Coastal Resilience to Climate Change (CRCC) Programme Baseline;

Coastal Coastal Resilience Resilience to Climate to Climate Change Change (CRCC) (CRCC) Coastal ResilienceProgramme to ClimateBaseline; Change (CRCC) Programme Baseline; Programme Baseline; CoastalCoastal and Mandarine Marine Ecosystems Ecosystems Restoration Restoration Assessment Assessment Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment MarchMarch 2019 2019 March 2019

Copyright: © Ministry of Sea, Inland Waters and Fisheries (MIMAIP) – Mozambique; International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), Rare and Sida - Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency. The designation of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expressionCoastal of any Resilience opinion whatsoever to Climate Changeon the part Baseline; of MIMAIP,IUCN, Coastal and Rare Marine and Ecosystems Sida concerning Restoration the legal Assessment status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of MIMAIP, IUCN, Rare or Sida. Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorized without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written permission of the copyright holder.

Citation: Ministry of Sea, Inland Waters and Fisheries (MIMAIP) –Mozambique (2019).Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment- Coastal Resilience to Climate Change (CRCC) baseline, Mozambique, IUCN,MIMAIP,RARE.

Cover Photo Credit: IUCN FLR hub.

Acknowledgment This assessment was conducted through collective contributions that involved the political, institutional and technical support from the Ministry of Sea, Inland Waters and Fisheries, Rare and the representatives and officials from the Inhamane, Sofala and Nampula provinces and 3 pilot districts of Inhassoro, Dondo and Memba. The technical inputs and analysis were provided by P. Bagesund, S. Bila, E. Cavoto, E. Imanirareba, E. Lehmann, F. Oloo, N. Raghunathan, V. Ruiz, A. Ndoli, J. Njue, C. Karangwa, M. Matidiane, J. Wakhayanga and R. Wild. Stakeholders, partners and other institutions from provinces that are too many to name here have been instrumental in developing this baseline.

ii Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Acronyms

ASCA Accumulating Savings and Credit Association CCP Community Fishing Council (Conselho Comunidade das Pescas) CRCC Coastal Resilience to Climate Change ETM Enhanced Thematic Mapper FAO Food and Agricultural Organization FFP Fisheries Development Fund (Fundo de Fomento Pesqueiro) GIS Geographic Information Systems GPS Global Position Systems IDPPE Institute for Development of Small-Scale Fisheries (Instituto de Desenvolvimento da Pesca de Pequena Escala IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature LULC Land use/ Land cover M&E Monitoring and Evaluation MIMAIP Ministry for Sea, Inland Waters and Fisheries OLI Operational Land Imager PCR Rotating savings and credit groups (Poupança e Crédito Rotativo) PESPA Strategic Plan for the Artisanal Fisheries Sub-Sector RCMRD Regional Center for Mapping of Resources for Development RLE Red List of Ecosystems ROAM Restoration Opportunities Assessment Methodology SBAFP Sofala Bank Artisanal Fisheries Project SLR Sea Level Rise VSLA Village Savings and Loans Associations WCMC World Conservation Monitoring Center WWF Worldwide Fund for Nature

iii Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Table of contents Acknowledgment ...... ii Acronyms ...... iii Table of contents ...... iv Table of figures ...... vi Table of tables ...... ix Table of boxes ...... ix Executive summary ...... 1 Microfinance ...... 2 1. Introduction ...... 4 1.1. Coastal and marine ecosystems in Mozambique ...... 4 1.2. Purpose and scope of the coastal and marine ecosystems restoration assessment ...... 8 2. Methodology ...... 9 2.1. Inventory and assessment of biophysical and ecological conditions of coastal and marine ecosystems (RLE) ...... 9 2.2. Coastal land cover/land use change analysis ...... 9 2.2.1 Satellite image analysis...... 9 2.2.2 Comparison of the mapping methods ...... 12 2.2.3 Classification of seagrass and coral reef ...... 13 2.2.4 Change detection and analysis ...... 13 2.3. Socio-ecological – socio-economic situation analysis ...... 14 2.3.1. Nested conceptual framework of restorative development ...... 14 2.3.2. Restoration diagnostic of successes and barriers ...... 14 2.3.3. Environmental economics ...... 15 3. Baseline profiles of the coastal and marine ecosystems ...... 16 3.1. Red List of Ecosystems assessment ...... 16 3.1.1. Coastal forest vegetation ...... 16 3.1.2. Mangrove ...... 34 3.1.3. Coral reef ...... 44 3.1.4. Seagrass beds ...... 51 3.2. Mapping trends of coastal and marine ecosystem ...... 59 3.2.1. Baseline profile of Memba district in Nampula Province ...... 62 3.2.2. Baseline profile of Dondo district in Sofala Province ...... 68 3.2.3. Baseline profile of Inhassoro district in Inhambane Province ...... 71 3.3. Socio-economic results and interpretations ...... 88 3.3.1. Review of previous projects and studies ...... 88 3.3.2. Success factor analysis ...... 92 3.3.3. Institutions and culture ...... 94 3.3.4. Environmental economics and cost-benefit analysis ...... 101 3.3.5. Socio-economic dimensions of coral reefs ...... 105 3.3.6. Socio-economic dimensions of seagrass beds ...... 105 3.3.7. Socio-economic dimensions of mangrove forests ...... 105 3.3.8. Socio-economic dimensions of coastal forests ...... 109 3.3.9. Socio-economic dimensions of sand dunes ...... 112

iv Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

3.3.10. Gender observations ...... 113 3.3.11. Supplementary social information Memba district ...... 113 3.3.12. Supplementary social information Dondo district ...... 115 3.3.13. Supplementary social information Inhassoro district ...... 118 3.3.14. Inputs into the community-based ecosystem management and restoration plans ...... 123 4. RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 126 4.1.1. Ecological recommendations and conclusions ...... 126 4.1.2. Socio-economic recommendations ...... 127 4.1.3. Socio-economic conclusions ...... 129 5. REFERENCES ...... 130 6. APPENDIX ...... 136 6.1. Appendix A . Summary of the five criteria (A-E) used to evaluate the risk status of an ecosystem ...... 136 6.2. Appendix B Example of species associated with mangrove ecosystem ...... 139 6.3. Appendix C . Fieldwork summary information ...... 140 6.4. Appendix D. Information gathered from provincial workshops and district surveys ...... 141

v Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Table of figures Figure 1: Map of the study area, covering the three districts of Dondo in Sofala province, Inhassaro in Inhambane province and Memba in Nampula province ...... 5 Figure 2: Map of Memba district depicting the 4 administrative posts and the neighbouring districts ...... 6 Figure 3: Map of Dondo districts depicting the 2 administrative posts and the neighbouring districts ...... 7 Figure 4: Map of Inhassoro district depicting Inhassoro mainland and Bazaruto Island ...... 7 Figure 5: Structure of IUCN Red List of Ecosystems categories ...... 9 Figure 6: Map of the Landsat tiles showing the respective image scenes for each of the case study districts ...... 10 Figure 7: An image grab of a mosaic of false color composite of landsat tiles covering the three districts in the study area. The mosaic was created from the images captured in 2017 ...... 10 Figure 8: Summarized workflow of the main steps of image analysis for mangrove and coastal forest mapping ...... 12 Figure 9: A graphical representation of the change detection process ...... 13 Figure 10: Restorative development (Wild, 2015) ...... 14 Figure 11: Extent of the major upland areas in eastern and south-eastern Africa, the Zanzibar-Inhambane regional mosaic and the Coastal Forest belt (source: Burguess and Clarke (2000)) ...... 17 Figure 12: Area of endemism ...... 21 Figure 13: Distribution of forest vegetation in studied area ...... 23 Figure 14: Dynamics of land-use and forest-cover changes (adapted from: (A. Sitoe, Salomão, and Wertz- Kanounnikoff 2012)) ...... 25 Figure 15: Simplified cause-and-effect conceptual model of the ecological processes most relevant to the Mozambican’s forest ecosystem risk assessment ...... 26 Figure 16: Change analysis of forest cover in studied district over the 1996-2017 .period ...... 28 Figure 17: Forest cover change analysis in studied districts ...... 29 Figure 18: Distribution of coastal forest in 2017, minimum convex polygon around the ecosystem (EOO) ...... 31 Figure 19: Location of forest concession in Mozambique ...... 33 Figure 20: Distribution of mangrove forests in Memba district in 2017 (WWF Deutschland 2018b) ...... 36 Figure 21: Distribution of mangrove forests in Dondo district in 2017 (WWF Deutschland 2018b) ...... 37 Figure 22: Distribution of mangrove forests in Inhassoro&Bazaruto in 2017 (WWF Deutschland 2018b) ...... 37 Figure 23: Simplified cause-and-effect conceptual model of the ecological processes most relevant to the Mozambican’s mangrove ecosystem risk assessment ...... 39 Figure 24: Evolution of surface area (Ha) covered by mangroves between 1995 and 2015 in Memba and Dondo (A) and in Inhassoro and Bazaruto (B) ...... 41 Figure 25: Distribution of mangrove forests in 2018 (WWF Deutschland 2018a), minimum convex hull around the ecosystem, and area of occupancy determined by determining the number of 10 × 10 km grid cells that contain more than 1 ha of the ecosystem...... 43 Figure 26: Distribution of corals and seagrasses in Mozambican coast. Data generated from Landsat-8 OLI sensor data between 2013 and 2015. Source RCMRD, open source data. Permission to publish without prior consent ...... 46 Figure 27: Distributions of corals in two districts in Mozambique. Data generated from Landsat, 30 m resolution .... 47 Figure 28: Simplified cause-and-effect conceptual model of the ecological processes most relevant to the Mozambican’s coral ecosystem risk assessment ...... 48 Figure 29: Contrasting extents of occurrence of coral reefs between Inhassoro & Bazaruto, and Memba districts. Polygon with hatched lines shows EOO ...... 49 Figure 30: Seagrass distribution along the coast of a) Memba (a), and b) Inhassoro and Bazaruto ...... 54 Figure 31: Conceptual model of the seagrass of Memba, Inhassoro and Bazaruto. 1dredging, port construction, alteration water, mining, gas/oil extraction, tourism, plastic marine pollution ...... 55 Figure 32: Representation of the EOO and AOO for the seagrass of Memba, Inhassoro and Bazaruto ...... 57 vi Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Figure 33: Spatial extent of mangrove forests in Mozambique as at 2015. The inset images cover the three study districts of Dondo in Sofala province, Inhassoro district in Inhambane province and Memba district in Nampula province ...... 59 Figure 34: Baseline distribution of tree cover in Dondo, Inhassoro and Memba districts as at the year 200. The pixels which are shared in red color highlight the areas that have experienced loss of tree cover in the 17 years from the year 2000 ...... 60 Figure 35: Dominant land cover categories in the case study districts of Dondo, Inhassoro and Memba in Mozambique in 2016 as captured at 10m spatial resolution in the European Space Agency (ESA) Africa land cover product ...... 62 Figure 36: Maps depicting changes in land cover characteristics in Memba district from 1996 to 2017 ...... 63 Figure 37: Variation in the area of coral reef coverage type in Memba district in Mozambique between 2006 and 2017 ...... 65 Figure 38: Map depicting the geographic distribution of seagrass and coral reef classes along the coast of Memba district...... 65 Figure 39: Variation in the area of seagrass coverage type in Memba district in Mozambique between 2007 and 2017 ...... 66 Figure 40: Variations in the area of mangrove forests in Memba district from 1996 to 2017 ...... 67 Figure 41: Variation in the area of open and closed forest categories in Memba district between 1997 and 2017 .... 68 Figure 42: Dominant land cover classes in Dondo district in Mozambique from 1996 to 2017 ...... 69 Figure 43: Variation in the area of coverage of mangrove forests in Dondo district in Mozambique from 1996 to 2017 ...... 70 Figure 44: Variation in area of closed and open forest cover classes in Dondo district Mozambique from 1996 to 2017 ...... 71 Figure 45: Maps of variation of dominant land cover classes in Inhassoro district in Mozambique from 1996 to 2017 ..72 Figure 46: Variation in the area of coral reefs in Inhassoro district Mozambique between 2007 and 2017 ...... 73 Figure 47: Distribution seagrass and coral reef habitats in the coastal water of Inhassoro district between 1996 and 20 17...... 74 Figure 48: Variation in the area of sea grass land cover classes in Inhassoro district in Mozambique between 2007 and 2017 ...... 74 Figure 49: Variation in the area of mangrove forests in Inhassoro district in Mozambique between 1996 and 2017 .. 75 Figure 50: Variation in the areas of open and closed forest categories in Inhassoro district, Mozambique between 1997 and 2017 ...... 75 Figure 51: Geographic distribution in the changes in the coastal forests highlighting stable, degraded and regenerated forest areas ...... 77 Figure 52: Geographic distribution of changes in the mangrove ecosystems in Memba district ...... 78 Figure 53: Spatial distribution of the variability in the stability of corals (a) and seagrass beds (b) in Memba district ...79 Figure 54: Geographic distribution of the changes in the status of coastal forests in Dondo district ...... 81 Figure 55: Geographic distribution of changes in the mangrove ecosystem in Dondo district ...... 82 Figure 56: Geographic distribution in the change of status of coastal forests in Inhassoro district ...... 84 Figure 57: Distribution in the changes of mangrove forests in Inhassoro district ...... 85 Figure 58 Spatial distribution of the variability in the stability of corals (a) and seagrass beds (b) in Inhassoro district ..86 Figure 59: Fishing communities supported by Propesca (IFAD 2012) ...... 91 Figure 60: Governance linkages along the value chain ...... 99 Figure 61: Simplified value chain for the exports of live mangrove swimming crab ...... 99 Figure 62: Schematic transition from forest and wood land types to agricultural land with human use and disturbance (including fire) in Inhassoro district ...... 110 Figure 63: Map of critical habitat in Inhassoro District ...... 111

vii Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Figure 64: Summary diagram of ecological services and sensitivities in Inhassoro District. (from EOH, 2015) ...... 112 Figure 65: Fishing Centers in the District of Memba (Source: Impacto, 2012, in IUCN 2017) ...... 114 Figure 66: High priority conservation landscapes in the coastal forests of Mozambique (including Dondo) ...... 116 Figure 67: CCP in Inhassoro district visited during the project scoping mission in 2017...... 120 Figure 68: Map of CCP areas from Inhassoro from community CRCC consultation meetings 2017 ...... 121

viii Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Table of tables Table 1 Comparison of major differences between forest and woodland where both main vegetation formation types have continuous stands of large (10 m) trees. (source: Burgess and Clarke (2000)) ...... 17 Table 2 Forest vegetation classes obtained from remote-sensing analysis ...... 18 Table 3 Extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy of the Coastal Forest distribution ...... 30 Table 4 RLE assessment summary for Coastal Forest ecosystem (with criteria presenting the highest risk category in brackets) ...... 34 Table 5 Extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy of the 2018 mangrove distribution ...... 42 Table 6 RLE assessment summary for mangrove ecosystem (criteria with the highest risk category in brackets) ...... 44 Table 7 Extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy of the coral distribution ...... 50 Table 8 RLE assessment summary for coral ecosystem (criteria with the highest risk category in brackets) ...... 51 Table 9 - Seagrass species along the coast of Memba, Inhassoro and Bazaruto ...... 52 Table 10 Extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) of the seagrass beds in Memba, Inhassor and Bazaruto ...... 57 Table 11 RLE assessment summary for seagrass beds ecosystem (criteria with highest risk category in brackets) ...... 58 Table 12 Variation in selected land cover classes in Inhassoro district between 1996 to 2017 ...... 64 Table 13 Variation in area of coverage of land cover classes in Dondo district in Mozambique from 1996 to 2017 .... 70 Table 14 Variation in the area of select land cover classes in Inhassoro district in Mozambique between 1996 and 2017 ...... 73 Table 15: Land cover change (in hectares) in Memba district between 1996-2017 ...... 80 Table 16: Land cover change (in hectares) in Dondo district from 1996-2017 ...... 83 Table 17 Land cover change (in hectares) in Inhassoro district from 1996-2017...... 87 Table 18 Links between socio economic behaviours and ecosystems ...... 88 Table 19: Preliminary restoration success factor analysis ...... 93 Table 20: Regulo in the project area ...... 95 Table 21 List of 11 sacred natural sites in the project area and detail ...... 96 Table 22 Total number of fishers ...... 98 Table 23 PCR groups in the project districts ...... 101 Table 24 Total estimated annual economic losses from selected ecosystems in the CRCC project area ...... 101 Table 25 Loss from degradation of Mangrove forests, seagrass and Coral reefs in Memba District ...... 102 Table 26 Loss from degradation of Mangrove forests, seagrass and Coral reefs in Dondo District ...... 102 Table 27 Loss from degradation of mangrove forests, seagrass and coral reefs in Inhassoro District ...... 103 Table 28 Summary of mangrove forest cover trends ...... 106 Table 29 Provisional mangrove restoration costs per hectare ...... 108 Table 30 Example details of main fisheries from Sirissa CCP ...... 113 Table 31 Source timber for boat construction in Memba ...... 114 Table 32 High priority conservation landscapes in the coastal forests of Mozambique (including Dondo) ...... 117 Table 33 RLE assessment summary for coastal ecosystems in study areas ...... 126

Table of boxes Box 1 Sofala Bank Artisanal Fishing Project microfinance results ...... 89 Box 2 MKUBA model ...... 100 Box 3 Sketch-map of loss of seagrass from Fequete and Petane CCP s Inhassoro District ...... 118

ix Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment Executive summary

he Coastal Resilience to Climate Change initiative (CRCC) is a response of the Government of Summary of geospatial mapping outputs TMozabique to the increasing challenges coastal i. Coral reefs communities face as a result of climate change. With support and cooperation of the Swedish Government, Of the three districts of Memba, Dondo and Inhassoro, the Government of Mozambique, through its Ministry coral reefs were only detected and observed in Memba for Sea, Inland Waters and Fisheries (MIMAIP) and in and Inhassoro districts, and not Dondo. From the results partnership with IUCN and Rare, is seeking to increase of image analysis, the coverage of corals has remained the resilience of men and women in coastal communities stable, averaging 10,000 hectares in Memba between through rights and ecosystem based approaches. IUCN’s 2006 and 2017, while remaining around 17,000 hectares Regional Forest Landscape Restoration Hub have teamed in Inhassoro as at 2017 - around the same figure it was up with IUCN’s Ecosystem Management Programme a decade earlier in 2007. The figures for 1996 and 2010 to generate baseline data and maps of the status and appeared distorted due to poor image quality during projected trends of these ecosystems along with socio- those years and therefore were not considered in economic context information in three pilot districts of observing this trend. The increase in acreage of corals Mozabique namely; Inhassoro (in Inhambane province), may be an evidence of bleaching, since whitened coral Dondo (in Sofala province), and Memba (in Nampula reefs are more easily detected by remote sensing energy. province). The purpose of this information is to guide the Yamano and Tamura (2004), observed that bleaching design of interventions necessary for the management in coral reefs results in increased reflectance and the and restoration of the four main ecosytems Coastal bleached areas would become easier to be captured by Forest, Mangroves, Seagrass and Coral reefs through an remote sensing energy. Field validation visits to sampled adaptive management strategy and responses to threats. locations confirmed that the locations of these corals This data also provides supporting information to enable are true as per the mapping results. The mapping of the detailed design, monitoring and evaluation of the coral reefs in this study provides a basis for validating identified ecosystems. and updating other global and regional coral reef data The Coastal Forests of the studied districts are overall that seem to miss or at times exaggerate the coverage of Critically Endangered (CR) according to spatial and corals along the coastline of Mozambique. functional symptoms. Assessment of the spatial ii. Seagrass beds distribution of the Coastal Forests in Memba, Dondo The results from mapping showed the presence of and Inhassoro & Bazaruto classified all of them within seagrass in Memba and Inhassoro districts, but not in the highest threaten categories of risk, as Vulnerable Dondo district. In Memba district, a comparison made (VU), Endangered (EN) and Critically Endangered (EN) between the years 2007 and 2017 showed that seagrass respectively. The assessment of Coastal Forests led also reduced from 18,200 to 17,600 hectares. This represents to similar conclusions in the three studied districts due to a very marginal loss of about 3% over ten years or 0.3% unsustainable use of forest resources, standing per annum. In Inhassoro district, a similar comparison stocks of first-class and precious species. This degradation made between the years 2006 and 2017 showed that of species characteristic of the native biota assigned the seagrass reduced from about 8,900 hectares to about Coastal Forests to the Critically Endangered (CR). 8,200 hectares. This also represents a very marginal loss Restricted geographic distribution and the proximity of about 6% over ten years or 0.6% per annum. Field of expanding agricultural, urban and touristic areas validation around the island of Santa Carolina showed constitute a direct threat to these mangrove ecosystems that the area is rich in segmented seagrass beds. These in the three districts which are mainly distributed in are represented in this study, but there are neither patches. The mangrove forests of the studied districts are coral reefs nor seagrass beds in this area according to therefore Critically Endangered (CR). Seagrass beds and other studies done in past around the coastline. It is Coral are not present in Dondo district. Nevertheless, the therefore likely that global and regional datasets are too situation in the other two studied districts is critical due generalized for smaller scale studies, as they may only to their restricted geographical distribution and inferred map the larger seagrass beds with little verification data threatening processes such as continuous decline in their or clear procedure. An extensive mapping of seagrass cover and continuous disruption of biotic interactions. beds requires a combination of high resolution satellite Influencing processes that drive seagrass distribution, imagery and elaborate field work. In addition, change categorized seagrass beds as Critically Endangered (CR). detection of seagrass from remote sensing may be The overall risk status of the ecosystem is assigned as the hindered by a combination of cloud cover and variability highest category of risk obtained through any criterion. of ocean characteristics during the different epochs of Both ecosystems in the studied districts are therefore analysis. Critically Endangered (CR).

1 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

iii. Mangrove forests communities selecting a limited number of the 32 success factors to be part of their action learning groups. From the temporal evaluation of the changes in the area An important overall recommendation is that it is of coverage of mangrove forests in the three districts, important not allow in-tact areas to slide into degradation there was a net reduction in the mangrove forest areas while attempting to restore others. Restoration is more across all the districts between 1996 and 2017. This is expensive than socially sound protection and sustainable in agreement with an evaluation by World Wildlife Fund use. There is no point and it is very costly to restore in (WWF Deutschland 2018b), which showed that there one place and let another area to degrade only to be have only been marginal changes in the mangrove cover restored later. This recommendation is underscored in the three case study districts and that whereas there by the joint RLE and ROAM approach wherethe RLE may have been initial losses, gains seem to be offsetting identifies the risks to ecosystems and ecosystem services the losses. In Dondo, Memba and Inhassoro districts, the while ROAM addresses opportunities for restoration. results showed a net reduction in the mangrove forests by about 8%, 38% and 25% respectively in the period A total of 25 detail recommendations were made in the between 1996 and 2017.In fact, there were areas of in- socio-economic section. The most important 13 of these creases in Dondo and Memba districts in the year 2010, recommendations are summarised here. before the reductions in 2017. The reduction in Inhassoro was steady over the years. Institutional support and coordination 1. Recommendation: CRCC project support the enhanced iv. Coastal forests coordination and cooperation between the key coastal For the coastal forests, both the open and closed/ dense zone management institutions including government forest were delineated in the process of satellite image agencies, the Regulo, CCP and the Natural Resource analysis. These may not all be coastal forest,because Management committees. they represent the entire district as administrative unit 2. Recommendation: The project works proactivity with within which government control and conservation the Regulos of the project area and supporting them mechanisms can be enforced. To compute the overall to become champions for ecological restoration. This changes in the coastal forests, a summation of the areas effort should start first with their own sacred natural under both closed and open forests is considered. In all sites under their custodianship several of which have the three case study districts, there was a net reduction become degraded. in the area under coastal forests. Coincidentally, the 3. Recommendation: Mangrove management is used combined forest category decreased by 40% in Memba as a testing ground for integrated institutional and Inhassoro representing a 2% per annum rate. coordination where the CCP, Natural Resource Dondo district on the other hand had a 15% reduction, Management Committees, Regulos and government which translates to an annual rate of 0.7%. support institution’s work in concert v. Socio-economic summary Microfinance The purpose of the socio-economic baseline work was 4. Recommendation: Implement the IUCN MaliVerde to provide a societal context to the descriptions of (Mkuba) solidarity evolution of the PCR – in the project threats and the drivers of degradation impacting on the area. This model has been specially designed to projects focus ecosystems. As well as a socio-economic a incentivise the development and implementation of socio-ecological approach was taken to integrate these community resource management plans such as the different elements via nested domains (i.e the human CRuRAPs. economy is part of the human society, which is nested in the ecosystem, itself nested within the climate system), 5. Recommendation: CRCC to consider strengthening and to understand specific linkages between them. the conducive policies towards linking microfinance institutions with ecosystem management The primary tool used to provide this context was the Public awareness success factor analysis (SFA) a tool developed by the World Resources Institute and IUCN as part of the 6. Recommendation: Establish radio programmes for restoration opportunities assessment methodology public awareness of restoration in the project areas. (ROAM). This was supplemented by in-depth analysis of key elements of the eco-social-economic system. Gender A recommendation is that the project uses the SFA 7. Recommendation: The project pays greater attention framework as a monitoring tool selecting with to female foot fishers in areas of coral reefs and associated sand and mud flats

2 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Community reserves in coral reef areas identification and sustainable management of high conservation value forests where fire is not normally a 8. Recommendation: Expand the successful community feature – through a stakeholder engagement process reserve in the Memba district to other areas within the district and other CRCC sites Seagrass loss 11.Recommendation: The ecological dimension of fire in the project terrestrial ecosystems and vegetation 9. Recommendation: Carry out an in depth joint scientific types needs to be properly assess and a nuanced fire and participatory study involving local stakeholders policy, tailored to each vegetation type should be (fishers and diver operators) into the reported produced and promoted. widespread loss of seagrass beds in Inhassoro district 12. Recommendation: Develop policies and land-use Mangrove re-establishment plans that maintain effective vegetation cover on sand Recommendation: Provide improved information on the dunes such that their stability is not compromised. current best practices in mangrove re-establishment. Ensure planning departments do not allow the This may require the establishment of Fire management development of unplanned settlement where they in coastal forests and dunes damage sand dunes, and prevent local damage 10. Recommendation: The project should assist the through the use of appropriate infrastructure.

3 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment 1. Introduction

1.1. Study background production, and uncontrolled grazing. Coastal forests are an important source of ecosystem services and yet are he Coastal Resilience to Climate Change initiative under grave threat particularly to create room for human (CRCC) is a response of the Government of subsistence and development. TMozambique to the increasing challenges coastal communities face as a result of climate change. With In order to effectively restore and manage the mangrove support and cooperation by the Swedish Government, and coastal forests, it is important to undertake the Government of Mozambique, through its Ministry comprehensive assessments, to capture accurate data for Sea, Inland Waters and Fisheries (MIMAIP) and in about the status of these ecosystems. The empirical partnership with IUCN and Rare, is seeking to increase evidence can then be used to improve conservation the resilience of men and women in coastal communities and promote sustainable use, and management through through rights and ecosystem based approaches. Over implementation of community-based landscape/ the course of four years, CRCC will work with coastal seascape approaches. The data that is collected and communities in three districts of three provinces: generated during ecosystem assessment can also guide Inhassoro District (Inhambane Province); Memba District the design of interventions that are necessary for the (Nampula Province) and Dondo District (Sofala Province). restoration of these ecosystems through an adaptive management strategy and responses to threats. The programme will support the provincial and district governments as well as traditional and community In this work, the main ecosystems that will be analyzed, leaders to work with coastal communities to restore mapped and assessed will include mangroves, coastal critical terrestrial landscapes (including mangroves, sand forests, coral reefs and seagrass beds in the target areas dunes and coastal forests) and seascapes (including coral of the project. This will underpin the establishment of reefs and seagrass). It will identify and introduce nature the change detection M&E (sub-result 4.6.3 of CRCC) based enterprises, geared towards providing coastal for land and sea habitats and will support the long-term communities, particularly women, with supplementary follow up and progress of restoration activities. livelihoods to reduce unsustainable pressures on the The project is working in three pilot districts of natural resource base and increase local level resilience. Mozambique namely; Memba in Nampula province, Mozambique has one of the longest coastlines in Africa, Dondo in Sofala province and Inhassoro in Inhambane estimated to be 2,700 km long. In fact, seven of its eleven province. Specifically, the assessment focused on the provinces and six of its top ten towns and cities are coastal strip of the three districts. Initially the coastal coastal. At least 80% of jobs nationwide are dependent strip was considered to be the seascape which is the upon natural resources, most of which are coastal. There region of about 5-6km radius of the shoreline and 100m is therefore growing pressure on coastal resources to offshore from the highest water mark. However, it was meet high demand for food, fuelwood, construction decided to broaden the analysis to the total area of the materials, agricultural expansion and settlement. project districts and to 50kms off shore. For the analysis to capture interlinked social–economic and biophysical Mangrove ecosystem is considered among the key conditions, additional data was collected at the district habitats that support marine life and coastal livelihoods, level, in some cases covering some neighboring districts. yet highly vulnerable to the projected impacts of climate For example, the historical trends of land use surrounding change, particularly sea-level rise (SLR). In Mozambique, the coastal strip was considered an important indicator mangroves have been lost due to a combination of of the drivers of change in the coastal areas. Figure 1 both, climate related risks and non- climate related shows a map of anthropogenic impacts. Examples of climate related risks include sea level rise and increased storm events Mozambique highlighting the location of the three case while anthropogenic include degradation resulting study districts of Dondo, Inhassoro and Memba. from human activities including demand for fuel wood, building materials, salt production, urbanization, rice

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Figure 1: Map of the study area, covering the three districts of Dondo in Sofala province, Inhassaro in Inhambane province and Memba in Nampula province.

1.2 District Level Situation Analysis Memba District:

Memba1.2 Distritct district Situation is located Analysis in the north-eastern part The total population in the district is approximately of Nampula province of Mozambique. The district is Memba District: administrative268,600 inhabitants, post is comprised which corresponds by four (4) tolocalities about 4.5% of approximately 4,622 km2 in size. It is bordered in North (Membathe total-Village, population Miaja, of Niaca, the coastal Tropene) zone (GDM, of Mozambique. 2015). by Chiure District, in South by Nacala-Velha District, in The population density is approximately Memba district is located in the north-eastern part The total population in the district is approximately West by Erati and Nacaroa Districts and in East by Indian of Nampula province of Mozambique. The district is 268,60058.1 inhabitants/km2. inhabitants, which This corresponds density is toabove about the average Oceanapproximately (MAE, 2012). 4,622 km2 in size. It is bordered in North 4.5%population of the totaldensity population of the coastal of the coastal districts zone of Mozambique of Theby district Chiure is District, divided in Southby four by (4)Nacala administrative-Velha District, posts: Mozambique.which is estimate The population at 46.4 density inhabitants/km2 is approximately and the Lurio,in WestMazua, by Erati Chipene and Nacaroa and Memba-Village. Districts and in East The by Lurio 58.1national inhabitants/km2. population Thisdensity density which is aboveis approximately the 25.3 Indian Ocean (MAE, 2012). administrative post possesses one (1) locality (Lurio- averageinhabitants/km². population The density population of the coastal is unevenly districts distributed of Village);The district Mazua is dividedpossesses by four three (4) administrative(3) localities posts:(Mazua- Mozambiquein the district which with approximatelyis estimate at 46.4 47.8% inhabitants/ of the population Village,Lurio, Simuco Mazua, andChipene Cava); and Chipene Memba- Village.administrative The Lurio post km2concentrated and the national in the population district densityheadquarters which is of Memba approximately 25.3 inhabitants/km². The population is possessesadministrative one (1) post locality possesses (Chipene one (1)Village) locality and (Lurio Memba- Sede. Village); Mazua possesses three (3) localities (Mazua- unevenly distributed in the district with approximately administrative post is comprised by four (4) localities Village, Simuco and Cava); Chipene administrative post 47.8% of the population concentrated in the district (Memba-Village,possesses one Miaja, (1) locality Niaca, (Chipene Tropene) Village) (GDM, and 2015). Memba headquarters of Memba Sede.

14 5

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Mecufi is alsocontribution practiced in theof coconutvarious rivers trees across in boosting the district. food security Chiure Membaand district revenues is one forof ofrural the districtsfarmers with in a thevast coastal areas. forestedFishing area isin the Prsecondovince largestof Nampula. activity The in forest the district after ¢ host agriculture.high economic In valueaddition trees to such sea as fishing, Ironwood, it is also practiced Blackwood,in the variousUmbila, riversJambir across and, Methyl,the district. Moco and Lurio severalMemba others. district The wood is one from of the the for districtsests is mainly with a vast forested in constructionarea in the also Province as the main of Nampula. source of energy The forest for host high cooking. The dependence on the forest for timber and Erati economic value trees such as Ironwood, Blackwood, for fuelUmbila, wood contributesJambir and, to Methyl,the deforestation Moco and of theseveral others. forestsThe in woodthe district. from the forests is mainly in construction also as Chipene Dondothe main District: source of energy for cooking. The dependence on the forest for timber and for fuel wood contributes to Dondothe is deforestationone of the 7 coastal of the districts forests of in Sofala the district. Memba province. The district is located in the centre of the province.Dondo The neighbouringDistrict: districts include Muanza District in the north, the city of Beira and Buzi District Mazula in theDondo south, isand one Nhamatanda of the 7 coastal district districts in the west. of Sofala In province. the eastThe part district the districtis located neighbors in the the centre Indian of Ocean. the province. The The areaneighbouring of the district districts is approximately include 2,308Muanza km2 District in the comprisingnorth, ofthe two city ad ministrativeof Beira and posts, Buzi Dondo District Sede in the south, (with andtwo localities:Nhamatanda Dondo district-sede and in theChinamacondo) west. In the east part and Mafambissethe district (withneighbors two localities: the Indian Mafambisse Ocean.- SedeThe area of the and Mutua).Dondodistrict is approximately Sede administrative 2,308 postskm2 comprisingis coastal. of two

The totaladministrative population inposts, the district Dondo is approximatelySede (with two localities: Figure 2: Map of MembaMe districtmba depicting the 4 141,000Dondo-sede inhabitants, and which Chinamacondo) corresponds to and about Mafambisse (with administrative posts and the neighbouring districts. 8.6% of the total population of the province. The two localities: Mafambisse-Sede and Mutua).Dondo populationSede administrativedensity in the district posts is approximatelycoastal. The total 61.08 population Nacaroa Memba district has coastal strip which is characterised inhabitants/km2.in the district This is approximatelydensity is above 141,000 the average inhabitants, which by dry sub-humid climate. The average annual populationcorresponds density toof aboutcoastal 8.6% districts of theof Mozambique total population of the precipitation in the district varies between 800 whichprovince. is approximated as 46.4 inhabitants per square and 1000mm M(Mossuril)onapo while the potential kilometer. Similarly, the population density is relatively NacalahigherThe than population that of Sofala density Province in thewhich district stands is at approximately evapotranspiration varies from N1400acal ato-a 1600-Velha mm. In the northern part of the district, the average annual rainfall approximately61.08 inhabitants/km2. 24.3 inhabitants/km2 This density and the is national above the average varies between 600 and 800 mm. The relatively lower populationpopulation density density which isof estimated coastal atdistricts approx imatelyof Mozambique rainfall amounts and the elevated temperatures in the 25.3 whichinhabitants/km². is approximated Dondo is the as 46.4second inhabitants coastal per square districtkilometer. in the province Similarly, with thethe largestpopulation number density of is relatively northMemba results district in critical has coastal water deficiency strip which for is agricultural characterised by production. inhabitantshigher after than Buzi that district. of SofalaBuzi district Province accounts which stands at dry sub-humid climate. The average annual precipitation accountsapproximately for 2.7% of the24.3 total inhabitants/km2 coastal population and of the national Agriculturein the district is the varies dominant between activity 800 in and almost 1000mm all (Mossuril) Mozambique. Within Dondo district, the population households with a total of 92.4% of inhabitants population density which is estimated at approximately engagedwhile the in potentialprimary cr opevapotranspiration farming, forestry and varies fishery from. 1400 is unevenly distributed throughout the district, with 25.3 inhabitants/km². Dondo is the second coastal district Into general, 1600 mm.agriculture In the is practices northern through part of small the scale district, the 50.2% of the population concentrated in the district in the province with the largest number of inhabitants farmingaverage and annual through rainfall the propagation varies between of local 600 varieties and 800 mm. headquarter (Dondo Sede). The 2007 Census indicated after Buzi district. Buzi district accounts for 2.7% of ofThe crops. relatively The dominant lower cropsrainfall which amounts are propagated and the inelevated that 50.2% of the population of the district resides in the total coastal population of Mozambique. Within thetemperatures area include cassavain the andnorth grai nresults legumes in (beans critical and water the urban areas, contrary to the current scenario where Dondo district, the population is unevenly distributed peanuts).deficiency In the for alluvial agricultural and estuarine production. plains, rainfed the majority of the population in coastal areas of Sofala rice is the main farming practice. Noteworthy also is provincethroughout resides in the rural district, areas. The with age 50.2% structure of ofthe population theAgriculture significant contributionis the dominant of coconut activity trees in inboosting almost all the districtconcentrated reflects an in economicthe district dependency headquarter ratio (Dondo of Sede). foodhouseholds security andwith r evenuesa total of for 92.4% rural farmers of inhabitants in the engaged 1: 1.2,The implying 2007 Censusthat for everyindicated 10 children that 50.2% or elderly of the population coastalin primary areas. crop Fishing farming, is the secondforestry largest and fishery.In activity in general,people, of thethere district are 12 resides people inof theworking urban age. areas, contrary to the theagriculture district after is practicesagriculture. through In addition small to seascale fishing, farming it and current scenario where the majority of the population in through the propagation of local varieties of crops. coastal areas of Sofala province resides in rural areas. The dominant crops which are propagated in the area The age structure of include cassava and grain legumes (beans and peanuts). the district reflects an economic dependency ratio of 1: In the alluvial and estuarine plains, rainfed rice is the 1.2, implying that for every 10 children or elderly people, main farming practice. Noteworthy also is the significant there are 12 people of working age.

