in Europe Kaleidoscope

Fifties in Europe Kaleidoscope is and amateurs to discover, to re-build and identity to be shared among the European based on a comprehensive and articulated to tell stories, through a kaleidoscope of citizens and beyond. A curated selection program of activities, ranging from content photographic images of a world in change. of these collections has been meticulously selection, user participation, development Digital content can be discovered and re- undertaken to exhibit the outstanding of educational tools, and testing of advanced used through the digital tools developed photography presented in this catalogue. machine learning algorithms to simplify in the project, and made available on the From September 2019 onwards, Fifties metadata creation. The project is focused Europeana portal. in Europe Kaleidoscope proudly presents on photographic content dated from 1950s The project unites ten partners from the exhibition BLUE SKIES, RED PANIC. and it provides enhanced instruments to seven Member States. They are institutions The exhibition opens in Pisa and then discover and access the visual heritage with a public mission as well as private photo travels throughout Europe, displayed in of that period in Europe, leveraging and agencies. This blended consortium serves different historical settings, complemented stimulating the engagement of citizens. as an innovative model of cooperation, by a contemporary multimedia and online Fifties in Europe Kaleidoscope demonstrating how both sectors can benefit display, offering a virtual extension to the is a project funded by the EU in the from participating in Europeana. on-site experience. framework of the Connecting European Photography captured the world of ‘Kaleidoscope’ is a perfect metaphor Facility programme, to create attractive the fifties from its most beautiful angles for the meaning of the project that has cultural experiences and to develop new and from its darkest sides. The collections inspired this exhibition. It communicates technology services for the use and re- of Fifties in Europe Kaleidoscope is a the idea of many different experiences that use of Europeana, the digital library of document of historical moments of can transform as long as we look at them European cultural heritage. Merging European life in the fifties - landscapes from different perspectives, and that bring photography and digital technology with and people, social and economic changes, together contradictory feelings and beliefs, curation and storytelling, the project aims architecture and design -, a crucial time in fears and joys that characterized the decade to encourage students, researchers, citizens the process of construction of a collective of the fifties in Europe.

10 11 Sofie Taes KU Leuven, Cultural Studies Photoconsortium

The exhibition The Fabulous Fifties ?

Bouffants, polka dots, Balenciaga, your toy collection? political situations and living standards Vespa, , Stepford chic: the list of What most of us share with were very different across the continent. iconic fifties-phenomena is nearly endless, contemporary accounts, is the view of the And while rock ‘n’ roll and strawberry as is the number of fifties-tropes that fifties as a time of intrinsic happiness: a milkshakes brought about a sweet taste of permeate our culture and media. modern-age, bright-coloured paradise. America, another superpower was causing Horrors from the past were gone forever; ‘red panic’. Profusion and stress, rebellion Which 1950s image is etched in your a wrinkled tie or collapsed soufflé the only and repression, aspiration and anxiety made memory? worries left. This rosy outlook, frozen in for an explosive mix that, in the end, would A family gathered around a Sunday our collective memory, has been fed by the bring about a wind of change. roast? A Volkswagen Microbus or a pink nostalgia of the baby-boom. Yet in recent We warmly invite you to explore our Cadillac? Buddy Holly’s horn rimmed years, a more holistic view has taken root. photographs and stories, hand-picked and glasses or Sophia Loren’s hourglass figure? This is the perspective we adopted when carefully curated to trigger your memory, Your first television set and washing setting out to create an exhibition about the challenge your perception and leave you machine? Or Barbie and Scrabble entering emergence of modern-day Europe. Because longing for more.

Kaleidoscope Much like scents, flavours and music, quite quickly, we soon started to question turned into a simple game of contrasts photographs are powerful triggers of its veracity. With project partners from and opposites. Yet while the pictures we memory. So what better medium to recall a both sides of the Cold War divide, our selected are very much black and white, past as recent and as visually recognizable as perspective was ‘bifocal’ from the outset. the stories they convey boast an endless early postwar Europe…? The fifties were indeed the breeding range of greys. Through these shades, the For about a year, the consortium ground for Europe as we know it today, reflection of the 1950s gains nuance, color involved in the EU-funded project Fifties but at the time political regimes, economic and depth. Instead of a lens or a looking in Europe Kaleidoscope has been diving circumstances, societal developments, glass, we ended up using a kaleidoscope: into collections of libraries, archives and levels of prosperity and consumer trends a compound eye on differences and commercial agencies across Europe, to trace were very different in the east and west, similarities, parallels and resonances, the tracks of the fifties in photography. north and south. making the most of the ‘beautiful forms’ As the expected imagery surfaced This exhibition could have easily (kalos/eidos) of an iconic age.

