the evolution of French-language education in Educational guide, community version Table of contents

THE BIRTH OF FRENCH-LANGUAGE EDUCATION (1618-1840) New France steeped in Catholicism and French...... 4 Conflict between two empires...... 4 Access to education...... 4 A question of religion ...... 4 Ryerson’s role and tolerance...... 4 British imperialism and growing tensions...... 4

THE ABOLITION OF FRENCH IN SCHOOLS AND ITS MODEST RESURGENCE (1840-1963) The exodus of French ...... 5 The role of religious communities in the West...... 5 Creation of Canada: no guarantees for outside Québec...... 5 Tensions between the Irish clergy and Francophones...... 5 Double taxation ...... 5 The resistance of the Acadiens ...... 5 Bilingual Manitoba resists...... 6 The West hostile to French instruction...... 6 Ineffective measures in ...... 6 The resistance of the French Canadian clergy...... 6 French Canadians rally together...... 6 The atmosphere of good relationships ...... 6 Regulation 17 ...... 7 The first disconnect between language and faith...... 7 The end of Regulation 17 ...... 7 School transportation and the education of an Acadian elite...... 7

THE EMERGENCE OF FRENCH-LANGUAGE SCHOOLS (1963-1982) The height of Francophonie in Ontario...... 8 Religion’s decline and strides by the State...... 8 Bilinguism and biculturalism...... 8 Official languages and multiculturalism ...... 8 Institutional gains in Ontario...... 8 Institutional gains in the Atlantic region...... 8 Institutional gains elsewhere in Canada...... 8

TOWARDS EQUITY IN EDUCATION (since 1982) Section 23...... 9 Catholic schools and public schools...... 9 A series of legal victories...... 9 The generalization of French school boards...... 9 New possibilities for Francophone minorities ...... 10 French-language schools on Canada’s 150th birthday...... 10 THE BIRTH OF FRENCH-LANGUAGE EDUCATION (1618-1840) THE ABOLITION OF FRENCH IN SCHOOLS AND ITS MODEST RESURGENCE (1840-1963)

New France steeped in Catholicism and French The exodus of French Canadians During the period of colonization, Francophone identity revolved foremost around the Catholic religion. Although Between 1840 and 1930, French Canadians left Québec in droves, heading to Ontario, the United States and Western several dialects were still used in France, the spread quickly in New France as it was the only Canada to find work or land that could be cleared. The arrival of members of the Franco-European clergy, in the common language among the settlers. French-language education, provided by clerics, was offered to a limited Prairies for example, led to the foundation of parishes and colleges outside Québec which boosted the literacy rate number of individuals. The goal of education at the time was to allow settlers to function on a daily basis. among French Canadians . Conflict between two empires The role of religious communities in the West Acadie was the first territory of New France to be ceded to the . During the Great Upheaval of 1755, French Canadians settled in the West despite the fact it was not yet part of the Confederation . French-language thousands of Acadiens were deported to British colonies. In 1758, Louisbourg, a French naval base, fishing harbour elementary schools, established by nuns (Grey Nuns, Sisters of Charity, Daughters of Providence) served not only and commercial centre, was attacked by 13,000 British soldiers and its inhabitants were deported to France. This French Canadians, but the Métis and Cree people as well. period saw the suspension of French-language education in Acadie . Creation of Canada: no guarantees for French Canadians outside Québec The rest of New France was ceded to Great Britain in 1763. Seeking to obtain the population’s loyalty, the British Upon the creation of Canada in 1867, Québec became an officially bilingual province, but the constitution at the time Empire allowed Canadians to preserve the practice of Catholicism and the use of the French language, among other provided no linguistic guarantees in the other provinces: Ontario, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia afforded the things . French language no guarantees. The constitution did however protect Catholic schools in Québec and Ontario. But one will have to wait until 1982 for French to be recognized as an official language within the federal government, Access to education Québec and New Brunswick. At the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th centuries, the colonies and territories of North America that belonged to Great Britain (including today’s Ontario, Québec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and Nova Tensions between the Irish clergy and Francophones Scotia) wanted to provide primary schooling to all of His Majesty’s subjects. The first laws governing education were During the second half of the 19th century, the strong link between language and faith among Francophones created passed. Education, aimed at turning out loyal subjects and productive workers at the time, became institutionalized tensions with the Irish Catholic clergy. Despite the Catholic religion common to both groups, the Irish feared that and teaching became more professional. activism in favour of French Catholic schools across Canada would lead the authorities to abolish Catholic teaching in favour of “neutral” teaching, in other words public and of Protestant inspiration. A question of religion During this period, the Church was the main seat of leadership for French Canadians. Religious (Protestant and Double taxation Catholic) and national (French and English) duality was promoted as the basis for the political pact that would lead In 1871, New Brunswick announced free education in unilingual English-language public schools and prohibited the to Confederation (1867). teaching of Catechism. Parents wanting Catholic French-language education had to pay for it while continuing to The institutionalisation of education led to remarkable strides. The cultural dimension of education was primarily pay taxes towards public schools, thus creating a double taxation. religious. Schools established at that time were opened by priests and nuns. The resistance of the Acadiens For its part, the Irish clergy gave the French Canadian clergy a helping hand to ensure the establishment and The Acadiens resisted for six years, forcing the New the protection of Catholic separate schools and Catholic school boards, and thus avoid the spread of the Anglo- Brunswick government to back down. In 1877, religious Protestant culture among Catholics. The clergy also obtained the right to collect school taxes. instruction was restored after school hours . The use of French was allowed in New Brunswick’s elementary Ryerson’s role and tolerance schools. In 1902, Nova Scotia, which had put in place Founded in 1844, the Council of Public Instruction for Canada West (Ontario), under the leadership of Superintendent a unilingual English education system in 1864, allowed Egerton Ryerson, created the Ontario school system in the hopes of turning out dutiful subjects, moral citizens and the use of French during the first three years of primary good workers. In 1871, legislation made education free and mandatory between the ages of 6 and 12 years. Ryerson schooling . considered French to be an acceptable language in Canada. British imperialism and growing tensions The Anglophone elite in the colonies, which wielded most of the economic and political power, endorsed British domination and saw school as an element of socialisation that went beyond the community and extended to a national and even imperial level. This caused growing tensions with the Francophone minorities whose identity differed from theirs .

