Wood Analysis of An Outer Coffin Unearthed From the Qian Zhang Tomb (Ad 1535) In Wuxi of East Author(s): Guilin Zhang, Huijuan Mai, Baoshan Liu, Mark D. Merlin, Shuzhi Wang, Yiquan Li, and Hongen Jiang Source: Journal of Ethnobiology, 36(4):930-952. Published By: Society of Ethnobiology DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2993/0278-0771-36.4.930 URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.2993/0278-0771-36.4.930

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WOOD ANALYSIS OF AN OUTER COFFIN UNEARTHED FROM THE QIAN ZHANG TOMB (AD 1535) IN WUXI OF EAST CHINA

Guilin Zhang1,2, Huijuan Mai1,2, Baoshan Liu3, Mark D. Merlin4, Shuzhi Wang5, Yiquan Li3, and Hongen Jiang2,1*

A well-preserved outer coffin, several hundred years old, was discovered under waterlogged conditions in the ancient Qian Zhang Tomb located within Wuxi, an old eastern Chinese city in southern part of Jiangsu Province. Wood anatomy was employed to identify the tree species used to build this ancient outer coffin. The results showed it was constructed of sturdy Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata). In addition, gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was undertaken to examine the chemical composition of wood extract. The analysis indicates that cedrol, a sesquiterpene alcohol found in the essential oils, was the major compound of the extract and apparently a key factor responsible for the outstanding durability of this wood. A review of Chinese fir uses recorded in ancient Chinese literature is presented for historical context, along with a list of known archaeological sites that have contained remains of this conifer species in China. A hypothetical explanation for its selection as a coffin construction material by the noble family of Qian Zhang is also discussed. Keywords: Chinese fir, wood anatomy, GC-MS analysis, heartwood durability, archaeological findings

Introduction

Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata), a member of family Taxodiaceae (more recently included in Cupressaceae), is a native and relic subtropical Asian gymnosperm that has been extirpated in most areas outside of southern China since early in the Holocene (Y. Yu 1995). In this study, we consider C. lanceolata (known as Shan mu in Chinese) to be the only species in the genus Cunninghamia still extant on the Asian mainland (for multiple species arguments regarding Cunninghamia, see e.g., Chung et al. 2004; Eckenwalder 2009; Farjon 2010). Evergreen Chinese fir (C. lanceolata) trees may attain a height of 50 m with a breast height diameter up to 3 m and are still found growing spontaneously in some areas of South China, North Vietnam, and Laos. In China, this subtropical conifer is now restricted almost exclusively to areas south of the Qinling Mountains and the Yangtze River Basin, usually occurring naturally in mixed

1Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China. 2Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China. 3Cultural Heritage Conservation and Archaeological Institute of Wuxi, Wuxi, China. 4Department of Botany, University of Hawai‘i at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA. 5Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, China. *Corresponding author ([email protected]) 2016 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 931

forests at elevations between 200 to 2800 m (X. Jiang et al. 2010; Y. Lu et al. 2015). Chinese fir has a number of desirable wood properties such as even texture, uniform structure, small shrinkage, easy processing, straight grain, and long- lasting wood; these attributes, especially its persistent wood, make it a high quality timber species (Orwa et al. 2009). The heartwood of Chinese fir is indeed very resistant to decay caused by fungi and insects, including termites (Zhou 1981). To a large extent, this explains why the very durable wood of this species has been utilized in China for thousands of years (Wu 1984; Y. Yang 1998; X. Yu 1997) and is still used widely for many purposes such as lamp posts, furniture, houses, bridges, ships, pulpwood, vehicles, interior decorative materials, etc. (J. Cheng et al. 1992; X. Jiang et al. 2010). The cross-cultural, multipurpose, traditional use of Chinese fir continues to persist in China. For example, the wood of this species has been specially selected by the Dong people in Province of China for their construction of houses, bridges, and drum towers (M. Jiang 2010; B. Liu 1989). Chinese fir wood has also been one of the best building materials used in pile dwellings, such as the traditional houses built by the Zhuang people; in fact, these wooden pile dwellings are very suitable in the hot and humid Province where the Zhuang are located (Zhao 2012). Because of the diversity of material applications for which Chinese fir is used and the ecosystem services that it provides, such as its role in facilitating local water supply and organic matter storage, it has become one of the most widely cultivated timber species in southern China (Y. Lu et al. 2015; B. Wang et al. 2007). By the end of the twentieth century, the plantation forests of Chinese fir covered more than 9.11 million ha in China, where it amounted to about 240 million m3 of forest stock volume and provided approximately 20–25% of the commercial wood used in the entire country (Lei 2005; M. Li and Ritchie 1999). Detailed archaeological and archaeobotanical evidence for the ancient uses of Chinese fir are listed in chronological order in Table 1 and shown in Figure 1. These discoveries support our contention that there has been a long history of Chinese fir use. For example, 31 small, thin wooden boards made of Chinese fir were found in Bashidang, an early Neolithic site in Hunan Province dated to about 8000 BP; these very old wooden artifacts have holes drilled through them and are believed to have served as special objects used in ancient religious rituals (S. Z. Wang and L. Wang 2006). Another example of early Chinese fir use involves seven carbonized logs that were probably used as poles in house construction; these ancient Chinese fir wood relics were discovered more than 50 years ago in an archaeological site at Xiubeishan in Province and dated to the late Neolithic period (Qin et al. 1962). More recently, 46 boat-shaped coffins made of Chinese fir were recovered from the Lizhouao graveyards in Jiangxi and dated to the Eastern Zhou dynasty (770 BC–256 BC; see Pan et al. 2013). During the Han dynasty (206 BC–AD 220), most of the archaeological remains of ancient Chinese fir wood, like those under discussion here, are artifacts utilized in coffin production. Striking evidence of this special coffin construction use during the Han Dynasty is represented by a well-preserved outer coffin more than 2000 years old which was discovered in the famous Mawangdui Han Tombs in Hunan Province (HPM and IACASS 1972). The wood of this large Chinese fir burial artifact has 932 Table 1. Chronological list of Chinese Fir remains in archaeological contexts in China.