CoastalCoa Resiliencestal Resilience to Climate to Climate Change Change Baseline; Baseline; Coastal Coastal andand Marine EcosystemsEcosystems Restoration Restoration Assessment Assessment Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Goron g oza Inhassoro District:

TheInhassor Inhassoroo District:district is situated in the northern part of ¢

a Muanza InhambaneInhassor provinceo District: in Mozambique. Its neighbours are

d The Inhassoro district is situated in the northern part

ta Govuroof Inhambane district province to the north, in Mozambique. the Indian Its Oceanto neighbours the east, a The Inhassoro district is situated in the northern part

m a Vilanculos,arofe InhambaneGovuro distrMassinga provinceict to the and in north, Mozambique. Funhalouro the Indian Its Oceandistricts neighbours to the

Nh southtoar thee Govuro andeast, Mabote Vilanculos, district districtto theMassinga north, to the theand west. Indian Funhalouro Inhassoro Ocean district Mafambisse coversdistrictsto the aneast, to areathe Vilanculos, south of approximately and Massinga Mabote districtand 4,746 Funhalouro to km² the andwest. hosts a

populationInhassordistrictso to district the of approximatelysouth covers and an Mabote area 48,537of districtapproximately people to the west. according

Dondo 4,746 km² and hosts a population of approximately Dondo toInhassor the preliminaryo district coversresults an of area the 2007of approximately population census. 48,5374,746 km²people and a hostsccording a population to the preliminary of approximately results of Thethe 2007population population density census. of theThe districtpopulation is approximatelydensity 48,537 people according to the preliminary results of 10.2of the inhabitants district is appr / km²oximately with approximately 10.2 inhabitants 76.6% / km² of the the 2007 population census. The population density inhabitantswithof the approximately district residing is appr 76.6% oximatelyin the of therural 10.2 inhabitants areas. inhabitants The residing /population km²

B uzi densityinwith the approximatelyrural around areas. Thethe 76.6% populationdistrict of the densityheadquartersinhabitants around residing thewhich is Beira district headquarters which is approximated at 15.1 approximatedin the rural areas. at 15.1 The inhabitants/km2 population density is arrelativelyound the higher wheninhabitants/km2district compared headquarters is torelatively otherwhich higherruralis approximated locations when compared inat 15.1the district. Figure 3: Map of Dondo districts depicting the 2 administrative Thetoinhabitants/km2 other population rural locations is relativelyyoung in the with higherdistrict. most when The individuals populationcompared falling is young with most individuals falling within the age postsFigure and 3: theMap neighbouring of Dondo districts districts depicting the 2 administrative withinto other the rural age locations bracket inof the 10 district. to 14 Theyears). population In 2007, the bracket of 10 to 14 years). In 2007, the life expectancy posts and the neighbouring districts lifeis expectancyyoung with most of the individuals district was falling estimated within the at age 48.7 years ofbracket the district of 10 was to 14 estimated years). Inat 2007,48.7 yearsthe lif efor expectancy men AboutAbout 74.1% 74.1% of the of thedistrict district area area is occupiedis occupied by by different forand men 54.9 and years 54.9 for women.years for The women. relatively The lower relatively life lower expectancyof the district may was be estimated an indicator at 48.7of high years levels for ofmen typesdifferent ofAbout natural 74.1% types habitats of thenatural districtincluding habitats area forests, isincludin occupied wetlandsg for byests, and lifeand expectancy 54.9 years formay women. be an The indicator relatively of lower high life levels of vulnerabilityexpectancy exemplifiedmay be an indicator by poor accessibilityof high levels to of quality mangrovewetlandsdifferent and andtypes the mangrove remaining of natural and habitatsis occupiedthe remaining includin byg settlementsis for occupiedests, vulnerability exemplified by poor accessibility to quality by settlements (13.5%) and cultivated areas of (12.4%). healthvulnerability care and exemplified nutrition. by poor accessibility to quality (13.5%)Accordingwetlands and cultivated toand 2007 mangrove census, areas and 58.1%of the(12.4%). remainingof the workingAccording is occupied to health care and nutrition. by settlements (13.5%) and cultivated areas of (12.4%). Thehealth age car structuree and nutrition. of the district reflects an economic 2007 populationcensus, 58.1% of Dondo of the were working engaged population in primary of Dondo According to 2007 census, 58.1% of the working ThedependencyThe age age structurestructure ratio of of of1: the 1.1, the district implying district reflects that reflects an for economic every an economic were sectorsengaged of thein primary economy sectors such as of agriculture, the economy forestry such as population of Dondo were engaged in primary dependency10dependency children or ratioratioelderly ofof persons1: 1: 1.1, 1.1, implying thereimplying ar thate 11 that for people everyfor ofevery 10 and fishing. About 15% of the working population in agriculture,sectors forestry of the economy and fishing. such Aboutas agriculture, 15% of the forestry working childrenworking10 children orage. elderly or W elderlyith apersons young persons population there there are ar 11 (44%),e people11 people under of workingof populationtheand district fishing. in the were Aboutdistrict employed 15% were of in employedthe the working industrial in population the sectors industrial in age.15 years With old, a young it has apopulation masculinity (44%), index of under 85% (15for years old, including in Mozambique Sugar Cane Company, working age. With a young population (44%), under sectorsthe including district were in Mozambique employed in theSugar industrial Cane sectorsCompany, itevery 15has years a100 masculinity old,female it has people aindex masculinity there of ar85%e index 85 (for male) of every 85% and ( 100foran female cement factory, Lusalite and concrete sleepers. cementincluding factory, in Lusalite Mozambique and concrete Sugar Cane sleepers. Company, The trade urbanizationevery 100 female rate of people 23%, concentrated there are 85 male)in Inhassor and ano The trade sector absorbs 13% of the workers, people there are 85 male) and an urbanization rate of sector cementabsorbs factory, 13% ofLusalite the workers, and concrete mostly sleepers. related to the Villageurbanization and peripheral rate of 23%, areas concentrated of semi-urban in Inhassormatrix. o mostly related to the informal commerce including 23%, concentrated in Inhassoro Village and peripheral The trade sector absorbs 13% of the workers, Village and peripheral areas of semi-urban matrix. informalcommercialization commerce including of fish and commercialization other products. Livestock of fish areas of semi-urban matrix. mostly related to the informal commerce including and otherstock keeping,products. forestry Livestock and farming stock arkeeping,e the main forestry commercialization of fish and other products. Livestock and farmingeconomic are activities the main of families.economic activities of families. stock keeping, forestry and farming are the main Machanga In general,Ineconomic general, agriculture agricultureactivities ofis is families. practicedpracticed manually manually in smallin small holdingsholdingsIn general, by family by familyagriculture members. members. is practicedIn moderately In moderately manually wellwell in smalldrained- Govuro ¢ soils thedrainedholdings main soils bycrops familythe mainare m embers. maize,crops ar sorghum,eIn maize, moderately sor Nhembaghum, well - and BoereNhemba drainedbeans. andsoilsCotton Boere the mainand beans. sugarcanecrops Cotton are maize, andare mainsugarcane sorghum, cash arcrope main cash crop produced under a monoculture regime. producedNhemba under and Boerea monoculture beans. Cotton regime. and sugarcane Agricultural are Bazaruto productionAgriculturalmain cashis predominantly crproductionop produced is predominantly under a rainfedmonoculture under conditions, rainfed regime. Bazaruto conditions, heightening the risk of crop failure. Cashew, heighteningAgricultural the riskproduction of crop isfailure. predominantly Cashew, under mango, rainfed and mango, and the papaya are the main fruit trees which Inhassoro Inhassoro the papayaconditions, are the heightening main fruit the trees risk ofwhich crop failure.also source Cashew of, alsomango, source and of the income papaya to farmersare the mainbut have fruit productiontrees which income to farmers but have production limitations due limitationsalso source due of lackincome of seeds to farmers and drought. but have production lack of seeds and drought. Accordinglimitations to due the lack Koppen of seeds climate and classification, drought. the AccordingclimateAccording toof Dondo theto the Koppen isKoppen transition climate from classification, rainy classification, tropical theto the Vilankulo climatedryclimate of season Dondo of Dondoin winter.is transition is Thetransition average from from rainyair rainy temperature tropical tropical to to dry Mabote is about 27 ° C, with an average amplitude of 7° C. seasondry in seasonwinter. inThe winter. average The averageair temperature air temperature is about 27 ° C, withRelativeis about an average humidity 27 ° C, amplitude within the an district average of 7°is betweenamplitudeC. Relative 75 of- 76% humidity7° C. with small variation over of the year. The mean annual Figure 4: Map of Inhassoro district depicting Inhassoro in the districtRelative is humidity between in 75-76%the district with is betweensmall variation 75-76% over mainland and Bazaruto Island. precipitationwith small variation varies fr overom 1,000mm of the year to. 1,459mmThe mean and annual Figure 4: Map of Inhassoro district depicting Inhassoro of thethe year. annual The average mean potentialannual precipitationevapotranspiration varies is from mainland and Bazaruto Island. 1,000mmprecipitation to 1,459mm varies and from the 1,000mm annual toaverage 1,459mm potential and approximatelythe annual average 1,496mm. potential evapotranspiration is evapotranspiration is approximately 1,496mm. approximately 1,496mm.

16 16 7 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

The latitudinal extent of Inhassoro district and its and loamy-clayey within the district, with sediments that contrasting relief have resulted in diverse climatic occupy extensive areas, dunes on the island of Bazaruto conditions in different parts of the district. Climatic and limestone rocks on the island of Santa Carolina. The diversity is reflected in regional variations in temperature, sandy soils along the coastal area are characterized by amount of rainfall, soils, vegetation, agro-ecological low water and nutrient retention capacity, low fertility, conditions and the timing and duration of seasons. The limiting agricultural activity. However, in the inland parts climate of Inhassoro is tropical humid in the coastal strip of the district, soils are fertile, providing a suitable land and dry tropical in the interior, being characterized by for the development of agriculture and pasture. two seasons (dry and rainy). The hot and rainy season runs from August to February, dry and cool from 1.2. Purpose and scope of the coastal and February to July. In the hot and rainy season average marine ecosystems restoration assessment temperatures range from 28 to 30 ° C, with an average The assessment was carried in three main components annual rainfall of 865 mm, with a lower incidence in the namely: interior, while in the dry and cool season temperatures vary between 18 to 27 ° C, with a higher incidence on the a. Inventory and assessment of biophysical and coast . Consequently, the way in which the population ecological conditions of the existing coastal and uses the land differs significantly from the coastal area to marine ecosystems (RLE); the interior. b. Coastal land cover/land use change analysis, ecosystem mapping, and restoration opportunities It is in the Inhassoro district that the natural gas extraction assessment; and processing facilities of Temane are located. The island of Bazaruto (the largest island of the Bazaruto c. Social-ecological and socio-economic situation Archipelago) which is part of the district is a major analysis, and inputs for community based restoration tourist attraction. Govuro river traverses through the plans. district, because of the geomorphology of the river, the The three are intertwined in the sense that the inventory river banks are not conducive for agricultural activities and assessment, social situation analysis, and the coastal particularly due to the large amounts of limestone in the land cover/land use change analysis have provided data banks. necessary for ecosystem mapping while the inferences The relief consists of altitudinal range of about 239 gauged in the mapping was used to enrich the inventory meters. In terms of soils, the district is characterized by and social situation analysis. The loop of the above sandy soils in dune phase, hydromorphic sandy soils and components has then provided the basis for the inputs clayey alluvial soils and the predominant vegetation is to community based restoration plans and marine the open forest of miombo and mangal. In the mainland, ecosystems sandy soils predominate in the coastal zone, French-sandy

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment 2. Methodology model to produce quantitative estimates of the risk of 2. Methodology collapse (E) (IUCN 2016). It is noteworthy that 2.1. Inventory and assessment of biophysical criterionE was out E wasof the o utstudy-scope of the study and-scope therefore and thereforewas not 2.1. andInventory ecological and conditions assessment of coastal of and marine wasevaluated not evaluated (NE). (NE). biophysicalecosystems and (RLE) ecological conditions of coastalhree and districts marine were ecosystems selected as pilot (RLE) sites for assessment of the ecological conditions through Three districtsthe wereRed selectedList of asEcosystem pilot sites (RLE)for assessment assessmentT of the ecological conditions through the method. It was assumed that the case study sites, which Red Listare oflocated Ecosystem along (RLE)the coast assessment were representative method. It wasof other assumedareas that of the the Mozambican case study sites,coastline. which The ar ecase located study sites alongwere the coastselected were to representrepresentative the three of other main areas regions of of the the MozambicanMozambican coastline. coastline Thewhich case include, study the sites coralline were with selectedcoral to limestone represent in the the three north, main estuarine regions coastlines of the in the Mozambicancentral region, coastline and which the sandy include, coastline the coralline in the southern with coralregion limestone of the country in the (Spalding, north, estuarine Blasco, coastlinesand Field 1997). in theConsequently, central region, the and three the sandyrepresentative coastline districtsin the from southernnorth region to south of theincluded country Memba, (Spalding, Dondo Blasco and Inhassoro., and FieldThe 1997). IUCN Consequently, Red list of the Ecosystems three representative (RLE) is a set of districtscategories from north and to criteriasouth includedfor assessing Memba, the Dondo risks to and Inhassorecosystemso. and to focus attention on where ecosystems The IUCNare threatened. Red list of Ecosystems It is part of (RLE) a growing is a set toolbox for analysing risk to biodiversity at all scales and it aims at of categories and criteria for assessing the risks supporting conservation, resource management and to ecosystems and to focus attention on where decision making by identifying ecosystems most at risk ecosystems are threatened. It is part of a growing (IUCN 2016). toolbox for analysing risk to biodiversity at all scales Figure 5: Structure of IUCN Red List of Ecosystems categories and itDetailed aims at descriptionsupporting conservation,of the RLE assessment resource process

managementis provided and indecision the IUCN making guidelines by identifying for application ecosystemsdocumentation most at andrisk training(IUCN 2016). material (IUCN 2015; Murray 2.2. Coastal land cover/land use change et al. 2016). A practical guide was also issued in 2015, 2.2. Coastal land cover/land use change Detailed description of the RLE assessment process analysis it is specially addressed to practitioners who want to analysis is providedimplement in the this IUCN protocol guidelines (Rodriguez for applicationet al. 2015). In short, To facilitate the assessment of the status of the coastal documentationthe RLE approach and training comprises material a five (IUCN rule-based 2015; criteria (A- ecosystem, the understanding of the historical trends Tino facilitatedifferent the ecosystem, assessment including of the statusmangroves, of the coastalcoastal MurrayE, Annexet al. 2016). 1) for Aassigning practical ecosystems guide was toalso a riskissued category. ecosystem, the understanding of the historical trends in 2015,Each it ofis speciallythe five addrRLE criteriaessed toaddresses practitioners different groups forests, seagrass and coral was considered to be essential into different the entire ecosystem, assessment including process. mangr The oves, identification coastal of who ofwant symptoms to implement and identifiesthis protocol the (Rodriguez corresponding et means forests, seagrass and coral was considered to be that link the symptoms to the risk that an ecosystem biodiversity hotspots and degraded areas can not only al. 2015). In short, the RLE approach comprises a essential five rulewill- based collapse criteria (i.e. lose(A-E, its Annex defining 1) for features).assigning Symptoms inform the process of identifying restoration opportunities toand the priorityentire assessment areas but also process. provide The an identification entry point into ecosystemsmay be tomeasured a risk category. by one Eachor more, of the generic five RLE or specific, of biodiversity hotspots and degraded areas can not criteriaproxy addr essesvariables. different Once groups suitable of symptomsvariables andto assess developing restoration intervention and community onlyplans. inform the process of identifying restoration identifiesdistributional the corresponding and functional means symptoms that link the are identified, opportunities and priority areas but also provide an symptomsecosystem to the collapse risk that thresholds an ecosystem are defined will collapse to assign each 2.2.1. Satellite Image analysis (i.e. loseecosystem its defining type featurto onees). of theSymptoms categories may of berisk (Keith et entry point into developing restoration intervention measural. ed 2013). by one Two or of more, the fivegeneric criteria or specific, are based on spatial andTo communityunderstand plans. the evolution of ecosystem and proxysymptoms variables. of Once ecosystem suitable collapse: variables the to rates assess of decline in environmental changes in the study area, systematic distributional and functional symptoms are identified, 2.2.1.analysis Satellite of satellite imageryImage wasanalysis adopted. Specifically, ecosystemdistribution collapse (A), andthresholds the degree are definedto which to the assign distribution eachis ecosystem restricted type(B). Twoto one criteria of the are categories based onof riskfunctional an analysis of Landsat 5 and Landsat 8 images for the symptoms of ecosystem collapse: the rate and extent of Tstudyo understand areas was the carried evolution out toof revealecosystem the changes and in the (Keith et al. 2013). Two of the five criteria are based environmentalmain land cover chan classesges in in the the study coastal area, ecosystem. systematic The on spatialenvironmental symptoms degradation of ecosystem (C), collapse:and the rate the ratesand extent of disruption of biotic processes and interactions (D). The analysisaim of theof satellite image analysisimagery is was to revealadopted. potential Specifically drivers, of decline in distribution (A), and the degree to which fifth criterion facilitates the integration of multiple threats anof analysisecosystem of Landsatdegradation 5 and and Landsat to highlight 8 images hotspots for the that the distribution is restricted (B). Two criteria are based and symptoms into a model to produce quantitative studycan be areas targeted was forcarried interventions out to reveal and restoration. the changes Landsat in the on functional symptoms of ecosystem collapse: the estimates of the risk of collapse (E) (IUCN 2016). It is mainsatellite land images cover classes capture in thethe coastalsurface ecosystem.characteristics The at rate andnoteworthy extent ofthat environmental criterion degradation (C), and aim30m of resolution the image and analysis have a is revisit to reveal potential drivers the rate and extent of disruption of biotic processes of ecosystem degradation and to highlight hotspots and interactions (D). The fifth criterion facilitates the that can be targeted for interventions and restoration. integration of multiple threats and symptoms into a 9Landsat satellite images capture the surface characteristics at 30m resolution and have a revisit

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

schedule of 16 days. Dondo district falls within two falls within titles 167/75 and 166/75 while Memba schedule of 16 days. Dondo district falls within two fallsdistrict within is withintitles 167/75 tiles 164/69 and 166/75 and 164/70 while Memba as indicated district in Landsat tiles of 167/73 and 167/74, Inhassoro district Landsat tiles of 167/73 and 167/74, Inhassoro district isFigure within 6. tiles 164/69 and 164/70 as indicated in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Map of the Landsat tiles showing the respective image scenes for each of the case study districts.

Figure 7: An image grab of a mosaic of false color composite of landsat tiles covering the three districts in the study area. The mosaic was created from the images captured in 2017.

19 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Ancillary datasets including high resolution images from methods in the analysis of satellite datasets. Standard google earth and data on mangrove from other regional image supervised classification using Random Forest projects including RCMRD and WWF were studied script in open source software R, was used as the steps and used in the preparation of training sample for the summarized in Figure 8. In addition, a new set of results mangrove classification. In addition, other ancillary data was obtained by automating the processes of image including existing land cover maps and GPS data from retrieval and analysis in Google Earth Engine, which the field were used to improve the output from satellite proved to be both efficient and resulting in improved image analysis with sensitive land cover types in the accuracies. The final image analysis process was coastal and marine ecosystems such as coastal forest, therefore implemented in Google Earth Engine, with mangrove forest, seagrass and settlements among other the initial results from desktop-based analysis informing clusters. classification in Google Earth Engine. The study period for the image analysis ranged from 1996 Random forest classification, is a semi-automated to 2017 with four epochs in 1996, 2003, 2010 and 2017. approach with the ability to collect training samples for The time space between each epoch is seven (7) years. every available class and guide software algorithm. The Freely available satellite data, including Landsat 5 and 8 training samples were gathered from the time stamped were used as the main datasets. High resolution images images within Google Earth API and in ArcGIS software. from Google Earth platform were also used, particularly The R scripts then had commands to specify the for validation and detailed analysis within the hotspots specific folders with the image to be classified and the of degradation. Due to the substantial challenge of corresponding training data, as well as the output folder. cloud cover within the tropics, in some instances cloud Further, the colour codes and desired output format free images were not available for the epochal years. were also specified within the scripts As a starting point, In such instance, images from the neighboring years standard software image analysis software, ERDAS and were mosaicked and used to provide representative land ENVI were used to perform the image pre-processing cover characteristics for the epochal years. and classification. Rapid results were then ably achieved Apart from satellite data, standard GIS files including and analyzed to give a comparative analysis with available vector and raster data were used. Accurate data on dataset. Then robust training sites were generated based boundaries, infrastructure, population, elevation, water on the these initial results and the images, to form the bodies and other auxiliary data were incorporated in the basis for classification in R software. In areas of low clarity spatial analysis work flow. GPS points were also collected of features and also in high priority areas, high resolution within the districts and incorporated into the study. This images (including Google earth) were used to confirm was particularly the case for the seagrass and coral classes the land cover characteristics and associated changes. that were improved by incorporating GPS locations and Ancillary data, which included field data and land cover stakeholder input during the validation workshop. data from Africover datasets were used to aid mapping and ensure probable characteristics of land cover are Image Interpretation mapped in their appropriate places. In the second set There are a number of remote sensing methods that can of results, similar training samples were collected and be applied to interpret satellite datasets int land cover applied within the Google Earth Engine on selected maps. The mapping of coastal areas presents a unique satellite images. landscape mosaic and careful selection of mapping algorithm is important inorder to achieve highly accurate results. In order to have this comparison and chose the best algorithm, this study used a combination of two

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Figure 8: Summarized workflow of the main steps of image analysis for mangrove and coastal forest mapping

and able to replicate results with different persons of the 2.2.2. Comparison of the mapping methods 2.2.2. Comparison of the mapping sameOne limitationfamiliarity withor the Google same personEarth Engine at different was times. that it This project produced the final version of maps using applies the script and training data on selected images methodsGoogle Earth Engine platform, with inputs from initial Onewithin limitation the platform, with whichGoogle ar eEarth therefore Engine on was the thatcloud. it results obtained from random forest classification method. appliesThis makes the script it impossible and training to apply data imageon selected corrections images for This project produced the final version of maps using within the platform, which are therefore on the cloud. GoogleThis Earthwas to Engine use open platform, source with software inputs R frandom initialapply the cloud cover and gap strips that are inevitable in coastal random forest script. The results were compared in terms Thisareas. makes it impossible to apply image corrections for resultsof consistency obtained from and randomreplicability. forest classification cloud cover and gap strips that are inevitable in coastal method.This was to use open source software R areas.The first batch of results from random forest was andIt apply was the found random that randomforest script. forest The classification results were is very therefore less accurate and yet better image quality The first batch of results from random forest was therefore comparedsensitive in to terms changes of consistency in training samples and replicability. and gives variant was available due to pre-processing techniques, than results if the same ground knowledge and familiarity is less accurate and yet better image quality was available It was found that random forest classification is very the second batch of results from Google Earth Engine applied to collect training samples by varying the time due to pre-processing techniques, than the second batch sensitive to changes in training samples and gives which were higher quality even though cloud cover and or person analysing. In fact, the same person would of results from Google Earth Engine which were higher variant results if the same ground knowledge and gap strips limited the images available for selection. get different results if they pick a new sample of training quality even though cloud cover and gap strips limited familiarity is applied to collect training samples by data without referring to the previous version. Google the2.2.3. images Classificationavailable for selection. of seagrass and varyingEarth the Engine time oron personthe other analysing. hand was In found fact, theto be robust same person would get different results if they pick a coral reefs new sample of training data without referring to the previous version. Google Earth Engine on the other Sensitive habitats like seagrasses and coral reefs hand was found to be robust and able to replicate typically appear below the sea surface, making 12 results with different persons of the same familiarity or them particularly challenging to discriminate from the same person at different times. conventional classification schemes (Ferreira et al, 2012). A separate classification scheme was adopted.

21 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

2.2.3. Classification of seagrass and coral 2.2.4. Change Detection and Analysis reefs Change Detection Analysis encompasses a broad range SpecificallySensitive, habitatswhen using like seagrassesLandsat imagery, and coral bands reefs typically ofquantify methods differ usedences to between identify, imagesdescribe, of theand same quantify blueappear and band below green the seahave surface, been usedmaking to themeliminate particularly differencesscene at different between times images or under of thedifferent same conditions. scene at thechallenging influence of waterto depthdiscriminate on seabed from reflectance conventional different times or under different conditions. A change (Purnawan et al, 2016, Hashim et al, 2014). Here, A change detection module offers an approach to classification schemes (Ferreira et al, 2012). A separate detection module offers an approach to measuring the same bands were considered by first performing measuring changes between a pair of images that classification scheme was adopted Specifically, when changesrepresent between an initial a pair state of andimages final that state. represent For mangrove an initial radiometric and geometric correction of the images state and final state. For mangrove and coastal forest using Landsat imagery, bands blue and band green have and coastal forest mapping, we used the change to produce bands with calibrated spectral reflectance mapping, we used the change detection statistics tool in been used to eliminate the influence of water depth on detection statistics tool in ENVI to carry out post and to reduce the effect of sunlight. Thereafter, band ENVI to carry out post classification change comparisons seabed reflectance (Purnawan et al, 2016, Hashim et al, classification change comparisons (Vemu, S & Udaya B, ratioing of green and blue bands was carried out. (Vemu, S & Udaya B, P. 2010). 2014). Here, the same bands were considered by first P. 2010). Withperforming the resulting radiometric image, ISOCLUST and geometric classification correction was of ThisThis procedure procedure used used change change detection detection difference difference map map performedthe images initially to produceat 20 classes bands which with werecalibrated iteratively spectral module to produce a classification image characterizing reducedreflectance to 10. Consequently, and to reduce it was possible the effect to of sunlight. themodule differences to produce between a classification any pair of initialimage state characterizing and final the differences between any pair of initial state and discriminateThereafter, the band seagrass rationing and coralof green classes and based blue onbands state images. The input images were classified maps thewas historical carried locations out. With of thesethe resulting classes forimage, auxiliary ISOCLUST offinal different state images. dates. TheThe inputdifference images was were computed classified by dataclassification from RCMRD was and performed WCMC. initially at 20 classes which subtractingmaps of different the initial dates. state The image difference from was the finalcomputed state were iteratively reduced to 10. Consequently, it was by subtracting the initial state image from the final imagestate image(that is, (that final is, - initial),final - initial),and the and classes the classeswere defined were 2.2.4.possible Change to discriminate Detection the seagrass and and Analysis coral classes bydefined change by thresholds. change thresholds. based on the historical locations of these classes for Change Detection Analysis encompasses a broad auxiliary data from RCMRD and WCMC. range of methods used to identify, describe, and

Figure 9: A graphical representation of the change detection process

2.3. Socio-ecological – socio-economic situation analysis

Coastal ResilienceThe tooveall Climate methodology Change Baseline; for theCoastal both and the Marine land Ecosystemscover analysis Restoration and the Assessment socio-economic elements is the IUCN and WRI developed Restoration Opportunities Assessment Methodology (IUCN and WRI 2014a). This has embedded within in the Success Factor Analysis (WRI, 2015) and other methodologies that cover culture. The tools used for the social, 2.3. Socio-ecologicaleconomic – socio-economic and cultural assessment 2.3.1. were Nested literature conceptual review, key framework informant of interviews, focus group discussion and group situation analysis discussions at stakeholder workshops.restorative development The oveall methodology for the both the land cover This assessment has taken a nested systems framework analysis and the socio-economic elements is the for the major component of the landscape. This approach IUCN and WRI developedThe baseline Restoration context Opportunities was additionally is and informed expression by of the restorative work carried development. out in 2017Over thein 10 districts of Nampula and Zambezia Assessment MethodologyProvinces (IUCN duringand WRI 2017 2014a).This (IUCN 2018past). decade, restorative development has become the has embedded within in the Success Factor Analysis fastest-growing economic sector, currently accounting for (WRI, 2015) and other methodologies that cover almost $2 trillion annually Source: (Cunningham, 2003). culture. The tools usedThe for overall the social, methodology economic andwas to Restorativeunderstand Development: the social The(including, New Growth cultural Strategy socio for -ecological, and the socio-economic) cultural assessment werecontext literature through review, a) key a informantsystems -basedCommunities conceptual of All a Sizes). nested conceptual framework, b) the application of the analysis of interviews, focus group discussion and group discussions at stakeholder workshops.success The factors baseline and context barriers was and 2.3.2.c) by theRestoration application diagnostic of environmental of successes economics and methodologies. Gender issues are additionally informed beingby the workaddressed carried outby ain separate2017 in processbarriers and did not form a focus of this work. Relevant gender issues observed have 10 districts of Nampulabe and commented Zambezia Provinces on as an during input intoThe the Success separate Factor gender Analysis analysis. (SFA) is a methodology that 2017 (IUCN 2018). analyses key success factors that have been demonstrated The overall methodology was to understand the to promote restoration as well as the barriers. It is also social (including, cultural2.3.1. socio-ecological, Nested conceptual and the frameworktermed the ‘restoration of restorative diagnostic’ development and the details of the socio-economic) context through a) a systems- based methodology are contained within a manual titled ‘The conceptual a nested conceptual framework, b) the Restoration Diagnostic. A Method for Developing Forest Coastal Resilience to Climate Changeapplication Baseline; of the analysis CoastalThis of assessmentsuccess and Marine factors and hasEcosystems barriers taken aLandscape nestedRestoration systemsRestoration Assessment framework Strategies by forRapidly the Assessingmajor component of the landscap. This and c) by the applicationapproach of environmental is and expression economics ofthe restorative Status of Key development. Success Factors’. Over (WRI, 2015).the past decade, restorative development has methodologies. Gender issues are being addressed by a separate process andbecome did not form the a focusfastest of this-growing work. economic sector, currently accounting for almost $2 trillion annually Source: Relevant gender issues observed have be commented on as an input into the(Cunningham, separate gender analysis. 2003). Restorative Development: The New Growth Strategy for Communities of All Sizes). Restorative development can be envisaged in Figure 10 below. 2.3. Socio-ecological – socio-economic Restorative development can be envisaged in Figure 10 below. situation analysis

The oveall methodology for the both the land cover analysis and the socio-economic elements is the IUCN and WRI developed Restoration Opportunities Assessment Methodology (IUCN and WRI 2014a).

This has embedded within in the Success Factor Analysis (WRI, 2015) and other methodologies that cover culture. The tools used for the social, economic and cultural assessment were literature review, key informant interviews, focus group discussion and group discussions at stakeholder workshops.

The baseline context was additionally informed by the work carried out in 2017 in 10 districts of Nampula and Zambezia Provinces during 2017 (IUCN 2018). The overall methodology was to understand the social (including, cultural socio-ecological, and the socio-economic) context through a) a systems- Figure 10: Restorative development (Wild, 2015) based conceptual a nested conceptual framework, b) Figure 10: Restorative development (Wild, 2015) the application of the analysis of success factors and barriers and c) by the application of environmental 14 economics methodologies. Gender issues are being 2.3.2. Restoration diagnostic of successes and barriers addressed by a separate process and did not form a 2.3.3. Environmental economics focus of this work. Relevant gender issues observed TheThe Success literature Factor desk Analysis review (SFA) was is useful a methodology in gathering that analyses key success factors that have been demonstrated have be commented on as an input into the separate to promosecondaryte restoration data to asbe wellused as economic the barriers. analysis. It is alsoThis termed the ‘restoration diagnostic’ and the details of the gender analysis. methodologywas conducted are contained to get an within overview a manual of mangrove titled ‘The forest Restoration Diagnostic. A Method for Developing Forest restoration and in assessing the economic value of Landscape Restoration Strategies by Rapidly Assessing the Status of Key Success Factors’. (WRI, 2015). 2.3.1. Nested conceptual framework of coastal ecosystem services through benefit transfer restorative development method. The benefit transfer method was used to estimate This assessment has taken a nested systems framework economic values for ecosystem services by transferring24 for the major component of the landscap. This available information from studies already completed in approach is and expression of restorative development. another location and/or context. And this refers to the Over the past decade, restorative development has process of applying valuation results, functions, data or become the fastest-growing economic sector, currently models derived in one location or context (study site) accounting for almost $2 trillion annually Source: to estimate monetary values of ecosystem services in (Cunningham, 2003). Restorative Development: The an alternative context or location. New Growth Strategy for Communities of All Sizes). Benefit transfer has been described as the “application 2.3.2. Restoration diagnostic of of values and other information from a ‘study’ site successes and barriers where data are collected to a ‘policy’ site with little or no data” or the “practice of adapting value estimates The Success Factor Analysis (SFA) is a methodology from past research to assess the value of a similar, but that analyses key success factors that have been separate, change in a different resource” (Johnston, R. demonstrated to promote restoration as well as the J et al., 2010). barriers. It is also termed the ‘restoration diagnostic’ Benefit transfers are most often used when data and the details of the methodology are contained availability, funding, time other constraints do not within a manual titled ‘The Restoration Diagnostic. A allow original research, so that pre-existing estimates Method for Developing Forest Landscape Restoration must be used instead. The use of high-quality primary Strategies by Rapidly Assessing the Status of Key research to estimate values is often preferred. However, Success Factors’. (WRI, 2015). the realities of the policy process, particularly time and budget constraints, often prescribe that benefit transfer is the only feasible option. Therefore, benefit transfer has become a central component of virtually all large- scale benefit-cost analyses (Johnston, R. J et al., 2010).

23 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

2.3.3. Environmental economics Benefit transfer has been described as the “application of values and other information from a ‘study’ site where The literature desk review was useful in gathering data are collected to a ‘policy’ site with little or no data” secondary data to be used economic analysis. This or the “practice of adapting value estimates from past was conducted to get an overview of mangrove forest research to assess the value of a similar, but separate, restoration and in assessing the economic value of coastal change in a different resource” (Johnston, R. J et al., ecosystem services through benefit transfer method. 2010). The benefit transfer method was used to estimate Benefit transfers are most often used when data economic values for ecosystem services by transferring availability, funding, time other constraints do not available information from studies already completed in allow original research, so that pre-existing estimates another location and/or context. And this refers to the must be used instead. The use of high-quality primary process of applying valuation results, functions, data or research to estimate values is often preferred. However, models derived in one location or context (study site) to the realities of the policy process, particularly time and estimate monetary values of ecosystem services in an budget constraints, often prescribe that benefit transfer alternative context or location. is the only feasible option. Therefore, benefit transfer has become a central component of virtually all large- scale benefit-cost analyses (Johnston, R. J et al., 2010).