4 | The evolution of French-language education in Canada | Educational guide, community version The evolution of French-language education in Canada | Educational guide, community version | 5 Bilingual Manitoba resists Regulation 17 According to its 1870 provincial constitution, Manitoba was a bilingual province. Thus, tensions ran high when Regulation 17 was passed by ’s Conservative government on June 25, 1912, prohibiting French- Thomas Greenway’s Conservatives revoked French’s official language status in 1890. The government prohibited language education in Ontario as of Grade 3. A campaign of civil disobedience was undertaken in several regions, French-language education and the teaching of Catechism in provincially funded schools. but particularly in . The Association canadienne-française d’éducation de l’Ontario (ACFÉO), created in 1910, coordinated the mobilization of parents and the clergy. However, Ontario and British courts upheld the legitimacy of Opposing this, Francophones got the British Privy Council to put into question the constitutionality of that law but Queen’s Park’s actions. Greenway put it into force just the same. Some Manitoba communities where Francophones formed the majority resisted. In 1896, following the election of Wilfrid Laurier as Prime Minister of Canada, Greenway accepted a In Ottawa, to counter Regulation 17, Father Charles Charlebois proposed the creation of a daily newspaper – compromise that ensured the teaching of religion after school hours . “a newspaper of combat, Catholic, politically independent, a neighbourhood newspaper reporting struggles and news.” First published on March 27, 1913 after some hesitation, Le Droit’s motto is “L’avenir est à ceux qui luttent” The West hostile to French instruction [“The future belongs to those who fight for it”]. Indeed its Director, the tireless Charles Charlebois, was among Newly created in 1905, Alberta and Saskatchewan limited the teaching of French and Catechism. The imposition of the first to step up to the barricades and denounce anyone in Ontario who dared to campaign against the French English led to a first wave of assimilation of the Francophone population. In British Columbia only public, therefore language . English, schools received funding from the provincial government, leaving the few French Canadians to finance a handful of Catholic bilingual schools on their own. The first disconnect between language and faith The Vatican got involved in the crisis fuelled by Regulation 17. Its Apostolic Delegates recognized French Canadian Ineffective measures in Ontario parents’ right to demand the teaching of their language, but criticized the clergy for getting involved in a political At the end of the 19th century, the teaching of English was required in all Ontario schools. The measure was however issue. This calmed the nationalist fervour of some Catholic priests. For the first time, language and religion issues deemed ineffective because many French Canadian teachers spoke little or no English. In 1890, Regulation 2 required did not quite mesh in French Canada . teaching to be in English, though it contained an escape clause allowing the use of another language when students speak little or no English. The end of Regulation 17 The exhaustion that resulted from the First World War and the 1920s atmosphere of good relationships led to a The resistance of the French Canadian clergy relaxation of Regulation 17. A few years later, a commission of inquiry concluded the regulation was ineffective Still at the end of the 19th century, Ontario’s French-Canadian clergy wanted a separation between public schools in its efforts to teach English to French Canadian youth. The provincial Conservative government repealed it on and confessional (Catholic) schools, thereby excluding the provincial curriculum which they considered to be November 1st, 1927 . permeated with Protestant, materialistic and imperialist values. School transportation and the education of an Acadian elite French Canadians rally together In New Brunswick, the Acadian population increased and new associations were created between 1920 and 1960, thus At the dawn of the 20th century, French Canadians across Canada started to become organized through various lending support to special interest groups and schools . Simultaneously, schools now offered high quality education . associations to defend their interests and claim their rights. Whether in Western Canada, the Maritimes or in Ontario, Though rural schools still tended to be rudimentary, the development of school bus transportation contributed to communities that shared the French language (Métis, Acadiens, Franco-Manitobans, etc.) rallied together. Created increased attendance rates in comprehensive schools in 1910, the Association canadienne-française d’éducation de l’Ontario (ACFÉO) demanded funding for separate and Acadian colleges educated a true local elite . The French-language schools. However, the Anglophone elite put into question the legitimacy of French-language government granted a few concessions to Acadian education . students, including the right to write the high school entrance exam in French . The atmosphere of good relationships At the start of the 20th century, Francophone resistance led to a period where English-speaking provinces opened the door to French and Catholicism in their schools. This first happened in New Brunswick where the government created a French Department, though its primary aim was to prepare Acadian children to receive their higher education in English. Then in Nova Scotia, French-language textbooks were recognized and an Acadian inspector was hired for bilingual schools. In Prince Edward Island, though Acadian schools did receive grants, they integrated themselves into the public school system at the expense of sacrificing a large part of French-language education.