Period Site Province Wood anatomy research Artifacts and utilization Reference

1 Early Neolithic Bashidang Hunan Yes 31 wooden boards with holes Wang and Wang drilled through them. 2006 2 Late Neolithic Xiushuishanbei Jiangxi Identified professionally, Seven carbonized poles, Qin et al. 1962 only results provided; probably used for house figure and description construction. absent. 3 Late Neolithic Qianshanyang Zhejiang Identified professionally, Unknown ZPCRAI 1960 only results provided; figure and description absent. 4 Late Shang dynasty (1600 Mangzhang Henan No Bottom boards of a coffin. XACR and CCL 1981

BC–1046 BC) al. et ZHANG 5 Middle Eastern Zhou dynasty Guixi Jiangxi Identified professionally, Coffins and woodenwares. Y. Cheng and Liu (770 BC–256 BC) only results provided; 1980 figure and description absent. 6 Eastern Zhou dynasty (770 Lizhouao Jiangxi Yes More than 40 boat-shaped Pan et al. 2013 BC–256 BC) coffins. 7 Late period of Warring States Moutuo No Wooden boards, handles of QTMM and ICRA (476 BC–221 BC) dagger-axes and halberds. 1994 8 During the Qin dynasty (221 Jiashan Sichuan No A small round woodenware. ATAPAOA and BC–207 BC) to the early CCLC 1987 Han dynasty (206 BC–AD 220) 9 Han dynasty (206 BC–AD Suzhou Jiangsu No Five layer wooden poles. X. M. Lu and Qian 220) 2006 10 Early years of the Western Yangzhou Jiangsu No Two mallets, a wooden board, Xue et al. 2010 o.3,N.4 No. 36, Vol. Han dynasty (206 BC–AD and five boxes of sealing clay. 24) 11 Around 168 BC in the early Mawangdui Hunan Yes Outer coffins and a sealed box. RIWIJP 1973 Western Han dynasty (206 BC–AD 24) 2016 Table 1. Continued.

Period Site Province Wood anatomy research Artifacts and utilization Reference

12 Early Western Han dynasty Tuanshan Jiangsu No Two coffins. M. Zhang et al. 1992 (206 BC–AD 24) 13 Early Western Han dynasty Xiangbizui Hunan No A pile of wood for coffin Shan and Xiong 1981 (AD 206–AD 24) construction. 14 Early Western Han dynasty Shazitang Hunan No A single coffin. Gao and Zhang 1963 (AD 206–AD 24) 15 Early Western Han dynasty Luobowan I Guangxi No Bottom board and cover plate of T. Jiang et al. 1978 (206 BC–AD 24) a coffin, two scabbards, ETHNOBIOLOGY OF JOURNAL carvings, five wooden slips, and two seal boxes. 16 Western Han dynasty (206 Nanyuegongyuan Guangdong Yes Boards covering stone water S. Z. Wang and BC–AD 24); Southern Han canal; and boards and poles Wang 2008 dynasty (917 BC–971 BC) for protecting the river bank. 17 Western Han dynasty (206 Fengliuling Guangxi No Bottom boards of a coffin. He and Zhang 1984 BC–AD 24) 18 Western Han dynasty (206 Luobowan II Guangxi No An outer coffin. Lan and Tan 1982 BC–AD 24) 19 Western Han dynasty (206 Xuqiancun Jiangsu No Two coffins. S. M. Wang et al. BC–AD 24) 2007 20 Middle and late Western Han Pingshan Jiangsu No Wooden sculptures. Yin 1987 dynasty (206 BC–AD 24) 21 Late Western Han dynasty Yizheng Jiangsu No Bottom board and cover boards Q. J. Wang et al. 1987 (AD 5) of a coffin. 22 Last years of the Western Shendingling Guangxi No Two spoons and a coffin. Chen and Chen 2006 Han dynasty (206 BC–AD 24) 23 Between the later Western Tianchang Anhui Yes Timber for supporting coffins. Tang et al. 1979 Han dynasty (206 BC–AD 24) and early years of the Eastern Han dynasty (AD

25–AD 220) 933 934

Table 1. Continued.