A party of 30 British teenage boys sets out from Tilbury to Australia to take up 12farming, June 1959, TopFoto.co.uk. In Copyright 13 Postwar politics In the 1950s, Europe was focused War, represented by the ‘’, system. In the same spirit, Germany was on recovering from the devastation and divided countries from the split into two republics. Europe now found economic losses wrought by World War II. Western allies. In the east, countries became itself overshadowed by two superpowers. But the new geo-political situation left satellites of the , aiming at The process of decolonization added the continent divided between two very reconstructing society along communist further to its precarious position: the end of different approaches. The US and the USSR lines; in the west, both democratic and the European empires gave way to 50 new took up new defensive positions, opposite fascist states were influenced by the United sovereign states and induced a global wave one another, and the onset of the Cold States and sought to bolster the capitalist of migration.

Between crisis and boom A global economic crisis added to the miraculous recovery - a phenomenon sports, fashion, cuisine: all boasted new pressure mounting in postwar Europe. known as ‘Wirtschaftswunder’. As a products and larger quantities of them to Immediately after the war, even its strongest consequence, technology was advancing at enjoy. The sky was no longer the limit, as economies were struggling with debts, such a speed, that products became obsolete Europe too came to realize when the Soviets forcing citizens to sustain a frugal lifestyle. by the time prototypes reached the mass launched Sputnik. Support from the US, both in funds market. In the words of British prime minister and goods, saved Europe from ruin and A wide range of new consumer goods Macmillan: “Most of our people have never planted the seeds of growth. By 1950, trade was launched, from transistor radios, had it so good”. But the other side of the in the west had regained its strength, to synthesizers and hula hoops to microwave coin was starting to show: the environment significantly surpass its prewar output just ovens, blenders, and air conditioned lawn suffered under traffic and waste, crime and one year later! mowers. The television made its way into hooliganism were on the rise, and substance In contrast to Eastern Europe’s struggle the living room, the nylon stocking into the abuse became more widespread. None of with sluggish growth, rising debts, high wardrobe, the scooter into the driveway. that made it into the for the interest rates and spiraling inflation, several Teenagers became a subculture, children a ‘Free World’, leaving its eastern counterpart Western countries experienced a truly consumer market. Travel, entertainment, with a bitter taste in the mouth.

German actor Viktor de Kowa marvels at a small Telefunken TV in Hamburg, 1956 14 United Archives / Siegfried Pilz. In Copyright 15 Road to unity: the nascence of modern-day Europe

After World War II, the Nürnberg trials and the Marshall plan, sixteen Western 1949. Following the Schuman pact, April had demonstrated that international law was European nations formed a committee 1951 saw the creation of a European Coal and gaining momentum. While the ‘European that would evolve into the Organisation for Steel Community consisting of 6 countries. League’ had failed to become more than European Economic Co-operation (1948). While plans for the formation of a European an intergovernmental cooperation, a new America’s request to establish a customs army fell through, 1957-1958 did witness the network of international institutions - union didn’t come to fruition: Europe wasn’t establishment of the European Economic the United Nations, UNESCO a.o. - was an integrated economic force nor a political Community (EEC) by the Treaties of Rome. established, as a foundation for sustainable union just yet. Still limited to economic and social affairs, world peace. A tipping point was the Congress the nucleus of the European Communities When the United States offered to help of Europe in the Hague, which fostered (1967) was now in place, and the Treaties alleviate Europe’s dire financial situation interest in a closer union, and lead to the of Rome would remain at the core of the under the conditions of the Truman Doctrine establishment of the Council of Europe in European Union as established in 1993.

Goodbye grey sky, hello blue The fifties weren’t perfect. Not a happy every day. Each pro had its con: in the ‘Free weighed greatly on attempts to reconcile ending, but a daunting new chapter. Once World’, prosperity came with stress, and with the past and commit to the future. But again, Europe was left polarized. Citizens comfort with the possibility of annihilation; beside fear there was always hope. “Rocking on both sides of the divide felt stranded, in the East, promises were left unfulfilled and ‘til broad daylight”, Europe was seeing confused by a world growing more complex ambitious dreams shattered. The pressure the dawn of a new age of togetherness.