6 | The evolution of French-language education in Canada | Educational guide, community version The evolution of French-language education in Canada | Educational guide, community version | 7 THE EMERGENCE OF FRENCH-LANGUAGE SCHOOLS (1963-1982) TOWARDS EQUITY IN EDUCATION (since 1982)

The height of Francophonie in Ontario Section 23 At the start of the 1960s, given the high birth rate and the high migration rate (particularly from Québec), the Fran- The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, added to the Constitution in 1982, contains section 23 which grants co-Ontarian population represented 10% of the province’s total population, its highest proportion in history. The Canadians who have received their primary school instruction in French the right to have their children receive Ontario government allowed all subjects to be taught in French in elementary schools and expanded the education school instruction in that language “where the number of those children so warrants” and “in minority language offered in French in high schools. The clergy and the ACFÉO however perceived this as a mechanism of cultural, educational facilities provided out of public funds”. Henceforth Canadian parents of students who may avail linguistic and religious assimilation . themselves of this right were referred to as rights holders . Religion’s decline and strides by the State Catholic schools and public schools As of the 1960s, faced with financial crises within religious institutions and the declining numbers of individuals Section 93 of the 1867 Constitution, which guaranteed the right to separate schools (Protestant in Québec and taking religious vows, the role of provincial governments changed: the State played an increasingly significant role Catholic in Ontario), exists to this day and other provinces, including Newfoundland and Alberta, have provided for by investing in universal healthcare, free education and the financing of old-age pensions. matching subsidies for their Catholic schools. Thus, the linguistic obligations of section 23 of the Charter apply equally to Catholic and public schools. The dual creation of Catholic and public school boards was therefore undertaken in Bilingualism and biculturalism Ontario and Alberta. At the end of the 1990s Newfoundland and Québec asked to be exempted from the obligations of In 1963, Lester B. Pearson’s Liberal government set up the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism in section 93, whereas in the other provinces and territories, Catholic schools no longer existed since the 19th century . Canada. The Commission concluded that Canada’s two founding peoples did not live in equality: French Canadians outside Québec represented one of the poorest ethnic groups and most under-served groups with respect to edu- A series of legal victories cation. It was proposed that schools in minority settings ensure the transmission not only of the language, but of the Several legal battles ensued between 1982 and 1993, because many provinces refused to comply with the new culture as well . obligations arising from section 23. However, Francophones obtained clarifications in the cases they brought before the Supreme Court of Canada. Whether in Newfoundland, Alberta, Manitoba or the Northwest Territories, to name Official languages and multiculturalism but a few, Francophones managed to have several French-language schools opened, where the number of students In July 1969, Pierre Elliott Trudeau’s federal government passed the Official Languages Act, which established the so warranted . equality of French and English in federal institutions; as well, Ottawa launched a major subsidy program to support French-language education in minority communities. However, when Trudeau also adopted a multiculturalism policy The generalization of French school boards recognizing cultural diversity, many saw this as a way to delegitimize the principle of a cultural and political duality Although New Brunswick had school boards since the 1970s and Ontario had created three at the end of the 1980s, in Canada . it is following the Supreme Court’s Mahé decision (1990) and Reference re Manitoba Public Schools Act (1993) that the provinces were forced to establish French school boards to manage all