Period Site Province Wood anatomy research Artifacts and utilization Reference

24 Between the later Western Hezhangkele Guizhou No A coffin. GPM 1986 Han dynasty (206 BC–AD 24) and early years of the Eastern Han dynasty (AD 25–AD 220) 25 Eastern Han dynasty (AD 25– Majiagudui Anhui No Two wooden scabbards. APICRA and SXM AD 220) 1966 26 Wu State (AD 222–AD 280), Zoumalou Hunan Yes A large number of wooden slips. Song and He 1999 one of the Three Kingdoms 27 Tang dynasty (AD 618–AD Suixi Anhui Yes Planks of a ship. Shao et al. 2003 907) al. et ZHANG 28 Tang dynasty (AD 618–AD Yonganpu No Bottom planks of a coffin. D. Li 2005 907) 29 Five dynasties (AD 618–AD Yuemachang Hubei No One spoon and two wooden WM 1998 907) sculptures. 30 End of Five dynasties (AD Yangzhou Jiangsu No Bottom and side boards of a Z. B. Li 1999 906–AD 960) coffin. 31 Southern Tang dynasty (AD Nanjing Jiangsu No 15 wooden sculptures. S. L. Li 2004 937–AD 975) of the Ten Nations 32 Song dynasty (AD 960–AD Ningbo Zhejiang No Hull planks of a ship. Xi and He 1981 1279) 33 Song dynasty (AD 960–AD Xianfeng Hubei No Coffins in cliff tombs. X. N. Wang 1998 1279) 34 Northern Song dynasty (AD Jinghai Tianjin No Bottom planks of a ship. D. Ma 1983

960–AD 1127) 4 No. 36, Vol. 35 Northern Song dynasty (AD Jiangyin Jiangsu No 33 wooden sculptures, a title SZM and CCJ 1982 960–AD 1127) deed for land, an altar, and an arm-chair. 36 About AD 1000–AD 1850 Huishui Guizhou No Coffins in cave tombs K. Luo 1991 2016 Table 1. Continued.

Period Site Province Wood anatomy research Artifacts and utilization Reference

37 Southern Song dynasty (AD Ningbo Zhejiang Yes Planks of a ship. Chen 2008 1127–AD 1279) 38 Last years of the Southern Quanzhouwan No Side planks, hull plates, and CGES 1975 Song dynasty (AD 1127– bulkhead of a ship. AD 1279) 39 Yuan dynasty (AD 1271–AD Heze Shandong No Body of a ship. Sun 2011 1368) 40 Yuan dynasty (AD 1271–AD Penglai Shandong No Outside plating of a warship. X. Yuan 1990 ETHNOBIOLOGY OF JOURNAL 1368) 41 Yuan dynasty (AD 1271–AD Nantong Jiangsu Yes Deck, breast board, and separate Y. Xu et al. 1995 1368) board for ship building. 42 Yuan dynasty (AD 1271–AD Nankaihe Hebei No Base plates of three ships. Zhu 1978 1368) 43 Early Ming dynasty (AD Xiangshan Zhejiang No Mast, side, and base planks. Chu 1998 1368–AD 1644) 44 Ming dynasty (AD 1368–AD Huaian Jiangsu No A coffin. Wei and Liu 1987 1644) 45 Ming dynasty (AD 1368–AD Liangshan Shandong Yes Wood for building many parts of Feng et al. 2013 1644) a ship. 46 Ming dynasty (AD 1368–AD Penglai Shandong Identified professionally, Side plates of a warship. X. Yuan 2007 1644) only results provided; figure and description absent. 47 Middle Ming dynasty (AD Wuxi Jiangsu Yes An outer coffin. The present study 1368–AD 1644) 48 Wanli period of the Ming Jiading Shanghai No Cover boards of a coffin. Huang 2011 dynasty (AD 1573–AD 1620) 49 Between the Ming and Qing Huaianli Jiangsu No Row of wooden pillars used to G. Liu et al. 2012 dynasties (AD 1368–AD reinforce dam and wharf.