Queue at the ‘Systembolaget’ liquor store, 1950 - Gunnar Lundh 16Malmö museer. CC BY 17 Little Conny Froboess sings “Pack die Badehose ein” (“Pack up your trunks”), a song com- posed by her father, into the RIAS broadcasting microphone, Berlin, May 1951 United Archives / kpa / Grimm. In Copyright

Exhibition Crowds for giants - The rise and fall of dictators 22 Living apart together - Collectivism versus individualism 34

Stalin floored in Budapest, October 1956 Garden with radio, Germany, 1950s The giants of Salt, October 1952 Paul Anka performs at Linnanmäellä, August 1959

Form & function - Ingenious design 24 Climate of fear - and contingency plans 36

A German novelty in Girona, July 1954 Policemen break the protest of the Direct Action Committee Against Nuclear War, December 1958 Ready to fly with BEA, 1952 Journalist Matti Jämsä tests an asbestos suit, 1957 Smog mask made from an old war time gas cape, November 1953

The show must go on - Politics on pellicule 26 (Un)bound - At liberty, in captivity 38 Dance with football from the movie ‘A Csodacsatár’, 1956 Brooms on the tarmac in ‘Flyg-Bom’, 1952 Lithuanian political prisoners in Inta, c. 1956 To the land of promise, May 1954 Leaving from London to Brisbane, July 1959 The big build - Recovery and reconstruction 28

Homeless family at Hakaniemenranta, Helsinki, 1950s Cherchez la femme - Between bouffant and boiler suit 40 Council flats and gaping spaces at London’s Chinatown, 1951 Olive Walker, England’s only lady sweep, 1951 Doing the dishes with boxing gloves, 1950s Evolving trades - Postwar problem-solving 30 Filming ‘Roc’ with Carme Trèmols, 1958

Harvesting grapes in Hoeilaart, Belgium, c. 1950 Clothes hanging in a ‘Waschkaue’, Germany, c. 1950 Suspicious minds - A continent under pressure 42

Vice-president Nixon opens the American Exhibition in Sokolniki Park, August 1959 Age of icons - Tradition & futurism 32 The crew of a flying boat, June 1952 American sailors and London showgirls, August 1958 Feast of flowers, 1953 11th Triennale in Milan ‘Eclettismo-formalismo’, 1957 Crowds for giants The rise and fall of dictators

In the kaleidoscope of the 1950s, a handful of political heavyweights take pride of place. Among them , who transformed the Soviet Union into a world power during his 25-year rule. At the time of his death in 1953, Stalin had imposed control on over 100 million people living in Eastern Europe. Among these citizens, discontent with low living standards and scarce consumer goods was growing. The communist party too was in dire straits, particularly after the ‘secret speech’ delivered by First Secretary at the party congress of 1956. His anti-Stalinist philippic spurred excitement in the eight countries bound by the Warsaw Pact. Among them was Hungary, where an uprising ensued in October 1956. After an initial victory of the rebels and the withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact proclaimed by premier Imre Nagy, the Soviet army put a violent stop to the revolt, leaving behind 2.500 casualties and a fallen giant: the statue gifted by Stalin at the occasion of his 70th birthday. ‘The Free World’, in the meantime, had its own crosses to bear. Like Salazar in Portugal, dictator Francisco Franco ruled Spain for decades with a policy of limited personal freedom, state- controlled markets, censorship, repression and militarism. This photograph of a cheering crowd commemorates the inauguration of two very different ‘giants’: the folkloristic figures Grau and Eulàlia, whose impressive 3,5-metre silhouettes can still be seen wandering the streets of Salt.