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

3. Baseline profiles of the coastal and marine ecosystems Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

3. Baseline profiles of the coastalmelanoxylon and , marineSwartizia madagascariensis ecosystems, Millettia stuhlmannii 3.1. Red List of Ecosystems assessment (Panga-Panga), etc. Strychnos spinosa is usually found in (Results and interpretations) Coastalassociation Forests withare Combretum considered spp by., Terminalia Conservation spp. , Pteleopsis 3.1. Red List of Ecosystems assessment myrtilifolia, etc. These formations occur more in the northern (Results and interpretations) International to be a global biodiversity hotspot and 3.1.1. Coastal forest vegetation an areaprovinces, of high including diversity Napula and endemism and Memba (Timberlake district. In the centre of the country and Southern Provinces, Trichilia emetica and 3.1.1.3.1.1.1. Coastal Classification forest vegetation et al. 2011). The terminology “Coastal Forest” has beenSclerocarya used widely birrea in the becomes past decades sometimes but theredominant has (Soto 2007). 3.1.1.1.IUCN Habitats Classification Classification Scheme (Version 3.1) is a beenOther inconsistency forest ecosystem in the definition. types include As the described Coastal Forest by s in the global typology of habitat types. This classification is UCN Habitats Classification Scheme (Version 3.1) is Timberlakesouth and et al.afro (2011),-montane it designated forests in centralin some Mozambique cases, (e.g. used here to provide a harmonized classification of the outside the study area). ecosystems,a global typology comparable of habitat at the types. global This level. classification The IUCN most of the dense vegetation formations found in the is used here to provide a harmonized classification coastalCoastal area (e.g. Forests within are 100-150 considered km of theby Conservationcoast or White’s IHabitats Classification Scheme is composed three ofhier thearchic ecosystems, levels describing comparable 18 habitats. at the Theglobal following level. (1983)International Zanzibar–Inhambane to be a global phytochorion biodiversity , whilst hotspot others and an The IUCN Habitats Classification Scheme is composed (e.g. area WWF-EARPO of high diversity 2006) and have endemism included various(Timberlake forest et al. habitats were identified in the studied districts: three hierarchic levels describing 18 habitats. The or woodland2011). The formations terminology (except “Coastal mangroves) Forest” uphas to been 300 Subtropical/Tropical Dry Forest (level 1.5), Subtropical/ following habitats were identified in the studied districts: km inland.used widely Even thoughin the past some decades vegetation but thereclassifications has been Tropical Moist Lowland Forest (level 1.6) and Dry Subtropical/Tropical Dry Forest (level 1.5), Subtropical/ identifyinconsistency a clear difference in the definitibetweenon. forest As described and woodland by Savanna (ex: miombo / Brachystegia woodlands) (level Tropical Moist Lowland Forest (level 1.6) and Dry Savanna the Timberlakeapplication etof al. recognized(2011), it designated standard invegetation some cases, 2.1). (ex: miombo / Brachystegia woodlands) (level 2.1). confirmsmost theof theexistence dense vegetationof forest sensus formations stricto in found this area.in the Descriptive vegetation classifications such as by White 3.1.1.2.3.1.1.2. Ecosystem Ecosystem description description coastal area (e.g. within 100-150 km of the coast or (1983)White’s for the (1983) whole Africa,Zanzibar and–Inhambane by Greenway phyt (1973)ochorion both 1, recognize the existence of a number of smalls areas of 3.1.1.2.1. Characteristic native biota whilst others (e.g. WWF-EARPO 2006) have included 3.1.1.2.1. Characteristic native biota dense closed canopy tree stands in coastal lowlands of various forest or woodland formations (except ForestsForests cover cover 40% 40% of ofMozambican Mozambican territory, territory, representing eastern Africa which fit their forest classifications. The mangroves) up to 300 km inland. Even though some uprepresenting to 32 million up hectares to 32 million of natural hectares forests, of natural of which 27 “Coastal Forests” encompass all such forests, excluding millionforests, hectares of which are 27 categorizedmillion hectares as productive are categorized forests. as the halophyticvegetation classificationsmangrove forests identify (Burgess a clear and difference Clarke Miomboproductive woodlands forests. Miombo are the woodlands most extensive are the mostforest 2000).between Mangrove forest forests and woodlandare assessed the separatelyapplication in o fthe ecosystem,extensive forestcovering ecosystem, approximatively covering two-thirds approximatively of the followingrecognized section standard (3.2). vegetation confirms the country’stwo-thirds forest of the land country’s (World forest Bank land2018). (World Miombos Bank are existence of forest sensus stricto in this area. named2018). Miombos for the “miombo” are named treesfor the (Brachystegia “miombo” trees spp. ) As aforementioned,Descriptive vegetation in the eastern classifications African context, such as there by White that(Brachystegia dominate spp.the ) areathat dominate(WWF 2018). the area The (WWF Miombo is a (1983)clear differencefor the whole between Africa, andwoodland by Greenway and forest. (1973) Coastal Forest and woodland can be differentiated physiognomy2018). The Miombo is characterised physiognomy by a is densecharacterised vegetation by a both recognize the existence of a number of smalls both on physiognomic differences and on ecological cover,dense with vegetation deciduous cover, and with semi-deciduous deciduous and trees, semi with- areas of dense closed canopy tree stands in coastal basis. Physiogonomic differences are presented in heightsdeciduous reaching trees, withbetween heights 10 reachingand 20 betweenmetres when10 and lowlands of eastern Africa which fit their forest mature20 metres and whennon-degraded. mature and It is non estimated-degraded. that Itthere is are Forest and woodland require different ecological conditionsclassifications. for species The recruitment “Coastal Forests” and the encompass attainment all approximativelyestimated that there334 treeare approximativelyspecies in the 334Mozambican tree such forests, excluding the halophytic mangrove Miombo forests (Ribeiro and Ribeiro 2008). Miombo of their climax communities. Fire plays a pivotal role in species in the Mozambican Miombo forests (Ribeiro forests (Burgess and Clarke 2000). Mangrove forests are composed mainly of deciduous woody vegetation the dynamics of establishment of forest, woodland and and Ribeiro 2008). Miombo are composed mainly of are assessed separately in the following section (3.2). wheredeciduous Brachystegia woody vegetation spp, and where Strychnos Brachyst spinosaegia sppare . grassland vegetation. Highly seasonal precipitation oftenand Stthery chnosdominant spinosa species. are oftenThey thecan dominant appear in species. pure (varyingAs aforementioned, between 650 and in the 1’400 eastern mm African per year) context, leave standThey butcan mostappea likelyr in purein association stand but withmost other likely species. in the vegetationthere is a clear dry fordifference several betweenmonths. woodlandUnder this and dry Brachystegiaassociation withspp other, is species.commonly Brachystegia associated spp. with is climate,forest. fire Coastal frequency Forest and but woodland also time can be of occurrence Julbernadiacommonly associatedglobiflora, withPterocarpus Julbernadia angolensis globiflora (Umbila),, will differentiated considerably both influence on physiognomic establishment differences of andwoody BurkeaPterocarpus africana, angolensis Bridelia (Umbila), micrantha, Burkea Cynometra africana sp.,, vegetation.on ecological Under basis. annual Physiogonomic burning, regardlessdifferences areof DalbergiaBridelia micrantha melanoxylon,, Cynometra Swartizia sp. , Dalbergia madagascariensis, the intensity,presented woodland in Error! Referenceand forest sourceare converted not found. to . grassland. Wetter biomass and more benign fire weather, Millettia stuhlmannii (Panga-Panga), etc. Strychnos spinosa is usually found in association with Combretum have shown that early-season burning allows woody spp, TerminaliaTab spp,le 1 Comparison Pteleopsis of myrtilifolia, major differences etc. These between forestbiomass and woodland to develop where further both main compared vegetation to late-season formations occurformation more types in have the continuous northern stands provinces, of large (10 m)burning. trees. (sour In general,ce: Burgess regular and Clarke fire (2000))burning will favour the including Napula and Memba district. In the centre of more open woodland formation. The grass layer tends to the country and Southern Provinces, Trichilia emetica densify with increased light levels reaching the ground in and SclerocaryaCharacteristic birrea becomes sometimesWoodland dominant open woodland formationsForest and renders the habitat more (Soto 2007). OtherTree crowns forest ecosystem typesTouch, include but the do notsusceptible overlap to fire, therebyOverlap potentially perpetuating the Coastal Forests in the south and afro-montane forests in woodland state. On the contrary, in the absence of fire, central MozambiqueGround (e.g. layer outside the studyGrasses area). well developedmiombo starts to formSparse closed-canopy or absent forest. Greater

1 Phytochorion: a phytochorion is a geographic area with uniform plant species. 16 24

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

3. Baseline profiles of the coastal and marine ecosystems

melanoxylon, Swartizia madagascariensis, Millettia stuhlmannii 3.1. Red List of Ecosystems assessment (Panga-Panga), etc. Strychnos spinosa is usually found in (Results and interpretations) association with Combretum spp., Terminalia spp., Pteleopsis myrtilifolia, etc. These formations occur more in the northern 3.1.1. Coastal forest vegetation provinces, including Napula and Memba district. In the centre of the country and Southern Provinces, Trichilia emetica and 3.1.1.1. Classification Sclerocarya birrea becomes sometimes dominant (Soto 2007). IUCN Habitats Classification Scheme (Version 3.1) is a Other forest ecosystem types include the Coastal Forests in the global typology of habitat types. This classification is south and afro-montane forests in central Mozambique (e.g. used here to provide a harmonized classification of the outside the study area). ecosystems, comparable at the global level. The IUCN Coastal Forests are considered by Conservation Habitats Classification Scheme is composed three hierarchic levels describing 18 habitats. The following International to be a global biodiversity hotspot and an area of high diversity and endemism (Timberlake et al. habitats were identified in the studied districts: 2011). The terminology “Coastal Forest” has been Subtropical/Tropical Dry Forest (level 1.5), Subtropical/ used widely in the past decades but there has been Tropical Moist Lowland Forest (level 1.6) and Dry inconsistency in the definition. As described by Savanna (ex: miombo / Brachystegia woodlands) (level Timberlake et al. (2011), it designated in some cases, 2.1). most of the dense vegetation formations found in the 3.1.1.2. Ecosystem description coastal area (e.g. within 100-150 km of the coast or White’s (1983) Zanzibar–Inhambane phytochorion1, 3.1.1.2.1. Characteristic native biota whilst others (e.g. WWF-EARPO 2006) have included Forests cover 40% of Mozambican territory, various forest or woodland formations (except representing up to 32 million hectares of natural mangroves) up to 300 km inland. Even though some forests, of which 27 million hectares are categorized as vegetation classifications identify a clear difference productive forests. Miombo woodlands are the most between forest and woodland the application of extensive forest ecosystem, covering approximatively recognized standard vegetation confirms the two-thirds of the country’s forest land (World Bank existence of forest sensus stricto in this area. 2018). Miombos are named for the “miombo” trees Descriptive vegetation classifications such as by White (Brachystegia spp.) that dominate the area (WWF (1983) for the whole Africa, and by Greenway (1973) 2018). The Miombo physiognomy is characterised by a both recognize the existence of a number of smalls dense vegetation cover, with deciduous and semi- areas of dense closed canopy tree stands in coastal deciduous trees, with heights reaching between 10 and lowlands of eastern Africa which fit their forest 20 metres when mature and non-degraded. It is classifications. The “Coastal Forests” encompass all estimated thatCoa therestal are Resilience approximatively to Climate 334 Change tree Baseline; Coastalsuch forests, and Marine excluding Ecosystems the halophytic Restoration mangrove Assessment

species in the Mozambican Miombo forests (Ribeiro forests (Burgess and Clarke 2000). Mangrove forests Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment and Ribeiro 2008). Miombo are composed mainly of are assessed separately in the following section (3.2). deciduous woody vegetation where Brachystegia spp. Forest and woodland require different ecological while the two other districts (Dondo and Inhassoro) are and Strychnos spinosa are often the dominant species. As aforementioned, in the eastern African context, conditions for species recruitment and the attainment included in the Swahilian/Maputaland regional transition zone ForestThey andcan appeawoodlandr in purerequire stand different but most ecological likely in whilethere the is a two clear other difference districts between (Dondo woodlandand Inhasso andro) are of their climax communities. Fire plays a pivotal role (Timberlake et al. 2011). conditionsassociation for with species other recruitment species. Brachystegia and the attainment spp. is includedforest. Coastal in the Swahilian/Maputaland Forest and woodland can regional be transition zone in the dynamics of establishment of forest, woodland ofcommonly their climax associated communities. with JulbernadiaFire plays a globiflorapivotal role, (Timberlakedifferentiated et both al. 2011) on physiognomic. differences and and grasslandCoastal Resiliencevegetation. to Highly Climate seasonal Change Baseline; Coastal andIn Marinethe present Ecosystems assessment, Restoration definition Assessment of Coastal Forest inPterocarpus the dynamics angolensis of establi shment(Umbila), of Burkea forest, woodlandafricana, on ecological basis. Physiogonomic differences are precipitation (varying between 650 and 1’400 mm per proposed by Burgess and Clarke (2000) and andBridelia grassland micrantha vegetation., Cynometra Highly sp. seasonal, Dalbergia Inpresented the present in Error!assessment, Reference definition source of Coastalnot found. Forest. year) leave the vegetation dry for several months. acknowledged as the reference in this domain, was precipitation (varying between 650 and 1’400 mm per proposed by Burgess and Clarke (2000) and Under this dry climate, fire frequency but also time of retained. The authors described the floristic year) leave the vegetation dry for several months. acknowledged as the reference in this domain, was occurrenceTab lewill 1 Comparison considerably of major influence differences establishment between forest and woodlandcomposition where as both follow: main vegetationForest dominated (i.e. containing Under this dry climate, fire frequency but also time of retained. The authors described the floristic of woodyformation vegetation. types Under have continuous annual burning, stands of large (10 m) trees. (sourmorece: than Burgess 50 %and of Clarke all individuals (2000)) of trees with a occurrence will considerably influence establishment composition as follow: Forest dominated (i.e. containing regardless of the intensity, woodland and forest are diameter at breast height of 10 cm or more) by Swahili of woody vegetation. Under annual burning, more than 50 % of all individuals of trees with a converted to grassland. Wetter biomass and more near endemic tree species, i.e. tree species whose regardless of theCharacteristic intensity, woodland andW forestoodland are diameter at breastFor heightest of 10 cm or more) by Swahili benign fire weather, have shown that early-season global distribution is limited to the eastern African converted to grassland. Wetter biomass and more near endemic tree species, i.e. tree species whose burning allowsTree crowns woody biomass to develTouch,op further but do not overlapcoastal areaOverlap (Error! Reference source not found.). benign fire weather, have shown that early-season global distribution is limited to the eastern African compared to late-season burning. In general, regular burning allows Groundwoody biomass layer to developGrasses further well developedcoastal area (Error!Sparse Reference or absent source not found.). fire burning will favour the more open woodland compared to late-season burning. In general, regular formation. The grass layer tends to densify with fire burning will favour the more open woodland increased light levels reaching the ground in open formation.shading The reduces grass thelayer development tends to densify of a grass with layer, thus woodland formations and renders the habitat more increased1 making light the levelsvegetation reaching less prone the ground to fire inburning, open thereby Phytochorion: perpetuatingsusceptiblea phytochorion is a geographic area with tothe fire, existence thereby of potentially the forest perpetuatingstate. Miombo woodland formations and renders the habitat more uniform plant specieswoodlandthe woodland is therefore state.. Onfire the derived, contrary, while in forest the absence depends susceptible to fire, thereby potentially perpetuating onof thefire, absence miombo of starts fire to formperpetuate closed itself-canopy (Burgess forest. and 24 the woodland state. On the contrary, in the absence ClarkeGreater 2000; shading Ryan andreduces Williams the development2011). of a grass of fire, miombo starts to form closed-canopy forest. layer, thus making the vegetation less prone to fire GreaterThe shadingthree reducesstudied thedistricts development are located of a grass in the burning, thereby perpetuating the existence of the layer,phytogeographical thus making the vegetation region originally less pr one defined to fire by White forest state. Miombo woodland is therefore fire burning,(1983) thereby as: The perpetuating Zanzibar- theInhambane existence regional of the mosaic extendingderived, whilefrom forest the dependsmouth of on thethe absenceLimpopo ofRiver fire forest state. Miombo woodland is therefore fire (latitudeto perpetuate 25°S) to itself the Rovuma(Burgess River and (and Clarke northward). 2000; Ryan This derived, while forest depends on the absence of fire phytochorionand Williams comprised 2011). a complex matrix of forests: to perpetuate itself (Burgess and Clarke 2000; Ryan Sand Forests, Miombo woodlands, Undifferentiated and WilliamsThe three 2011) studied. districts are located in the forestsphytogeographical , Evergreen regionforests, originally Riverine defined forests, by WhiteDune The forests,three st udiedWooded districts grassland, are located Secondary in the grassland, (1983) as: The Zanzibar- Inhambane regional mosaic phytogeographicalseasonally flooded region Edaphic originally grasslands, defined byand White Mangroves extending from the mouth of the Limpopo River (1983)communities as: The Zanzibar (Soto - 2007).Inhambane The regional delineation mosaic of this (latitude 25°S) to the Rovuma River (and northward). extendingphytochorion from the was mouth based of the on Limpopo a high River level of floristic This phytochorion comprised a complex matrix of (latitudeendemism 25°S) tothat the was Rovuma found toRi verexist (and to about northward). 200-300 km forests: Sand Forests, Miombo woodlands, This inlandphytochorion of the Indian comprised Ocean2 a wherecomplex approximatively matrix of 35% Undifferentiated forests , Evergreen forests, Riverine forests:of the Sand larger Forests, woody Miombo plants woodlands,were found to be endemic forests, Dune forests, Wooded grassland, Secondary Undifferentiatedto that part forestsof the 2Indian, Evergreen Ocean forests, coastal Riverinebelt (Burgess grassland, seasonally flooded Edaphic grasslands, forests,and DuneClarke forests, 2000). MoreWooded recently, grassland, on the Secondary basis of species richness,and Mangroves Clarke (1998) communities split White’s (Soto Zanzibar–Inhambane 2007). The grassland, seasonally flooded Edaphic grasslands, regionaldelineation mosaic of this into phytocho two separaterion was phytochoria based on a– highthe and Mangroves communities (Soto 2007). The Swahilianlevel of floristic regional e ndemismcentre of endemismthat was found in the to north exist and to delineation of this phytochorion was based on a high theabout Swahilian/Maputaland 200-300 km inland regional of the Indian transition Ocean zone where in the level of floristic endemism that was found to exist to south.approximatively This definition 35% aimedof the largerat reflecting woody theplants difference were about 200-300 km inland of the Indian Ocean where infound endemic to be plant endemic species to presentthat part in of the the north Indian compared Ocean approximatively 35% of the larger woody plants were tocoastal the low belt number (Burgess of endemicand Clarke species 2000) recorded. More from found to be endemic to that part of the Indian Ocean Inhambanerecently, on Province the basis in ofthe species south (Burgessrichness, andClarke Clarke coastal belt (Burgess and Clarke 2000). More 2000).(1998) Memba split White’s district Zanzibar is part of–Inhambane the Swahilian regional regional recently, on the basis of species richness, Clarke centremosaic of intoendemism two separate phytochoria – the Swahilian (1998) split White’s Zanzibar–Inhambane regional regional centre of endemism in the north and the mosaic into two separate phytochoria – the Swahilian Swahilian/Maputaland regional transition zone in the regional centre of endemism in the north and the south. This definition aimed at reflecting the Swahilian/Maputaland regional transition zone in the difference in endemic plant species present in the south. This definition aimed at reflecting the north compared to the low number of endemic difference in endemic plant species present in the species recorded from Inhambane Province in the north compared to the low number of endemic south (Burgess and Clarke 2000). Memba district is Figure 1 Extent of the major upland areas in eastern and south - species recorded from Inhambane Province in the part of the Swahilian regional centre of endemism eastern Africa, the Zanzibar-Inhambane regional mosaic and the south (Burgess and Clarke 2000). Memba district is FigureCoastal 1 Extent Forest of the belt major (sour uplandce: Burgess areas in and eastern Clarke and (2000)) south - part of the Swahilian regional centre of endemism eastern Africa, the Zanzibar-Inhambane regional mosaic and the Coastal Forest belt (source: Burgess and Clarke (2000)) 2 i.e. neither Miombo nor Mopane Forests both other types

2 occurring in Mozambique. i.e. neither Miombo nor Mopane Forests both other types 17 25 occurring in Mozambique. 25 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

while theCoa twostal other Resilience districts to(Dondo Climate and Change Inhassoro) Baseline; are Coastalwhich oftenand Marine exceed Ecosystems 10 m in height. Restoration Herbs are Assessment scarce to included in the Swahilian/Maputaland regional transition absent. zone (Timberlake et al. 2011). Eastern African Coastal Brachystegia Forest In the present assessment, definition of Coastal (Variant Vegetation Formation subtype) Forest proposed by Burgess and Clarke (2000) and Burgessacknowledged and Clarke as the(2000) reference Coastal in Forest this classificationdomain, was Transitiondominated Woodland by either sensu Brachystegia White (1983) spiciformis dominated by identified 5 typical vegetation formation types. Except retained. The authors described the floristic composition either(Arabuko Brachystegia-Sokoke spiciformis forest in Kenya, (Arabuko-Sokoke and forests forest in for the Eastern African Coastal/Afromontane transition as follow: Forest dominated (i.e. containing more than in Kenya,Mozambique) and forests or Brachystegia in Mozambique) microphylla or Brachystegia (southern forest,50 % of located all individuals at the base of trees of the with Eastern a diameter Arc andat breast microphyllaTanzania). (southern Occurs Tanzania).on degraded/poor Occurs on soils. degraded/ Canopy Chimanimaniheight of 10 cmMountains, or more) andby Swahili near the near summit endemic of the tree poortree soils. crowns Canopy rar elytree touch crowns and rarely do not touch interlock. and do Lianes not Shimbaspecies, Hills,i.e. treethe followingspecies whose types canglobal be founddistribution in at is interlock.are usually Lianes scarce. are usually Grasses scarce. are Grasses scarce are to scarceabsent. to Fire leastlimited one to studiedthe eastern district. African coastal area. Burgess and absent.does Fire not does normally not normally penetrate penetrate this vegetation this vegetation type. Clarke (2000) Coastal Forest classification identified 5 type. Eastern African Coastal Dry Forest (Typical Eastern African Coastal Riverine/Groundwater/ Vtypicalegetation vegetation Formation formation Type) types. Except for the Eastern Eastern African Coastal Riverine/ African Coastal/Afromontane transition forest, located at Swamp Forest (Transition Vegetation Formation Semithe base-ever ofgreen the Eastern or evergreen Arc and undifferentiatedChimanimani Mountains, dry Groundwater/sub-type) Swamp Forest (Transition forestand near sensu the White summit (1983), of the with Shimba the amendments Hills, the following that VegetationForest sensu Formation White (1983) sub-type) in areas where the water (1) eastern African Coastal Dry Forests can occur types can be found in at least one studied district. Foresttable sensu is high White or where(1983) drainagein areas where is poor. the Dominant water table where atmospheric humidity is high throughout the is highcanopy or treeswhere are drainage predominantly is poor. of Dominant species withcanopy wide dryEastern season, African and (2) Coastalthese eastern Dry ForestAfrican Coastal Dry treestropical are predominantly African distributions. of species Understorey with wide trees tropical and For(Typicalests may Vegetation have a lower Formation canopy (to Type) 7 m) than the Africanshrubs distributions. are dominated Under by storey species trees restricted and shrubs to the are minimumSemi-evergreen limit of or 10 evergreen m adopted undifferentiated in White (1983). dry forest dominatedCoastal Forestby species belt. restricted to the Coastal Forest Easternsensu White African (1983), Coastalwith the amendments Scrub Forest that (Variant belt.Although this classification stands as the reference for V1.egetation Eastern FoAfricanrmation Coastal Type) Dry Forests can occur where Althoughthe definition this classification of Coastal Forests, stands updated as the cartography reference for of Coastal Forest vegetation types is lacking. The Scrubatmospheric Forest sensu humidity White (1983)is high which throughout is intermediate the dry the definition of Coastal Forests, updated cartography of Coastalactual delineationForest vegetation of these types vegetation is lacking. types The is actual rather in structureseason, between forest (canopy height > 10 m) and 2. These eastern African Coastal Dry Forests may have delineationvague on of the these local vegetation scale. Burgess types and is ratherClarke vague (2000) bushland or thicket (canopy height < 10 m). In eastern already outlined the difficulty to estimate cover change Africaa scrublower canopyforest may (to 7 have m) than a lower the minimum canopy (tolimit 4 ofm) 10 on the local scale. Burgess and Clarke (2000) already m adopted in White (1983). outlinedover the the past difficulty 100 years, to asestimate prolonged cover civil war change in th e over than the lower 7 m limit imposed by White (1983), the countrypast 100 has years, prevented as prolonged access civil and war assessment in the country of butEastern retains Africanother forest Coastal features Scrub such as Forest overlapping hasmany prevented areas. access In addition, and assessment without thorough of many ground areas. -In tree(Variant crowns, Vegetation abundant lianes, Formation a leaf- litterType) layer and addition,truthing without and species thorough inventory, ground-truthing remote- sensingand species emergent trees which often exceed 10 m in height. Scrub Forest sensu White (1983) which is intermediate inventory,analysis remote-sensing of coastal vegetation analysis didof coastalnot allow vegetation to Herbs are scarce to absent. in structure between forest (canopy height > 10 m) and did accuratelynot allow to extract accurately forest extract (sensus forest stricto (sensus) locations. stricto )The Easternbushland African or thicket Coastal (canopy Brachystegia height < 10 Forest m). In (Veasternariant locations.developed The algorithmdeveloped was algorithm ultimately was able ultimately to categorised able VAfricaegetation scrub forestFormation may have subtype) a lower canopy (to 4 m) than to categorisedforest vegetation forest in vegetationonly two classes: in only Open two forestclasses: and the lower 7 m limit imposed by White (1983), but retains OpenDense forest forest and (DenseError! Referenceforest (Error! source Reference not sourcefound. ). Transition Woodland sensu White (1983) other forest features such as overlapping tree crowns, not found.).

abundant lianes, a leaf-litter layer and emergent trees

Table 2 Forest vegetation classes obtained from remote-sensing analysis

Forest vegetation Dense forest Open Forest classes Vegetation type Coastal Forests (sensus Closed canopy not Coastal Forests or stricto) woodlands Closed Woodland Parameters retained >50% forest coverage / pixel <30% forest coverage for remote-sensing / pixel analysis

26 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

In the absence of description of the extent of Coastal condylocarpon, etc. Zambesian Woodland are also found Forests in Mozambique, it was therefore not possible to in the north of the district. They are composed of tree or conduct the assessment using the strict definition of this shrub formations characterized by a mixture of species ecosystem. However, Memba, Dondo and Inhassoro are and lack of predominance of floristic elements typical of considered to be coastal districts. Rather than restricting the Mopane and Miombo forests. The woody species the assessment to forests, it was decided to extend differ according to soil types and climatic conditions. the assessment to the coastal forest vegetation mosaic Characteristic species are: Acacia spp., Albizia spp., presents in these districts and therefore included in the Combretum spp., Adansonia digitata, Diospyros two aforementioned remote- sensed classes. mespiliformes, Ficus sycomorus, Kigelia africana, Lonchocarpus capassa, Trichilia emetica, Xanthocercis This coastal forest vegetation mosaic was described in zambesiaca, and Xeroderris stuhlmannii the national inventory of forests conducted in 2007by (Marzoli 2007). Antonio Marzoli and further used as reference for the Dondo district is dominated by Sub-humid sub-Coastal national forest reporting (Marzoli 2007; Timana et al. Forest, Zambesian Woodland (see description above) and 2014). This inventory indicated the presence ofdense and Coastal vegetation mosaics. The Sub-humid sub-Coastal open forests in Memba, shrub, open forests in flooded Forest is specific to and occupies a relatively important areas and open forests in Dondo and open forests and area in the Provinces of Sofala and Zambézia. For example, open forests with agriculture in Inhassoro. Marzoli (2007) it is well developed in the areas that stretches South from provided also a reclassification of the 54 vegetation Beira (Cheringoma) to Inhaminga and Marromeu, and in classes from the Flora Zambeziaca map in 9 ecological the North, in the areas of Campo, Nicuadala, Namacurra zones to describe the potential types of vegetation in and Maganja da Costa. The presence of this vegetation Mozambique at a general level. The vegetation of the type is due to the relative abundance of coastal rainfall and studied areas included 5 of these ecological classes. This also due to accumulation of water in the soil. Therefore, classification indicated that miombo formations (Humid it is partially controlled edaphically . It is composed of miombo and Deciduous miombo woodland drier type) mixed formations of dense and semi deciduous forests, generally dominate in Memba and Inhassoro districts at low altitudes, of Pteleopsis myrtifolia-Erythrophleum while Dondo Coastal Forests are mainly composed of suaveolens with Hirtella zanguebarica, forming a mosaic Sub-humid sub- Coastal Forest, Zambesian Woodland with chains of Brachystegia spiciformis-Julbernardia and Coastal vegetation mosaics. Based on this ecological globiflora. Two main sub-groups can be defined: (i) Sub- zonation and in the absence of onsite inventory, the coastal mosaic of Cheringoma, south of the Zambezi river following description of the species composition of the (Sofala, e.g. including Dondo) and (ii) Sub-coastal mosaic coastal forest vegetation in the studied areas can be of Zambézia, north of the Zambezi river and at the border derived. This description is based on generic description with the delta area (Zambézia). Coastal vegetation of studies previously conducted at the national level and mosaics are composed of vegetation types formed on therefore present species and associations potentially recent dune formations or young soils shaped by wind. present in the study areas. Field surveys are needed to Newly formed dunes are first unstable and saline dense provide a refined distribution of tree species within the forests are colonized by pioneering plants of distinct studied districts. gregarious and prostrate habit. Along the Mozambican Sesuvium The eastern African coastal strip north of the Zambesi coast, the most common pioneers are portulacastrum, Cyperus maritimus, Scaevola plumeri, River would be expected to support Tropical Dry Ipomoea pes-caprae, I. ficifolia, Canavalia maritima, Forest and Tropical Very Dry Forest as the vegetation Sophora tomentosa, S.inhambanensis, Tephrosia climax, given its mean annual precipitation of between canescens, Launaea sarmentosa, Sporobolus virginicus, 510 and 2000 mm and a mean annual temperature Dipcadi longifolium, Dactyloctenium aegyptiacum exceeding 23°C (Burgess and Clarke 2000). Memba and Carpobrotus juritzii. district is dominated by Miombo and dry deciduous These pioneers stabilize the sands forest vegetation. Dry Deciduous Miombo woodland, creating favourable conditions for the establishment of are semi-deciduous xerophilous forest that typically Coastal Forests. The forests composition is influenced occupies areas of low altitude, with average annual by the winds and generally consist of species with rainfall between 600 and 800 mm. It occurs in several coriaceous leaves. Where the precipitation is locally northern and central regions. It includes many sub- types high, the forests become tall and sometimes give rise and the heights of the trees are generally smaller (8-10 to dense evergreen forests with many climbing plants. meters) than the previous type. The main species are In the southern part of Mozambique, dense lowland Grewia occidentalis var generally: Brachystegia boehmii, Julbernardia globiflora, forests are often dominated by . Burkea africana, Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia, litoralis, Diospyros rotundifolia, Euclea atalensis, etc. or Crossopterix febrifuga, Diplorhynchus in some areas dominated by Mimusops caffra (Marzoli 2007). In Inhassoro, Miombo vegetation dominates. The

19 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

short closed miombo woodland and thicket vegetation is an open canopy. Coastal Dune Forest vegetation type composed of the characteristic tree species Julbernadia is characterised by its association with the tall frontal globiflora and Brachystegia spiciformis and the grass dunes, having emergent trees up to 15 m high, with cover includes Panicum maximum, Schizachyrium closed canopy. Dominant species include: Pterocarpus sangineum and Sporobolus pyramidalis. In Short Open angolensis, Balanites maughamii and Suregada Miombo Thicket Mosaic vegetation, characterised by zanzibariensis (Golder Associates 2015). shrubs and small trees with an open canopy, dominant Previous studies have indicated that 786 known species Julbernadia globiflora, Hyphaene tree species include distributed in eight biological groups are strictly endemic coriacea, Mimusops caffra, Indigofera casuarina, to the Coastal Forests. The highest rates of endemism Margaritaria discoidea, Ozoroa obovata, Ochna cf are found in invertebrate’s groups such as the millipedes, barbosae, Crotolaria monteroi, Strychnos spinosa, molluscs, and forests butterflies. Other endemic Strychnos madagascariensis, Olax dissitiflora and species include also birds, mammals, forest reptiles and Dichrostachys cinerea . In addition, riparian woodland of amphibians. The vascular plant forest flora is also rich the Nhangonzo; the Cherimera and the Xivange coastal in endemic species and genera (Burgess and Clarke 2000). Syzigium streams are dominated by dense stands of Areas of endemism have been delineated based on cordatum Syzigium guineense, interspersed with their species richness and endemic characteristics. These Garcinia livingstonei, Hyphaene coriacea Ficus and areas were further recognized as priority landscapes and trichopoda. (Golder Associates 2015) . In this district, sites to conservation (WWF-EARPO 2006). The studied dune vegetation can be divided in Coastal Thicket and districts include the following areas of endemism: Dune Scrub and Costal Dune Forest. Coastal Thicket and Baixo Pinda Area, Mecufe/Baia do Lúrio, Inhamitanga/ Dune Scrub include pioneer Dune Communities such the Marromeu/ Cheringoma/ Dondo Area, Bazaruto Area Halopyrum mucronatum, characteristic pioneer grass (Error! Reference source not found.). In the studied found along with the common pioneer, Scaevola districts, the south-eastern coast of Baixo Pinda Area plumieri. On the higher and more stable dune slopes is protected as a forest reserve and Bazaruto Area is a and on the more protected lee sides, costal thickets national park. Mecufe/Baia do Lúrio does not have any Julbernardia composed of common miombo species ( protection status and the protected areas located in the globiflora, Brachystegia spiciformis, Mimusops caffra Inhamitanga/ Marromeu/ Cheringoma/ Dondo Area are and Strychnos madagascariensis ) are found. Compared located outside of Dondo district. to inland thicket, plants were slightly smaller and with

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Figure 12 Area of endemism

21 29 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Although consumption by indigenous large herbivorous The altitude also influences vegetation distribution is generally low, structural characteristics of the miombo Coastal Forests are found at altitudes ranging from sea- makes it an excellent vegetation for a variety of herbivores level to a maximum altitude which varies according to such as the Waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymus), the Cape local ecological conditions, but is nowhere more than bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), the Common eland 1’100 m. Taurotragus oryx) Hippotragus niger ( , Sable antelope ( ) Mozambican territory is dominated by large plains (40%), Alcelaphus buselaphus and the Lichtenstein’s Hartebeest ( with elevation under 200 m and extending inward from lichtensteinii Panthera leo ). Carnivores such as lions ( ), the eastern coast. North of the Zambezi River, the plains Panthera pardus leopards ( ) and necrophagous (e.g. are between 60 km and 100 km wide. The plains become hyenas, vultures) can also be found in this ecosystem. wider in the Zambezi Valley where they extend upstream Avifauna is also rich and includes distinct species such about 600 km. South of the Zambezi River the plains are Anthoscopus caroli) as the African-Grey Penduline-tit ( , up to 100 km wide (Tadross and Johnston 2012). the Sentinel Rock Thrush (Montícola Explorator) and the Shelley’s Sunbird (Nectarina Shelleyi). According to the Coastal Forests occur on a wide range of rock types and IUCN Red List of Species, the status of this species are geomorphological features and soil types. The majority Least Concern (LT) except for the Near Threatened (NT) of inland territories of Memba district is located on Shelley’s Sunbird and Vulnerable (VU) lion and leopard. Precambrian formations (gneisses, migmatites, granitoids About 80 percent of mammals in Mozambique are found and related rocks) and carbonated rocks from Meso- in Miombo forests but the variety of insects and reptiles Chenozoic formations. The coastal areas are dominated is generally rather low (Desanker, P.V., Frost et al. 1997; by alluvium deposits from the Quaternary. Eutric Leptosol FAO 2005; Soto 2007). (lithic soil) and Eutric Cambisol (shallow soil) cover the majority of Memba district. Haplic Arenosol (coastal Anthropogenic activities along the coast have modified dune soil), Eutric fluvisol (alluvial soil), Ferralic Arenosol, this landscape in a mosaic of agricultural fields, with Calcaric Cambisol (shallow soil), Ferric lixisol (clay soil) grassy fallow, palm wine production from Lala palm are restricted to coastal areas and estuaries. (Hyphaene coriacea) and orchards of exoctic tree species such as coconut (Coco nucifera), cashew nut (Anacardium The underlying geology of Dondo district is largely occidentale) and mango (Mangifera indica) (ERM 2015; Quaternary comprising mainly undifferentiated deposits Soto 2007). and alluviums. The northern part of the district is the only exception, in this area sandstones, clays and related rocks 3.1.1.2.2. Abiotic environment from Karro/ Meso-Cenozoic dominate Ferralic Arenosol Climatic conditions in the area of distribution of the cover the majority of Dondo district. At the northern eastern Africa Coastal Forests are characterized by the border, Stagnic and Haplic soils can be found locally. tropical monsoon climate of the Indian Ocean with a Nahmechinda water stream is characterized by Eutric unimodal (south of Dar es Salaam) to bimodal (north of Fluvisol aliviums and the whole coastal area is composed Dar es Salaam) mean annual rainfall of between 510 and of Mollic Fluvisol alluviums. 2’000 mm. Eastern African Coastal Riverine Forest may Bazaruto island and the coast of Inhassoro district is develop in areas with a lower mean annual rainfall of just located on Quaternary terraces. Inland district territories 470 mm, since these forests depend on a river for their are dominated by carbonated rocks originating from water supplies (Burgess and Clarke 2000). Meso-Cenozoic formations. The northern border of Mozambican climate varies from tropical and sub- the district is located on Quaternary undifferentiated tropical in the north/central regions, to semi-arid and deposits and alluviums. Bazaruto island and costal area arid climates in the south. It is characterized by two of Inhassoro district soils are mainly Arenosol / Haplic well defined seasons, wet summer and dry winter. Arenosol. The rest of the district is dominated by clay Geographically, temperatures are warmer near to the soils classified as Chromic Luvisol. Gleyic Arenocol and coast, and in the southern, lowland regions compared Eutric fluvisol are also found near the coastal region and with the inland regions of higher elevation. Average in the north Ferralic Arenosol and Haplic Lixisols are temperatures in these lowland parts of the country are locally presents. around 25-27°C in the summer and 20-25°C in winter. Too few data are currently available to determine Rainfall varies widely from the coast (800-1’000 mm) whether certain geological-geomorphic combinations decreasing inland to 400 mm at the border with South do not support forest. Although, forest seems scarce to Africa and Zimbabwe. Rainfall decreases from the north/ absent over planted surfaces composed of Precambrian central regions (1’000-2’000 mm, NE monsoon) to the Basement rocks. The entire range of geological southern inland (500-600 mm) (Irish Aid 2018; Tadross substrate that is found in Africa is represented in the and Johnston 2012). Coastal Forest Belt. The large range of substrate