1912) 935 936 ZHANG et al. Vol. 36, No. 4

Figure 1. Distribution of Chinese fir based on Jiang et al. (2010) and the locations of ancient archaeological sites in China, in accordance with the order in Table 1. been dated to 5406150 BC, while the tomb was thought to have been built as late as 168 BC (HPM and IACASS 1974). In this case, the wood chosen to be used in coffin construction appears to have been buried and well stored in its natural state after a sudden geological event such as an earthquake or flood, for about 267–477 years prior to its use in the Mawangdui Han Tomb burial. This kind of wood was commonly considered as ‘‘buried wood,’’ which is a very rare and valuable material used traditionally by the nobility for their coffin construction (Hou et al. 2001, 2002). During more recent periods in East Asia, related archaeological reports for ancient Chinese fir use in southeast China refer primarily to ship and boat manufacturing, especially during the Song dynasty (AD 960–AD 1279). Although additional archaeological reports indicate that Chinese fir was also used in early times for the production of furniture, sculpture items, and ornaments, we draw attention here to the continuous use of conifer species in ancient Chinese burials. Luxurious entombment was a popular funeral custom among relatively wealthy people in ancient China; indeed, throughout a long historical period, timber selection was one of the more important aspects of funeral preparation for rich Chinese (L. Li 2007; S. Z. Wang 2012). For example, Huangchangticou tomb, an underground wooden palace discovered in the Dabaotai Han Tomb of Beijing, was constructed of the durable wood of Cupressus funebris, another conifer species (known as Bai mu in Chinese) which is native to southwestern and central 2016 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 937

China. The Huangchangticou wooden palace tomb was stacked elaborately with nearly 15,000 pieces of timber, each in a cuboid shape of 10 cm in width and height and 90 cm in length; presumably, these pieces of ancient lumber were stored for future use in casket construction or other burial needs (CRRIB 1977). Although the use of Chinese fir in the production of coffins was highly favored during the Han dynasty (Table 1), similar use of this wood has been sparsely reported archaeologically for sites dated to periods following the Han dynasty. Furthermore, only limited written references to this custom have been found in Chinese historical records. In order to test our hypotheses that the wood of Chinese fir was still being used by the nobility for coffin making during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 A.D.), we investigated a recently discovered wooden outer coffin (known as Guo in Chinese) about 500 years old. This ancient coffin was found well preserved under waterlogged conditions in the Qian Zhang Tomb which is located in Wuxi, an old city in southern part of Jiangsu Province. The woody species from which timber was used to make the ancient outer coffin was identified by using standard wood anatomical methods. In addition, after investigating the lists of the archaeological discoveries of Chinese fir remains (Table 1), the reasons why Chinese fir wood has such a long history of use in coffin production also drew our attention. We assume that the durability of the wood chosen for use in coffin construction was a very important factor under consideration by the ancient coffin builders and, to a large extent, the enduring quality of the timber used depended upon the bioactive constituents of the heartwood. Therefore, in order to test our assumption, we extracted the essential oils contained in the coffin wood of the Wuxi burial and then identified the chemical components of these oils using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to evaluate their potential role in the long term durability of the ancient Chinese fir coffin.

Site Description The Qian Zhang Tomb, an ancient, elaborate, joint burial grave, is located on a mound in Hongshan Town of Wuxi City, Jiangsu Province (Figure 2). The tomb was excavated by the Cultural Heritage Conservation and Archaeological Institute of Wuxi in 2012. In this joint grave, archaeologists discovered the remains of a married couple (Qian Zhang, the husband, AD 1487–AD 1507 and Mrs. Hua, his wife, AD 1484–AD 1529) who were buried together in their family graveyard in AD 1535. The Qian Zhang Tomb was found intact after being under waterlogged conditions and poured over by layers of slurry made from rice paste, lime, and coarse sand (Figures 3 and 4). The Qian Zhang tomb consisted of two burial chambers. The occupant of the chamber on the east side was Mrs. Hua, the wife, whose hair crown contained a rich assortment of gold and silver accessories. Between the inner coffin and the inner portion of the stone wall of her burial chamber there was an outer coffin made of wood (Figures 3 and 4). This appears to have helped keep her clothes well preserved. On the other hand, the clothing on Mrs. Hua’s husband, Qian Zhang, was found in poor condition, probably due to a lack of an outer coffin in his burial chamber on the west side of the tomb. However, some burial objects, 938 ZHANG et al. Vol. 36, No. 4

Figure 2. The local area of the Qian Zhang Tomb in southern Jiangsu Province where an ancient wooden outer coffin made of durable Chinese fir was recently discovered (see also Figure 1). instead of an outer coffin, were found between the chamber wall and the single coffin that contained Qian Zhang (Figure 4). Most of the ancient burial objects in the two chambers, except the textiles on the corpse of Qian Zhang, were found in good condition. A total of 100 funerary objects were discovered in the burial tomb, including wooden utensils, tin crafts, bullion articles, copper wares, ceramics, textiles, etc. (Figure 3). Two epitaphs found in the Qian Zhang burial tomb recorded the life histories of the couple, including the dates of their births and deaths. Using these two ancient epitaphs along with other inscriptions discovered in six additional tombs nearby, the Qian Family is assumed to have belonged to a noble class that was a prominent and thriving group in the local area during the time they were living (Zou et al. 2007). The cumulative epitaph information provides considerable documentation regarding the folk customs affecting the social and cultural life of Wuxi City nearly 500 years ago.