Stalin floored in Budapest, October 1956 The giants of Salt, October 1952 - Salvador Crescenti Miró National Széchényi Library. CC BY-NC-SA Ajuntament de Girona / CRDI. CC BY-NC-ND

22 23 Form & function Ingenious design

A stylish globetrotter steals the scene, flaunting a prime example of 1950s smart design: the Canasta coat, made of water- and travel- proof cotton to cater for the adventurous fashionista. The choice of an airport as a setting for commercial photo shoots such as this one, was anything but a shot in the dark: the transport sector - aviation in particular - was Britain’s most powerful lever of economic recovery in the postwar era. The story of British European Airways - an airline that operated from 1946 to 1974 and later transformed into British Airways - is exemplary. BEA operated the first-ever turbine-powered commercial air service in 1950, flew its millionth passenger in 1952, and by the end of the decade had become the biggest airline outside of the States. The aircraft featured in this image was another triumph of design, be it of American origin: a Douglas DC-3, the hero of the Allies’ fleet in World War II. Its counterpart in the Luftwaffe was the Messerschmitt Bf 109, one of the most-produced warplanes in history. After the war, company director Willy Messerschmitt was convicted of collaboration and imprisoned for two years. Upon his release, as Germany was forbidden to produce aircrafts until 1955, Messerschmitt decided to target the consumer market and began producing sewing machines, prefabricated houses and small vehicles. Seen here in the streets of Girona is the three-wheeled Messerschmitt Kabinenroller KR175, designed by aircraft engineer Fritz Fend. The two-seater with plexi cover was a runaway success, as it was affordable, required a moped permit only, and allowed for ultimate liberty in personal transportation.

Ready to fly with BEA, 1952 A German novelty in Girona, July 1954 - Martí Massafont Costals TopFoto.co.uk. In Copyright Ajuntament de Girona / CRDI. CC BY-NC-ND

24 25 The show must go on Politics on pellicule

Predating the 1956 uprising in Budapest by just a few months, the darker of these two film stills represents a scene from A Csodacsatár (The marvelous striker): a movie by Márton Keleti about the ‘Mighty Magyars’. Hungary’s golden soccer team of the 1950s put the nation on the map as a world power in sports, thus becoming a vital element of communist propaganda. At the time of the October revolt, the majority of the team was abroad, competing in the European Cup with Budapest Honvéd. Having lost the first game to Atlético Bilbao, the players refused to return to Hungary and arranged for the return match to be played in Brussels. The team was eliminated but instead of traveling home, players got their families to join them and subsequently took off on a fundraising tour in Europe and Brasil. Upon its completion, the group fell apart. The Hungarian regime attempted to erase the disloyal sportsmen from the nation’s memory, as a result of which A Csodacsatár had to be partially re-filmed. The new version, premièring in 1957, no longer contained scenes with dissident players such as superstar Ferenc Puskás. While in this case, political messages were conveyed under the guise of an entertaining movie, many postwar films featured military scenery as the backdrop to an innocuous tale. In the Swedish comedy Flyg-Bom - the fourth in a series with actor Nils Poppe as Fabian Bom - the soldiers’ uniforms and Swedish Air Force planes are just props and décors to a Chaplinesque tale of love, misfortunes, silly twists and blissful catharsis.

Brooms on the tarmac in ‘Flyg-Bom’, 1952 Dance with football from the movie ‘A Csodacsatár’, 1956 - Gábor Kovács Kulturmagasinet, Helsingborgs museer. Public Domain National Széchényi Library. CC BY-NC-SA

26 27 The big build Recovery and reconstruction

A dramatically framed no-man’s-land, partly immersed in shadow, partly lit by an almost palpable, dusty shine. Very little in this picture hints to its situation in what was once London’s ‘Chinatown’. Located in the Limehouse area, the neighbourhood was notorious for its (rumored) opium dens, white-slave traders and slums, inspiring movies as well as songs and books such as the Fu Manchu-series. During the Blitz, the area was heavily struck and never managed to reassume its position as the crux of the Chinese community. So when in the 1950s huge waves of Chinese immigrants hit London in the wake of the Hong Kong land reforms, they chose to settle elsewhere: a new Chinatown was born in Soho. In Finland, changes in cityscapes and social stratospheres were mainly connected to transformations in economy and industry. As industrialization fostered rural to urban migration, the housing market in cities such as Helsinki couldn’t cope with the influx of people, forcing many to sleep in the streets. Countermeasures were taken as early as 1949, when officials started to campaign against moving to the capital without having the necessary accommodation in place. Simultaneously, the state established the program ‘Arava’ through which it funded the construction of affordable houses. While several other Western European governments mounted loan, development and building programs and communist countries thought the nationalization of housing to be the solution, none were as successful as Finland, that since has managed to practically eradicate homelessness.