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

planation and plateaux, marine and lacustrine deposits, ppm), and a dominance of low-activity clays and types,erosion geomorphological features, river gullies, features etc.) and(ancient the age plantation of the sesquioxides.bases (1-15 cmolc Bottomland kg-1), soilshigh ar aciditye predominantly (pH 4-6 in CaCl2), andsurface plateaux, contributes marine to andthe greatlacustrine diversity deposits, of the Coastal erosion gleysolslow available and vertisols phosphorus (Desanker (9-18, P .ppm),V., Frost and et al.a dominance features,Forest (Burgessriver gullies, and Clarke etc.) 2000).and the age of the surface 1997).of low-activity Except for clays alluvial and soils, sesquioxides. Miombo for Bottomlandests were soils contributesAs aforementioned, to the great miombo diversity vegetation of the dominatesCoastal Forest foundare predominantly on every soil types gleysols in Mozambique, and vertisols with denser(Desanker, (Burgessthe studied and Clarkeareas. 2000).Miombo geographical distribution forP.V.,ests Frost being et locatedal. 1997). on redExcept clay soilsfor alluvial (FAO 2005). soils, SoilMiombo composition might explain the absence of miombo in As suggestsaforementioned, a lower tolerance miombo to arid vegetation climates with dominates forests were found on every soil types in Mozambique, Dondo district. thelarge studied dry periods areas. as Miombo it is replaced geographical by other types distribution of with denser forests being located on red clay soils (FAO suggestsvegetation a lower in drier tolerance regions to of arid the climatescountry, mostly with large dry 3.1.1.2.3.2005). Soil composition Distribution might explain the absence of periodsmopane as andit is acaciareplaced savannahs by other (F AOtypes 2005). of vegetation Miombo in miombo in Dondo district. woodlands can occur under a variety of climates Stretching along the Indian Ocean coastline from drier regions of the country, mostly mopane and acacia (including dry climates) but it is mostly found in Somalia3.1.1.2.3. to Mozambique Distribution (Figure 13), the largest savannahs (FAO 2005). Miombo woodlands can occur tropical moist regions. The dominant climatic feature remainingStretching extent along of the Eastern Indian African Ocean Coastalcoastline For fromests Somalia is underfor miombo a variety forest of climates development (including is the dry marked climates) but it reported to be found in Mozambique (World Bank is mostly found in tropical moist regions. The dominant to Mozambique (Figure 13), the largest remaining extent seasonality, characterised by a wet season and a dry 2018).of Eastern African Coastal Forests is reported to be found climaticwinter. feature More than for 95%miombo of the forest 700-1’40 development0 mm mean is the marked seasonality, characterised by a wet season and Miomboin Mozambique is the dominant (World forestBank 2018).type in several northern annual precipitation occur during a single 5-7-month provinces, including Nampula where Memba district a dryperiod. winter. Mean More annual than temperatur 95% of thees 700-1’400are within 18 mm-23 mean Miombo is the dominant forest type in several northern is located. It is not found in coastal areas of Dondo annual precipitation occur during a single 5-7-month C, with mean maximum temperatures in the 24-30°C district,provinces, dominated including by Nampulaundifferentiated where dry Memba deciduo districtus is period.range. Mean This conditions annual temperatures result in marked are seasonality within 18-23°C, of andlocated. sub-humid It is not sub found-Coastal in coastal Forests. areas Dry and of Dondo average district, withplant mean production, maximum growth, temperatures reproduction, in the and 24-30°C decay range. Miombodominated forest by vegetation undifferentiated are found dry in deciduousInhassoro (A. and sub- This(Desanker conditions, P.V ., resultFrost etin al. marked 1997). seasonality of plant Sitoe,humid Salomão, sub-Coastal and WertzForests.-Kanounnikoff Dry and 2012average citing Miombo production,Miombo vegetation growth, reproduction,can develop on and a variety decay of(Desanker, soils MICOAforest vegetation(2008)). However, are found no updated in Inhassoro cartography (A. Sitoe, P.V.,ranging Frost etfrom al. sandy1997). soils with low fertility and water wasSalomão, found onand forest Wertz-Kanounnikoff cover by vegetation 2012 type. citing The MICOA Miomboretention, vegetation loamy-sandy can-clayed develop soils on to reda variety clay deep of soils cu(2008)).rrent forest However, distribution no updated (2017) was cartography derived from was found rangingsoils. Characteristicfrom sandy uplandsoils with soils loware predominanfertility andtly water remoteon forest-sensing cover analysis by vegetation of Landsat type. images The at currenta 30 forest m resolution. The developed algorithm allowed retention,alfisols, loamy-sandy-clayedoxisols and ultisols - infertile,soils to redwith clay low deepcation soils. distribution (2017) was derived from remote-sensing exchange capacities (2-18 cmolc kg-1), low total differentiation between: Dense and Open Forest Characteristic upland soils are predominantly alfisols, analysis of Landsat images at a 30 m resolution. The exchangeable bases (1-15 cmolc kg-1), high acidity (Figure 13). oxisols and ultisols - infertile, with low cation exchange developed algorithm allowed differentiation between: (pH 4-6 in CaCl2), low available phosphorus (9-18 capacities (2-18 cmolc kg-1), low total exchangeable Dense and Open Forest (Figure 13).

Figure 13 Distribution of forest vegetation in studied areas Figure 13 Distribution of forest vegetation in studied areas 31 23 3.1.1.2.4. Key processes and interactions (conceptual model)

Coastal Forests and their associated ecosystems provide a variety of services to local communities. Timber products provide jobs (forestry e.g. timber for domestic and exporting markets), firewood, charcoal but also raw material for the construction of a variety of tools and construction materials used in rural areas (ex: cooking utensils, poles, etc.). Non-timber products provide provisioning, regulating and cultural services such as food, medicinal plants, edible mushrooms, honey, bush meat (source of animal proteins), land for cropping, salt production, harvesting, water purification, pasture and fodder for animals, watershed protection, habitat for wildlife and ethnic communities, tourism attractions and assets, and cultural and religious groves. Indirect effects result from the exploitation of the forest resources either for subsistence (food, energy, building material) and or for income generating purposes. Agriculture sector also induces a large pressure on forests. Livestock and crops exploit land resources (soil and vegetation) inducing direct effects such as competition for land between forests and agriculture. (Soto 2007). Deforestation in Mozambique originates mainly from food crops such as corn, cassava and beans and cash crops such as sesame, tobacco and cotton. Given their nature, area cultivated for perennial crop (mainly copra, cashews and mango) have not changed significantly in recent years and therefore do not significantly influence forest cover change. Commercial agriculture in Mozambique is still very new and most of the small producers are from the family sector; in most cases working without inputs and using shifting cultivation (Sitoe, A. Salomao, A. and Wertz-Kanounnikoff 2012). Coastal Forests are also associated with mineral gas that contribute to national development (Soto 2007). Fire is an important component influencing Miombo forests. It finds its origins in both natural and anthropogenic processes. Highly seasonal precipitation (varying between 650 and 1’400 mm per year) leave the vegetation dry for several months. As a result, thunderstorms at the start of the rainy season can easily set the vegetation alight. In addition to being naturally fire-prone, Miombo forests are also frequently burned by people (Country monitoring report on Mozambique, 2008). Slash-and-burn agriculture was identified as the main cause for burning forests with forest conversion to agriculture accounting for 65% of total deforestation (World Bank 2018). Fire is generally used

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

3.1.1.2.4. Key processes and interactions to agriculture accounting for 65% of total deforestation (conceptual model) (World Bank 2018). Fire is generally used prior to the rainy season for agricultural land preparation. Coastal Forests and their associated ecosystems provide Communities identified also rodent hunting as a cause a variety of services to local communities. Timber for setting forest on fire. The decrease in larger mammals products provide jobs (forestry e.g. timber for domestic in the last 20 years has forced many hunters to resort and exporting markets), firewood, charcoal but also raw to smaller mammals difficult to hunt in high vegetation. material for the construction of a variety of tools and Fires are also used by loggers to clear paths and improve construction materials used in rural areas (ex: cooking visibility to find precious wood, and by beekeepers utensils, poles, etc.). Non- timber products provide accidentally while tending hives. Finally, fires are used by provisioning, regulating and cultural services such as communities to clear undergrowth such as grasses that food, medicinal plants, edible mushrooms, honey, bush takeover paths and hinder movement in forest (Country meat (source of animal proteins), land for cropping, salt monitoring report on Mozambique, 2008). It is noteworthy production, harvesting, water purification, pasture and that uncontrolled fires are mainly of anthropogenic fodder for animals, watershed protection, habitat for origin. According to FAO (2001) 90% of forests fires in wildlife and ethnic communities, tourism attractions and Mozambique are caused by humans, 5% originate from assets, and cultural and religious groves. Indirect effects natural cause and another 5% are of unknown origin. result from the exploitation of the forest resources either Forest fires do not directly produce deforestation and for subsistence (food, energy, building material) and or especially when they are part of the Miombo ecosystem, for income generating purposes. Agriculture sector also they can however degrade forests since they affect the induces a large pressure on forests. Livestock and crops processes of establishment and growth of trees (Sitoe, exploit land resources (soil and vegetation) inducing A. Salomao, A. and Wertz-Kanounnikoff 2012). In the direct effects such as competition for land between non-fire resilient Coastal Forests (sensus stricto) they forests and agriculture. (Soto 2007). Deforestation in can be very damaging. However, the coastal strip with Mozambique originates mainly from food crops such its evergreen to semi-evergreen coastal vegetation as corn, cassava and beans and cash crops such as has the lowest burning intensity in the country but it is sesame, tobacco and cotton. Given their nature, area nonetheless very vulnerable to it (FAO 2001a). cultivated for perennial crop (mainly copra, cashews and mango) have not changed significantly in recent years As described by A. Sitoe et al. (2012), the aforementioned and therefore do not significantly influence forest cover activities are interdependent and closely influence change. Commercial agriculture in Mozambique is still land-use dynamics (Figure 15). The direct impact of very new and most of the small producers are from the deforestation results in direct conversion of forests to family sector; in most cases working without inputs and areas of permanent agricultural or shifting cultivation. using shifting cultivation (Sitoe, A. Salomao, A. and The indirect impact on the forest includes a transition Wertz-Kanounnikoff 2012). Coastal Forests are also phase during which hardwood is extracted, followed by associated with mineral gas that contribute to national the extraction of firewood and charcoal in the areas that development (Soto 2007). have become accessible. These areas are later used for agriculture, suggesting once more that agriculture and Fire is an important component influencing Miombo fuel-wood production work in combination to create forests. It finds its origins in both natural and forest-cover change. Fire is used to facilitate access in anthropogenic processes. Highly seasonal precipitation both logging and forest exploration, for production of (varying between 650 and 1’400 mm per year) leave firewood and charcoal, and for clearing land for agriculture the vegetation dry for several months. As a result, (including slash and burn farming method). Figure thunderstorms at the start of the rainy season can easily 14 presents a simplified cause-and-effect conceptual set the vegetation alight. In addition to being naturally model of the ecological processes most relevant to the fire-prone, Miombo forests are also frequently burned Mozambican’s forest ecosystem risk assessment. by people (Country monitoring report on Mozambique, 2008). Slash-and-burn agriculture was identified as the main cause for burning forests with forest conversion

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Figure 14 Dynamics of land-use and forest-cover changes (adapted from: (Sitoe, A. Salomao, A. and Wertz- Kanounnikoff 2012))

Figure 15 Simplified cause-and-effect conceptual model of the ecological processes most relevant to the Mozambican’s forest ecosystem risk assessment

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

3.1.1.3. Threatening processes imberbe (mondzo), Swartzia madagascariensis (pau ferro) and Dalbergia melanoxylon (Pau preto) (Environmental Pressures in coastal areas are more significant than in any Investigation Agency UK Ltd. 2014; Macqueen 2018). other regions, because coastal areas contain some of the most biologically diverse and ecologically important Inhassoro is an area with high tourism development and ecosystems (USAID 2008). A study conducted on Coastal more touristic areas are planned. Tourism activities can Forests in Cabo Delgado in 2011 (Timberlake et al. 2011) also induce considerable pressure on local ecosystems concluded that the high proportion of range-restricted and mainly though fragmentation and deforestation species, the limited extent of the forest patches, and resulting from the building of infrastructures. the increased threat to the area show these forests to Soil Depletion and Erosion as a result of poor land- deserve international conservation concern (World Bank use practices including deforestation of coastal and 2018). inland areas. Erosion takes different forms, including The following paragraphs describe threats to tropical water erosion, wind erosion, physical compaction, biodiversity and tropical forest. salinization, and various forms of chemical degradation. In Mozambique, considerable erosion is due to extreme Habitat Fragmentation and Deforestation, resulting events like cyclones and heavy precipitation on from conversion of natural forests to cropland, over- unprotected surfaces (USAID 2008). exploitation of forests, illegal exportation, slash-and- burn practices, uncontrolled removal of vegetation, use Pollution and Waste Disposal resulting from agricultural of firewood as a source of energy, charcoal production, activities, mainly taking place along or close water bodies and uncontrolled bush fires (USAID 2008). Coastal Forests (e.g. river streams, lakes, etc.). Agrochemicals (pesticides are increasingly being cleared for agricultural purposes and fertilizers) are transported by water and enter coastal including the expansion of commercial farming, shifting and marine environments (USAID 2008). However in agriculture, livestock production and slash-and-burn Mozambique, other direct threats are generally more method in search of soil that has not been leached of important than pollution (Byers et al. 2013). nutrients (Samoilys et al. 2015). As aforementioned, Mining that induce a loss of productive land, increase fire is not only restricted to agricultural activities, they of water consumption and potential contamination of are also used to clear land for cultivation and to provide surface and groundwater and erosion and silting of rivers access to resources (honey, precious wood, etc.), to (USAID 2008). Mining activities might influence forest maintain pastures for livestock, or to drive game animals cover through combined processes: direct actions of to positions where they can be easily hunted (Ribeiro mining activities, resettlement of populations in areas and Ribeiro 2008). Production of honey and beeswax is of mining concessions, and opening of access roads also a long tradition in Mozambique. Honey is used by and construction of infrastructures (buildings, pipelines, local people to generate income, for brewing alcoholic etc.) (Sitoe, A. Salomao, A. and Wertz- Kanounnikoff drinks, preparation of medicines and as a sweetener. 2012). To date, the influence of mining activities on Traditional bee keeping is done with bark hives, which forests is still limited. No planning of future prospections are produced by complete bark removal from the trunk and exploitation activities exists. Therefore, measures of large trees, and in the process killing them. Collecting must be taken to ensure that environmental impact honey sometimes involves cutting trees in which a wild assessments are conducted prior future developments hive is located. Smoke and fire is always used to chase and that suitable mitigation measures are implemented bees away from wild or bark hives, and uncontrolled fires to prevent further degradations. can result from honey collection. Honey production is therefore also a factor that contributes to the destruction 3.1.1.4. Ecosystem collapse of forest (Byers et al. 2013). For spatial explicit criteria A and B, tree loss or Logging constitutes also one of the greatest threats degradation is the dominant pathway to collapse. For to Coastal Forests. Unsustainable or illegal logging criterion A and B, Coastal Forests were considered (reaching up to 93 percent of all logged wood in 2013) collapsed when their mapped distribution declines to makes it difficult to accurately predict deforestation zero (100% loss). Pollution and fire were identified as the rate. In addition, more than half the volume of the main threats that could influence abiotic processes and commercial species harvested belongs to just three environment. However, the absence of quantitative data species (Environmental Investigation Agency UK Ltd. and monitoring of these threats did not allow to define 2014): Afzelia quanzensis (chanfuta), Pterocarpus collapse indicators for criterion C (see section 3.1.1.5.3). angolensis (umbila) and Millettia stuhlmannii (jambirre For criterion D, Coastal Forests were considered or panga-panga) and 90 percent of timber exports are collapsed when the degradation of the first class and restricted to only six species, including Combretum precious species stock reach 100%.

considered Coastalcollapsed Resilience when the to degradationClimate Change of the Baseline; first Coastaldifferent and Marine ecosystem Ecosystems typologies, Restoration which Assessment makes direct class and precious species stock reach 100%. comparisons difficult (Sitoe, A. Salomao, A. and 3.1.1.5. Assessment of ecosystem risk Wertz-Kanounnikoff 2012). Forest cover changed was derived from remote-sensing analysis of Landsat difficult (Sitoe, A. Salomao, A. and Wertz-Kanounnikoff of collapse3.1.1.5. Assessment of ecosystem risk of images (30 m resolution), that allowed to define forest collapse 2012). Forest cover changed was derived from remote- 3.1.1.5.1. Criterion A sensingextent inanalysis 1996, of 2003, Landsat 2010 images and (302017. m resolution), The developed that 3.1.1.5.1. Criterion A allowedalgorithm to definewas ultimately forest extent able in to1996, categorised 2003, 2010 forestand No Nostudies studies were were found found on onforest forest cover cover changes changes by by 2017.vegetation The developed in two classes: algorithm Open was ultimatelyforest and able Dense to vegetationvegetation type. type. One One ofof thethe mainmain reasons reasons for thisfor isthis that categorisedforest (Figur foreste 16). vegetation in two classes: Open forest and Dense forest (Figure 16). is thatthe thedifferent different national national forest forest inventories inventories used different used ecosystem typologies, which makes direct comparisons

20% 11% 10% 0%

-10% -2%

-20%

-30% -25% -24% -25%

-40% -50%

-60%

-70%

-80% -73% Memba Dondo Inhassoro&Bazaruto

Dense Forest Open Forest

Figure 16 Change analysis of forest-cover in studied districts over the 1996-2017 period

This analysis produced a difference of forest cover present and future, as requested under criterion A2 rangingThis analysisfrom -73% produced to +11% a difference over the of 22 forest studied cover years. ranging At the national level, forests exhibit a linear pattern of Thefrom criteria -73% A1 assesses to +11% reduction over the in 22 geographic studied years. The decline over the 1990-2015 period (R2=0.99). The distribution over the past 50 years. In the absence of criteria A1 assesses reduction in geographic distribution 2014 National Forest report predicted an increase of the homogenous dataset over a longer period, the over the past 50 years. In the absence of homogenous declining rate between 2015 and 2020 and a reduction abovementioneddataset over a data longer was period, used. theForest abovementioned cover losses data between 2020 and 2030 (Timana et al. 2014). However, never exceeded 25%, except for Memba where Dense was used. Forest cover losses never exceeded 25%, at district level and to the exception of Open Forests Forestexcept losses for reachedMemba upwhere to 73%. Dense Dense Forest For lossesests reached in Inhassoro & Bazaruto, fluctuations did not allow to are uptherefore to 73%. Endangered Dense Forests (EN) are intherefore Memba. Endangered On the (EN) derive predictions for the next 50 years nor for any 50- opposite,in Memba. Open On For theests opposite, are assessed Open asForests Least are Concern assessed year period including the past, present and future, as (LC)as in Least this districtConcern as (LC) well in as this in districtDondo. as Dondo well as Dense in Dondo. requested under criterion A2 ForestsDondo and Dense Inhassor Forestso & Bazaruto and Inhassoro Dense & and Bazaruto Open Dense Forestsand declinedOpen Forests by ~25% declined over aby 22 ~25%-year periodover a which 22-year period which assign them to the Near Threatened (NT) assign them to the Near Threatened (NT) risk category. risk category. At the national level, forests exhibit a linear pattern of decline over the 1990-2015 period (R2=0.99). The 2014 National Forest report predicted an increase of the declining rate between 2015 and 2020 and a reduction between 2020 and 2030 (Timana et al. 2014). However, at district level and to the exception of Open Forests in Inhassoro & Bazaruto, fluctuations did not allow to derive predictions for the next 50 years nor for any 50-year period including the past, 28

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

(Figure 17). According to remote-sensing analyses, 3.1.1.5.2. Criterion B Dense Forest coverage in Memba dropped drastically Memba between 2003 and 2010 and tend to plateau since 2010. 100000 90000 To inform subcriteria B1 following the IUCN RLE For Open Forest, the increasing trend observed between 80000 Guidelines v1.1, the extent of occurrence (EOO) 1996 and 2010 seems to be reversing since 2010 and 70000 of the 2017 forest distribution was assessed by decrease was observed over the 2010-2017 period. In Ha 60000 measuring the area of the minimum convex polygon Dondo, Dense and Open Forests seem to have reached 50000 that encompasses all known occurrences of this a slower regression rate over the past 7 years. Finally, in 40000 Area in ecosystem (IUCN 2017). The extent of the maximum Inhassoro & Bazaruto trends tend to indicate a decrease 30000 convex polygons enclosing all occurrences (EOO) in of both Dense and Open Forests over the 1996 – 2017 20000 period. Considering the quasi- linear pattern of decline of 10000 the studied districts ranged between 3’130.3 km2 and Open Forest (R2=0.937) in this district, the absolute rate 0 6’348.7 km2 (Table 3). of decline was used to predict cover loss over the 1996 – 2046 period (IUCN 2017). This predicted a 60% decline 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 The abovementioned change analysis did not allow to identify strict continuing decline of the forest of Open Forest over this 50-year period, which assigned Inhassoro & Bazaruto to the Endangered category under Dondo ecosystems over the 1996-2017 period, though trends criterion A2b. If fluctuations of forest coverage did not 45000 are all converging toward loss of surface areas in the allow predicting future trends under criterion A2 for the 40000 past 7 years (2010-2017). The national assessments other districts, they provide intel on the evolutions of the 35000 of Mozambican forests indicated a continuing decline forest changes and recent tendencies (2010-2017period). 30000 of forest cover due to multiple factors but mainly due Ha 25000 to unsuitable exploitation of forest resources and the Due to the absence of historical data at district level, 20000 subcriterion A3 was assessed as Data Deficient (DD). Area in development of the agriculture (Error! Reference source 15000 not found. and Error! Reference source not found.). 10000 Conversion of land to agriculture, coupled with the 5000 related problematic of uncontrolled fire, together 0 with the unsustainable use of forests for firewood,

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 construction material and agroforestry are likely to

cause continuing decline in geographic distribution,

environmental quality and biotic interaction within the

next 20 years. Forest vegetation in the three studied 100000 Inhassoro & Bazaruto districts falls therefore under the Endangered (EN) risk 90000 category under criterion B1b. 80000

70000

60000

50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Dense Forest Open Forest

Figure 17 Forest cover change analysis in studied districts

Table 3 Extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) of the Coastal Forest distribution

Ecosystem class Criteria Memba Dondo Inhassoro & Bazaruto Dense Forest EOO [km2] 5’696.7 3’130.3 6’335.0 AOO 47 30 30 29 Open Forest EOO [km2] 5’697.3 3’139.6 6’348.7 AOO 56 30 44

3.1.1.5.2. Criterion B Memba 100000 90000 To inform subcriteria B1 following the IUCN RLE 80000 Guidelines v1.1, the extent of occurrence (EOO) 70000 of the 2017 forest distribution was assessed by

Ha 60000 measuring the area of the minimum convex polygon 50000 that encompasses all known occurrences of this 40000 Area in ecosystem (IUCN 2017). The extent of the maximum 30000 20000 convex polygons enclosing all occurrences (EOO) in 10000 the studied districts ranged between 3’130.3 km2 and 0 6’348.7 km2 (Table 3).

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 The abovementioned change analysis did not allow to identify strict continuing decline of the forest

Dondo ecosystems over the 1996-2017 period, though trends 45000 are all converging toward loss of surface areas in the 40000 past 7 years (2010-2017). The national assessments 35000 of Mozambican forests indicated a continuing decline

30000 of forest cover due to multiple factors but mainly due Ha 25000 to unsuitable exploitation of forest resources and the 20000

Area in development of the agriculture (Error! Reference source 15000 not found. and Error! Reference source not found.). 10000 Conversion of land to agriculture, coupled with the 5000 related problematic of uncontrolled fire, together 0 with the unsustainable use of forests for firewood,

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 construction material and agroforestry are likely to

cause continuing decline in geographic distribution,

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastalenvironmental and Marine Ecosystems quality and Restoration biotic interaction Assessment within the

next 20 years. Forest vegetation in the three studied 100000 Inhassoro & Bazaruto districts falls therefore under the Endangered (EN) risk 90000 category under criterion B1b. 80000 past 7 years (2010-2017). The national assessments

3.1.1.5.2.70000 Criterion B of Mozambican forests indicated a continuing decline To60000 inform subcriteria B1 following the IUCN RLE

of forest cover due to multiple factors but mainly due Guidelines50000 v1.1, the extent of occurrence (EOO) of the 40000 to unsuitable exploitation of forest resources and the 201730000 forest distribution was assessed by measuring the development of the agriculture. Conversion of land to area20000 of the minimum convex polygon that encompasses agriculture, coupled with the related problematic of all10000 known occurrences of this ecosystem (IUCN 2017). 0 uncontrolled fire, together with the unsustainable use of The extent of the maximum convex polygons enclosing forests for firewood, all occurrences (EOO) in the studied districts ranged between1990 3’130.31995 km22000 and 6’348.72005 km22010 (Table 20153). 2020 Construction material and agroforestry are likely to cause continuing decline in geographic distribution, Dense Forest Open Forest The above mentioned change analysis did not allow environmental quality and biotic interaction within the to identify strict continuing decline of the forest next 20 years. Forest vegetation in the three studied Figureecosystems 17 Forest overcover the change 1996-2017 analysis period,in studied though districts trends districts falls therefore under the Endangered (EN) risk are all converging toward loss of surface areas in the category under criterion B1b.

Table 3 Extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) of the Coastal Forest distribution

Ecosystem class Criteria Memba Dondo Inhassoro & Bazaruto Dense Forest EOO [km2] 5’696.7 3’130.3 6’335.0 AOO 47 30 30 Open Forest EOO [km2] 5’697.3 3’139.6 6’348.7 AOO 56 30 44

The area of occupancy (AOO) was determined by applying It is to be noted that criterion B evaluates risk based on a grid of 10 × 10 km cells and counting the cells in which ecosystem distribution extent. The present assessment the ecosystem covered more than 1% of the grid cell focuses on ecosystem status within the studied37 districts, area (1 km2) (IUCN 2017). The AOO ranged from 30 to while ecosystems are not bounded to administrative 56. As aforementioned observed threatening processes boundaries. Although assessment at district level might (conversion of land to agriculture and unsuitable use of be relevant for administrative purposes, limited extent forest resources) are likely to cause continuing decline of the ecosystems in the districts could ultimately lead in geographic distribution, environmental quality and to assign a higher risk category. Considering the whole biotic interaction within the next 20 years. All forest extent of the ecosystem might indicate a lower risk classes were therefore assessed as Vulnerable (VU) under because its larger geographic distribution makes it more criterion B2b, except Open Forests of Memba which fall resilient. As aforementioned Coastal Forests are spread under the Near Threatened (NT) risk category. along the coast between Somalia and Eastern Africa The studied ecosystems characteristics do not reach the (3.1.1.2.3). National or international assessments could thresholds of the B3 criterion. It was therefore assigned therefore provide a better understanding of the status the Least Concern (LC) category for every district and of the ecosystem as whole. Nevertheless, assessment at ecosystem. district level is relevant to inform actions that need to be taken at local level and to evaluate the relative urgency of these interventions.

The area of occupancy (AOO) was determined by It is to be noted that criterion B evaluates risk based on applying a grid of 10 × 10 km cells and counting the ecosystem distribution extent. The present assessment cells in which the ecosystem covered more than 1% focuses on ecosystem status within the studied districts, of the grid cell area (1 km2) (IUCN 2017). The AOO while ecosystems are not bounded to administrative ranged from 30 to 56. As aforementioned observed boundaries. Although assessment at district level might threatening processes (conversion of land to agriculture be relevant for administrative purposes, limited extent and unsuitable use of forest resources) are likely to of the ecosystems in the districts could ultimately lead cause continuing decline in geographic distribution, to assign a higher risk category. Considering the whole environmental quality and biotic interaction within extent of the ecosystem might indicate a lower risk the next 20 years. All forest classes were therefore because its larger geographic distribution makes it assessed as Vulnerable (VU) under criterion B2b, except more resilient. As aforementioned Coastal Forests are Open Forests of Memba which fall under the Near spread along the coast between Somalia and Eastern Threatened (NT) risk category. Africa (3.1.1.2.3). National or international assessments The studied ecosystems characteristics do not reach could therefore provide a better understanding of the thresholds of the B3 criterion. It was therefore the status of the ecosystem as whole. Nevertheless, assigned the Least Concern (LC) category for every assessment at district level is relevant to inform actions that need to be taken at local level and to evaluate the district and Coastalecosystem. Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment relative urgency of these interventions.

Figure 18 Distribution of Coastal Forests in 2017, minimum convex polygon around the ecosystem (EOO)

In the absence on relevant data to assess deterioration 3.1.1.5.3. Criterion C prone to erosion by torrential runoff that could affect 3.1.1.5.3. Criterion C of abiotic processes, this criterion is classified as Data Pollution has been identified as a potential threat to Deficientupper layers. (DD). Lower infiltration capacity affects water Pollutionforest hasloss. been Uncontrolled identified aswaste a potential disposal, threat untreated to table level, reducing the growth period and eliminating forestsewage loss. Uncontrolleddischarge, contamination waste disposal, of soil untreated and water by 3.1.1.5.4.drought susceptible Criterion vege Dtation (FAO 2001a). The sewageagrochemicals discharge, and contamination industrial activities of soil and(ex: wateroil and gas Nodegradation inventory of describingforests soils plant under nor agriculture animal requirspecieses by agrochemicalsextraction, etc.) and have industrial been activities previously (ex: identified oil and has distributionthe search forand more their forest status land have to accessbeen found (and for the gaspotential extraction, sources etc.) ofhave pollutions been previously (Byers et al.identified 2013; Report studiedeffectively) districts. the next Similarly, area of little fertility. to Thisno data phenomenon exist on has2002; potential Samoilys sources et al.of pollutions2015; Soto (Byers 2007). et It al. is 2013;also to be alienis particularly species and exacerbated insect infestation by population (Timana growth.et al. 2014). Reportnoted 2002; that Samoilysforest fires et couldal. 2015; impact Soto soil 2007). quality. It is also to be noted that forest fires could impact soil quality. TheHowever, only data to date available there areconcern no information Inhassoro regardistrict.ding In ImpoverishedImpoverished soils soils produce produce less lessbiomass biomass and reandnder render thisfire impactdistrict, on alien soil speciesproperties were in thefound study locally areas. around naturalnatural regeneration regeneration less less successful. successful. Bar Baree soils soils ar aree more more settlementsQuantitative and data agricultural and monitoring areas. ofAgave pollution sisalana sources was prone to erosion by torrential runoff that could affect recordedand fire-related in the issuesprojected in the tourism study areasdevelopment are lacking. area It upper layers. Lower infiltration capacity affects water and Melinis repens was recorded along the road verges table level, reducing the growth period and eliminating and tracks. Lantana camara and Opuntia38 ficus-indica drought susceptible vegetation (FAO 2001a). The were noted around settlements in the south of the study degradation of forests soils under agriculture requires area. Exotic agricultural plants such as cashew nut trees the search for more forest land to access (and effectively) (Anacardium occidentale), mango trees (Mangifera the next area of fertility. This phenomenon is particularly indica) and casuarinas (Casuarina equisetifolia) occur in exacerbated by population growth. low numbers in disturbed areas (ERM 2015). However, to date there are no information regarding fire Although forest fires are a natural phenomenon in impact on soil properties in the study areas. Quantitative eastern Africa, the majority that occur are started by data and monitoring of pollution sources and fire-related people and uncontrolled fires could also affect forest issues in the study areas are lacking. It was therefore not cover and species distribution. Over time and with possible to derive the status of the abiotic processes at frequent and intense burning, it is believed that lowland this stage. coastal forest and thicket vegetation is converted to

31 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

more fire-adapted vegetation types similar to Miombo logs, are classified as “Precious woods” in Mozambique woodlands (dominated by Brachystegia and Julbernadia and their exploitation is restricted by logging quotas species) (WWF-EARPO 2006). Natural regeneration is by province and by license holder (Forest Legality affected by fire which could prevent forest ecosystem to Initiative 2016). However, recent studies indicate that reach its climax. Increasing fire and logging intensity will these protective measures are not sufficient to offset the considerably threaten a number of the narrowly endemic unsustainable consumption of these species. According coastal forest specialist species e.g. Pterocarpus to Environmental Investigation Agency UK Ltd. (2014), angolensis, Millettia stuhlmannii, Milicia excels, actual consumption (domestic consumption and global Androstachys jonsonii, Erythrephleum suaveolens, reported imports) rose by an average of 8 per cent per Burkea africana, Dalbergia melanoxylon, etc. and foster annum, between 2007 and 2013. Assuming that the their replacement by wide-ranging species typical of consumption follows a continues increase at 8 percent Miombo (WWF-EARPO 2006). Fire management have per annum, the standing stock of the aforementioned a crucial role in the establishment and maintenance of first and precious class species would be completely woody vegetation. Ryan and Williams (2011) findings logged out by 2029. suggested that miombo woody biomass may be During the stakeholder consultation conducted onsite preserved or enhanced by burning in low-intensity in November 2018, unsuitable forest exploitation was conditions. As underlined by Laris and Wardell (2006), raised as a major threat to forests in the districts of fire management should be adapted to the local context. Dondo and Inhassoro. In these districts, several forest While drastic reduction of woody biomass in some areas concessions are registered (Figure 19). The Integrated might require reducing fire, in others, well managed fire Assessment of Mozambican Forests (AIFM), conducted might be beneficial both for the local communities and in 2007, indicated that wood consumption locally biodiversity. When fire is properly timed, it could allow exceeded potential forest production in every studied achieving a green flush of new perennial grass shoots district (Marzoli 2007). However, the identified zones (source of fresh fodder for domestic and wild animals). of unstainable use of forests did not match with the In addition, early-burning of low productive areas helps forest concession holdings. These findings highlight that creating natural fire breaks. Patch-mosaic burning create logging is not the sole important pressure. Domestic use an array of patch types that act as natural firebreaks for construction material and fuel production is also of limiting the spread of fire. Annual burning of selected great importance. In the domestic market, a slight wider areas can allow maintaining these fireguards, protecting use of species is accepted although preference is still particular vegetation patches. Although, indications are given to the above-mentioned first class and precious that forests are becoming less rich in species diversity, species (World Bank 2018). The depletion of these specie more fragmented and poorer in species associations, the standing stocks appeared to be of great magnitude and absence of specie inventory and lack of knowledge on concerning the whole ecosystem. This degradation of fire-related impact in our study areas, did not allow us species characteristic of the native biota by an abiotic to derive a precise assessment of this threat on forest pressure could assign forests to the Critical Endangered ecosystems (FAO 2001a; WWF-EARPO 2006). (CR) risk category under criterion D2b, if its impact is Another very concerning factor was that 85-90 percent confirmed at the district level. of actual logging is focused primarily on only 5-6 Indeed, in the absence of specie inventory, it is difficult species, putting substantial pressure on their stocks to assess the magnitude of this threat at local level. In the (Environmental Investigation Agency UK Ltd. 2014). absence of robust evidence, criterion D2 was assessed as Afzelia quanzensis Pterocarpus angolensis (Chanfuta), Data Deficient (DD). (Umbila), Millettia stuhlmannii (Jambirre or Panga- panga), Combretum imberbe (Mondzo) and Swartzia Due to the absence of quantitative past and historical madagascariensis (Pau ferro) are classified as “first class” data at district level, subcriteria D1 and D3 were assessed based on their quality, uses and demand intensity. Export as Data Deficient (DD). of first class timber in log form is banned and wood For terrestrial ecosystems, protection of areas of needs to be processed in Mozambique before leaving endemism described in section 3.1.1.2.1 should be the the country. Afzelia quanzensis (Chanfuta), Pterocarpus priority. Inventories describing plant and animal species angolensis (Umbila), Millettia stuhlmannii (Jambirre or are needed to assess disruption of biotic processes and Panga-panga) and Dalbergia melanoxylon (Pau preto) the status of forest vegetation under criterion D.

is still given to the above-mentioned first class and assessed as Data Deficient (DD). precious species (World Bank 2018). The depletion of Due to the absence of quantitative past and historical these specie standing stocks appeared to be of great data at district level, subcriteria D1 and D3 were magnitude and concerning the whole ecosystem. This assessed as Data Deficient (DD). degradation of species characteristic of the native biota by an abiotic pressure could assign forests to the For terrestrial ecosystems, protection of areas of Critical Endangered (CR) risk category under criterion endemism described in section 3.1.1.2.1 should be the D2b, if its impact is confirmed at the district level. priority. Inventories describing plant and animal species Indeed, in the absence of specie inventory, it is difficult are needed to assess disruption of biotic processes and to assess the magnitude of this threat at local level. the status of forest vegetation under criterion D. In the absenceCoastal of robust Resilience evidence, to Climate criterion Change D2 wasBaseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Figure 19 Location of forest concession in Mozambique (source: Terra Firma, spatial database of timber operators (Muianga and Norfolk 2017))

3.1.1.6.Coastal Conclusion Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal andforest Marine vegetation Ecosystems was classified Restoration as AssessmentEndangered (EN) in 3.1.1.6. Conclusion forestall districts.vegetation Under was classifiedcriterion B2b, as Endangered all the forest (EN) in Assessment of the reduction in geographic distribution all districts.vegetation Under types criterion were assessed B2b, all asthe V forestulnerable (VU) Assessment(criteria A) of of the the r eductiondense and in geographic open forests distribution in Memba, vegetationexcept for types Open were For estsassessed in Dondo as V whichulnerable were (VU) (criteria3.1.1.6.Dondo A) andConclusion of the dense and open forests in Memba, Underexceptcharacterized criterion for Open B1b, For as forest estsNear in vegetationThr Dondoeatened which was (NT). wereclassified The overall as Dondo and characterized as Near Threatened (NT). The overall AssessmentInhassoro & ofBazaruto the reduction classifie ind geographic them respectively distribution Endangeredrisk status (EN) of thein all ecosystem districts. Under is assigned criterion as B2b, the highestall Inhassoro & Bazaruto classified them respectively risk status of the ecosystem is assigned as the highest (criteriaas Endangered A) of the (EN) dense and andLeast open Concern forests, Near in Memba, the forestcategory vegetation of risk obtainedtypes were through assessed any as criterion. Vulnerable The as Endangered (EN) and Least Concern, Near category of risk obtained through any criterion. The DondoThreatened and (NT) Inhassoro and Least & Concern Bazaruto (LC) classified and Near them (VU) forestexcept vegetation for Open of Forests the studied in Dondo districts which are thereforewere Threatened (NT) and Least Concern (LC) and Near forest vegetation of the studied districts are therefore respectivelyThreatened (NT)as Endangered and (EN) and Least Concern, characterizedEndangered as (EN)Near ( TThreatenedable (NT). The overall Threatened (NT) and NearEndangered Threatened (EN) ((NT)Table and 4). ConversionLeast Concern of land (LC) to and riskEndangered status4). of the (EN) ecosystem (Table is assigned as the highest EndangeredNearagriculture Threatened (EN) and (unsustainableT able(NT) 4).and Conversion Endangered use of forestof land(EN) resour to(Table ces 4). category4). of risk obtained through any criterion. The agricultureConversionthreatened and standing ofunsustainable land sttoocks. agriculture use Under of forest criterionand resourunsustainable B1b,ces forest vegetation of the studied districts are therefore threateneduse of foreststanding resources stocks. Underthreatened criterion standing B1b, stocks. Endangered (EN) (Table 4).