Material and Methods

The two inner coffins and one outer coffin of the Qian Zhang tomb in Wuxi were composed of a few thick wood planks (Figures 3 and 4). Based on careful examination of the ancient coffins, the archaeologists concluded that the wood planks of these caskets were made of one type of wood material. In order to preserve the integrity of inner coffins, a wood specimen of adequate dimensions 2016 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 939

Figure 3. (1) Part of Mrs. Hua’s coffin was found under waterlogged conditions: (a) the outer coffin (with top of outer coffin removed); (b) the inner coffin. (2) The exquisite tin and bronze artifacts found in Mrs. Hua’s inner coffin. (3) The delicate silver and gold ornaments found in Mrs. Hua’s inner coffin.

Figure 4. Two line drawings of the Qian Zhang Tomb with two burial chambers; an outer coffin, only found in Mrs. Hua’s burial chamber, is shown outlined in reddish color. (1) An overhead view of the burial tomb; the western occupant (on the left) was Mr. Qian Zhang, and the eastern one (on the right) was his wife, Mrs. Hua. (2) Profile figure of the tomb: (a) slurry layer; (b) stone walls; (c) the outer coffin in Mrs. Hua’s burial chamber; (d) inner coffins. 940 ZHANG et al. Vol. 36, No. 4

was extracted from the outer coffin of Mrs. Hua found in the tomb. An anatomical examination of this wood specimen was conducted to identify the woody species from which the outer coffin was made. In addition, GC-MS analysis was carried out to determine the chemical constituents of the extracted wood specimen.

Wood Anatomy The extracted wood block specimen was 0.5 cm3. It was subsequently subsampled and then boiled discontinuously for two days. Later, the specimen was sectioned on a sliding freezing microtome Leica CM3050 S at 15 lm intervals. The sections were then stained with a 1% solution of safranin. Transverse, tangential, and radial sections were prepared and mounted on slides. The transverse section was observed under a Leica DM2500 microscope at 100 magnifications. The tangential and radial sections were observed with the same microscope at 200 magnifications. In order to determine additional detailed features of the wood anatomy, the radial sections were mounted on a tube and sputter-coated. The prepared samples were then carefully examined and photographed under a Zeiss EVO MA 25 scanning electron microscope (SEM) at an accelerating voltage of 10 kv. The botanical terminologies used in the descriptions of secondary xylem are based on J. Cheng et al. (1992), IAWA Committee (2004), and X. Jiang et al. (2010).

GC-MS Analysis The techniques of GC-MS extraction and analysis were designed with special concern for the valuable and rare ancient wood samples. A 20 mg ancient wood sample was put in a 5 ml tube and then a 1 ml solution of chloroform and methyl alcohol (2:1) was added to obtain the chemical components. The tube was subsequently centrifuged for 20 minutes. Following that procedure, the liquid was filtered and then transferred into an auto- sampling vial for GC-MS analysis. GC-MS analysis was carried out with a 7890N gas chromatograph and a 5975C mass detector (Agilent Technologies) under MSD Chemstation. Exper- imental methods applied on the wood samples included the following: for the GC part, an HP-5 (20 m 3 0.20 mm 3 0.33 lm) column was used; the initial oven temperature was maintained at 60 8C for 2 minutes and programmed to increase attherateof58C/min to 140 8C (equilibrium 2 minutes), then to 200 8Cat2 8C/min (equilibrium 2 minutes), and from 200 8Cto2808Cat108C/min (equilibrium 5 minutes); helium was used as the carrier gas at a 1 ml/minute flow rate; the injector temperature was set at 260 8C; and the sample (1 ll) was injected with a 10:1 split ratio. For MS conditions, mass spectra were recorded, ranging from 40 to 650 amu, with an ion source temperature of 230 8C, ionization energy of 70 ev, and solvent was set to delay 5 minutes. For the data search, the compounds were identified using NIST MS search software (version 2.0f) and AMDIS software within the database of the NIST 08 Mass Spectral Library (Stephen 2008). 2016 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 941

Figure 5. (1) Transverse section of Chinese fir, showing growth ring and longitudinal parenchymas. Scale measure ¼ 500 lm. (2) Tangential section, showing uniseriate ray cells. Scale measure ¼ 200 lm. (3) Radial section, showing taxodioid cross-field pits. Scale measure ¼ 50 lm. (4) Radical section, showing one row and two rows of bordered pits in the radial tracheid walls. Scale measure ¼ 50 lm.