Homeless family at Hakaniemenranta, Helsinki, 1950s - UA Saarinen Council flats and gaping spaces at London’s Chinatown, 1951 Press Photo archive JOKA, Finnish Heritage Agency. In Copyright TopFoto.co.uk. In Copyright

28 29 Evolving trades Postwar problem-solving

Often remembered as an era of new beginnings, the 1950s were to a large extent a backlash to World War II. As political relations, living circumstances and economics underwent drastic changes, so did industry and agriculture. Coal - though threatened by other sources of energy - remained Europe’s main energy supplier throughout the decade. Yet measures were needed to allow for expansion of production in what was then a damaged and out-of-date industry. While some countries focused on enlarging capacity through migrant workers’ schemes, others invested in modernization. So did the Ruhr area: a chief supplier to the German market and pivotal force in the ‘Wirtschaftswunder’. This evocative photograph of a ‘Waschkaue’ showcases the professional set-up at the Zollern mine. The structure, built above a mine-shaft, provided first-class washing facilities, allowing for colliers to shower and change at the beginning and the end of each shift. When not in use, clean and work clothes were raised on hooks: a safe and space-efficient storage solution. In postwar agriculture too, professionalization and organization were key. In Hoeilaart (Belgium), where grapes were grown in glasshouses as early as 1865, quality control, the establishment of a trade union and product diversification helped to sustain the international success of the luxury fruit during and after the war - a striking accomplishment, since at that time agriculture in Europe was generally on the decline. Yet Hoeilaart’s strategy to produce wines from otherwise redundant grapes and to provide central services through cooperatives, made for a viable business model that eventually earned its grapes the ‘Protected Designation of Origin’ label.

Clothes hanging in a ‘Waschkaue’, Germany, c. 1950 Harvesting grapes in Hoeilaart, Belgium, c. 1950 United Archives. In Copyright KIK-IRPA, Brussels (Belgium). CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

30 31 Age of icons Tradition & futurism

In 1957, Paolo Monti - one of Italy’s most iconic photographers - masterfully documented the eleventh edition of the Milan Triennial: an international exhibition of industrial, architectural and decorative arts, that aimed at “improving the quality of expression in today’s civilisation”. This photo shows off the state-of-the-art American pavilion designed by Walter Dorwin Teague and Paul McCobb. Known as Mid-Century Modern (MCM), the style of the pavilion reflects trends also seen in contemporary European design: simplicity, inspiration from nature, curved silhouettes, use of glass and aluminum, spatiality, a bright pallet, and a close link between form, function and aesthetics. Fifties design and architecture, as well as cars, fashion and music have remained ‘en vogue’ ever since. In recent years especially, all things vintage seem to be experiencing a boom, catering to a growing eco-conscious, anti-mass consumption market. Remnants of the ‘golden age of Scandinavian design’ - with legendary designers such as Arne Jacobsen, Hans Wegner and Poul Henningsen - are particularly coveted, as the democratic ideals at the center of the movement resonate within today’s society. Shown in the second image is another side of fifties aesthetics - less iconic but equally as prevalent. In its very own way, the more traditional interior with its mix of patterned carpets, lace curtains and embroidered table runners, has found its way into contemporary homes via the bohemian or ‘boho-chic’ trend.

11th Triennale in Milan ‘Eclettismo-formalismo’, 1957 - Paolo Monti Feast of flowers, 1953 - Olof Bellander Fondazione Biblioteca Europea di Informazione e Cultura (BEIC). CC BY-SA Malmö museer. CC BY

32 33 Living apart together Collectivism versus individualism

While the notions of and seem to suggest otherwise, the relationship between the individual and the collective in fifties-Europe was by no means a simple case of opposites. While Eastern Europe saw the emergence of its very own countercultures (e.g. the ‘Stilyagi’), the West experienced state interference in matters such as housing, transport, industry and trades, and was prone to propaganda and mass crazes as much as its antipode. In postwar Germany, the previously centralized radio was dismounted into nine regional networks in addition to those of the allied forces. While in East Berlin, listening to the Radio in the American Sector (RIAS) was discouraged, the station continued to be “a free voice of the Free World”, providing news and commentaries unavailable in other media outlets. Another illustration of the intricate intertwining of individualism and collectivism, was the globalization of fashion and music trends. Many of these originated in America and received wide acclaim within Europe’s emerging teen culture. Teenagers embraced the “violent and noisy” rock ‘n’ roll of Elvis Presley, often to the despair of their parents, who preferred the milder style of artists such as Paul Anka. Seen in this press photograph is Anka - only a teenager himself - during his first performance on Finnish soil, to which his female fans reportedly greeted him with “a sound stronger than a million swifts”.