Table 4 RLE assessment summary for coastal forest vegetation (with criteria presenting the highest risk category in brackets) Table 4 RLE assessmentStudy Site summaryForest for coa stal forestCriterion vegetation (with criteriaA presentingB C the highestD risk categoryE in brackets)Overall Study Site Forest Criterion A B C D E Overall subcriterion 1 EN EN DD DD NE EN (A1 - B1b) Dense Forest subcriterion 1subcriterion 2 EN DD EN VU DD DD DD DD NE - EN (A1 - B1b)- Dense Forest subcriterion 2subcriterion 3 DD DD VU LC DD DD DD DD - - - - Memba subcriterion 3 DD LC DD DD - - Memba subcriterion 1 LC EN DD DD EN (B1b) Open Forest subcriterion 1subcriterion 2 LC DD EN NT DD DD DD DD EN (B1b) Open Forest subcriterion 2subcriterion 3 DD DD NT LC DD DD DD DD subcriterion 3subcriterion 1 DD NT LC EN DD DD DD DD NE EN (B1b) Dense Forest subcriterion 1subcriterion 2 NT DD EN VU DD DD DD DD NE - EN (B1b)- Dense Forest subcriterion 2subcriterion 3 DD DD VU LC DD DD DD DD - - - - Dondo subcriterion 3 DD LC DD DD - - Dondo subcriterion 1 LC EN DD DD EN (B1b) Open Forest subcriterion 1subcriterion 2 LC DD EN VU DD DD DD DD EN (B1b) Open Forest subcriterion 2subcriterion 3 DD DD VU LC DD DD DD DD subcriterion 3subcriterion 1 DD NT LC EN DD DD DD DD NE EN (B1b) Dense Forest subcriterion 1subcriterion 2 NT DD EN VU DD DD DD DD NE - EN (B1b)- Dense Forest subcriterion 2subcriterion 3 DD DD VU LC DD DD DD DD - - - - Inhassoro & Bazaruto subcriterion 3 DD LC DD DD - - Inhassoro & Bazaruto subcriterion 1 NT EN DD DD EN (A2-B1b) Open Forest subcriterion 1subcriterion 2 NT EN EN VU DD DD DD DD EN (A2-B1b) Open Forest subcriterion 2subcriterion 3 EN DD VU LC DD DD DD DD subcriterion 3 DD LC DD DD

marina, Bruguiera cylindrical, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 3.1.2. Mangrove Ceriops tagal, Heritiera littoralis, Lumnitzera racemose,

3.1.2.1. Classification Rhizophora mucronata, Sonneratia alba, Xylocarpus

granatum (Tropical Coastal Ecosystems Portal 2018). IUCN Habitats Classification Scheme (Version 3.1) is The southern limit for Sonneratia alba and Heritiera a global typology of habitat types. The IUCN Habitats littoralis is the River Save at around 21° S. Further south, Classification Scheme is composed three hierarchic mangrove trees are rarely taller than 4 m (Samoilys et levels describing 18 habitats. The following habitats 3.1.2.were identified Mangrove in the studied districts: 1.7 Subtropical/ al. 2015).3.1.2.2. To the Ecosystem best of our knowledge, description no inventory of 3.1.2. Mangrove species3.1.2.2. has beenEcosystem specifically description conducted in the studied 3.1.2.1.Tropical Mangrove Classification Forest Vegetation Above High Tide 3.1.2.1.Level (level Classification 1.7) and Mangrove Submerged Roots (level areas.3.1.2.2.1. The only inventory Characteristic found was produced native by biota A. A. IUCN12.7). Habitats Classification Scheme (Version 3.1) is a Sitoe,3.1.2.2.1. Mandlate, Characteristic and Guedes (2014) nativewho identified biota 6 of IUCN Habitats Classification Scheme (Version 3.1) is a the Mangraforementionedoves are definedspecies asin characteristicSofala Bay near littoral Dondo global typology of habitat types. The IUCN Habitats Mangroves are defined as characteristic littoral global 3.1.2.2. typology Ecosystemof habitat types. description The IUCN Habitats (Avicenniaplant formation marina, Bruguiera of tropical gymnorhiza, and subtropical Ceriops sheltered tagal, Classification Scheme is composed three hierarchic Heritieraplant formation littoralis, ofRhizophora tropical and mucronata subtropical and Xylocarpussheltered Classificationlevels3.1.2.2.1. describing Scheme Characteristic 18 is habitats. composed Thenative three following biotahierarchic habitats coastlines (Hughes, Hughes, and Bernacsek 1992). granatumcoastlinesIn Mozambique,). Mangroves(Hughes, mangroveHughes, forests provideand for Bernacsekests habitats are dominated 1992). to wide by levelswere describing identified 18 in habitats.the studied The districts: following 1.7 habitats Subtropical/ Mangroves are defined as characteristic littoral plant rangeIn Mozambique,9 species:of fauna, Avicenniathis mangrove include marina invertebrates, fore, sts are crabs,dominated paeneid by wereTropical identified Mangrove in the studiedForest Vdistricts:egetation 1.7 Above Subtropical/ High T ide formation of tropical and subtropical sheltered coastlines prawns,9 species:Bruguiera fishes, Avicennia cylindrical reptiles marina, Bruguiera and, a varietygymnorhiza of birds, Ceriops and TropicalLevel(Hughes, Mangrove(level Hughes, 1.7) andForest and Mangrove Bernacsek Vegetation Subme 1992). Above Inrged Mozambique, High Roots T ide(level Level12.7). (level 1.7) and Mangrove Submerged Roots (level mammalsBruguieratagal, (seeHeritiera cylindrical description littoralis, Bruguiera in, AnnexLumnitzera gymnorhiza 2). racemose, Ceriops, mangrove forests are dominated by 9 species: Avicennia 12.7). tagaRhizophoral, Heritiera mucronatalittoralis, Lumnitzera, Sonneratia racemose alba, , Rhizophora mucronata, Sonneratia alba, 34

41 41 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

3.1.2.2.2. Abiotic Environment 3.1.2.2.3. Distribution Mozambican coastline can be divided into three main Mozambican mangroves are among the best developed regions; the coralline with coral limestone in the north, mangroves in terms of area, species diversity and forest estuarine in the central region, and the sandy coastline structure (Spalding, Blasco, and Field 2015). With over in the southern region of the country (Spalding, Blasco, 300’000 hectares, Mozambique has the largest tract of and Field 2015). mangrove forest in Africa and ranks 13th in the world In the northern region, between River Ruvuma and the in terms of mangrove extent (WWF Deutschland 2018a). town of Mossuril, coastal plains are generally narrow Mangroves are ubiquitous along most of the Mozambican due to highly indented and high relief of the highlands, coast although differences are observed between the locally approaching within 5 km of the coast. As a result, three above mentioned coastal regions. Mangroves tend rivers are not tidal to any great distance and tidal forests to be more continuous in northern and central districts are confined to the vicinities of stream mouths andto where offshore islands and reef- building corals offer a the shore of the bays. Mangrove forests are floristically natural protection and become less common in the south well-developed but are seldom very extensive between (Hughes, Hughes, and Bernacsek 1992). their landward and seaward faces. However, the coasts In Memba district, mangroves are found in bays at the present several large sheltered bays and are protected vicinity of stream mouths. In these bays, mangroves are by numerous offshore islands and coral reefs offering sheltered from currents and the presence of coral-reefs a natural protection prone to the development of in front of the bays offer a secondary protection. In the mangrove forests (Hughes, Hughes, and Bernacsek northern part of the district, mangrove forests occupied 1992). The study area of Memba district constitutes the areas located around the mouths of the Lúrio and Mepoto perfect example of this scalloped landscape. The 242 km rivers in the Fernão Veloso bay. The sandspit that close shoreline comprise 4 large bays (Fernão Veloso, Simuco, the southern part of the bay presents also mangroves at Merenge, Memba and offshore from the city Gêba), and its extremity. The Meteca river and its affluent Muca meet no more than 9 estuary areas populated with mangroves. the ocean in the bay of Simuco, 50 km north from Fernão Between the south of the Zambezi and Beira, the alluvium Veloso bay. In this area, the mangrove cover occupies all from 18 rivers has produced a continuously deltaic coast. the coastal area of the bay. The next mangrove is found Mangroves occur on the open sea coast, in depressions in Merenge bay (10 km south), mainly on the northern behind frontal sand dunes and along the numerous and southern coast of the bay. Although the cover is channels that give the coast a scalloped appearance not continuous, the largest surface area of mangrove (Hughes, Hughes, and Bernacsek 1992). Dondo district, is located around the Memba bay. They occupied is characterised by a 28 km shoreline mainly composed the northern coasts of the bay, in the vicinity of the of the alluvium transported by the Sangussi, Bumbo, Moendeze and Mecuburi rivers and the sheltered areas Nharfupa, Nhamechinda and Savane rivers. of the scalloped southern coast, including the mouth of Between Bartolomeu Dias and Inhambane, no major the Sapite river. The southern extremity of the disctrict rivers occur and the lack of silt and freshwater is also host a significant surface of mangrove on coastal reflected by the scarcity of tidal forests. In this section, areas located in the vicinity of the city of Gêba. The only the coast is strongly influenced by Agulhas Current mangroves that developed outside of the protection of flowing southward at the edge of the continental the bays were located in the deltas of the Missangage shelf. Inshore water temperature exceeding 21°C and Naeco rivers. However, these mangroves seem to favourable to mangrove development are maintained have disappeared over the past 25 years. by northern warm surface water, deflected northward Over the 28 km shoreline of the Dondo district, 19 km as a consequence of Eddies generated at the boundary are covered with mangroves. Starting from the bed of with the water over the continental shelf. The northward the Sangussi river delimiting the north-eastern extremity longshore resulting current and SE orientation of waves of the district, the coast presents a quasi- continuous on beaches, transport vast quantities of sand northward mangrove on 15 km, implanted in the alluvium of the between Inhambane and the Zambezi creating many deltaic areas created by the Bumbo and Nharfupa rivers. northward pointing sandspits. The Inhassoro district, The south-western mangrove is located on the left bank located in this area is crossed only by the Maurungane of the mouth of the Maria river. and Govuro rivers, flowing in the northward direction. As aforementioned, mangroves are less present in the The Govuro river meets the Indian Ocean at the northern southern part of Mozambique. A small extent of the district border, in the Inhambane district. This district also mangrove of the Govuro river delta is included in the includes the Bazaruto national park.

developed outside of the protection of the bays were As aforementioned, mangroves are less present in the located in the deltas of the Missangage and Naeco southern part of Mozambique. A small extent of the rivers. However, these mangroves seem to have mangrove of the Govuro river delta is included in the disappeared over the past 25 years. Inhassoro district but the main mangroves are located Over the 28Coastal km shore Resilienceline of tothe Climate Dondo Change district, Baseline; 19 Coastalin and the Marinesouthern Ecosystems area. Over Restoration the 58 km Assessment shoreline, only km are covered with mangroves. Starting from the 8 km are populated with mangroves. This continuous bed of the Sangussi river delimiting the north-eastern coastal fringe is located at the interface with inland extremity of the district, the coast presents a quasi- water and is protected by sandbanks that deflect the continuousInhassoro mangrove district but on the 15 main km, mangroves implanted arein thelocated in currents.northward Recent currents. observations Recent observationsindicate that mangrovesindicate that alluviumthe southern of the delarea.taic Over areas the cr 58eated km byshoreline, the Bumbo only 8 km aremangr locatedoves on ar thee located west coast on the of westBazaruto coast island. of Bazaruto Prior are populated with mangroves. This continuous coastal 2001, patches were present on the east coast but they and Nharfupa rivers. The south-western mangrove is island. Prior 2001, patches were present on the east fringe is located at the interface with inland water and disappeared. located on the left bank of the mouth of the Maria river. coast but they disappeared. is protected by sandbanks that deflect the northward

Figure 20 Distribution of mangrove forests in Memba district in 2017 (WWF Deutschland 2018b).

43 36

Figure 21 Distribution of mangrove forests in Dondo district in 2017 (WWF Deutschland 2018b).

Figure 22 Distribution of mangrove forests in Inhassoro & Bazaruto in 2017 (WWF Deutschland 2018b).

37 44 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

3.1.2.2.4. Key processes and interactions distribution. Increasing population is associated with the (conceptual model) development of urbanization and agricultural activities. Poor soils of coastal east Africa do not easily support Mangrove forests present a bottom-up trophic regulation, settled agriculture resulting in the widespread practice with non-dominant species (fish, crabs, shrimps) of shifting agriculture. Soils under forest cover are often (Marshall et al. 2018). Mangroves are mainly found in more fertile and therefore face pressure to be converted river mouths. The nutrients that flow downstream make for agriculture (WWF-EARPO 2006). Activities such as these mangrove–estuarine systems highly productive. salt production and aquaculture ultimately lead to land They provide nursery grounds and breeding areas for clearing for accesses and building of infrastructures. numerous important fishery species such as snapper, emperor, grouper, prawns, crabs and sea cucumber Extensive oil and gas exploration being conducted in (Samoilys et al. 2015). the Mozambique Channel can also negatively impact mangrove development. Exploration and extraction On the other side, mangroves are used as raw requires land-clearing for accesses, construction of material in a wide range of anthropogenic activities. terminals, and the advent of shipping close to shore. In Local communities use Avicenia marina as timber for addition, although preventive measures are usually taken, construction of bed, firewood and fodder; Bruguiera accidental pollution (ex: oil spills) have the potential to Gymnorrhiza is harvested as poles for building materials damage coastal environments (Samoilys et al. 2015). and firewood; Sonneratia alba is mainly used for honey production, fire wood and boat building; Ceriops tagal, Finally, little is known on the effects of climate change and is used to make poles, firewood and timber for boat cyclones on mangroves in the studied areas. High cyclone construction; Sonneratia alba, Rhizophara mucronata, frequency (Fitchett and Grab 2014) and change in abiotic Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Bruguiera cylindrica, Heritiera processes and environment (sea level, hydroperiod and litoralis, Xylocarpus grannatum are used as medicine as salinity) could ultimately result in reduced mangrove well as firewood (Soto 2007). development. Besides exploitation of mangroves for production of wood materials, change in land-use was also identified as a major process affecting mangrove

Figure 23 Simplified cause-and-effect conceptual model of the ecological processes most relevant to the Mozambican’s mangrove ecosystem risk assessment

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

3.1.2.3. Threatening processes m resolution. In order to ensure consistency in the data resolution and interpretation only Landsat data were Historically, studies have identified major threats to the considered in the present section (1994-2015 period). mangroves in Mozambique as: uncontrolled exploitation for firewood, charcoal and poles; clearance of mangroves Similar trends were observed in surface change over for agriculture (mainly for rice fields) and salt production; the past 25 years in the studied districts. Geographic pollution and decreased flow of freshwater to mangroves distribution of mangroves were found to be dynamic caused by construction of dams (Barbosa, Cuambe, rather than describing linear trends (continuous growth and Bandeira 2001). Recent studies also point-out or decline). The 1994-2001 period is characterized by the importance of natural hazards, El Nino events and a slight decrease in mangrove cover, while coverage climate-related issues such as sea level rise, excessive increased between 2001-2015 (Figure 24). flooding and increase sedimentation. These threats are Ecosystem-risk analysis require detailed information and not restricted to Mozambique but were found to be time series to generate robust results on the status of the uniform across West Indian Ocean (WIO) with varying ecosystem thus allowing to highlight areas that require degree of intensity (Lee et al. 2017; UNEP-Nairobi urgent action, while better informing conservation and Convention and WIOMSA 2015). protection strategies accordingly. This type of analysis 3.1.2.4. Ecosystem collapse indicators aiming to study ecosystems risk and vulnerabilities, from spatial and functional perspectives, more than two Mangrove forests present a bottom-up trophic regulation, edges in the time have to be considered to interpret with non-dominant species (fish, crabs, shrimps). As ecosystems’ trends and dynamics. proposed by Marshall et al. (2018), assessment of spatial and functional symptoms of collapse is therefore based In the case of the CRCC project, long-term times series on monitoring mangrove species, with mangrove loss or of changes generated by WWF Deutschland were degradation being the dominant pathway to collapse. considered to assess and compare mangrove spatial For criterion A and B, mangroves were considered distribution from 1994 to 2015, which means within a collapse when their mapped distribution declines to zero long period of time (WWF Deutchland, 2018b). WWF (100% loss). Pollution and deforestation for production of data has been used in other comprehensive studies on construction material and fuel (firewood), were identified mangroves vulnerability to climate change (Calvin, 2017). as the main threats that could influence abiotic and biotic Except for Memba district surfaces covered by mangrove processes. However, the absence of quantitative data in 2015 exceeded 1994 estimates. For these districts, and monitoring of these threats did not allow to define spatial explicit data did not suggest any decline in collapse indicators for criterion C and D (see section the next 50 years or any 50-year period including past 3.1.2.5.3 and 3.1.2.5.4). present and future. Subcriteria A2a and A2b were therefore assessed as Least Concern (LC). For Memba 3.1.2.5. Assessment of ecosystem risk of the net change over the 1994-2015 period is estimated collapse to 2%, classifying mangrove forests also as Least Concern 3.1.2.5.1. Criterion A (LC) for subcriteria A2a and A2b. As underlined by WWF Deutschland (2018b) these findings does not mean that To inform criterion A, the 1994, 2001,2008 and 2015 mangroves are not affected by abiotic or biotic pressures mangrove distributions were compared to quantify but only that the gains are offsetting losses. declines in spatial distribution. These long term time series change were provided by WWF Deutschland Due to the absence of quantitative past and historical (2018b). This dataset includes change in mangrove cover data at district level respectively, subcriteria A1 and A3 at the national scale over the past 25 years using highest were assessed as Data Deficient (DD). resolution available. Landsat sensors providing imagery at 30 m resolution were used to derive mangrove areas prior 2015. Following the launch of Sentinel-2 in 2015, this sensor was used to gather further information at 10

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

2'900 A

2'800

2'700

2'600

2'500 [Ha] 2'400

Area 2'300 2'200

2'100 Memba 2'000 Dondo 1'900 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

450

400 B

350

300

250 [Ha]

200

Area 150

100 Inhassoro 50 Bazaruto 0 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Figure 24 Evolution of surface area (Ha) covered by mangroves between 1995 and 2015 in Memba and Dondo (A) and in Inhassoro & Bazaruto (B) 3.1.2.5.2. Criterion B 3.1.2.5.2. Criterion B cells in which the ecosystem covered more than 1% of To inform subcriteria B1, the extent of occurrence the grid cell area (1 km2) (IUCN 2017). To(EOO) inform of thesubcriteria 2018 mangrove B1, the extent distribution of occurrence was assessed (EOO) ofby measuringthe 2018 mangrovethe area of distributionthe minimum was convex assessed polygon by Mangrove distribution used was provided by WWF measuringthat encompasses the area allof knownthe minimum occurr encesconvex of polygon this that Deutschland (2018a) and consisted of the remote sensed encompassesecosystem (T ableall known 5). The occurrences area of occupancy of this (AOO)ecosystem estimation of the mangrove cover based on Sentinel-2 (Tablewas determined 5). The area by of applying occupancy a grid (AOO) of 10 was × 10 determined km cells sensor imageries (10 m resolution). byand applying counting a thegrid cells of 10 in ×which 10 km the cells ecosystem and counting cover edthe more than 1% of the grid cell area (1 km2) (IUCN 2017). Mangrove distribution used was provided by WWF Deutschland (2018a) and consisted of the remote sensed estimation of the mangrove cover based on Sentinel-2 sensor imageries (10 m resolution). 41

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Table 5 Extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) of the 2018 mangrove distribution

Memba Dondo Inhassoro & Bazaruto EOO [km2] 1’043.43 1’092.64 794.87 AOO 9 5 1

The EOO is noThe larger EOO than is no 2’000 larger km2 than in 2’000every districts,km2 in every Mangroves districts, are spreadMangr alloves along are the spread Mozambican all along coast. the Mozambican but no evidencebut no of evidence continuous of declinecontinuous was decline identified was identifiedAlthough assessmentcoast. at Althoughdistrict level assessment might be atrelevant district level might be for the ecosystemfor the to ecosystem be eligible tounder be eligible criteria underB1a and criteria forB1a administrative and relevant purposes, for administrative limited extent purposes, of the limited extent of B1b. Similarly,B1b. as no Similarly evidence, as of no continuous evidence decline of continuous was declineecosystems in the thedistricts ecosystems could ultimately in the districts lead to assigncould ultimately lead to identified, thewas ecosystem identified, was the not ecosystem eligible under was notcriteria eligible a underhigher risk category.assign Indeed, a higher in riskthe category.studied districts, Indeed, in the studied B2a and B2b.criteria B2a and B2b. mangroves occupieddistricts, relatively mangr restrictedoves occupied surface areas relatively in restricted the form of isolated patches. Under this configuration the Change in landChange use through in land urbanization use through and urbanization agriculture and surface areas in the form of isolated patches. Under this ecosystem distribution is so restricted that they are at risk has been identifiedagriculture as the has major been threat identified during stakeholderas the major threat configuration the ecosystem distribution is so restricted consultation. Occurrence within proclaimed reserves are of collapse from thethat chance they ar occurrencee at risk of ofcollapse single orfrom few the chance during stakeholder consultation. Occurrence withininteracting threatening events. Mangroves are therefore protected from this threat. The proximity of existing and occurrence of single or few interacting threatening proclaimed reserves are protected from this threat.assessed The as Critically Endangered (CR) at district level. expanding agricultural areas and urbanization/touristic events. Mangroves are therefore assessed as Critically proximity of existing and expanding agriculturalThis areas underlines the urgency to take action for preventing projected areas constitute a direct threat to these Endangered (CR) at district level. This underlines the and urbanization/touristic projected areas constitutethis ecosystem to collapse in the studied areas. However, restricted ecosystema direct threatpatches. to these Mangrove restricted ecosystem ecosystem patches. urgency to take action for preventing this ecosystem comprises 5 threat-defined locations in Memba, 1 this does not mean necessarily that the ecosystem Mangrove ecosystem comprises 5 threat-definedis threatened at ato larger collapse scale. in theConsidering studied areas. the whole However, this does in Dondo and 2 in Inhassoro & Bazaruto (including not mean necessarily that the ecosystem is threatened proximity of thelocations projected in Memba, touristic 1area). in Dondo Based and on 2this in Inhassorextento &of the ecosystem might indicate a lower risk Bazaruto (including proximity of the projectedbecause touristic its larger atgeographic a larger scale. distribution Considering makes itthe more whole extent of the and considering the restricted values of EOO, mangrove ecosystem might indicate a lower risk because its forests are consideredarea). Ba sedCritically on this Endangered and considering (CR) under the restrictedresilient. National or international assessments could larger geographic distribution makes it more resilient. criterion B1c valueswhile considering of EOO, mangrove AOO values, forests mangrove are considered therefore provide a better understanding of the status National or international assessments could therefore forests are consideredCritically Endangered (EN)(CR) inunder Memba criterion and B1cof while the ecosystem as whole. Nevertheless, assessment at provide a better understanding of the status of the Dondo and Criticallyconsidering Endangered AOO values, (CR) mangrovein Inhassoro for ests& aredistrict level is relevant to inform actions that need to be Bazaruto underconsidered criterion B2c. Endangered (EN) in Memba and Dondotaken at local levelecosystem and to evaluate as whole. the Nevertheless, relative urgency assessment at of these interventions. and Critically Endangered (CR) in Inhassoro & Bazaruto district level is relevant to inform actions that need As aforementioned, it is to be noted that criterion B to be taken at local level and to evaluate the relative evaluates riskunder based criterion on ecosystem B2c. distribution extent. The studied ecosystems characteristics do not reach the thresholds of the urgencyB3 criterion. of these It was interventions. therefore assigned The present Asassessment aforementioned, focuses iton is ecosystemto be noted status that criterion the Least Concern (LC) category for every district and within the studiedB evaluates districts, risk while based ecosystems on ecosystem are distributionnot The studied ecosystems characteristics do not reach ecosystem. bounded to administrativeextent. The present boundaries. assessment focuses on ecosystem the thresholds of the B3 criterion. It was therefore status within the studied districts, while ecosystems assigned the Least Concern (LC) category for every are not bounded to administrative boundaries. district and ecosystem.

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Figure 25 Distribution of mangrove forests in 2018 (WWF Deutschland 2018a), minimum convex hull around the ecosystem, and area of occupancy determined by determining the number of 10 × 10 km grid cells that contain more than 1 ha of the ecosystem.

3.1.2.5.3.3.1.2.5.3. Criterion Criterion C C 3.1.1.3)3.1.1.3) on on species species distribution. distribution. PollutionPollution has has been been identified identified as asa potential a potential threat threatto to InIn thethe absence absence on on relevant relevant data data to assess to assess deterioration deterioration mangrove loss. Uncontrolled waste disposal, untreated of biotic processes, this criterion is classified as Data mangrove loss. Uncontrolled waste disposal, untreated ofDeficient biotic (DD). processes, this criterion is classified as Data sewage discharge, contamination of soil and water sewageby agrochemicals discharge, contamination and industrial activities of soil (ex:and oil water and by Deficient3.1.2.6. (DD). Conclusion agrochemicalsgas extraction, and etc.) industrial have been activities previously (ex: identified oil and gas extraction,has potent etc.)ial sour haveces beenof pollutions previously (Byers identifiedet al. 2013; has 3.1.2.6.Assessment Conclusionof the spatial distribution of mangroves in potentialSamoilys sources et al. of 2015; pollutions Soto 2007; (Byers Younge, et al. 2013; Negussie, Samoilys AssessmentMemba, Dondo of andthe Inhassorspatial odistribution & Bazaruto assignedof mangroves the in et al.and 2015; Neil Soto 2002). 2007; Unfortunately, Younge, Negussie, quantitative and data Neil and 2002). Memba,Least Concern Dondo (LC) and risk Inhassoro category to& all Bazaruto districts underassigned the Unfortunately,monitoring ofquantitative these sour cesdata of and pollution monitoring in the study of these Leastcriterion Concern A (able 6).(LC) Under risk criterioncategory B, riskto allcategories districts under sourcesareas of is pollution lacking, it inwas the therefore study areasnot possible is lacking, to derive it was criterionranged from A Endangered (able 6). Under (EN) to criterion Critically B, Endangered risk categories thereforethe status not ofpossible the abiotic to deriveprocesses the atstatus this stage. of the abiotic ranged(EN). Restricted from Endangered geographic (EN)distribution to Critically and the Endangered proximity of expanding agricultural, urban and touristic processesIn the absenceat this stage. on relevant data to assess deterioration (EN). Restricted geographic distribution and the proximity of abiotic processes, this criterion is classified as Data areas constitute a direct threat to these ecosystem In theDeficient absence (DD). on relevant data to assess deterioration ofpatches. expanding The overall agricultural, risk status urbanof the ecosystem and touristic is areas constitute a direct threat to these ecosystem patches. of abiotic3.1.2.5.4. processes, Criterion this criterion D is classified as Data assigned as the highest category of risk obtained Deficient (DD). Thethrough overall any riskcriterion status (B1c of the– B2c). ecosystem The mangrove is assigned as the highest category of risk obtained through any criterion To the best of our knowledge, no inventory of forests of the studied districts are therefore Critically (B1c – B2c). The mangrove forests of the studied districts 3.1.2.5.4.species exists Criterion in our study D areas. It was therefore Endangered (CR) (able 6). are therefore Critically Endangered (CR) (able 6). To thenot bestpossible of our to assessknowledge, the impacts no inventory of identified of species existsthreats in our (section) study areas. It was therefore not possible to assess the impacts of identified threats (section)

49 43

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

As stated above, the present assessment was conducted local level and to evaluate the relative urgency of these atAs districtstated above, level. theIt indicatedpresent assessment that due was to the restricted localinterventions. level and to evaluate However, the thisrelative does urgency not necessarily of these mean geographicalconducted at district distribution level. It of indicated mangroves that due in theto the studied interventions.that the mangrove However, thisecosystem does not innecessarily Mozambique mean would be restricted geographical distribution of mangroves in that the mangrove ecosystem in Mozambique would areas, the risk of collapse from the chance occurrence assigned the same risk category. Evaluation at a larger the studied areas, the risk of collapse from the chance be assigned the same risk category. Evaluation at a of single or few interacting threatening events is scale (e.g. national level) would potentially yield different occurrence of single or few interacting threatening larger scale (e.g. national level) would potentially yield high.events Mangroves is high. Mangr areoves therefore are therefore assessed assessed as as Critically differentinterpretations interpretations as accountingas accounting for for larger larger surface surface areas and EndangeredCritically Endangered (CR) at district(CR) at leveldistrict and level actions and actions are needed areasbeing and beingmore morerepresentative representative of theof the complete complete ecosystem forare preventingneeded for preventingthis ecosystem this ecosystem to collapse to collapsein the studied ecosystemdynamics. dynamics. Assessment Assessment at larger at larger scale scale could could help defining areas.in the studiedAssessment areas. Assessmentat district level at district is relevant level is to inform helpthe defining status the of statusthe ecosystem of the ecosystem as a whole as aand whole inform actions actionsrelevant thatto inform need actions to be takenthat need at to be taken at andand inform policy actions at the and national policy at level. the national level.