French-language schools across the Institutional gains in Ontario country. Some provinces were reluctant: indeed, Saskatchewan and British Columbia, among others, had to be In 1967, the province announced the financing of French-language public secondary schools. In 1968, some such brought to court once again before granting to Francophones the rights they are entitled to. schools, where Francophone students formed the majority, became French secondary schools, but several private colleges had closed in the meantime and many students had to attend high schools. A dozen French-language public secondary schools opened their doors in the early 1970s . Institutional gains in the Atlantic region In New Brunswick, from 1964 to 1974, education administration was progressively reorganised to reflect the bilingualism of the Ministry of Education. The number of graduating Acadian youth multiplied. In Prince Edward Island, in 1971, the reform of the Education Act allowed French first-language education. Finally, in Nova Scotia, in 1974 and in 1981, the Education Act was modified to grant access to French-language education in areas where at least 10% of the population spoke the language. Institutional gains elsewhere in Canada Institutional gains ensued in the other provinces. In 1970, Manitoba officially recognized English and French as languages of instruction. En 1971, Saskatchewan recognized French as a language of instruction. In 1976, Alberta allowed French-language instruction for up to 80% of the school day. And in 1978, British Columbia introduced a first French-language education program in elementary schools .

8 | The evolution of French-language education in Canada | Educational guide, community version The evolution of French-language education in Canada | Educational guide, community version | 9 New possibilities for Francophone minorities Nowadays, French-language schools are faced with new possibilities and new challenges in their quest to continue to ensure the future of Canadian francophonie . Some rural areas like Eastern Ontario and the Acadian Peninsula continue to function like Francophone societies where French is the language used within the family and the community, as well as for social and commercial purposes. Yet, the reality is different in many schools in urban settings, where Francophones are a minority or a very small minority. However, aware of this reality, several French-language school boards offer companion, support, and francization programs, particularly to exogamous couples whose children represent a substantial client base for schools. Exogamy is the union of two persons whose first language and culture are different. Nowadays, schools seek to act like a community hub and to welcome more and more children from migrant backgrounds and from mixed households. The concept of civic community schools based on three objectives – success, engagement and a continuum in education – allows for the development of the network of French-language schools . French-language schools on Canada’s 150th birthday Today, there are some 650 French-language schools (elementary and secondary) in Canada outside Québec. At the dawn of Canada’s 150th birthday, French-language schools are unique and guaranteed by section 23 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The benefits of French-language education are numerous. It provides an environment which fosters the well-being and success of students, a rich cultural environment, lifelong bilingualism and employability. As well, French-language schools play a positive role in students’ identity building and help to shape citizens who support the achievement of linguistic duality in Canada.

10 | The evolution of French-language education in Canada | Educational guide, community version thanks

This is an initiative by the National Federation of French-language School Boards (FNCSF) with the support of the .

The Association canadienne d’éducation de langue française (ACELF), the Commission nationale des parents francophones (CNPF), the Canadian Teachers’ Federation / Fédération canadienne des enseignantes et enseignants (CTF/FCE) and the 28 French-language school boards who are members of FNCSF are the key partners of this initiative.

Information: www.eduexpo.ca