Paul Anka performs at Linnanmäellä, August 1959 - UA Saarinen Garden with radio, Germany, 1950s Finnish Heritage Agency. In Copyright United Archives. In Copyright

34 35 Climate of fear Countercultures and contingency plans

With the devastating impact of the atomic bomb fresh in mind, postwar Europe was left with the terrifying knowledge that mankind held the power to destroy the planet. While experiments with nuclear energy shifted toward the production of steam and electricity, the development of weapons continued on both sides of the divide. Throughout the 1950s, public protest grew Policemen break the protest of the Direct Action Committee Against Nuclear War, more organized, resulting in marches, sit-ins and other actions. December 1958 . TopFoto.co.uk. In Copyright Depicted here is the forced removal of an activist of the Direct Action Committee Against Nuclear War from a site in Swaffham, Norfolk, that was destined to become a missile base jointly operated by the United States and the United Kingdom. A silent killer of which the destructive powers were becoming more apparent too, asbestos continued to be used in house insulation, textured paint and vinyl tiles. Notwithstanding the fact that its detrimental effects were known since the 1900s, asbestos remained attractive as an affordable, naturally occurring and extremely fire resistant material - as demonstrated here by a journalist testing an asbestos suit. A continuous and inescapable danger to health was the smog that covered industrial and metropolitan cities across Europe. The most devastating case was that of London and the ‘Great Smog’ of December 1952. The worst of all ‘pea soupers’ was caused by pollutants resulting from the use of coal, combined with cold weather and a lack of wind. Thousands of people succumbed and approximately 100,000 more fell ill, urging the government to issue new regulations (e.g. the Clean Air Act of 1956) and citizens to be at their most resourceful for the sake of self-protection.

Smog mask made from an old war time gas cape, November 1953 Journalist Matti Jämsä tests an asbestos suit, 1957 - UA Saarinen TopFoto.co.uk. In Copyright Press Photo archive JOKA, Finnish Heritage Agency. In Copyright

36 37 (Un)bound At liberty, in captivity

Advancements in transport, better wages, paid holidays and the window on the world offered by television, sparked off the golden age of mass tourism in the 1950s. While in the west a shift occurred from domestic to international travel, the Eastern bloc’s favorite destination was Bulgaria, where commodities such as chocolate Lithuanian political prisoners in Inta, c. 1956 and cigarettes were easy to obtain. Europe was on the move, but Kaunas IX Fort Museum. CC BY not only for enjoyment and adventure. An unprecedented number of people left their countries in search of a job, among which 1.5 million ‘Ten Pound Poms’: British citizens opting in on the assisted passage scheme offered by the Australian government to help solve its ‘populate or perish’-issue. Entering the ‘doorway to a bright future’ costed no more than £10 and a commitment to remain in Australia for at least two years. Moving in the opposite direction, c. 500,000 workers from former British colonies relocated following the 1948 British Nationality Act. The ‘Windrush generation’ - named after the ship that transported the first Jamaican immigrants - changed the face of postwar Britain. Yet relocating was not always a voluntary move. In Italy, poverty and epidemics forced people out of rural areas in the South. In Hungary over 200,000 people fled after the 1956 revolt. In Greece, thousands were evacuated to Eastern bloc countries following the Civil War. And in , countless opponents of the Soviet regime were imprisoned in labor camps. The cautious smiles and ill-fitting clothes of these Lithuanian prisoners serve as a powerful reminder of the fact that, in Europe too, personal freedom and liberty of speech were never a given but a costly amenity.