Table 6 RLE assessment summary for mangrove ecosystem (criteria with the highest risk category in brackets)

Study Site Criterion A B C D E Overall Memba subcriterion 1 DD CR DD DD NE CR (B1c) subcriterion 2 LC EN DD DD - subcriterion 3 DD LC DD DD - Dondo subcriterion 1 DD CR DD DD NE CR (B1c) subcriterion 2 LC EN DD DD - subcriterion 3 DD LC DD DD - Inhassoro subcriterion 1 DD CR DD DD NE CR (B1c – B2c) & Bazaruto subcriterion 2 LC CR DD DD - subcriterion 3 DD LC DD DD -

3.1.3. Coral reef (McClanahan et al. 2011). This is one reason why the corals in Memba district and those in Inhassoro & 3.1.3.3.1.3.1. CoralClassification reef Bazarutoclimate are stressors considered that as provoketwo separate bleaching, ecosystem and ultimately impacts the diversity of corals and reef fish (McClanahan IUCN Habitats Classification Scheme (Version 3.1) is a types. Experts in the Global Coral Reef Monitoring 3.1.3.1. Classification networket al. (GCRM) 2011). Thisnetwork is one have reason indicated why that the more corals in Memba global typology of habitat types. The IUCN Habitats IUCNClassification Habitats Scheme Classification is composed threeScheme hierarchic (Version 3.1) is investmentdistrict andin coral those reef in monitoring Inhassoro will & Bazaruto be critical are for considered levels describing 18 habitats. The classification of this Mozambiqueas two separate in the future, ecosystem because types. these Experts nationally in the Global aecosystem, global typology using the of IUCN habitat habitats types. and The classification IUCN Habitats Classificationscheme v. 3.1 is 9.9.8 Scheme Marine neritic;is composed Coral Reefs. three hierarchic (andCoral globally) Reef important Monitoring ecosystems network ar e(GCRM) exposed networkto have further threats from offshore natural gas extraction. levelsRefined describing classification 18 is habitats. possible with The further classification studies. of this indicated that more investment in coral reef monitoring ecosystem, using the IUCN habitats and classification 3.1.3.2.will be Ecosystemcritical for Mozambique description in the future, because While there are detailed descriptions available linked these nationally (and globally) important ecosystems schemeto coral species, v. 3.1 is substrates9.9.8 Marine and neritic;types of Coral corals, Reefs. for are exposed to further threats from offshore natural gas the purposes of this district level assessment we 3.1.3.2.1. Characteristic native biota Refined classification is possible with further studies. extraction. were unable to conduct an assessment finer than two Bazaruto and Inhassoro’s corals go beyond the district Whileecosystem there types, are northerndetailed corals descriptions (Memba district)available linked limits3.1.3.2. and most descriptionsEcosystem are description provided at the toand coral southern species, corals substrates (Inhassoro and district types & Bazaruto of corals, for the archipelago scale. It is reasonable to assume that the purposesarchipelago). of thisThis district is due tolevel the assessmentlack of spatially we were unable general3.1.3.2.1. descriptions Characteristic of coral cover in thenative Bazaruto biota toexpl conducticit data an on assessment the distributions finer ofthan the twopossible ecosystem coral types, Archipelago is valid for the coral distribution in the ecosystem types. Bazaruto and Inhassoro’s corals go beyond the district northern corals (Memba district) and southern corals Inhassoro district limits, including the Bazaruto island. (Inhassoro district & Bazaruto archipelago). This is due to limits and most descriptions are provided at the However, it is important to note that the northern In Oburaarchipelago et al. (2008), scale. the It corals is reasonable in the Bazaruto to assume that the theand lacksouthern of spatially coral distributions explicit data respond on the differently distributions of archipelagogeneral weredescriptions described offollowing coral thecover 2006 in the Bazaruto theto climate possible str essorscoral ecosystemthat provoke types. bleaching, and bleaching event, as part of the national monitoring Archipelago is valid for the coral distribution in the However,ultimately impactsit is important the diversity to note of corals that and the reef northern fish and system implemented since 1999 in Mozambique. TheInhassoro main benthic district coral limits, genera including include Acropora the Bazaruto and island. In southern coral distributions respond differently to Obura et al. (2008), the corals in the Bazaruto archipelago

50 44 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

were described following the 2006 bleaching event, as are but a few examples of the varied and interesting part of the national monitoring system implemented diversity present in the two districts, though district level since 1999 in Mozambique. sampling is rare. The main benthic coral genera include Acropora and 3.1.3.2.2. Abiotic environment Millepora, with acroporids being most susceptible to bleaching events, and these are found in the fringing The Inhambane province, where Inhassoro & Bazaruto reefs. The reef community is more mixed in the gulleys are located, is under the influence of cyclonic and anti- where sponges are also prominent, with a sparse cyclonic swirls. Experts suggest that the dynamic ocean community of black corals (Antipatheria) and sea fans currents are responsible for high mixing, and therefore (Annella). This wall forms part of the perimeter of a deep productivity of the waters, resulting in high levels of hollow (17 m) encircled by sand bars on the inner side plankton. of Bazaruto and is subjected to a strong tidal flux and is Consequently, they attract ichthyofauna as well as large turbid. At the other end of the island, the corals found aggregations of marine megafauna (Louro et al. 2018). here are particularly sparse, consisting of the aherma However, the resulting cooling effect of the ocean types Dendrophyllia and Tubastraea and a few sediment- currents on the waters also contributes to a relative lower tolerant faviids, some small colonies of Porites and diversity of corals in this area (Obura 2012). Bazaruto Pocillopora. The large bivalve, Hyotissa hyotis, is found island has submerged sandstone reefs, dropping into in colonies of Dendrophyllia under overhangs (Schleyer fissures, gulleys, and lower walls. There is a shallower and Celliers 2005). Everett and Schleyer (2008) indicate reef top as well, with mixed coral communities. that the coral reefs in Bazaruto island, the principal Generally, in the Bazaruto archipelago, the reefs can be island in the archipelago, and the zone of interest for this broadly divided into three, submerged sandstone reefs, evaluation, are isolated from the coral reefs in northern submerged fringing reefs, and patchy reefs (Everett and Mozambique (including Memba district), furthering Schleyer 2008). the argument to consider the districts’ distributions The coral reef expanse in the north, which includes separately. Memba district, are fringing reefs which a product of In Memba also, there is a higher proportion of hard corals, biogenic accretion, and considered “true coral reefs”. with wide depth, and Scleractinia is most represented, According to McClanahan et al. (2014), the coral reef with four genera being dominant – Acropora, Porites, communities in the region where Memba’s reefs are Echinopora, and Favites. In some places, the order situated are more temperature-sensitive Alcyonaceae, comprising of soft corals is also abundant, including the genera Sinularia and Lobophytum. These 3.1.3.2.3. Distribution tend to dominate reef benthos (Pereira et al. 2014). In Mozambique, the coral cover in the national boundary Both reefs are important for marine turtles. Mozambique ranges from the north in the Pebane district (Zambezia is visited by five species of marine turtles, which have Province) to the Palma district (Cabo Delgado province), been observed in the Memba corals and environs, as well and in the south, in a discontinuous way, from Govuro as Inhassoro & Bazaruto. Bazaruto is also home to the district (Inhambane province) to Matutuíne district most important population of the critically endangered (Maputo province). There are no coral or seagrass dugong (Pereira et al. 2014), besides harbouring various ecosystems present in the Dondo district, or environs. species of cetaceans. Memba, situated between the The scope of the RLE risk assessment for coral reefs in the Quirimbas archipelago, and the Primeiras e Segundas districts of interest is limited to the northern and southern archipelago, is a critical site for nesting marine turtles, limits of each district’s coastline. Figure 26 shows the full besides the diversity of tropical reef fish species, including distribution of corals in Mozambique, beyond the two bumphead parrotfish, and the Napoleon wrasse. These districts’ limits.

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Figure 26 Distribution of corals and seagrasses in Mozambican coast. Data generated from Landsat-8 OLI sensor data between 2013-2015. Source RCMRD, open source data. Permission to publish without prior consent.

The northern coral ecosystem is essentially a coral The coastline,northern comprisingcoral ecosystem mostly is ofessentially fringe reefs. a coralIn the districts, and the coral cover corresponding to that area. coastline,south, comprisingthey are described mostly ofin highfringe parabolic reefs. In dunes, the Inhassoro’s analysis also included the Bazaruto Island, south,north they-trending are described capes, barrier in high lakes parabolic with patchy dunes, coral which is administratively in two districts (Inhassoro and north-trendingreefs, mor ecapes, scatter barriered than lakes continuous with patchy (M. Pereira coral Vilanculo). reefs,2000). more showsscattered the than district continuous coastline (M. for Pereira Inhassor 2000).o and showsMemba the district districts, coastline and the for coral Inhassoro cover corrand espondingMemba to that area. Inhassoro’s analysis also included the Bazaruto Island, which is administratively in two districts (Inhassoro and Vilanculo). 46

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Figure 27 Distributions of corals in two districts in Mozambique. Data generated from Landsat, 30 m resolution.

help regulating the coral/algae ratio (Figure 28). Corals 3.1.3.2.4. Key processes and interactions and corals. Climate change and ocean acidification 3.1.3.2.4.(conceptual Key model) processes and interactions support many human activities including fishing, which is amongare also the mainthreatening anthropogenic coral r eefspressures (Figur thate 28). threaten Other (conceptualCoral reefs are model) among the most biodiverse and productive coralanthropogenic reefs (Figure pr28).essures Coral reefsto this provide ecosystem shelter ar ande urban ecosystems, and they are valued for the services they Coral reefs are among the most biodiverse and nurserypollution, grounds sedimentation, to many fish coastalspecies, developmenttherefore fishing and provide. Corals have a mutualistic relationship with alters the characteristic biota of this ecosystem, and alters productive ecosystems, and they are valued for tourism. algae: coral support photosynthetic algae providing a the equilibrium among corals, algae and fish. Extensive the servicesprotected they environment, provide. Corals and algae have produce a mutualistic oxygen and fishing of species that feed on algae reduces the relationshiphelp corals with toalgae: remove coral wastes support (Figure photosynthetic 28). Moreover, resistance of corals to bleaching. Moreover, corals need algaecorals providing benefit a protected from theenvironment, photosynthesis and products of substrate to grow, and fishing contributes to destruction algaealgae produce (glucose, oxygen glycerol and helpand aminocorals acids). to remo Thisve corals- of substrates and corals. Climate change and ocean wastesalgae (Figur relationshipe 28). Moreover, facilitates coralsthe recycling benefit of from nutrients the in acidification are also threatening coral reefs (Figure 28). nutrient-poor tropical waters. However, the coral/algae photosynthesis products of algae (glucose, glycerol Other anthropogenic pressures to this ecosystem are ratio is very delicate: if this is too low (i.e. the amount of and amino acids). This corals-algae relationship urban pollution, sedimentation, coastal development algae is too high compared to corals), the vulnerability and tourism. facilitatesof corals the torecycling bleaching of increases. nutrients In in this nutrient context,-poor fish are tropicalvery waters. important, However, because the they coral/algae feed on ratiothe algaeis very and delicate: if this is too low (i.e. the amount of algae is too high compared to corals), the vulnerability of corals to bleaching increases. In this context, fish are very important, because they feed on the algae and help regulating the coral/algae ratio (Figure 28). Corals support many human activities including fishing, which is among the main anthropogenic 47 pressures that threaten coral reefs (Figure 28). Coral reefs provide shelter and nursery grounds to many fish species, therefore fishing alters the characteristic biota of this ecosystem, and alters the equilibrium among corals, algae and fish. Extensive fishing of species that feed on algae reduces the resistance of corals to bleaching. Moreover, corals need substrate to grow, and fishing contributes to destruction of substrates

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Figure 28 Simplified cause-and-effect conceptual model of the ecological processes most relevant to the Mozambican’s coral ecosystem risk assessment (D. Obura personal communication).

et al. 2014), however there has been considerably 3.1.3.3.3.1.3.3. Threatening Threatening processes processes fishing, and cages. Most coastal fishing in Mozambique is artisanal,over-exploitation, rather than and industrial lack of regulations (Pereira et in al. the 2014), fishing AtAt thethe national national level, level, Mozambique Mozambique began began monitoring monitoring its howeversector. there has been considerably over-exploitation, reefs, discontinuously since 1999. However, monitoring its reefs, discontinuously since 1999. However, andIn lack Memba, of regulations our local in experts the fishing specified sector. that the main sitesmonitoring have sitesincreased have incrovereased time, over permitting time, permitting overall methods are seine beach fishing, and deep fishing. In Memba, our local experts specified that the main observationsoverall observations on reef health on reef (Obura health et al.(Obura 2017). et The al. Global2017). These practices not only affect the fish populations, methods are seine beach fishing, and deep fishing. These CoralThe Global Reef Monitoring Coral Reef networkMonitoring (GCRM), network comprising (GCRM), of but also have an impact on the coral reef structures practices not only affect the fish populations, but also severalcomprising conservation of several and conservation research institutions and resear conductsch themselves, and could perpetuate a vicious cycle of period evaluations on the status of coral reefs. Their have an impact on the coral reef structures themselves, institutions conducts period evaluations on the status loss of habitat for fish coupled with overfishing. 2017 report (idem) indicated that in Mozambique, and could perpetuate a vicious cycle of loss of habitat for of coral reefs. Their 2017 report (idem) indicated that In the Inhassoro & Bazaruto district, similar information nationally, coral cover has declined to 20 – 30% of its fish coupled with overfishing. In the Inhassoro & Bazaruto in Mozambique, nationally, coral cover has declined regarding fishing methods was not forthcoming, original extent, since monitoring began in 1999. This district,however, similar the informationlocal fisher man regarding explained fishing their methods to 20 – 30% of its original extent, since monitoring decline is attributed to mass bleaching events, flooding wasobservations not forthcoming, on decreasing however, seagrass the local and coral fisherman began in 1999. This decline is attributed to mass from terrestrial runoff, and unsustainable fishing. explainedsurfaces. their They observations also observed on decreasing smaller sizes seagrass of fish and bleaching events, flooding from terrestrial runoff, and coralcatches, surfaces. despite They Bazaruto also observed island smaller being protected. sizes of fish Whileunsustainable the corals fishing. and seagrass ecosystems are found in catches, despite Bazaruto island being protected. sympatry in the two districts, the seagrass ecosystems A future threat to coastal ecosystems in general, While the corals and seagrass ecosystems are found in are more widespread, relative to corals. However, they A futureincluding threat corals, to coastal is of ecosystemsfshore gas inexplo general,ration including and sympatry in the two districts, the seagrass ecosystems are subject to similar threats and pressures, and many of corals,exploitation. is offshore gas exploration and exploitation. are more widespread, relative to corals. However, they the fauna depend on both habitats for their lifecycle. In As Asexplained explained before, before, considering considering the the sympatry sympatry of ofcoral coral theare twosubject districts to similar of interest, threats local and prexpertsessures, identified and many the of the fauna depend on both habitats for their lifecycle. andand seagrass seagrass ecosystems, ecosystems, the thethreats threats to toboth both are ar every very following threats to both coral and seagrass ecosystems similar,similar though, though the the response response rates rates and and susceptibilities susceptibilities includeIn the two fishing. districts ofThe interest, fishing local expertstechniques identified are varied, maymay vary vary between between corals corals and and seagrasses. seagrasses. butthe includefollowing seine threats fishing, to both line coral fishing,and seagrass surface & deep ecosystems include fishing. The fishing techniques are varied, but include seine fishing, line fishing, surface & deep fishing, and cages. Most coastal fishing in 48 Mozambique is artisanal, rather than industrial (Pereira

3.1.3.4. Assessment of ecosystem risk of 3.1.3.4.2. Criterion B

collapse Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline;Both Coastal ecosystems and Marine were Ecosystems evaluated under Restoration criterion Assessment B. The 3.1.3.4.1.3.1.3.4. CriterionAssessment A of ecosystem risk of methods3.1.3.4.2. described Criterion in the IUCN B RLE Guidelines v1.1. were used to calculate the Extent of Occurrence (EOO) collapse Both ecosystems were evaluated under criterion B. The Time-series data, covering a fifty-year span are and Area of Occupancy (AOO) (IUCN 2017). Figure methods described in the IUCN RLE Guidelines v1.1. not3.1.3.4.1. available to observeCriterion potential A changes in the 29 shows the minimum convex polygon enclosing all 3.1.3.4. Assessment of ecosystem risk of wereand used Inhassoro to calculate & Bazaruto the Extent are of considered Occurrence Data (EOO) Deficient ecosystems’ distributions. At this stage, we are unable occurrences for Memba and Inhassoro & Bazaruto, with Time-series data, covering a fifty-year span are andin Ar criterionea of Occupancy A and its (AOO) subcriteria. (IUCN 2017). Figure to projectcollapse into the future, as this requires further the 10km by 10km grid overlaid on the distribution. not available to observe potential changes in the 29 shows the minimum convex polygon enclosing all expert input on the factors influencing potential ecosystems’3.1.3.4.1. distributions. Criterion At A this stage, we are unable occurr3.1.3.4.2.ences for MembaCriterion and Inhassor B o & Bazaruto, with future distributions of coral ecosystems. Moreover, due to project into the future, as this requires further the Both10km ecosystems by 10km grid were overlaid evaluated on the under distribution. criterion B. The to theTime-series poor quality data, of the covering data for 2 a out fifty-year of the 4 years span are not expert input on the factors influencing potential methods described in the IUCN RLE Guidelines v1.1. available,available it wasn’t to observe possible potential to build changes a trend inon the the ecosystems’ future distributions of coral ecosystems. Moreover, due were used to calculate the Extent of Occurrence (EOO) coraldistributions. distribution inAt Memba, this stage, Inhassoro we are &unable Bazaruto. to project into to the poor quality of the data for 2 out of the 4 years Boththe coral future, ecosystems as this inrequires Memba, further and Inhassor experto input& on the and Area of Occupancy (AOO) (IUCN 2017). Figure available, it wasn’t possible to build a trend on the Bazarutofactors ar influencinge potential future distributions of coral 29 shows the minimum convex polygon enclosing all coral distribution in Memba, Inhassoro & Bazaruto. consideredecosystems. Data DeficientMoreover, in criteriondue to theA and poor its subquality- of the occurrences for Memba and Inhassoro & Bazaruto, with Both coral ecosystems in Memba, and Inhassoro & criteria. the 10km by 10km grid overlaid on the distribution. Bazarutodata for ar2 eout of the 4 years available, it wasn’t possible consideredto build a Data trend Deficient on the in coralcriterion distribution A and its subin Memba,- criteria.Inhassoro & Bazaruto. Both coral ecosystems in Memba,

Figure 29 Contrasting extents of occurrence of coral reefs between Inhassoro & Bazaruto, and Memba districts. Polygons with black lines show EOO.

Figure 29 Contrasting extents of occurrence of coral reefs between Inhassoro & Bazaruto, and Memba districts. Polygons with black lines show EOO. 55

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Research on the fishing methods from other regions, During local consultations, the fisherman themselves Research onparticularly the fishing on seine methods fishing, from suggests other regions,that the During local consultations, the fisherman themselves indicated a decline in coral cover, seagrass extent, and particularly onfisheries seine fishing,methods suggests used in Membathat the andfisheries Inhassor indicatedo & a declinefish instocks, coral cover,which seagrassthey attributed extent, to and unsustainable, methods usedBazaruto in Memba caused and more Inhassoro direct physical & Bazaruto damage fishto stocks, growingwhich theyfisheries attributed practices. to unsustainable, caused morecoral direct (Mangi physical and damage Roberts to 2006).coral (Mangi Coral anddensities, growing size fisheries practices. Bleaching events have resulted in both coral and Roberts 2006).of Coralcoral densities,colonies, sizeand, of number coral colonies, of coral and, colonies was Bleaching eventsseagrasses have resulted mortality, in inboth both coraldistricts, and as recently as number of coralsignificantly colonies washigher significantly in areas where higher beach in areas seine seagrassesfishing mortality, in both districts, as recently as 2016 where beachwas seine not fishing practiced, was notsuggesting practiced, a suggestingdirect negative impact 2016 (CORDIO 2017). However, the recovery rates in (CORDIO 2017).the However, two districts the recovery vary considerably, rates in the twosuggesting that a direct negativeof key impact fishing of practices key fishing on thepractices coral ecosystem.on the While districts vary considerably,bleaching, linkedsuggesting to incr thateased bleaching, sea surface temperatures coral ecosystem.this was While not this explicitly was not studied explicitly in the studied two districts linked to increased sea surface temperatures may be a in the two districts in Mozambique, we can reasonably may be a more continued threat to coral ecosystems in Mozambique, we can reasonably assume similarmore continued inthreat Memba, to coral compar ecosystemsed to the in south. Memba, Bleaching, while an assume similarnegative negative impacts, impacts, or or continued continued thr threatseats to to the coralcompared to the south. Bleaching, while an important the coral quality in both ecosystems of interest. important threat to coral ecosystems may not have as quality in both ecosystems of interest. threat to coral ecosystemsimmediate may impact not on have ecosystem as immediate quality, compared to However, if current fishing methods continue impact on ecosystem quality, compared to the threats However, if current fishing methods continue the threats of fishing. uncontrolled,uncontr to meetolled, increased to meet demands increased for fish demands protein, for fishof fishing. To summarise however, we can attribute continuous we can reasonablyprotein, hypothesisewe can reasonably a continual hypothesise decline ain continual To summarise however, we can attribute continuous decline in coral cover quality, and fish stocks reliant the environmentaldecline quality in the environmentalof the coral ecosystems. quality of the A coraldecline in coral cover quality, and fish stocks reliant study conductedecosystems. by Rare suggestedA study con thatducted 88% byof Rarcoastale suggested on coral habitats.on coral Considering habitats. Consideringcontinuous continuousdecline decline fish stocks that in 88% Mozambique of coastal arefish stocksover exploited,in Mozambique or fully andare restricted geographicand restricted distribution geographic (EOO), distribution corals (EOO), corals exploited (Rareover Mozambique exploited, or n.d.), fully exploitedand that the(Rar trende Mozambique are categorised arase categorisedCritically Endangered as Critically (CR) Endangered in both (CR) in both is expected ton.d.), continue and that if appropriate the trend is conservation expected to and continue districts if under criteriadistricts B1b under while criteriaunder B2b, B1b AOOwhile values under B2b, AOO livelihood measuresappropriate are conservationnot implemented and (suchlivelihood as no- measuresindicated that coralsvalues are indicated only Endangered that corals (EN)(Table are only 7). Endangered (EN) take zones, ar strictere not implemented enforcement of(such fishing as no regulations,-take zones, stricter (Table 7). seasonality, etc.). enforcement of fishing regulations, seasonality, etc.).

Table 7 Extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) of the coral distribution

Memba Dondo Inhassoro & Bazaruto EOO [km2] 1934 0 1181 AOO 14 0 13

interactions. This process requires expert input and 3.1.3.4.3. 3.1.3.4.3.Criterion CCriterion C However, the required data could not be obtained in time, and this criterionvalidation, was and not is typicallyevaluated. unique The mostto each ecosystem. There are severalThere abiotic are several features abiotic that could featur bees identified that could becomplex aspect toMcCl evaluateanahan criterion and Muthiga D will be (2017) identifying could be an excellent to calculate identifiedthe relative to severitycalculate of the various relative threats severity and of various threats and pressures. Bland et al. (2017) identifiedthe collapse four threshold,source i.e.to determine the point atthe which relative the severity coral and extent pressures. Bland et al. (2017) identified four abiotic abiotic components of environmental processeecosystems that has lostof impact,its characteristic based on biota biomass or interactions. data that was collected components of environmental processes that could could affect coral cover for an ecosystem assessmentThis process requiresin Northern expert Mozambique. input and validation, Moreover, and the abundance affect coral cover for an ecosystem assessment in is typically uniqueof algae to ineach the coralecosystem.McClanahan reefs could be an indicator of the Meso-Americanin the Meso reef.-American These could reef. be These relevant could for be relevant for the districts of interest, and perhaps for the Westernand Muthiga (2017)the state could of becorals, an excellentbecause sourcea too high to proportion of the districts of interest, and perhaps for the Western determine the relativealgae relative severity to andcorals extent increases of impact, the vulnerability of Indian OceanIndian reefs. Ocean They are,reefs. sea-surface They are, temperature,sea-surface temperature, based on biomasscorals data to that bleaching. was collected However, in Northern district level data on the ocean acidification,ocean acidification, hurricane frequency/intensity,hurricane frequency/intensity, and and pollution. For the purposes of this assessment,Mozambique. we could Moreover,equilibrium the betweenabundance corals of algae and algaein the could not be pollution. For the purposes of this assessment, we could coral reefs could be an indicator of the state of corals, not gather adequate data, therefore criterion C was gathered. Criterion D was evaluated Data Deficient not gather adequate data, therefore criterion C was Data because a too high proportion of algae relative to Data Deficient (DD). (DD). Deficient (DD). corals increases the vulnerability of corals to bleaching. 3.1.3.4.4. 3.1.3.4.4.Criterion DCriterion D However, district3.1.3.5. level data on theConclusion equilibrium between corals and algae could not begathered. Criterion D was Coral are not present in Dondo district. Restricted Similar to criterionSimilar toC, criterion there are C, thereindicators are indicatorslinked to linkedevaluated to Data Deficient (DD). geographical distribution of coral and continuous fishing effortfishing (CPUE), effort as (CPUE),well as species as well richnessas species in therichness in the coral ecosystems which would help understand the level decline in coral cover quality, and fish stocks reliant on coral ecosystems which would help understand the of degradation in biotic functions and processes. coral habitats categorized this ecosystem as Critically level of degradation in biotic functions and processes. Endangered (CR) under criterion B1b. Criterion B2b However, the required data could not be obtained 50 was assessed as Endangered. The overall risk status of in time, and this criterion was not evaluated. The the ecosystem is assigned as the highest category of most complex aspect to evaluate criterion D will be risk obtained through any criterion (B1b). Corals in the identifying the collapse threshold, i.e. the point at which studied districts are therefore Critically Endangered the coral ecosystem has lost its characteristic biota or (CR) (Table 8). 56 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

3.1.3.5. Conclusion was assessed as Endangered. The overall risk status of the ecosystem is assigned as the highest category of Coral are not present in Dondo district. Restricted risk obtained through any criterion (B1b). Corals in the geographical distribution of coral and continuous studied districts are therefore Critically Endangered (CR) decline in coral cover quality, and fish stocks reliant on (Table 8). coral habitats categorized this ecosystem as Critically

Endangered (CR) under criterion B1b. Criterion B2b

Table 8 RLE assessment summary for coral ecosystem (criteria with the highest risk category in brackets)

Study Site Criterion A B C D E Overall Memba subcriterion 1 DD CR DD DD NE CR (B1b) subcriterion 2 DD EN DD DD - subcriterion 3 DD DD DD DD - Inhassoro & Bazaruto subcriterion 1 DD CR DD DD NE CR (B1b) subcriterion 2 DD EN DD DD - subcriterion 3 DD DD DD DD -

3.1.4. Seagrass beds Halodule wrightii, but Thalassia hemrichii also occurs mixed with species like Gracilaria salicornia, Halimeda Seagrasses generally occur in mixed seagrass stands, 3.1.4. Seagrass beds spp and Laurencia papillosa, and Thalassodendron 3.1.4.1. Classification especially in intertidal areas, but can occur in pure stands, 3.1.4.1. Classification like the ciliatumZ. capensis mixes ones with in Sargassum the south ofspp. Mozambique H. wrightii also IUCN Habitats Classification Scheme (Version 3.1) is a fomrs mixed beds with Z. capensis. IUCNglobal Habitats typol Classificationogy of habitat Scheme types. (Version The IUCN 3.1) Habitatsis a (Green and Short 2003). The composition of the seagrass global typology of habitat types. The IUCN Habitats communities- On thedepends sandy onsubstrates the substrata. further From south north the coast to of Classification Scheme is composed by three hierarchic south, theMozambique, coastline of mixedMozambique seagrass changes communities from rocky are formed Classificationlevels describing Scheme 18is composedhabitats. Seagrass by three ecosystemshierarchic are levels describing 18 habitats. Seagrass ecosystems are limestoneby (untilThalassia the Zambezi hemprichii, province) Halodule to estuarinewrightii, Z. (for capensis, classified as Habitat 9.9: 9. Marine Neritic, 9.9 Seagrass classified as Habitat 9.9: 9. Marine Neritic, 9.9 Seagrass 500 kmThalassondendron between the Zambezi ciliatum and andthe C.Save serrulata rivers), (Bandeira to (Submerged). (Submerged). sandy (Green1995). and Short 2003). 3.1.4.2.3.1.4.2. Ecosystem Ecosystem description description - In theSeagrass northern beds part arofe importantMozambique, as nursery on limestone, nesting and areas,foraging seagrasses sites tend for tomany occur species, with seaweed and they species act as shelter 3.1.4.2.1.3.1.4.2.1. Characteristic Characteristi nativec biotanative biota (Bandeirafor juveniles and António animals 1996). (Harlin Here, 1980; the most Larkum, common McComb, community is composed by Thalassia hemprichii and Seagrasses are marine angiosperms, monocotyledons and Shepherd 1989). They support a great biodiversity Seagrasses are marine angiosperms, monocotyledons Halodule wrightii, but Thalassia hemrichii also occurs that are adapted to live permanently submerged in of marine vertebrates and invertebrates, and they that are adapted to live permanently submerged in mixed with species like Gracilaria salicornia, Halimeda seawater (Hartog and Kuo 2006). increase the biodiversity of plants, animals, fungi etc. seawater (Hartog and Kuo 2006). spp and Laurencia papillosa, and Thalassodendron in the areas where they occur (Oshima, J. Kishi, and Along the coast of Mozambique, 14 species of seagrass ciliatum mixes with Sargassum spp. H. wrightii also Along the coast of Mozambique, 14 species of Sugimoto 1999; Rindi et al. 1999). Marine turtles are have been reported (Table 9, Bandeira and Björk 2001; fomrs mixed beds with Z. capensis. seagrass have been reported (Table 9, Bandeira and present and have nesting sites along the coast of Duarte, Bandeira, and Romeiras 2012), one of which, - On the sandy substrates further south the coast of ZosteraBjörk capensis, 2001; D isuarte, listed Bandeira,as vulnerable and (Bandeira Romeiras 2014). 2012), Memba and Inhassoro districts and of Bazaruto island, one of which, Zostera capensis, is listed as vulnerable Mozambique,and dugongs mixed (Dugong seagrass dugon)communities are found are formed in the last two. Thalassodendron ciliatum and Thalassia hemprichii are by Thalassia hemprichii, Halodule wrightii, Z. capensis, (Bandeira 2014). Thalassodendron ciliatum and Thalassia Five marine turtles species are found along the coast the dominant subtidal seagrass species in Mozambique. Thalassondendron ciliatum and C. serrulata (Bandeira hemprichii are the dominant subtidal seagrass species of the districts of interest (and along all Mozambican Some species occur only in northern coast of Mozambique 1995). (seeTablein Mozambique. 9), while some Some species species are occur pioneer only species: in northern coast): the green turtle (Chelonia mydas), (2004) the Halophilacoast ovalisof Mozambique and Halodule (seeT wrightiiable 9), act while as somepioneer species Seagrass olive beds ridley are turtleimportant (Lepidochelys as nursery, olivacea) nesting (2008), and the in exposedare pioneer sandy species: areas, while Halophila Cymodocea ovalis and serrulata Halodule in foragingloggerhead sites for many turtle species, (Caretta and car theyetta) act (2017), as shelter the hawksbill for juveniles animals (Harlin 1980; Larkum, McComb, and siltedwrightii channels act (Green as pioneer and Short in exposed 2003). sandy areas, while turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) (2008) and leatherback Shepherd 1989). They support a great biodiversity of Cymodocea serrulata in silted channels (Green and turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) (2013) (Costa et al. marine vertebrates and invertebrates, and they increase Short 2003). the biodiversity2007). These of plants, species animals, are listedfungi etc.as either in the endangered areas Seagrasses generally occur in mixed seagrass stands, or critically endangered by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN 2004, 2008, 2013, 2017). The especially in intertidal areas, but can occur in pure 51 stands, like the Z. capensis ones in the south of green, olive ridley and hawksbill turtles have nesting Mozambique (Green and Short 2003). The composition site along the coast of Memba, while the five species of the seagrass communities depends on the substrata. excluding the olive ridley turtle are known to nest in the From north to south, the coastline of Mozambique coastal area of Inhassoro & Bazaruto (Costa et al. 2007; changes from rocky limestone (until the Zambezi Everett and Schleyer 2008). This area is also one of the province) to estuarine (for 500 km between the Zambezi few where dugongs are found. Dugongs are herbivorous and the Save rivers), to sandy (Green and Short 2003). marine mammals and they feed on seagrass. They are seagrass community specialists and their range is limited - In the northern part of Mozambique, on limestone to the distribution of seagrasses. Dugongs are listed as areas, seagrasses tend to occur with seaweed species Vulnerable by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (Bandeira and António 1996). Here, the most common (IUCN 2015). community is composed by Thalassia hemprichii and

57 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

where they occur (Oshima, J. Kishi, and Sugimoto 1999; the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN 2004, Rindi et al. 1999). Marine turtles are present and have 2008, 2013, 2017). The green, olive ridley and hawksbill nesting sites along the coast of Memba and Inhassoro turtles have nesting site along the coast of Memba, while districts and of Bazaruto island, and dugongs (Dugong the five species excluding the olive ridley turtle are known dugon) are found in the last two. Five marine turtles to nest in the coastal area of Inhassoro & Bazaruto (Costa species are found along the coast of the districts of et al. 2007; Everett and Schleyer 2008). This area is also

interest (and along all Mozambican coast): the green one of the few where dugongs are found. Dugongs are turtle (Chelonia mydas), (2004) the olive ridley turtle herbivorous marine mammals and they feed on seagrass. (Lepidochelys olivacea) (2008), the loggerhead turtle They are seagrass community specialists and their range (Caretta caretta) (2017), the hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys is limited to the distribution of seagrasses. Dugongs are imbricata) (2008) and leatherback turtle (Dermochelys listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN Red List of Threatened coriacea) (2013) (Costa et al. 2007). These species are Species (IUCN 2015). listed as either endangered or critically endangered by

Table 9 Seagrass species along the coast of Memba, Inhassoro & Bazaruto.

Families Species Distribution Conservation Status Cymodoceaceae Cymodocea rotundata All along the coast LC Stable Cymodocea serrulata LC Stable Halodule uninervis LC Stable Halodule wrightii LC increasing Syringodium isoetifolium LC Stable Thalassodendron ciliatum LC Uknown Thalassodendron leptocaule Hydrocheritaceae Enhalus acoroides Mostly north (until Memba LC Decreasing district included) Halophila minor Mostly north LC Halophila ovalis All along the coast LC Halophila stipulacea Mostly north LC Stable Thalassia hemprichii All along the coast LC Stable Zosteraceae Zostera capensis All along the coast Vulnerable

Seagrasses often occur in close connection with coral Chiscano 1999); they play an important role in nutrient Seagrasses often occur in close connection with coral reefs and mangroves, and the state of each ecosystem 3.1.3.5.1.retention and recycling,Abiotic they envir reduceonment bacterial pathogens reefs and mangroves, and the state of each ecosystem is important for the other two. These three ecosystems and ocean acidification (Unsworth et al. 2012). Seagrasses is important for the other two. These three ecosystems Seagrasses need light to photosynthesize. Generally, work as a single system that keeps coastal zones healthy. trap nutrients (Gacia, Granata, and Duarte 1999) and work as a single system that keeps coastal zones they require an underwater irradiance in excess of 11% While mangroves trap sediments and pollutants that promote their recycling, as seagrass decomposition is healthy. While mangroves trap sediments and pollutants of that incident in the water surface for growth. This would otherwise flow out to sea, seagrasses provide a quite high (Newell et al. 1984; Ochieng and Erftemeijer that would otherwise flow out to sea, seagrasses usually sets their depth limit. They are distributed from furtherprovide barrier a further to siltbarrier and tomud silt thatand mudcould that suffocate could coral the1999). intertidal Moreover, zone toseagrasses 40 m depth, act depending as important on water trophic reefs.suffocate Coral coral reefs, reefs. in turn, Coral help reefs, protecting in turn, helpthe seagrasses protecting clarity.links with The other upslope ecosystems, limit of seagrasses exporting ison determined average 24.3% andthe seagrassesthe mangroves and form the mangr strongoves ocean form waves. strong ocean byof theirtheir neednet productionof sufficient toimmersion adjacent in land seawater and , seawardor Seagrasswaves. beds constitute important carbon storage tolerableecosystems disturbance (C. M. Duarte by waves. and Seagrasses Cebrián 1996; often Menzies, occur (being responsible for about 15% of the carbon storage inZaneveld, intertidal andzone Prattwhere 1967;they ar Ochienge more protected and Erftemeijer from Seagrass beds constitute important carbon storage 1999). in(being the ocean;responsible Duarte for abou and t Cebrián15% of the 1996, carbon Duarte and current and waves. Moreover, seagrasses require salinity storage in the ocean; Duarte and Cebrián 1996, Duarte in excess of 5‰ to develop and most of them a sandy and Chiscano 1999); they play an important role in 52to muddy sediment to grow, with organic contents <6% nutrient retention and recycling, they reduce bacterial of the dry weight, sulphide concentrations <300 μM and redox potentials >-100 mV (Terrados et al. 1999; pathogens and ocean acidification (Unsworth et al. 2012). Seagrasses trap nutrients (Gacia, Granata, and Hemminga & Duarte 2000; Koch 2001). Other than sandy and estuarine substrata, seagrasses can occur or Duarte 1999) and promote their recycling, as seagrass rocky limestone substratum as well (Green and Short decomposition is quite high (Newell et al. 1984; 2003). Ochieng and Erftemeijer 1999). Moreover, seagrasses act as important trophic links with other ecosystems, 3.1.3.5.2. Distribution exporting on average 24.3% of their net production to adjacent land and seaward ecosystems (C. M. Duarte Among the three districts considered in this assessment, and Cebrián 1996; Menzies, Zaneveld, and Pratt 1967; seagrasses are found only along the coast of Memba Ochieng and Erftemeijer 1999). and Inhassoro districts, including the coasts of Bazaruto

58 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

3.1.3.5.1. Abiotic environment covering a total surface area of 43’900 ha in Mozambique (Bandeira and Gell 2003), with 2’500 ha at Inhassoro & Seagrasses need light to photosynthesize. Generally, Bazaruto Island, 3’000 ha at Mecufi-Pemba and 4’500 they require an underwater irradiance in excess of 11% ha in the southern Quirimbas Archipelago (Bandeira and of that incident in the water surface for growth. This Gell 2003). Seagrasses were reported to cover half of usually sets their depth limit. They are distributed from the intertidal area around Inhaca Island (Bandeira 2002). the intertidal zone to 40 m depth, depending on water Most are entirely marine and submerged, although some clarity. The upslope limit of seagrasses is determined species (such as E. acoroides) cannot reproduce unless by their need of sufficient immersion in seawater, or emergent at low tide (Short, Coles, and Pergent-Martini tolerable disturbance by waves. Seagrasses often occur 2001). Mozambique is included in the Tropical Indo- in intertidal zone where they are more protected from Pacific bioregion defined by Short et al. (2007), which is current and waves. Moreover, seagrasses require salinity the region with the largest number of seagrass species in excess of 5‰ to develop and most of them a sandy worldwide and a high species diversity of associated flora to muddy sediment to grow, with organic contents <6% and fauna. Seagrasses’ distribution in depth depends of the dry weight, sulphide concentrations <300 μM on the availability of light for photosynthesis. In clear and redox potentials >-100 mV (Terrados et al. 1999; tropical waters, seagrass meadows can be found at up Hemminga & Duarte 2000; Koch 2001). Other than sandy to 61 meters below sea surface. At the shallow edge, and estuarine substrata, seagrasses can occur or rocky exposure (and associated high temperatures and drying limestone substratum as well (Green and Short 2003). at low tide), wave action and associated turbidity, low 3.1.3.5.2. Distribution salinity from fresh water inflow determine seagrasses’ survival. In the inter-tidal zone, seagrass meadows are Among the three districts considered in this assessment, more common in sites that are protected from exposure, seagrasses are found only along the coast of Memba where they are sheltered from wave action or where and Inhassoro districts, including the coasts of Bazaruto there is entrapment of water at low tide. archipelago, while they do not occur along the coast of Dondo (Figure 30). Seagrasses are found from the intertidal zone down to about 40 m. Up to 2003 seagrasses were

archipelago, while they do not occur along the coast region with the largest number of seagrass species of Dondo (Figure 30). Seagrasses are found from worldwide and a high species diversity of associated the intertidal zone down to about 40 m. Up to 2003 flora and fauna. Seagrasses’ distribution in depth seagrasses were covering a total surface area of 43’900 depends on the availability of light for photosynthesis. ha in Mozambique (Bandeira and Gell 2003), with In clear tropical waters, seagrass meadows can be 2’500 ha at Inhassoro & Bazaruto Island, 3’000 ha at found at up to 61 meters below sea surface. At Mecufi-Pemba and 4’500 ha in the southern Quirimbas the shallow edge, exposure (and associated high Archipelago (Bandeira and Gell 2003). Seagrasses temperatures and drying at low tide), wave action and were reported to cover half of the intertidal area associated turbidity, low salinity from fresh water inflow around Inhaca Island (Bandeira 2002). Most are entirely determine seagrasses’ survival. In the inter-tidal zone, marine and submerged, although some species (such seagrass meadows are more common in sites that are as E. acoroides) cannot reproduce unless emergent protected from exposure, where they are sheltered at low tide (Short, Coles, and Pergent-Martini 2001). from wave action or where there is entrapment of water MozambiqueCoastal Resilience is included to in Climatethe Tropical Change Indo -Baseline;Pacific Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment bioregion defined by Short et al. (2007), which is the at low tide.