Experimental Results

Microscopic Anatomy On the traverse section, the growth ring boundaries are distinct, with an abrupt transition from early to late wood; axial resin canals are absent and the longitudinal parenchyma are diffuse (Figure 5.1). On the tangential section, uniseriate rays are 2–12 plus cells high (Figure 5.2). The radial section has rays which are composed exclusively of ray parenchyma (ray tracheids are absent); bordered pits in the axial tracheid walls occur mostly in one row, occasionally in pairs; cross-field pitting is taxodioid, mostly 2–4 pits per cross field and horizontally ranked; and helical thickenings are absent (Figures 5.3 and 5.4). In sum, the features of wood anatomy described above indicate that the wood used to make the outer coffin in Qian Zhang Tomb can be identified as Chinese fir. This discovery provided physical evidence demonstrating the lengthy and ongoing 942 ZHANG et al. Vol. 36, No. 4

Figure 6. Total ion chromatograph of ancient Chinese fir extract (retention time 0–30 min). tradition of Chinese fir use by ancient Chinese people to make sturdy coffins, especially among upper classes and at least as late as the sixteenth century AD.

GC-MS Analysis A total ion chromatogram (TIC) of the wood extract of ancient Chinese fir is shown in Figure 6. The chemical constituents of the extract were determined by comparison of the detected data of mass spectra with those recorded in the NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology) database. On the basis of the GC-MS analysis, a total of 23 compounds were identified and shown in Table 2. The major, and perhaps the most significant, chemical component identified in the wood extract is cedrol, followed by L-camphor and a-cedrene. Our findings are in agreement with those of X. X. Lu and Wang (1986), Tan et al. (2013), and Ye et al. (2005), who also identified cedrol as the main constituent of the Chinese fir essential oils.

Discussion

The woody parts of tree and shrub species, including their heartwood, vary in their durability over time. The woody mass of some species is easily depleted by wood fungi and insects, while the wood mass of others possesses high degrees of natural durability. Results of many extractive studies indicate that the chemical composition of essential oils of a specific heartwood contribute significantly to the strength and longevity of its resistance to decay by fungi and insects. The woody species that these studies have focused on include both coniferous and broadleaf tree species. Some of the conifers that have been investigated for essential oil constituents include western red cedar (Thuja plicata, see Debell et al. 1997; Morris and Stirling 2012; Taylor et al. 2006), eastern white cedar (Thuja 2016 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 943

Table 2. Chemical constituents extracted from ancient Chinese fir wood coffin found in the Qian Zhang Tomb in Wuxi, China.

Retention Molecular Peak No. time (min) formula Compound

1 9.958 C10H16O Fenchone 2 11.546 C10H16O L-Camphor 3 12.138 C10H18O Borneol 4 12.824 C10H18O a-Terpinol 5 15.219 C10H22 3-ethyl-3-methylheptane 6 18.359 C8H8O3 Isovanillin 7 18.866 C15H24 a-Cedrene 8 19.108 C15H24 b-Cubebene 9 19.822 C15H26 Isopatchoulane 10 20.481 C20H34 2(Feuch-2-yl) fenchane 11 21.894 C15H22 a-Curcumene 12 21.961 C14H22O 2,5-Di-tert-butylphenol 13 22.338 C15H26 Neoclovene 14 22.472 C15H22 Calamenene 15 23.401 C15H26O Elemol 16 25.191 C12H14O2 3.4-dihydro-4.5.7-trimethy-Coumarin 17 25.433 C15H26O Cedrol 18 26.536 C15H26O Guaiol 19 27.478 C15H26O Cubenol 20 26.792 C15H26O Agarospirol 21 27.034 C15H22O Aristolone 22 28.407 C15H18 Cadalene 23 29.537 C14H18O 1.2.3.4-tetrahydro-3-isopropyl-5-methyl-1-oxonaphthalene occidentalis, see Mohareb et al. 2013; Wan et al. 2007; D. Yang et al. 2011), eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana, see Eller et al. 2010; Mun and Prewitt 2011), Alaska yellow cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis, see Taylor et al. 2006), Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica, see S. Cheng et al. 2005), Taiwania (Taiwania cryptomerioides, see Chang et al. 1999, 2001), and ginko (Ginkgo biloba, see L. Zhang 2009). Among the broad-leaved tree species that have been investigated for essential oil constituents, are black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia, see Smith et al. 1989), teak (Tectona grandis, see Krishna and Nair 2010; Rudman et al. 1958), wild siris (Maackia amurensis, see W. Su 2006), camphor tree (Cinnamomum camphora, see Hashimoto et al. 1997; Q. Li et al. 2013), and African padauk (Pterocarpus soyauxii, see Nzokou and Kamdem 2003). In addition, chemical extracts of naturally resistant heartwood have been used to treat the heartwood of normally susceptible species as an artificial means of inhibiting decay due to fungi and insects. In some cases, the durability of the treated non-durable wood can be promoted to a high level using this impregnation technique and consequently the service life of impregnated wood will be extended. For example, in one experimental study (Kamdem 1994), wooden blocks of aspen (Populus spp.) were impregnated with methanol extracts from three durable heartwood species, including black locust (Robinia psendoa- cacia), osage orange (Maclura pomifera), and western red cedar (Thuja plicata). When the concentration of the extracts was at 10%, the treated aspen timbers 944 ZHANG et al. Vol. 36, No. 4