To the land of promise, May 1954 Leaving from London to Brisbane, July 1959 TopFoto.co.uk. In Copyright TopFoto.co.uk. In Copyright

38 39 Cherchez la femme Between bouffant and boiler suit

The cigar-smoking businessman, his apron-clad wife, their cute, obedient children and an always impeccable home: in the US as well as in Western Europe, the ‘nuclear family’ was championed in the 1950s as a counterweight to the destabilization brought about by the Cold War. Radio, television and advertising jointly conveyed this ideal vision, with slogans such as ‘Father Knows Best’ and ‘Femininity Begins At Home’. Today, still, the fifties are mainly viewed as an age of conformity in which gender roles were clearly defined and uncritically adhered to. But beneath the surface, discontent with the status quo was growing. Having been part of the working force during the war, not all women were eager to return to being a wife and mother. While the baby-boom reinforced the identification of women with the relation to their husbands and children, many chose a different path. Women on both sides of the Iron Curtain started to juggle a household and a job. While in the West, brand-new kitchen appliances and smart housekeeping tools helped women to save time for professional activities, in Eastern Europe they were aided by centralized governmental services and Filming ‘Roc’ with Carme Trèmols, 1958 facilities. Still, throughout the decade social repression was a daily Ajuntament de Girona / CRDI. Copyright not evaluated reality for women all around Europe - from France, where women were not yet fully enfranchised, to the UK, where conservative postwar policies supported women in their capacity as wife and mother. Only 1.2% of the university population in the 1950s was female, while home and parenting remained to be seen as a woman’s responsibility solely. This series of photographs features women in three different guises: 53-year-old grandmother Olive Walker - Europe’s only lady sweep - representing the woman at work, a dishwashing housekeeper taking up the gauntlet for the woman at home, and actress Carme Trèmols as the glamour lady on a pedestal.

Doing the dishes with boxing gloves, 1950s - Siegfried Pilz Olive Walker, England’s only lady sweep, 1951 - George Douglas United Archives. In Copyright TopFoto.co.uk. In Copyright

40 41 Suspicious minds A continent under pressure

A festive inauguration, a jolly outing and a casual conversation: at first glance, these photographs are the epitome of the proverbial ‘Fabulous Fifties’. In reality, however, they expose some of the lingering doubts and burning suspicions that took hold of Europe. Despite a beaming proudly cutting the cord, the American Exhibition at Sokolniki park near Moscow was an extremely controversial affair, that sharpened east/west tensions. Even before the opening, fueled by conspiracy theories (McCarthyism), debate erupted over the presumed communist allegiances of some of the artists featured. Later, the exhibit’s stunning kitchen and ‘Typical American House’ displays spurred heated discussions about the misrepresentation of the Free World. The crew of a flying boat, June 1952 TopFoto.co.uk. In Copyright That nothing was clear-cut in the relationship between west and east is also attested to by the portrait of the flight crew of a Swedish Catalina. In what became known as the Catalina affair, Soviet fighter jets shot down their flying boat above international waters, as it was searching for another plane that had disappeared off the radar. It took 40 years for Sweden to admit to having breached the Soviet Frontier during a spying mission, and for the Soviets to confirm they were indeed responsible for the retaliation. Finally, things weren’t all roses between the Allies either. The fear of ‘Americanisation’ took on ‘red panic’ proportions, quite a few Western countries had strong communist movements, and post-imperial Britain struggled to find its place in the new bi-polar world. To these sailors from the American nuclear submarine Nautilus, those lingering tensions would have been completely forgotten for at least a few hours during their day out in London, heading to the Winter Garden Theatre in the enchanting company of the Folies- Bergère showgirls.

American sailors and London showgirls, August 1958 Vice-president Nixon opens the American Exhibition in Sokolniki Park, August 1959 TopFoto.co.uk. In Copyright United Archives/Sovfoto/Universal Images Group. In Copyright

42 43 The partners of the Kaleidoscope project

Katholieke Universiteit Leuven imec Interuniversitair Micro-Electronica Centrum KU Leuven CS Digital has as a main research focus Digitized Cultural Heritage and Digital Culture, in the area of imec is the world-leading R&D and innovation hub in nanoelectronics and digital technologies, comprising demand-driven Digital Humanities. In particular, CS Digital works on digitization with photographic techniques of art heritage and of and fundamental research, aiming to deliver unique solutions leveraging cross-boundary expertise in micro-electronics & digitization of photographic heritage. CS Digital works with Cultural Institutions and technology partners to push the photonics, hardware-software co-design and networks & systems. imec-ETRO-VUB has a long-standing expertise in digital adoption of imaging technologies in the GLAM sector. CS Digital technically supports the Open Journal “Image [&] imaging and video processing for medical imaging, media systems, industrial processing and digital heritage. Narrative”. https://www.imec-int.com/en/home http://www.kuleuven.be/ Stiftung Preußischer Kulturbesitz Photoconsortium - International Consortium for Photographic Heritage SPK (Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation) is an internationally renowned cultural institution and an important player in Photoconsortium is a non for profit association whose purpose is the promotion and enhancement of the culture of the humanities and the social sciences, originally founded to preserve the collections of the Prussian state as heritage for photography and the photographic heritage, including as members important institutions, agencies and photography all of Germany. The Foundation includes museums, libraries, archives, and research institutes and nowadays its collections professionals and amateurs. Photoconsortium acts as the Europeana expert hub and aggregator for photography, also have a universal character, documenting the evolution of human culture from its beginnings to the present in Europe and curating a thematic channel featuring early photography from some of Europe’s finest historical collections. on other continents. https://www.photoconsortium.net/ http://hv.spk-berlin.de/english/