Figure 30 Seagrass distribution along the coast of a) Memba (a), and b) Inhassoro and Bazaruto.

3.1.3.5.3. Key processes and interactions the water through their leaves). Furthermore, their roots (conceptual model) stabilize the sediment, which in turns improves water clarity and quality, reduces erosion and buffers coastlines Seagrasses support a high biodiversity. Of particular against storms. Various effects of climate change impact importance for the 2 districts of Mozambique (Memba seagrasses negatively. Usually seagrasses can recover and Inhassoro & Bazaruto) is the diversity of fish and after natural disasters such as floods, cyclones and invertebrates that find shelter or grow on seagrass beds storms (Bandeira and Gell 2003). However, the frequency 59 (Figure 31). The accumulation of smaller organisms and of these natural disasters is increasing, and this might not the seagrasses themselves attract bigger herbivorous give enough time to an affected meadow of seagrass to and piscivorous species. Among these, the endangered recover. dugong feeds on seagrasses around Bazaruto, and this seems to be one of the most important population of Increased water and air temperature might also affect dugongs remaining in the world. Marine turtles including the extension of seagrasses. Seagrasses adapt quite the critically endangered hawksbill turtle have nesting well to a changing environment, they adapt their habitat sites around Bazaruto and along the coast of Memba. colonizing new suitable area. However, if changes Seagrasses are also known as the lungs of the sea, happen too quickly, this might not give enough time to because of the high amount of oxygen that they generate seagrasses to colonize new suitable habitats. Humans every day through photosynthesis. can also have a direct impact on seagrasses. Through coastal development, for example, human activity alters Moreover, seagrasses equilibrate the amount of nutrients the flow, content and clarity of water. Seagrasses needs in the water: seagrass leaves absorb nutrients, capture light to grow, therefore activities that cause a limitation sand, dirt and silt particles, and in nutrient poor regions of irradiance negatively impact seagrasses (for example seagrasses act as nutrient pump, helping nutrient cycling through sedimentation). (taking up nutrients from the soil and releasing them into

3.1.3.5.3. Key processes and interactions releasing them into the water through their leaves). Furthermore, their roots stabilize the sediment, which (conceptual model) in turns improves water clarity and quality, reduces Seagrasses support a high biodiversity. Of particular erosion and buffers coastlines against storms. Various importance for the 2 districts of Mozambique (Memba effects of climate change impact seagrasses negatively. and Inhassoro & Bazaruto) is the diversity of fish and Usually seagrasses can recover after natural disasters invertebrates that find shelter or grow on seagrass beds such as floods, cyclones and storms (Bandeira and (Figure 31). The accumulation of smaller organisms and Gell 2003). However, the frequency of these natural the seagrasses themselves attract bigger herbivorous disasters is increasing, and this might not give enough and piscivorous species. Among these, the endangered time to an affected meadow of seagrass to recover. dugong feeds on seagrasses around Bazaruto, and Increased water and air temperature might also affect this seems to be one of the most important population the extension of seagrasses. Seagrasses adapt quite of dugongs remaining in the world. Marine turtles well to a changing environment, they adapt their habitat including the critically endangered hawksbill turtle colonizing new suitable area. However, if changes have nesting sites around Bazaruto and along the coast happen too quickly, this might not give enough time to of Memba. Seagrasses are also known as the lungs seagrasses to colonize new suitable habitats. Humans of the sea, because of the high amount of oxygen can also have a direct impact on seagrasses. Through that they generate every day through photosynthesis. coastal development, for example, human activity alters Moreover, seagrasses equilibrate the amount of the flow, content and clarity of water. Seagrasses needs light to grow, therefore activities that cause a limitation nutrientsCoastal in the water:Resilience seagrass to Climate leaves absorbChange nutrients, Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment capture sand, dirt and silt particles, and in nutrient of irradiance negatively impact seagrasses (for example poor regions seagrasses act as nutrient pump, helping through sedimentation). nutrient cycling (taking up nutrients from the soil and

Figure 31 Conceptual model of the seagrass of Memba, Inhassoro and Bazaruto. 1alteration water, mining, gas/oil extraction, tourism, plastic marine pollution.

60 3.1.3.5.4. Threatening processes Fish catch data show a steadily decrease of landings. Fishermen report species that no longer show up in their Local consultations identified fishing as one of the nets and the overall size of catch is declining. possible causes of seagrasses degradation in Memba. However, fishing would mainly affect seagrasses close to The overall of artisanal catch has been estimated to the coast, while widespread loss of seagrass meadows have declined nearly 30% since 25 years ago (Rare has been observed also far from the coast. A disease Mozambique n.d.). According to Rare, the growth of affecting seagrasses, like the wasting disease observed human population and the decline in fish supply will in Florida (Robblee et al. 1991), might be the cause of result in a 70% decrease in protein availability by 2030 as this loss, but additional research is needed to confirm compared to 1995, when fish supply peaked. In the next this hypothesis. In Inhassoro the main threats are 15 years it is estimated a 1.8 million-ton food gap. tourism, mining activities, gas and oil extraction, plastic marine pollution and fishing. Indeed, tourism and coastal 3.1.3.6. Assessment of ecosystem risk of development are quite intense in Inhassoro. In Memba, collapse coastal development and tourism are less intense. 3.1.3.6.1. Criterion A Mozambique’s coastline sustains an economy and people Seagrasses are declining in Mozambique. Despite the dependent on fisheries for jobs and proteins. It also unavailability of precise data, a decrease from 7 Km to contains amazing biodiversity, classified by many experts 200 m along the coast of Inhassoro has been reported as the second most biodiverse spot in the world after the by local communities. Other sources report a loss of 40% coral triangle. Unfortunately, overfishing and destructive of the area of seagrass in Inhassoro & Bazaruto (Bandeira fishing techniques have contributed to declining fish and Gell 2003). catches and degraded ecosystems.

55 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Historical data on seagrass distribution are not available, polygon enclosing all ecosystem occurrences in Memba and predictions on the future distribution of seagrass has an area of 1’984 Km2, while in Inhassoro & Bazaruto is in the districts considered in this assessment are not of 1’230 Km2 (Table 10 and Figure 32). The AOO is 19 for possible. As for the coral reef data, although some Memba and 9 for Inhassoro and Bazaruto (Table 10 and spatial data from past years could be gathered thanks to Figure 32). In both Memba and Inhassoro & Bazaruto, the remote sensing, these could not be used because of their seagrass beds at the edge district formed a continuous quality. Identifying seagrasses distribution (and marine meadow that exceed the administrative border. In order ecosystems in general) through remote sensing is very to remain consistent with the administrative border, the challenging, and the techniques to obtain high quality ecosystem had to be cut at the border. This adjustment data through remote sensing are improving. However, it to the district border, however, does not influence the is not yet possible to achieve a high enough certainty conclusions for criterion B1. Criterion B2 would have not to consider the data valid for the assessment. Therefore, been affected by an extended area of the ecosystem Criterion A cannot be assessed for seagrass ecosystems outside the administrative border either. in Memba, Inhassoro & Bazaruto. Criterion A and its sub- Seagrass experts and local people have identified a criteria are Data Deficient (DD). continuous decline in seagrass distribution in Inhassoro, 3.1.3.6.2. Criterion B as well as a decline in the amount of fish they can find in seagrass habitat; corals’ productivity is also declining. Seagrass ecosystems were evaluated under criterion Moreover, in Memba and Inhassoro the use of fishing B, in all three locations considered for this assessment. techniques that are harmful to seagrass has been In order to achieve this, the distribution of seagrasses reported (information from locals, experts, and Bandeira produced by the ROAM team was used. The distribution and Gell 2003). The fishing effort has been of seagrass used here is obtained through the analysis of Landsat image with a 30 m resolution, from 2017. increasing over the years, and there has not been any indications of intents to reduce it. Additionally, coastal This data was also improved with GPS data gathered development and mining is currently happening along during the validation workshop. The extent of the the coast of Inhassoro, altering the environmental quality minimum convex polygon enclosing all occurrences (EOO) appropriate to the ecosystem. was calculated following the IUCN RLE Guidelines v1.1, as well as the area of occupancy (AOO), using the 10x10 Km grid (IUCN 2017). The grid cells occupied by at least 1% of the ecosystem were counted. The minimum convex

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Figure 32 - Representation of the EOO and AOO for the seagrass of Memba, Inhassoro & Bazaruto.

We can conclude that there is a continuous decline of therefore solutions need to be taken if it’s continuous seagrasses in Memba, Inhassoro & Bazaruto, as well reduction (and eventual disappearance) want to be We canas conclude a continuous that decline there ofis thea continuous environmental decline quality of allowsavoided. for Conducting specific informationan assessment on at the the district local level threats to seagrassesappropriate in Memba, to the characteristicInhassoro & biota Bazaruto, of seagrasses. as well ecosystems,allows for specific but it is information more challenging on the local to gatherthreats district-to as a continuousThis is due todecline the incr ofease the of environmentalthe disruption of quality the biotic levelecosystems, spatial data. but it isExtending more challenging the assessment to gather district at the- appropriateinteractions to the appropriate characteristic to seagrass biota andof seagrasses.of threatening nationallevel spatial (or international) data. Extending level, the wouldassessmen allowt at to the consider

This is dueprocesses to the to increase seagrass of distribution. the disruption For both of the Memba biotic and thenational ecosystem (or international) as a whole level,(ecosystems would allow are notto consider restricted interactionsInhassor appropriateo & Bazaruto, to seagrassthe EOO isand lower of thanthreatening 2’000 km2. by theadministrative ecosystem as aboundaries), whole (ecosystems and the are notresult restricted of the Therefore, for criterion B1b the ecosystem is assessed as by administrative boundaries), and the result of the processes to seagrass distribution. For both Memba and assessment could be different. Indeed, even though the Critically Endangered (CR). For both districts, the AOO assessment could be different. Indeed, even though the Inhassorois lower & Bazaruto, than 20, therefore,the EOO theis lower ecosystem than 2’000is assessed km2. as ecosystemecosystem is isprobably probably threatened threatened all along the the coast, coast, its

Therefore,Endangered for criterion (EN) B1b under the criterion ecosystem B2b. is assessed as areaits ofarea extension of extension is probably is probably higher. higher. The The outcome outcome might Critically Endangered (CR). For both districts, the AOO therefore be less dramatic. The ecosystem is assessed as Critically Endangered (CR) might therefore be less dramatic. is lower than 20, therefore, the ecosystem is assessed as for criterion B in the districts of Memba, Inhassoro & Endangered (EN) under criterion B2b. Bazaruto. This conclusion needs to take in consideration Table 10 Extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of information needed to assess criterion D. Moreover, the The ecosystemthat the assessment is assessed is as conducted Critically atEndangered the district level, (CR) occupancy (AOO) of the seagrass beds in Memba, occurrence of a disease affecting seagrasses, such as and the area of assessment is small per se. Considering for criterion B in the districts of Memba, Inhassoro & Inhassor and Bazaruto. the wasting disease that caused massive seagrass loss in the ecosystem at the district level, can be a limitation, Bazaruto. This conclusion needs to take in consideration Florida, might be causing the disappearance of seagrass because the area of the assessment is relatively small. that the assessment is conducted at the district level, beds far from the coast. Available information on However, the ecosystem at the district level is declining, Memba Dondo Inhassoro & and the area of assessment is small per se. Considering possible threats to seagrasses and their quantification the ecosystem at the district level, can be a limitation, Bazaruto has been reviewed, but more information is required to because the area of the assessment is relatively small. EOO 1’984 - 1’230 determine their risk status. Specific data at the district level could not be gathered, therefore criterion D results [km2] However, the ecosystem at the district level is declining, data deficient (DD). therefore solutions need to be taken if it’s continuous AOO 19 - 9 reduction (and eventual disappearance) want to be 3.1.3.7. Conclusion avoided. Conducting an assessment at the district level Seagrass beds are not present in Dondo district. 62 Restricted geographical distribution and inferred 57 threatening processes, such as continuous decline in 3.1.3.6.3. Criterion C seagrass cover and continuous disruption of biotic Several abiotic processes threaten seagrass distribution. interactions influencing processes that drive seagrass The most important ones for the seagrass of Memba, distribution, categorized seagrass beds as Critically Inhassoro & Bazaruto are salinity, sea-surface Endangered (CR) in the other two districts (Table 11). temperature, nutrient content, cyclones, floods and Seagrasses are assessed as Critically endangered for storms. Data on the values or frequency of these abiotic criterion B1b, and Endangered for criteria B2b, in both processes could not be gathered at the district level. district (Memba and Inhassoro & Bazaruto). The overall Gas and oil extraction on the coast Inhassoro can affect risk status of the ecosystem is assigned as the highest seagrasses because they alter the water, but the impact category of risk obtained through any criterion (B1b). of these activities could not be quantified at the district The seagrass beds in the studied districts are therefore level. Although an attempt to gather adequate data was Critically Endangered (CR) (Table 11). made, this were not available. Criterion C is therefore The reader needs to keep in mind that this assessment data deficient (DD). is conducted at the district level. Although a continuous 3.1.3.6.4. Criterion D decline in seagrasses was identified by local experts, The increase of fishing effort and the use of harmful the small scale at which the assessment was conducted fishing technique (e.g. beach seine) are partially might influence the result for criterion B, which is threatening seagrasses. However, district-specific strongly affected by the scale. An assessment on data could not be gathered, and these factors would seagrasses at the national level would clarify the not explain the decline of seagrass observed far from condition of this ecosystem in Mozambique. This issue the coast. An estimation of the collapse threshold is explained in more detail at the end of the assessment of seagrasses due to the disruption of the biotic for criterion B. environment is also missing. Consultations with experts and locals could help in gathering the missing

Table 11 RLE assessment summary for seagrass beds ecosystem (criteria with highest risk category in brackets)

TableCoastal 10 Extent Resilience of occurrence to (EOO) Climate and area Change of Baseline; Coastalinformation and Marine needed Ecosystems to assess criterion Restoration D. Moreover, Assessment the occupancy (AOO) of the seagrass beds in Memba, occurrence of a disease affecting seagrasses, such as Inhassor and Bazaruto. the wasting disease that caused massive seagrass loss in Florida, might be causing the disappearance of seagrass Memba Dondo Inhassoro & bedsinformation far from theis requiredcoast. Available to determine information their on risk status. 3.1.3.6.3. Criterion C possible threats to seagrasses and their quantification Bazaruto hasSpecific been reviewedata atd, the but districtmore information level could is requirednot be gathered,to Several abiotic processes threaten seagrass distribution. therefore criterion D results data deficient (DD). The mostEOO important1’984 ones -for the seagrass1’230 of Memba, determine their risk status. Specific data at the district level could not be gathered, therefore criterion D results Inhassoro[km2] & Bazaruto are salinity, sea-surface temperature, 3.1.3.7. Conclusion nutrient content, cyclones, floods and storms. Data on data deficient (DD). Seagrass beds are not present in Dondo district. the valuesAOO or frequency19 of these- abiotic9 processes could 3.1.3.7.Restricted Conclusion geographical distribution and inferred not be gathered at the district level. Seagrassthreatening beds processes, are not present such in asDondo continuous district. decline in Gas and oil extraction on the coast Inhassoro can affect Restricteseagrassd geographicalcover and distributioncontinuous and disruption inferred of biotic seagrasses because they alter the water, but the impact threateninginteractions pr ocesses, influencing such as processes continuous declinethat drive in seagrass 3.1.3.6.3. Criterion C seagrass cover and continuous disruption of biotic of these activities could not be quantified at the district distribution, categorized seagrass beds as Critically Several abiotic processes threaten seagrass distribution. interactions influencing processes that drive seagrass level. Although an attempt to gather adequate data was Endangered (CR) in the other two districts (Table 11). The most important ones for the seagrass of Memba, distribution, categorized seagrass beds as Critically made,Inhassor this wereo & Bazaruto not available. are salinity, Criterion sea-surface C is therefore EnSeagrassesdangered (CR) are inassessed the other twoas Criticallydistricts (T ableendangered 11). for datatemperature, deficient (DD). nutrient content, cyclones, floods and Seagrassescriterion B1b, are assessedand Endangered as Critically for endangered criteria B2b, for in both storms. Data on the values or frequency of these abiotic criteriondistrict B1b,(Memba and Endangeredand Inhassoro for criteria& Bazaruto). B2b, in Theboth overall 3.1.3.6.4.processes couldCriterion not be Dgathered at the district level. districtrisk status (Memba of andthe Inhassorecosystemo & Bazaruto).is assigned The as overall the highest The Gasincrease and oilof extractionfishing effort on the and coast the Inhassoruse of harmfulo can affishingfect riskcategory status ofof the risk ecosystem obtained is assignethroughd asany the criterion highest (B1b). techniqueseagrasses (e.g. because beach theyseine) alter are the partiallywater, but threatening the impact categoryThe seagrass of risk bedsobtained in thethrough studied any criteriondistricts (B1b). are therefore seagrasses.of these activities However, could district-specific not be quantified dataat the districtcould not TheCritically seagrass Endangered beds in the (CR) studied (Table districts 11). are therefore level. Although an attempt to gather adequate data was Critically Endangered (CR) (Table 11). be gathered, and these factors would not explain the The reader needs to keep in mind that this assessment declinemade, of this seagrass were not observed available. farCriterion from Cthe is therefore coast. An The reader needs to keep in mind that this assessment data deficient (DD). is conducted at the district level. Although a continuous is conducted at the district level. Although a continuous estimation of the collapse threshold of seagrasses decline in seagrasses was identified by local experts, decline in seagrasses was identified by local experts, due 3.1.3.6.4.to the disruption Criterion of the Dbiotic environment is also the small scale at which the assessment was conducted The increase of fishing effort and the use of harmful the small scale at which the assessment was conducted missing. Consultations with experts and locals could might influence the result for criterion B, which is strongly helpfishing in gathering technique the (e.g. missing beach seine) information are partially needed to might influence the result for criterion B, which is threatening seagrasses. However, district-specific stronglyaffected af fectedby the by scale. the scale. An assessmentAn assessment on on seagrasses at assessdata criterion could not D. beMoreover, gathered, the and occurrence these factors of awould disease the national level would clarify the condition of this affecting seagrasses, such as the wasting disease that seagrasses at the national level would clarify the not explain the decline of seagrass observed far from conditionecosystem of this in ecosystemMozambique. in Mozambique. This issue Thisis explained issue in caused massive seagrass loss in Florida, might be causing the coast. An estimation of the collapse threshold ismore explained detail in at more the detailend of at the the assessmentend of the assessment for criterion B. the disappearanceof seagrasses due of toseagrass the disruption beds offar the from biotic the coast. for criterion B. Availableenvironment information is also missing.on possible Consultations threats to with seagrasses and experts their quantification and locals could helphas in beengathering reviewed, the missing but more

Table 11 RLE assessment summary for seagrass beds ecosystem (criteria with highest risk category in brackets)

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

3.2. Mapping trends of coastal and ma- mangrove forests in the coastlines of Mozambique was carried out by the WWF (WWF Deutschland 2018a). Specifically, 3.2. Mapping trends of coastal and marine carried out by the WWF (WWF Deutschland 2018a). rine ecosystems the assessment In this section, we present the baseline scenario of Specifically, the assessment was based on the analysis ecosystems was based on the analysis of high resolution optical the various land use categories in the study area. of high resolution optical imagery to document the SpecificallyIn this section,, here wewe presenthighlight the the baseline output fromscenario available of the changesimagery tofrom document 1995 to the 2018. changes In particular,from 1995 Landsatto 2018. mappingvarious exercisingland use categories and scientific in the literature.study area. An Specifically, ThematicIn particular, Mapper Landsat (TM), Thematic Enhanced Mapper Thematic (TM), EnhancedMapper understandinghere we highlight of the thebaseline output scenarios from available was important mapping (ETM)Thematic and OpticalMapper Land(ETM) Imager and Optical (OLI) provided Land Imager the long in exercisingidentifying and the scientificspatial data literature. needs andAn understandingin choosing of term(OLI) change provided mapping the long at 30m term resolution change mappingwhile Sentinel-2 at 30m appropriatethe baseline processes scenarios that was can important augment in existingidentifying the dataresolution was used while mapping Sentinel at-2 10m data resolution was used in mapping the years at spatial data needs and in choosing appropriate processes methods. after10m 2015. resolution in the years after 2015. that can augment existing methods. i. Baseline analysis of mangrove forests FromFrom thethe rresultsesults ofof these these image image analysis, analysis, there there was was significantsignificant declinedecline inin thethe ccoverageoverage of mangrovemangrove forestsforests Mozi. ambique Baseline boasts analysis of the of largest mangrove tract of forests mangrove inin the the period period between between 1994 1994 and and 2008. 2008. The The most most drastic drastic forMozambiqueests in Africa, boasts hosting of approximately the largest tract 300,000 of mangrove hectares decline were recorded in the shorelines around Maputo forests in Africa, hosting approximately 300,000 hectares decline were recorded in the shorelines around Maputo of mangrove forest. The most extensive and recent bay.bay. In In the the periodperiod fromfrom 20082008 toto 2015,2015, aa positivepositive trendtrend evaluationof mangrove of the forest. changes The in most geographic extensive distribution and recent was recorded in most of the provinces. evaluation of the changes in geographic distribution was recorded in most of the provinces. mangrove forests in the coastlines of Mozambique was

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Commonly, mangroves forests are cleared to make room agricultural land, such as small scale cassava farms. forCommonly, agricultural mangroves land, human forests settlements are cleared and tosalt make farms. room Commonly,Commonly, the the use use of of fire fire is pre isferred preferred for clearing for clearing the the Mangrovefor agricultural trees ar land,e also human used forsettlements firewood, and construction salt farms. forforests,ests, thereby thereby afaffectingfecting largerlarger portions ofof naturalnatural forests wood,Mangrove and char treescoal are production. also used for firewood, construction forinests the coastalin the coastal areas and areas contributing and contributing to the degradationto the wood, and charcoal production. degradationof vital ecosystems. of vital ecosystems.Consequently, Consequently, the main threats the to the ii. Existing maps of forest cover coastal forests in Mozambique have been uncontrolled ii. Existing maps of forest cover dynamics in main threats to the coastal forests in Mozambique dynamics in the study areas havefires, been urbanization uncontrolled andfires, urbanizationhuman settlement, and human agriculture, the study areas settlement,encroachment, agriculture, grazing encroachment, and unsustainable grazing harvesting and of Between 2001 and 2017, Mozambique lost Between 2001 and 2017, Mozambique lost approximately, unsustainableforest resources harvesting for timber, of fuelforest and resour medicine.ces for The timber, maps approximately, 2.88Mha of her forest cover (Global in Figure 32 highlight the baseline geographic variation 2.88Mha of her forest cover (Global Forest Watch, 2018). fuel and medicine. The maps in Figure 32 highlight Forest Watch, 2018). This was equivalent to 9.9% of of tree cover in the three study districts of Dondo, This was equivalent to 9.9% of the total forest cover in the the baseline geographic variation of tree cover in the the total forest cover in the country. Like Mangrove Inhassoro and Memba together with the locations that country. Like Mangrove forests, other coastal forests are three study districts of Dondo, Inhassoro and Memba forests, other coastal forests are an important part of have experienced tree cover loss in the period between an important part of the livelihoods of the communities together with the locations that have experienced tree the livelihoods of the communities living in the coastal 2000 and 2017. The maps were derived from the archival living in the coastal regions of Mozambique. The forests cover loss in the period between 2000 and 2017. The regions of Mozambique. The forests serve as a source data by the Global Forest Watch. serve as a source of timber, firewood and charcoal maps were derived from the archival data by the Global of timber, firewood and charcoal production. The production. The forest areas are also regularly cleared Forest Watch. forestto make areas wayare alsofor agriculturalregularly cleared land, tosuch make as waysmall for scale cassava farms.

Figure 34: Baseline distribution of tree cover in Dondo, Inhassoro and Memba districts as at the year 2000. The pixels which are shared in red color highlight the areas that have experienced loss of tree cover in the 17 years from the year 2000

65 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

iii. Historical evolution of seagrass and There have been a few attempts to map sea grasses in the coral reefs in Mozambique coastal areas of Mozambique. The main challenge being that the sea grasses occur beneath the water surface The area under seagrass is on a steady decline. A study hence making it difficult to be captured by conventional of the trend of changes in seagrass beds in Inhambane image analysis methods. bay showed that sea grasses reduced by over 50% in the 20 year period between 1992 and 2013 (Mabuto iv. Croplands and human settlement areas et al, 2018). Major damages on the sea grasses were The areas under cropland and human settlement are attributed to cyclones. However, in such cases seagrass on a gradual increase. This increase can be attributed recovered naturally after some time. Human activities that to population growth and the process of urbanization lead to changes in marine environment remain a major particularly in the coastal regions. Agriculture is mainly threat to sea grasses, at time leading to permanent loss rain-fed in Mozambique and therefore cropland areas particularly when artificial structures are developed on are largely seasonal, often alternating from agricultural habitats of sea grass colonies. In particular, waste disposal land use to grassland, or appearing within wooded from domestic and industrial sources, destructive fishing areas. Areas of human settlement remain fairly constant practices, sediment alternation, construction activities, particularly for communities that lead a sedentary way changing water regimes through damming or deviation of of life like farmers or fishermen who are the largest rivers and estuaries and unsustainable farming practices majorities in the coastal zones of Mozambique. However, are some of the human activities that have been pointed due to urban sprawl, the areas which are considered as out as the major threats to sea grasses (Gullström et al, human settlement can expand over a duration of time. 2002). In each of the three case study districts, cropland is a Among the countries in Eastern Africa, Mozambique has significant part of the land cover of each district. the longest coastline consisting of fringing and island In Dondo district, traditionally, the main cropland areas reefs towards the Tanzania border in the north and high are found in the Southwestern regions particularly in latitude reef closer to the border with South Africa to flood plains and estuaries where Dondo River joins the the south (Obura et al, 2002). Coral reefs provide the Indian Ocean. In Inhassoro district, the main farming first barrier against ocean currents and strong waves. areas are within the coastal zone in the eastern part of the They face numerous threats and are therefore on district. Due to the seasonality of the farming activities, a decline. Overfishing, accumulation of sediments, the croplands can sometimes with grassland areas. In mining, pollution, and poor land management practices Memba district, the southern regions around Memba are principal threats to the reef ecosystem. On the town are the most cropped. global scale, increasing surface temperatures from climate change lead to coral bleaching, and often their permanent destruction or death.

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Figure 35: Dominant land cover categories in the case study districts of Dondo, Inhassoro and Memba in Mozambique in 2016 as captured at 10m spatial resolution in the European Space Agency (ESA) Africa land cover product.

v. Wetlands and riparian vegetation are a dominant land cover type appearing as a transition class between forested areas and croplands. Wetlands and riparian vegetation in the study area have v. Wetlandsnot exhibited anda drastic riparian decline, even vegetation though their general ar3.2.1.e a dominant Baseline land profilecover type of appearingMemba asdistrict a transition trend is reduction. This mainly due to the sparse human classin Nampula between forestedProvince areas and croplands. Wetlandspopulation and riparian density vegetationin most coastlands in the study of Mozambique. area haveThe not effects exhibited of global a drastic climate decline, change even are though hard-hitting on 3.2.1.In the periodBaseline of analysis, profile forest of Membacover classes district were their thegeneral many trend sub-classes is reduction. of wetlands. This mainly Furthermore, due to thethreats ina Nampula significant Prpartovince of the land cover characteristics of sparsefrom human herding, population cultivation density and fishing in most are coastlands compounded by Memba district, with dense and open forest categories In the period of analysis, forest cover classes were of Mozambique.the effects of The global effects warming of global to add climate pressure change on areas occupying almost one third of the land area in each period are harunderd-hitting wetland. on the many sub-classes of wetlands. a ofsignificant analysis. Apartpart of from the theland forest cover classes, characteristics the other ofmajor Furthermore, threats from herding, cultivation and Membaland cover district, class with was dense shrubland, and openexpanding forest substantially categories fishingvi. are compoundedBaseline characteristics by the effects of ofglobal shrublands occupyingfrom 1996 almost to 2017. one The third increase of the of land shrubland area in particularly each warmingand tograsslands add pressure on areas under wetland. periodin the of area analysis. around Apart Memba from town the and forest also classes, around theforests could be an indication of the degradation of the forest These areas are less threatened and in some cases even other major land cover class was shrubland, expanding cover categories as a result of increased demand for land vi. Baselinebenefit from characteristics deforestation ofand shrublands forest degradation. substantially from 1996 to 2017. The increase of for farming and settlement. Of note also is the expansion Grassland areas often regrow even after a wildfire. There shrubland particularly in the area around Memba town and grasslands of the areas under settlement, especially around the are instances of clearing of these areas for agricultural and also around forests could be an indication of the These areas are less threatened and in some cases even larger urban centers. The net reduction of grass may be land, even though the coastal areas are not known degradation of the forest cover categories as a result of benefit from deforestation and forest degradation. indicative of the systematic conversion of the same to for being cropland baskets due to limited freshwater increased demand for land for farming and settlement. Grassland areas often regrow even after a wildfire. There agricultural areas. are instancessources. In of allclearing the three of these case areasstudy fordistricts agricultural grasslands Of note also is the expansion of the areas under land, even though the coastal areas are not known settlement, especially around the larger urban centers. for being cropland baskets due to limited freshwater 62The net reduction of grass may be indicative of the sources. In all the three case study districts grasslands systematic conversion of the same to agricultural areas.

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Figure 36: Maps depicting changes in land cover characteristics in Memba district from 1996 to 2017

Apart from the maps, the table below outlines the shrubland and grassland. Of note is the consistent rise in Apartchanges from the in themaps, vital the land table cover below classes outlines in Memba the district accountingthe areas under for almost human 200% settlement, increase increasing in the area from under 263 changesfrom in 1996 the vital to 2017. land cover Specifically, classes inthe Memba table district highlights humanhectares settlement in 1996 to inmore 20 years.than 900 The hectares apparent in 2017 increase fromthe 1996 changes to 2017. in Mangrove Specifically, forests, the table other highl coastalights forests, in forest cover between 1996 and 2003 is consistent the changes in Mangrove forests, other coastal forests, 63with other studies which have shown an increase in shrubland and grassland. Of note is the consistent rise woodlands in some districts in the neighbouringNiassa in the areas under human settlement, increasing from province between 1989-2005 (Temudo and Silva, 2011) 263 hectares in 1996 to more than 900 hectares in 2017

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

accounting for almost 200% increase in the area under other studies which have shown an increase in woodlands human settlement in 20 years. The apparent increase in in some districts in the neighbouringNiassa province forest cover between 1996 and 2003 is consistent with between 1989-2005 (Temudo and Silva, 2011)

Table 12 Variation in selected land cover classes in Inhassoro district between 1996 to 2017 Table 12 Variation in selected land cover classes in Inhassoro district between 1996 to 2017

2006 and 2017, even though this might actually 3.2.1.1. Coral reefs in Memba district corals are stressed by increasing temperature conditions 3.2.1.1. Coral reefs in Memba district signify2006 aand reduction 2017, evenin live though corals, this since might corals actually whiten on While3.2.1.1. the classification Coral r eefsschema in appeared Memba to showdistrict a or changes in penetrating light, or nutrients, they push While the classification schema appeared to show a bleachingsignify a therebyreduction becoming in live cora easilyls, since detectible corals bywhiten remote on consistent geographic distribution of coral reefs in out the symbiotic algae living in them, causing them to Whileconsistent the classification geographic schema distribution appeared of coralto show reefs a in sensingbleaching ener therebygy. In principle, becoming when easily corals detectible are stressed by remote Membaconsistent district, geographic the variation distribution in the area of cor of alcoverage reefs in turn white. A combination of high resolution satellite Memba district, the variation in the area of coverage may byimagesensing increasing analysis, ener temperaturegy. physicochemical In principle, conditions when surveys corals or changes and are extensive str essed mayMemba be due district, to the the variation variation ocean in the conditions area of coverage at the be due to the variation ocean conditions at the time of infield bypenetrating increasing work is recommended lig temperatureht, or nutrients, toconditions improve they push orthe changes outassessement the timemay of be imaging, due to theincluding variation water ocean column, conditions turbidity at, the imaging, including water column, turbidity, salinity and symbioticofin the penetrating status algae of the ligliving ht,live or incorals them,nutrients, in causingthe district.Fig.they thempush to out38 turn belowthe salinitytime of and imaging, temperature including may water influence column, the healthturbidity , temperature may influence the health detectability of white.issymbiotic a map A combination showing algae livingthe of distribution inhigh them, resolution causing and coveragesatellite them to image trendturn detectability of corals beneath the water surface salinitycorals andbeneath temperature the water may surface influence (Besselle-Browne the health et al, analysisofwhite. corals ,A physicochemicalbetween combination 1996 ofand highsurveys 2017. resolution andThe extensivetrends satellite indicates field image work is (Besselle2017).-Br Evenowne then, et al,the 2017). results Even show then,a stable the existence results coral showdetectability a stable existenceof corals beneath coral reef the from water 2006 surface to 2017, recommendedsomeanalysis parts, physicochemical of seagrassto improve areas the surveysin assessement 1996 beingand extensive colonized of the sta field bytus workof the is (Bessellereef from-Br 2006owne to et 2017, al, 2017). averaging Even then,a summation the results area of averagingshow a stable a summation existence area coral of aboutreef from 11,000 2006 hectar to 2017,es. livecoralsrecommended corals in the in laterthe to district.years. improve ThisFig. isthe 38 possibly assessementbelow due is a tomap high of showthe levels staing tus the of the about 11,000 hectares. It appears to increase by about It appears to increase by about 2500 hectares between distributionof variability and in coverageabiotic conditions trend of withincorals seagrassbetween areas1996 and averaging2500 hectares a summation between area 2006 of about and 2017, 11,000 even hectar thoughes. live corals in the district.Fig. 38 below is a map showing the It appears to increase by about 2500 hectares between 2017.relativedistribution The to trends neighboring and indicatescoverage reefs sometrend (Riegl, partsof corals 1999; of seagrass between Perry and areas1996 andin 1996 this might actually signify a reduction in live corals, since Larcombe, 2003; Yates et al., 2014; Camp et al., 2016a) corals whiten on bleaching thereby becoming easily being2017. colonized The trends by coralsindicates in the some later parts years. of seagrassThis is possi areasbly indue 1996 detectible by remote sensing energy. In principle, when to beinghigh levels colonized of variability by corals in in abiotic the later conditions years. This within is possiseagrassbly due areasto high relative levels to of neighboring variability in reefs abiotic (Riegl, conditions 1999; Perrywithin and seagrass Larcombe,areas relative 2003; to Yates neighboring et al., 2014; reefs Camp(Riegl, et 1999; al., 2016a) Perry and Larcombe, 2003; Yates et al., 2014; Camp et al., 2016a)

Figure 37: Variation in the area of coral reef coverage type in Memba dis- trictFigure in Mozambique 37: Variation between in the area 2006 of coraland 2017 reef coverage type in Memba district in Mozambique between 2006 and 2017 69 69

Table 12 Variation in selected land cover classes in Inhassoro district between 1996 to 2017

3.2.1.1. Coral reefs in Memba district 2006 and 2017, even though this might actually signify a reduction in live corals, since corals whiten on While the classification schema appeared to show a bleaching thereby becoming easily detectible by remote consistent geographic distribution of coral reefs in sensing energy. In principle, when corals are stressed Memba district, the variation in the area of coverage by increasing temperature conditions or changes may be due to the variation ocean conditions at the in penetrating light, or nutrients, they push out the time of imaging, including water column, turbidity, symbiotic algae living in them, causing them to turn salinity and temperature may influence the health white. A combination of high resolution satellite image detectability of corals beneath the water surface (Besselle-Browne et al, 2017). Even then, the results analysis, physicochemical surveys and extensive field work is show a stable existence coral reef from 2006 to 2017, recommended to improve the assessement of the status of the averaging a summation area of about 11,000 hectares. live corals in the district.Fig. 38 below is a map showing the It appears to increase by about 2500 hectares between distribution and coverage trend of corals between 1996 and 2017. The trends indicates some parts of seagrass areas in 1996 being colonized by corals in the later years. This is possibly due to high levels of variability in abiotic conditions within seagrass Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastalareas and relative Marine Ecosystemsto neighboring Restoration reefs (Riegl, Assessment 1999; Perry and Larcombe, 2003; Yates et al., 2014; Camp et al., 2016a)

Figure 37: Variation in the area of coral reef coverage type in Memba district in Mozambique between 2006 and 2017

69 The map below highlights the snapshots of areas of concentration of seagrass beds and coral reefs in Memba district in 1996 and in 2017.