were exposed to decay fungi. As a result, mass loss was reduced by 95% compared to normal loss by non-treated aspen timbers. Due to their high durability, certain heartwoods were used frequently in ancient times as material for various types of construction, including shipbuilding and coffin making (Deng 1979; Z. Li 2004; Meiggs 1982). Chinese fir has been grouped with those species of wood noted for durable heartwood and widely used to produce long lasting wood products. The physical durability of Chinese fir has also been extensively studied through laboratory analyses (e.g., Freitag and Morrell 2006; X. X. Lu et al. 1987; S. Xu et al. 2012; Yan 2004; Ye et al. 2005; Zhong et al. 2011; Zhou 1981). In tests of wood plastic composites (WPC) made of six different wood species’ flour, including flour derived from Chinese fir, against five species of mold fungi as well as termites, the WPC made of Chinese fir was the most resistant to decay (K. Xu et al. 2015). After the WPC of Chinese fir was exposed to the five species of wood fungi over a four-week period, the internal and external regions of the Chinese fir wood were only rarely colonized by these fungi. In addition, during the 12 weeks of termite tests, very few holes and cavities were produced by termites in the Chinese fir wood WPC. Furthermore, at the end of this experiment, Chinese fir WPC had the least mass loss among the wood flours tested (K. Xu et al. 2015). The anti-fungal and anti-termite properties of Chinese fir rely mainly on the essential oils in its heartwood. Indeed, scientific investigations of the bioactivity of these oils have demonstrated their important role in maintaining the durability of woody material produced by Chinese fir. Relevant research indicates that when the essential oils of this species are removed out of the heartwood, the durability of the extracted heartwood substantially decreases; in contrast, tests have shown that the essential oils of Chinese fir can provide non-durable sapwood of Pinus massoniana with significant repellent protection against microbial fungi and termites (X. X. Lu et al. 1987). Therefore, essential oils of Chinese fir could serve as a potentially useful natural agent of a wood preservative. Several scientific attempts to isolate and characterize the chemical compo- nents of the essential oils of Chinese fir have been conducted (e.g., Fu 2007; Lu and Wang 1986; Tan et al. 2013; J. Wang et al. 2011; S. Xu et al. 2012; Yan 2004; Ye et al. 2005; Zhong 2012). The results suggest that the essential oils are mainly composed of terpenes and their oxygenated derivatives, along with a variety of functional groups which provide the wood of this tree species with anti-decay, anti-fungal, and anti-termite capabilities. In these compounds, cedrol is the most abundant component and crucial in providing superior biodegradation resis- tance. Cunninghamia konishii, the other species of genus Cunninghamia, native to the island of Taiwan, is closely related to the species of C. lanceolate (Chinese fir). The components of the essential oils produced by C. konishii trees are very similar to those produced by C. lanceolate (S. Cheng et al. 2011). Only 100 ug/ml cedrol of C. konishii heartwood effectively suppress the growth of common wood fungi and plant pathogens (S. Cheng et al. 2011). GC-MS analysis of the present study shows that cedrol is also the major component in the wood extracted from Chinese fir (Figure 6; Table 2). Apart from cedrol, the presence of a-cedrene and a-terpineol in Chinese fir heartwood also seems to have a role in the inhibition of 2016 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 945