Coventry University Koninklijk Instituut voor het Kunstpatrimonium - Institut Royal du Patrimoine Artistique Coventry University is a forward looking modern University, a provider of high quality education with a focus on quality The Royal Institute for Cultural Heritage is one of ten scientific institutions falling within the competence of the Federal research. The University has a reputation for excellent teaching and research, believing that arts and humanities have Ministry of Scientific Policy of Belgium. KIK-IRPA is committed to the photographic inventory, the scientific study, a transformative effect on our lives. Coventry’s new research strategy, ‘Excellence with Impact’, builds on this trend the conservation and the promotion of the country’s artistic and cultural heritage and leads a variety of initiatives for and will transform the way we conduct research by applying fresh and original approaches. educators and professionals. The Institute plays as such a key role in the promotion of heritage and the diffusion of tools http://www.coventry.ac.uk/ for researchers and the public. http://www.kikirpa.be/ Ajuntament de Girona - Centre de Recerca i Difusió de la Imatge The Centre for Image Research and Diffusion in Girona has the mission to know, to protect, to promote, to offer Topham Partners LLP - TOPFOTO and to disseminate the Image Heritage of Girona, collecting photographs and audiovisual material that reflect and TopFoto is is an independent picture library representing 10 million images, from medieval documents to today’s digital record every aspect of life of the city, from past to present. The collection has grown to currently around 3 million files being sent in from all over the world. TopFoto has educated and entertained several generations from all over the photographs, complemented by original films and thousands of hours of TV records and Radio broadcasts. world by supplying publishers with a global record of visual cultural heritage from its 20th Century photographic archive, http://www.girona.cat/sgdap/cat/index.php comprising of millions negatives and hardcopy prints, including a number of historic press agencies. https://www.topfoto.co.uk/ National Technical University of Athens - Image, Video and Intelligent Multimedia Systems Lab NTUA-IVML is a key technological contributor in the Digital Libraries domain and particularly in the Europeana Orszagos Szechenyi Konyvtar – National Széchényi Library ecosystem developments, dealing with content analysis and interoperability issues. IVML has developed the MINT tool National Széchényi Library is the eldest public library in Hungary, preserving the biggest collection of all documents published for metadata interoperability that is being used within the Europeana ecosystem, and is currently developing WITH, a in Hungary since the 1800s. The Photo Department, recently established, takes care of collecting and digitizing relevant platform dedicated to both cultural institutions and personal users that facilitates access, sharing and reuse of cultural historical photos from different funds for educational and cultural purposes. The 1956 Institute – Oral History Archive is also a heritage resources. department of the National Széchényi Library, preserving and documenting the history of the Hungarian revolution. http://www.iccs.gr/eng/ http://www.oszk.hu/ Acknowledgements

Much gratitude is owed to all the professionals and scholars who shared their knowledge and expertise during the preparation of the exhibition and of this catalogue: John Balean, Larissa Borck, Simonetta Buttò, Sara Di Giorgio, Neil Forbes, David Iglésias Franch, Frank Nikolaus Golomb, Giedrė Milerytė-Japertienė, Ismo Malinen, Elaine O’Sullivan, Rudy Pessina, Alice Tavoni, Alessandro Tosi.

Special thanks to Europeana, for making many of the photographic treasures shown here accessible through europeana.eu, and for hosting an online version of Blue skies, red panic (Autumn 2019).

Dior’s idea for the scooter girl, 5 June 1952 TopFoto.co.uk. In Copyright