wood fungi growth. These two chemical constitutes may help enhance the durability of Chinese fir heartwood (S. Cheng et al. 2011; Xu et al. 2012). To date, 49 archaeological findings of Chinese fir have been reported in China (Table 1). In each of these discoveries, the wood of Chinese fir was used predominantly in coffin construction, a burial custom passed down from one Chinese dynasty to another. Why has the wood of Chinese fir been selected so often for building coffins of the elite in China? The principal incentive has been most likely for its durability and indirectly for its role as a status symbol. In China, woody species are widely distributed in the subtropical and tropical monsoon zone of southern part of China, where the warm and moist climate provides favorable natural conditions for their growth (Z. Li 2004). However, woody material is generally susceptible to degradation caused by fungi and/or insects in warm and moist environments (J. Wang et al. 2011). Therefore, relative natural resistance to rot and insects such as termites are crucial wood characteristics that would have been taken into consideration when making decisions about the choice of timber to be used in coffin production. Chinese fir has a strong reputation for producing naturally durable heartwood which is resistant to wood decay by fungi and insects (X. X. Lu et al. 1987). Therefore, in many cases over a very long period of time, timbers of Chinese fir have been preferably selected as a major wood material for coffin making. The discoveries of wooden Chinese fir artifacts that are older than the time of the Han Dynasty (202 BC–AD 220) in China have been relatively rare (Table 1). Prior to the rise of the Han Dynasty, Chinese fir and other types of wood were likely to have been obtained casually from woody species growing in the local regions where ancient peoples commonly lived. The number of excavated coffins made of Chinese fir wood dated to the Han Dynasty is significantly larger than those constructed during earlier times in China (Table 1). Then in AD 300, relatively soon after the end of the Han Dynasty, the anti-fungal and anti-termite characteristics, as well as the construction utility of Chinese fir, were first described by Guopu in the Er’ya dictionary (Guo 1957). Subsequently, other ancient Chinese books also referred to the long lasting wood of Chinese fir. For example, the Tu Jing Ben Cao recorded the superior durability quality of Chinese fir in AD 1061 (see S. Su et al. 1988); other examples of ancient literary works referring to the durability of Chinese fir heartwood include the Liu Shu Gu (AD 1275, see Dai 2007), the Ben Cao Gang Mu (AD 1590, see S. Z. Li 1988), the Qun Fang Pu (AD 1621, see X. J. Wang and Yi 1985) and the San Nong Ji (AD 1760, see Z. Zhang and Zou 1989). These important historical documents enriched the understanding of the high durability of Chinese fir, and the knowledge was passed from one generation to another. During the Ming Dynasty (AD 1368–AD 1644), Chinese fir wood was well-known for its durability and was used to make coffins, ships, and furniture, as well as to build houses and bridges (Q. Luo 2014). It can be surmised that Chinese fir wood, with its excellent decay resistance, was consciously selected by the elite for coffin construction when the Mawangdui Han Tomb was constructed in Han Dynasty (Hou et al. 2001, 2002; HPM and IACASS 1974) and, therefore, it can be reasonably deduced that the superior durability of Chinese fir wood continued to be recognized at least as late as the Ming Dynasty. During this dynasty, different anti-decay technologies 946 ZHANG et al. Vol. 36, No. 4

were consciously applied in the burials of the elite (Huo 1987). For example, the juice of sticky rice was added to lime for infilling the external solid shells of tombs, which reinforced the sealing function of tombs. Well known, valuable timbers of high quality derived from woody species, such as Phoebe spp., were popularly selected to construct coffins. Various desiccants, such as charcoals, lime, cottons, saw powders, and plant ashes, were put in coffins to ensure dry conditions over time (Huo 1987). Although the techniques mentioned above were primarily utilized to retard the decay of the human bodies placed in their tombs, some burial objects, especially those composed of organic material, such as clothes, textiles, and wooden wares, indirectly benefited from the artificial anti- decay methods and consequently were relatively well preserved. In the present study, we have offered a hypothesis for differential preservation of some artifacts in the burial tomb of an ancient elite couple who died about 500 years ago. According to the records from the epitaphs discovered in the Qian Zhang Tomb, the couple, Mr. Qian Zhang (AD 1487–AD 1507) and Mrs. Hua (AD 1484–AD 1529), were buried in an earlier, different tomb before they were re-buried together in the present Qian Zhang Tomb in AD 1535. All the coffins and clothes of the couple were definitely renewed during the interment of their latter second burial. Although the elite husband and wife were buried together at the same time in their second and final tomb, entirely under the same sealed chamber and water-logged environments and with the inner and outer coffins of Mrs. Hua and the inner coffin of Mr. Qian Zhang appearing to be made of wood of the same tree species according to the archaeologists who excavated this tomb, the preserved condition of Mrs. Hua’s clothes was distinctly better than that of Mr. Qian Zhang. This result is most likely attributed to Mrs. Hua’s outer coffin, which was constructed of highly durable Chinese fir wood, as opposed to the absence of an outer coffin in Mr. Qian Zhang’s chamber (Figures 3 and 4). As noted above, wood selection has long been a status symbol of the deceased in some cultures. For example, according to a report of comparative wood use in late prehistoric sites discovered in the Andean Mantaro Valley of Peru, the elite groups had higher amounts of wood than the common people and even imported one type of timber from a long distance away. In that case, people of the noble class had greater selective access to valuable wood resources (Hastorf et al. 2005). In China, due to the custom of using luxurious funeral materials in high status burial tombs, valuable timbers have been extensively used by the nobility since ancient times. For instance, precious wood like gold phoebe (Phoebe spp. in the Lauraceae) was only used by royal households for imperial mausoleums, palace construction, and furniture making during the Ming (AD 1368–AD 1644) and Qing (AD 1644–AD 1912) dynasties (B. Ma 2010). Wood of Phoebe, as well as fragrant rosewood (Dalbergia odorifera) and Burmese rosewood (Pterocapus indicus), is recognized as superior material for coffin and furniture construction even up to modern times. In the present study, we have documented the presence and significant durability of coffin construction involving Chinese fir used by the local nobility of the Qian Family. For this rich group, timber of Chinese fir would have been available for cutting and 2016 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 947

gathering locally or it could have been conveniently transported with the developed river network adjacent to the graveyard at the time of the burials.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Lee Newsom and two other anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments. We also thank Dr. Zhaoxia Zhang for her kind help with the SEM analysis. This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 41672171), as well as the special support fund for young scientists of scientific history studies (Y529027EA2).

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