Figure 38: Map depicting the geographic distribution of seagrass and coral reef classes along the coast of Memba district.

patches of seagrass without filtering, further field visits 3.2.1.2. Seagrass beds in Memba 65and verification in future studies are recommended. district Geographically, the seagrass beds occupy a thin strip along the entire coastline of Memba district. Due to the poor quality of the images around 1996 and 2010, attempts were made to find alternative images for mapping the seagrass beds, however, even the best image in 1996 and another in 2008 could not yield hypothesized results due to ocean water characteristics during those epochs. An analysis of the changes in seagrass beds in Memba was thus evaluated by complaining the images between 2006 and 2017. From the evaluation, there was a marginal reduction of about 3% of the quantity of seagrass in the district within the decade of 2006 to 2017. Seagrass in Memba reduced from 18,200 to 17,600 hectares. It is possible that the damage to seagrass does not make it disappear completely from the areas, and it also regenerates rather quickly. Interviews with residents in the district showed that over the years, seagrass beds have reduced tremendously. There could also be breaks within the seagrass beds, which were not detected by remote sensing and requires further field studies in the future. (Poursanidis, D., et, al. 2018). Generally, this quantity of seagrass is higher than other global and regional studies have estimated. Besides the scale of mapping which would detect smaller

70 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

3.2.1.2. Seagrass beds in Memba district also regenerates rather quickly. Interviews with residents in the district showed that over the years, seagrass beds Due to the poor quality of the images around 1996 and have reduced tremendously. There could also be breaks 2010, attempts were made to find alternative images for within the seagrass beds, which were not detected by mapping the seagrass beds, however, even the best image remote sensing and requires further field studies in the in 1996 and another in 2008 could not yield hypothesized future. (Poursanidis, D., et, al. 2018). results due to ocean water characteristics during those epochs. An analysis of the changes in seagrass beds in Generally, this quantity of seagrass is higher than other Memba was thus evaluated by complaining the images global and regional studies have estimated. Besides between 2006 and 2017. From the evaluation, there the scale of mapping which would detect smaller was a marginal reduction of about 3% of the quantity patches of seagrass without filtering, further field visits of seagrass in the district within the decade of 2006 to and verification in future studies are recommended. 2017. Seagrass in Memba reduced from 18,200 to 17,600 Geographically, the seagrass beds occupy a thin strip hectares. It is possible that the damage to seagrass does along the entire coastline of Memba district not make it disappear completely from the areas, and it

Figure 39: Variation in the area of seagrass coverage type in Memba district in Mozambique between 2007 and 2017

3.2.1.3. Mangrove forests in Memba despite a growing population in the district awareness about the importance of conserving mangroves and 3200 hectares by 2010. This can be attributed to stable district3.2.1.3. Mangrove forests in Memba district enforcing related legislation was more significant over theweather last decade. conditions However, in the coveragepreceding reduced seven againyears FromFrom the mappingthe mapping results, results, there there were werenet reductions net reductions and enhanced enforcement of the law in conserving in thein areathe areacovered covered my mangrove my mangrove forests forests in Memba in Memba drasticallymangroves. between The 2010validation and 2017, workshop to approximately dialogue 2300 hectares. Validation dialogue with residents and district.district. In 1996, In 1996, the totalthe total area area of mangrove of mangrove forests forests was was indicated that despite a growing population in the aboutabout 3600 3600 ha whichha which initially initially reduced reduced to approximatelyto approximately governmentdistrict awareness officials about showed the importancethat coupled of with conserving the 2800ha2800ha over over seven seven years years by 2003.by 2003. The Thereduction reduction may growingmangroves demand and enforcingfor mangrove related poles, legislation there is was a natural more maybe be attributable attributable to to uncontrolled uncontrolled logging logging and and the the flooding phenomenasignificant overthat thecauses last thedecade. mangr However,oves to thedry up.coverage In associated with the El-Nino phenomenon during this flooding associated with the El-Nino phenomenon addition,reduced increased again drastically erosion between can massively 2010 and increase 2017, the to period. The coverage then increased to approximately during this period. The coverage then increased to amountapproximately of sediment 2300 inhectares. rivers, affecting Validation the dialogue mangroves with approximately 3200 hectares by 2010. This can be areas. attributed to stable weather conditions in the In summary, over a 20 year period there was a loss of preceding seven years and enhanced enforcement of 661400 ha, representing a reduction of approximately 38% the law in conserving mangroves. The validation in mangrove coverage in Memba district between 1996 workshop dialogue indicated that and 2017.

71 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

residents and government officials showed that coupled In summary, over a 20 year period there was a loss of with the growing demand for mangrove poles, there is a 1400 ha, representing a reduction of approximately 38% natural phenomena that causes the mangroves to dry up. in mangrove coverage in Memba district between 1996 In addition, increased erosion can massively increase the and 2017. amount of sediment in rivers, affecting the mangroves areas.

Figure 40: Variations in the area of mangrove forests in Memba district from 1996 to 2017

a reduction of approximately 40000 hectares in the 3.2.1.4. Coastal forests in Memba dis- combined forest categories signifying a 40% fall. This trict3.2.1.4. Coastal forests in Memba district ais reduction an annual of deforestation approximately rate 40000 of 2% hectareswhich is veryin the combinedhigh. The foresttrend categoriesalso shows signifying that the aclosed 40% fall.forests This is In MembaIn Memba district, district, apart apart from from mangrove mangrove for ests,forests, other other anar annuale increasingly deforestation being rate disturbed of 2% which into openis very ones, high. The forestforest typologies typologies including including closed closed and andopen open forests forests trendespecially also shows due to that fire the and closed timber forests harvesting. are increasingly Coastal areare the the dominant dominant land land classes classes covering covering more more than than two two beingforest disturbedin Memba into district open is ones, estimated especially to be due about to fire30% thirdsthirds of theof the land land surface. surface. However, However, in thein the last last decade decade and timber harvesting. Coastal forest in Memba district of the remaining 95000 hectares, and is as such highly it appearsit appears the theforest forest classes classes have have undergone undergone drastic drastic is estimated to be about 30% of the remaining 95000 changes with the areas which were initially occupied threatened by this trend. changes with the areas which were initially occupied hectares, and is as such highly threatened by this trend. by forests increasingly becoming shrublands and by grasslands.forests increasingly Between becoming 1996 and shrubland 2017 theres and has been grasslands. Between 1996 and 2017 there has been

Figure 41: Variation in the area of open and closed forest categories in Memba district between 1997 and 2017

Figure 40: Variations in the area of mangrove forests in Memba district from 1996 to 2017

a reduction of approximately 40000 hectares in the 3.2.1.4. Coastal forests in Memba dis- combined forest categories signifying a 40% fall. This trict is an annual deforestation rate of 2% which is very high. The trend also shows that the closed forests In Memba district, apart from mangrove forests, other are increasingly being disturbed into open ones, forest typologies including closed and open forests especially due to fire and timber harvesting. Coastal are the dominant land classes covering more than two forest in Memba district is estimated to be about 30% thirds of the land surface. However, in the last decade of the remaining 95000 hectares, and is as such highly it appears the forest classes have undergone drastic threatened by this trend. changesCoastal with Resilience the areas to Climatewhich were Change initially Baseline; occupied Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment by forests increasingly becoming shrublands and grasslands. Between 1996 and 2017 there has been

Figure 41: Variation in the area of open and closed forest categories in Memba district between 1997 and 2017

3.2.2. Baseline profile of Dondo district in the area around Dondo city, the surrounding areas in Sofala Province are predominantly used as cropland. Mangrove forest categories are located in three main patches in the From the results of the image analysis, the dominant shorelines of the district. In contrast to the other two land cover class in Dondo district in the last two decades districts, coral reefs and seagrass categories were 72not was shrubland followed by open forest and closed present in Dondo district shorelines. These were neither forest categories and then grassland. The main forest in the satellite imagery nor were they observed during classes are located in the eastern and northeastern part the initial field exercise after the inception workshop of the district. In the west of the district, particularly

3.2.2. Baseline profile of Dondo district surrounding areas are predominantly used as cropland. Mangrove forest categories are located in three main in Sofala Province patches in the shorelines of the district. In contrast From the results of the image analysis, the dominant to the other two districts, coral reefs and seagrass land cover class in Dondo district in the last two categories were not present in Dondo district shorelines. decades was shrubland followed by open forest and These were neither in the satellite imagery nor were closed forest categories and then grassland. The they observed during the initial field exercise after the main forest classes are located in the eastern and inception workshop. northeastern part of the district. In the west of the district, particularlyCoastal Resiliencein the area to ar Climateound Dondo Change city, Baseline; the Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Figure 42: Dominant land cover classes in Dondo district in Mozambique from 1996 to 2017

From the statistics of land cover categories, the From the variation of the dominant land cover classes mainFrom anthropogenic the statistics drivers of land of landcover cover categories, change the in main inFrom Dondo the districtvariation showed of the that dominant areas underland cover cropland classes and the anthropogenicdistrict appeared drivers to be of theland demand cover change for land in the for district thosein Dondo under district human showed settlements that areas incr undereased croplandprogressively and appeared to be the demand for land for settlement and for those under human settlements increased progressively settlement and for agricultural activities. The area under from 1997 to 2017. On the other hand, there was a net agricultural activities. The area under cropland increased from 1997 to 2017. On the other hand, there was a net cropland increased significantly from approximately reduction in the forest classes, and shrubland. significantly from approximately 16,000 hectares in 1996 reduction in the forest classes, and shrubland. 16,000 hectares in 1996 to over 23,000 hectares in to over 23,000 hectares in 2017. On the other hand the 2017.areas On under the other settlements hand the increased areas under from settlements1500 hectares in increased from 1500 hectares in 1996 to approximately 1996 to approximately more than 6300 hectares in 2017. moreThe than table 6300 12 hectarbelow esoutlines in 2017. the The dynamics table 12of landbelow cover outlineschange the in dynamics Dondo district of lan fromd cover 1996 change to 2017. in Dondo district from 1996 to 2017.

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment Table 13 Variation in area of coverage of land cover classes in Dondo district in Mozambique from 1996 to 2017

Table 13 Variation in area of coverage of land cover classes in Dondo district in Mozambique from 1996 to 2017

3.2.2.1. Mangrove forests in Dondo that enabled natural regeneration. Furthermore, the government has been more vigilant in enforcing district conservation laws over the last decade as it becomes As has3.2.2.1.3.2.2.1. been highlighted Mangrove Mangrove pr eviouslyforests for, estscinoral Dondo reefsin Dondo anddistrict clethatar thatenabledthat enabledthe mangrnatural naturaloves regeneration. ar regeneration.e threatened, Furthermore, Furthermore, according the the seagrass classes were not located in the district. On togovernment validationgovernment discussionshas hasbeen been withmore more stakeholders. vigilant vigilant inin Inenforcingenforcing overall, As has been highlighted previously, coral reefs and the otherdistrict hand the mangrove classes appeared to be thisconservation indicatedconservation lawsonly overalaws net the overloss last theof aboutdecade last decade 200 as hectarit asbecomes ites becomes in seagrass classes were not located in the district. On As has been highlighted previously, coral reefs and theclear 20 clethat yearsar thethat or mangroves the8% mangrof initial ovesare cover. threatened, are This threatened, loss according is widely according to relativelythe other stable, hand within the themangrove range ofclasses 2000 appearedha to 2400 to be ha. In 1996, the mangrove coverage was approximately linkedvalidationto to validation the discussions growing discussions withurban stakeholders. population with stakeholders. withinIn overall, the In thismajor overall, relativelyseagrass stable, classes within were the not range located of in2000 the hadistrict. to 2400 On urbanindicated centers only thata net require loss of supply about of200 building hectares poles in theand 2300ha. thehectar In other1996,es beforehand the mangrove the declini mangroveng coverage by aboutclasses was 250 appearedapproximately ha over to7 be this indicated only a net loss of about 200 hectares in yearsrelatively to about stable,2050 hectar withines the by range2003. ofTher 2000eafter, ha theto 2400 char20 yearscoal,the 20orwhich 8%years ofar einitialor extracted 8% cover. of initial fromThis cover. lossmangr isThis widelyoves. loss Woollenlinked is widely 2300 hectares before declining by about 250 ha over 7 to the growing urban population within the major coverageyearsha. In toof 1996, aboutmangrove the 2050 mangrove for hectaresests incr coverage byeased 2003. to was Thereafter,about approximately 2400 the et al.,(2016)linked toobserved the growing that charurbancoal population business iswithin more the major hectar2300es in hectar2010 beforees before once declini againng reducing by about drastically 250 ha over 7 lucrativeurbanurban centers around centers that major require that towns require supply and supply of cities building ofin buildingMozambique, poles andpoles and coverage of mangrove forests increased to about 2400 charcoal, which are extracted from mangroves. Woollen to aboutyears 2100 to abouthectar 2050es in 2017.hectar Thees by incr 2003.ease Ther in theeafter, year the whichchar thencoal, become which d areforestatione extracted hotspots. from mangr oves. Woollen hectares in 2010 before once again reducing drastically et al.,(2016) observed that charcoal business is more 2010 coveragewas a trend of alsomangrove witnessed forests in Membaincreased district, to about and 2400 et al.,(2016) observed that charcoal business is more to about 2100 hectares in 2017. The increase in the year lucrative around major towns and cities in Mozambique, hectares in 2010 before once again reducing drastically lucrative around major towns and cities in Mozambique, can2010 as such was bea trend linked also to favorablewitnessed climaticin Memba conditions district, and which then become deforestation hotspots. canto asabout such 2100 be linked hectar toes favorable in 2017. climatic The incr conditionsease in the year which then become deforestation hotspots. 2010 was a trend also witnessed in Memba district, and can as such be linked to favorable climatic conditions

Figure 43: Variation in the area of coverage of mangrove forests in Dondo district in Mozambique from 1996 to 2017 70

Figure 43: Variation in the area of coverage of mangrove forests in Dondo district in Mozambique from 1996 to 2017 74

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

the 20 years, representing about 15% forest loss. There 3.2.2.2. Coastal forests in Dondo district reduced from about 70000 ha to about 60000 ha over 3.2.2.2. Coastal forests in Dondo district were significant temporary changes of forest that were From the analysis of other forest categories in Dondo the 20 years, representing about 15% forest loss. There From the analysis of other forest categories in Dondo followed by regeneration or conversion from closed district, there appeared to be considerable steady loss were significant temporary changes of forest that were district, there appeared to be considerable steady loss to open forest, indicating that most of the clearance in both the dense and open forest categories over the followed by regeneration or conversion from closed to in both the dense and open forest categories over the is usually not for permanent land use change. Field two decade study period. While this is not necessarily open forest, indicating that most of the clearance is usually two decade study period. While this is not necessarily validation showed the use of fire to clear land for the trend for coastal forest as it is a representation of all not for permanent land use change. Field validation the trend for coastal forest as it is a representation of all cultivation, and cassava farming within the forested forest within the vast district, it gives a clear indication showed the use of fire to clear land for cultivation, and forest within the vast district, it gives a clear indication of areas.cassava farming within the forested areas. of thethe coastalcoastal forestforest containment.containment. The The combined combined forest forest reduced from about 70000 ha to about 60000 ha over

Figure 44: Variation in area of closed and open forest cover classes in Dondo district Mozam- bique from 1996 to 2017

3.2.3.3.2.3. Baseline Baseline profile profile of of Inhassor Inhassoroo district in district.Main human Main settlementshuman settlements are found ar ine closefound proximity in close to proximitythe shores. to Ofthe the shor threees. Of case the study three districts,case study Inhassoro districts, districtInhambane in Inhambane Province Province Inhassoro boasts of the largest coverage of coral reefs The result of remote sensing analysis showed that, boasts of the largest coverage of coral reefs and seagrass Thehistorically, result of remote Inhassoro sensing district analysis is covered showed predominantly that, andcolonies seagrass particularly colonies around particularly the arislands.ound theFarming islands. is historically,shrub land Inhassor cover oclasses. district isThe covered main forestedpredominantly areas in Farmingminimal in is the minimal district. in the district. shrubthe landdistrict cover are classes.situated Thein the main central forested part ofareas the district. in the district are situated in the central part of the

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Figure 45: Maps of variation of dominant land cover classes in Inhassoro district in Mozambique from 1996 to 2017

data sources that put urban population growth in BetweenBetween 1996 1996 and and 2017, 2017, the the areas areas covered covered by humanby human that put urban population growth in Mozambique at settlementssettlements in Inhassorin Inhassoroo district district incr increasedeased threefold threefold from from Mozambique3.8 % in 2016 at (UNECA, 3.8 % in 2017). 2016 Similarly,(UNECA, the 2017). areas Similarly under , the areas under grasslands expanded from about 6655 658658 hectar hectareses to 2130to 2130 hectar hectares.es. This This trend trend is consistent is consistent grasslands expanded from about 6655 hectares in 1996 withwith the the World World Bank Bank collection collection of developmentdevelopment indicators, hectarto aboutes 22000in 1996 hectares to about in 220002017. hectares in 2017. indicators,usually compiled usually compiled from officially from officrecognizedially recognized data sources

Table 14 Variation in the area of select land cover classes in Inhassoro district in Mozambique between 1996 and 2017

Figure 45: Maps of variation of dominant land cover classes in Inhassoro district in Mozambique from 1996 to 2017

Between 1996 and 2017, the areas covered by human data sources that put urban population growth in settlements in Inhassoro district increased threefold from Mozambique at 3.8 % in 2016 (UNECA, 2017). Similarly, 658 hectares to 2130 hectares. This trend is consistent the areas under grasslands expanded from about 6655 with the WorldCoastal Bank Resilience collection to Climateof development Change Baseline; Coastalhectar andes Marine in 1996 Ecosystems to about 22000 Restoration hectar Assessmentes in 2017. indicators, usually compiled from officially recognized

Table 14 Variation in the area of select land cover classes in Inhassoro district in Mozambique between 1996 and 2017 3.2.3.1. Coral reefs in Inhassoro district over 5000 hectares. Field validation around76 the island of Ilha de Santa Carolina showed that the area is rich The3.2.3.1. size of coral Coral reef reefsin the districtin Inhassoro of Inhassor districto was Carolina showed that the area is rich in coral reefs. These arein coral represented reefs. These in this ar study,e represented but there inare this no study,coral reefs but just over 17,000 hectares in 2007 as well as in 2017. The size of coral reef in the district of Inhassoro was just inthere this ar areae no accordingcoral reefs to in otherthis area regional according studies. to other It is While,over t he17,000 avera hectaresge coverage in 2007 of ascorals well fromas in the2017. image While, thereforeregional studies.likely that It globalis therefore and regional likely that datasets global are and too the average coverage of corals from the image analysis analysis was above the average by other global scale generalizedregional datasets for smaller are too scale generalized studies, asfor they smaller may scale only was above the average by other global scale data and mapstudies, the aslarger they coral may reefs only withmap littlethe larger verification coral r eefsdata withor dataregional and regional studies studieswhich putwhich it justput itover just 5000 hectares. clearlittle verificationprocedure. data or clear procedure. Field validation around the island of Ilha de Santa

Figure 46: Variation in the area of coral reefs in Inhassoro district Mozambique between 2007 and 2017

Geographically, majority of the coral reefs and seagrass Inhassoro mainland shorelines. This agrees with previous Geographically, majority of the coral reefs and seagrass Inhassoro mainland shorelines. This agrees with previous beds are located on the eastern shorelines of Bazaruto observations (Golder Associates, 2015 bedsisland are andlocated also onin thethe areaeastern within shorelines 10km of radiusof Bazaruto of observations (Golder Associates, 2015). island and also in the area within 10km of radius of 73

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Figure 47: Distribution seagrass and coral reef habitats in the coastal water of Inhassoro district between 1997 and 2017

3.2.3.2.3.2.3.2. Seagrass Seagrass bedbed in in Inhassoro Inhassor districto hacompletely of seagrass from beds the inareas, Inhassoro and it (Findlayalso regenerates et al 2011). Interviewsrather quickly. with residentsPrevious instudies Inhassoro have revealed indicated that that over there While two mapping years (1996 and 2010) did not appear district theis aboutyears, 8800 seagrass ha of bedsseagrass have beds reduced in Inhassoro tremendously. (Findlay et to yield hypothesized results due to image quality, there Thereal 2011). could Interviews also exist with breaks residents within inthe Inhassor seagrasso revealedbeds, Whilewas atwo small mapping reduction years in the(1996 quantity and 2010) of seagrass did not in the appear to yield hypothesized results due to image whichthat over were the not years, detected seagrass by remote beds sensing have reduced and requires district within the decade of 2007 to 2017. Seagrass in further field studies in the future. quality,Inhassoro there reduced was a smallfrom aboutreduction 8,900 in thehectares quantity to aboutof tremendously. There could also exist breaks within the seagrass8,200 hectares. in the This represents a very marginal loss of only Generally,seagrass thisbeds, quantity which ofwere seagrass not detected is lower by than remote other districtabout within 6% over the ten decade years. of It 2007 is possible to 2017. that Seagrass the damage in globalsensing and and regional requir studieses further have field estimated. studies inBesides the future. the Inhassorto seagrasso reduced does from not aboutmake 8,900it disappear hectares completely to scaleGenerally, of mapping this quantity which ofwould seagrass detect is smallerlower than patches othe r aboutfrom 8,200the areas, hectar andes. itThis also repr regeneratesesents a very rather marginal quickly. ofglobal seagrass and regional without studies filtering, have further estimated. field Besides visits the and lossPrevious studies have indicated that there is about 8800 verificationscale of mapping in future which studies would is recommended. detect smaller patches of only about 6% over ten years. It is possible that of seagrass without filtering, further field visits and the damage to seagrass does not make it disappear verification in future studies is recommended.

Figure 48: Variation in the area of sea grass land cover classes in Inhassoro district in Mozam- bique between 2007 and 2017 74 3.2.3.3. Mangrove forests in Inhassoro year 2010, here it still reduced marginally compared to 2003. The reduction is attributed to the continuous district harvesting of mangrove poles and the growing In the period between 1996 and 2017, the area covered population which further compounds the loss. There by mangrove forests in Inhassoro district reduced was little evidence of natural attrition of mangrove78 trees steadily by approximately 25% from about 340 hectares from the field validation interviews and sampled visits. in 1996 to about 255 hectares in 2017. Unlike in the other two districts where the coverage increased by the

Figure 49: Variation in the area of mangrove forests in Inhassoro district in Mozambique between 1996 and 2017

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Figure 48: Variation in the area of sea grass land cover classes in Inhassoro district in Mozam- bique between 2007 and 2017

3.2.3.3. Mangrove forests in Inhassoro district 2010, here it still reduced marginally compared to 2003. Theyear reduction 2010, here is attributedit still reduced to the marginally continuous compared harvesting 3.2.3.3.In the period Mangrove between 1996 for estsand 2017, in Inhassor the area coveredo ofto 2003.mangrove The polesreduction and isthe attributed growing topopulation the continuous which districtby mangrove forests in Inhassoro district reduced further compounds the loss. There was little evidence steadily by approximately 25% from about 340 hectares harvesting of mangrove poles and the growing In the period between 1996 and 2017, the area covered ofpopulation natural attritionwhich further of mangrove compounds trees the from loss. the There field in 1996 to about 255 hectares in 2017. Unlike in the other validation interviews and sampled visits. by mangrovetwo districts for whereests in the Inhassor coverageo district increased reduced by the year was little evidence of natural attrition of mangrove trees steadily by approximately 25% from about 340 hectares from the field validation interviews and sampled visits. in 1996 to about 255 hectares in 2017. Unlike in the other two districts where the coverage increased by the

3.2.3.4. Coastal forests in Inhassoro 3.2.4.1. Overall land cover change in district Memba district Between 1996 and 2017, there was a net loss in A summary of change detection results is presented in the Table 14, and represents a comparison of the study’s the in both categories of forest, and the overall loss start year of 1996 and the end year of 2017. From the was 30000 ha from an initial estimate of 120000 to table the net gaining classes were; cropland, settlement, the 2017 estimated cover of 90000 hectares. This open forest and shrubland, while the classes that lost Figure 49: Variation in the area of mangrove forestsrepresented in Inhassoro district a 40% in lossMozambique or a 2% annual loss.The acreage were; dense forest, mangrove forest grassland between 1996 and 2017 loss was steady over the years, indicating consistent and bareland. factors such as clearing for settlement and cultivation By looking at the individual coastal ecosystems of as well as timber harvesting and forest fires. interest, the dense forest classes mainly changed to shrublands, open forest classes and to croplands. The 3.2.3.4. Coastal forests in Inhassoro shift to shrubland may be due to the effect of fires which district 79 is the common method for clearing forests to create Between 1996 and 2017, there was a net loss in the room for farmlands. Similarly, the open forest classes in both categories of forest, and the overall loss was shifted to shrublands, grasslands and to croplands. Of 30000 ha from an initial estimate of 120000 to the 2017 note also is that in the duration of analysis, at least 3000 estimated cover of 90000 hectares. This represented a acres of open forests changed to dense forest classes 40% loss or a 2% annual loss. The loss was steady over in the district. This can be attributed to the various the years, indicating consistent factors such as clearing management effects that have been adopted. for settlement and cultivation as well as timber harvesting The mangrove forest classes in Memba district reduced and forest fires. by about 30%, signifying an annual rate of change of about 1.5%. The shift was mainly bareland and shrublands. In addition, areas which were previously occupied by mangroves have been taken over by water, Figure 50: Variation in the areas of open and closed forest indicating the potential effects of shoreline and tidal categories in Inhassoro district, Mozambique between 1997 and changes on the mangrove ecosystem in the district. 2017 3.2.4.2. Changes in the distribution of

75 coastal forests in Memba district 3.2.4. Changes in the status of coastal In order to analyse the changes in the coastal forests, ecosystems from the results of image the open and dense forests were combined into a analysis singles class. From the map of changes in the coastal forest (Figure 49), it is evident that Memba district In order to evaluate the variation in the status of the has faced significant spatial and temporal changes coastal and marine ecosystems, change detection analysis was carried out on the results of image analysis. in her temporal characteristics. With the locations of In particular, change detection processes reveals both degradation spreading across the district. The remaining the quantitative and the geographic characteristics of stable forest are found in the north-western part of the the changes in the land cover characteristics. In this district. It is also positive to note that there have been evaluation, both the change detection matrices and the efforts to reverse the trend of degradation particularly in the coastal zones resulting in a marginal gain of the maps for individual coastal ecosystems are presented. forest in the southern areas towards Memba town. The change detection matrices show the relative quantitative shifts in the land cover classes whereas the maps of the changes in the individual ecosystesms highlight the potential degradation hotspots and regeneration locations and can guide mitigation efforts to reverse the negative trends of ecosystem degradation.

80 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

3.2.4. Changes in the status of coastal is the common method for clearing forests to create ecosystems from the results of image analysis room for farmlands. Similarly, the open forest classes shifted to shrublands, grasslands and to croplands. Of In order to evaluate the variation in the status of the coastal note also is that in the duration of analysis, at least 3000 and marine ecosystems, change detection analysis was acres of open forests changed to dense forest classes carried out on the results of image analysis. In particular, in the district. This can be attributed to the various change detection processes reveals both the quantitative management effects that have been adopted. and the geographic characteristics of the changes in the land cover characteristics. In this evaluation, both the The mangrove forest classes in Memba district reduced by change detection matrices and the maps for individual about 30%, signifying an annual rate of change of about coastal ecosystems are presented. The change detection 1.5%. The shift was mainly bareland and shrublands. matrices show the relative quantitative shifts in the In addition, areas which were previously occupied by land cover classes whereas the maps of the changes mangroves have been taken over by water, indicating the in the individual ecosystesms highlight the potential potential effects of shoreline and tidal changes on the degradation hotspots and regeneration locations and mangrove ecosystem in the district. can guide mitigation efforts to reverse the negative 3.2.4.2. Changes in the distribution of trends of ecosystem degradation. coastal forests in Memba district 3.2.4.1. Overall land cover change in In order to analyse the changes in the coastal forests, the Memba district open and dense forests were combined into a singles class. From the map of changes in the coastal forest A summary of change detection results is presented in (Figure 49), it is evident that Memba district has faced the Table 14, and represents a comparison of the study’s significant spatial and temporal changes in her temporal start year of 1996 and the end year of 2017. From the characteristics. With the locations of degradation table the net gaining classes were; cropland, settlement, spreading across the district. The remaining stable forest open forest and shrubland, while the classes that lost are found in the north-western part of the district. It is also acreage were; dense forest, mangrove forest grassland positive to note that there have been efforts to reverse and bareland. the trend of degradation particularly in the coastal zones By looking at the individual coastal ecosystems of resulting in a marginal gain of the forest in the southern interest, the dense forest classes mainly changed to areas towards Memba town. shrublands, open forest classes and to croplands. The shift to shrubland may be due to the effect of fires which

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Figure 51: Geographic distribution in the changes in the coastal forests highlighting stable, degraded and regenerat-

ed forest areas Figure 51: Geographic distribution in the changes in the coastal forests highlighting stable, degraded and regenerated forest areas 77

81 81

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

FigureFigure 52: 52: Geographic Geographic distribution distribution of changes of changes in the mangrove in the mangrove ecosystems ecosystems in Memba districtin Memba district

3.2.4.3. Changes in the distribution of hand,where, locations the respective where, the ecosystem respective ecosystemwas only wasdetectable 3.2.4.3. Changes in the distribution of only detectable in one epoch was considered to be in one epoch was considered to be least stable. This mangrovemangrove forests for estsin Memba in Memba district district least stable. This assumption was motivated by the assumption was motivated by the fact that detecting FromFr theom mapthe map of the of thedistribution distribution of ofmangroves, mangroves, the the most fact that detecting corals and seagrasses is highly dependentcorals and seagrasseson the turbidity is highly and tidal dependent characteristics on the turbidityof vulnerablemost vulnerable mangrove mangrove forests wereforests those were occupyingthose occupying thin thin stripes along the coastline, these may particularly theand ocean. tidal characteristics High turbidity andof the sedimentation ocean. High turbiditymay and stripes along the coastline, these may particularly be be vulnerable to tidal changes in the oceans. In alsosedimentation affect the may sustainability also affect of the corals sustainability and seagrass of corals vulnerable to tidal changes in the oceans. In addition, addition, most of the degradation occurred at the edges bedsand seagrass (Erftemeijer beds et al,(Erftemeijer 2012). At the et sameal, 2012). At the same mostof ofthe themangrove degradation forests. Thisoccurred may be at due the to theedges ease of time, corals corals and and seagrass seagrass beds beds in such in such surfaces surfaces are also are also the mangroveaccessibility forests. to the edges. This may Management be due toefforsts the easeshould of least detectable.detectable. Based Based on onthis this assumption, assumption, the map the inmap in accessibilitytherefore toconsider the edges. placing Management barriers at the efforsts edges ofshould the figurfiguree 53 53 highlights highlights tha thatt geographic geographic distribution distribution of the of the thereforeforests consider to limit access placing to thebarriers vulnerable at the ecosyst edgesems. of the stability of of corals corals and and seagrass seagrass beds beds in Memba in Memba district. district. forests to limit access to the vulnerable ecosystems. The leastleast stable stable locations locations are areare potentiallyare potentially the most the most 3.2.4.4. Stability of corals and seagrass vulnerable. From these analysis, on a particular coral, 3.2.4.4. Stability of corals and seagrass beds vulnerable. From these analysis, on a particular coral, beds in Memba district the mostmost vulnerable vulnerable locations locations are arethe edgesthe edges as this as ar thise are more prone to disturbances from tidal events and from in MembaTo visualize district the stability of sea-based classes over the more prone to disturbances from tidal events and from sediment loading. The sinuous form of the shorelines in To visualizeperiod of theanalysis stability in Memba of sea-based district, arithmetic classes oversum ofthe sediment loading. The sinuous form of the shorelines in Memba district may be providing protection to seagrass periodthe ofrespective analysis surfaces in Memba of the district, corals andarithmetic seagrasses sum in of bedsMemba with district the most may stable be providingseagrass beds protection being in to the seagrass the respectivethe four epochs surfaces of analysi of thes was corals computed. and seagrasses Locations in mostbeds sinouswith the locations. most stableThe most seagrass vulnera blebeds location being for in the the wherefour epochs corals orof seagrass analysis beds, was dependingcomputed. on Locationsthe bothmost corals sinous and locations. seagrass The beds most in Memba vulnerable in the districtlocation for whereclass corals under or analysis seagrass was beds, available depending for each onof the the class arbothe in coralsthe southern and seagrass parts in thebeds areas in Membaaround Memba in the district underfour analysis epochs was was available considered for to each be the of mostthe four stable epochs bayare inand the Chepa. southern parts in the areas around Memba bay habitat of the respective ecosystem. On the other was considered to be the most stable habitat of the and Chepa. respective ecosystem. On the other hand, locations

82 78

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

FigureFigure 53: 53: Spatial Spatial distribution distribution of the variability of the in variability the stability in of thecorals stability (a) and seagrass of bedscorals (b) in(a) Memba and seagrass district. beds (b) in Memba district.

Table 15: Land cover change (in hectares) in Memba district between 1996-2017

Initial land cover classes (1996) Dense Open Mangrove Shrubland Grassland Cropland Settlement Bareland Water Total Forest Forest Forest New Dense Forest 6729.39 3937.68 20.43 7915.32 1048.41 223.02 2.79 514.98 0.9 20392.92 land Open Forest 19823.76 19187.19 18.36 32554.62 2037.78 343.62 4.59 406.26 0.63 74376.81 cover classes Mangrove 282.6 5.22 1890.18 90.72 1.71 0.18 0 2.61 0.27 2273.49 (2017) Shrubland 45443.7 42528.87 74.88 219500.7 13161.96 4782.69 62.01 1909.08 1.17 327465.1 Grassland 902.25 560.97 21.6 3985.2 281.88 108.36 12.15 443.7 1.62 6317.73 Cropland 1352.34 943.11 11.88 11856.78 1123.29 1905.66 16.02 386.91 0 17595.99 Settlement 38.52 30.42 0.09 513.72 37.8 110.34 150.3 30.24 0 911.43 Bareland 193.5 72.72 122.22 1989.9 142.74 713.79 14.58 2050.83 0.27 5300.55 Water 227.79 26.91 1233.18 664.92 11.79 91.17 1.35 745.2 19.71 3022.02 Total 74993.85 67293.09 3392.82 279071.9 17847.36 8278.83 263.79 6489.81 24.57 Changes -54600.9 7083.72 -1119.33 48393.18 -11529.6 9317.16 647.64 -1189.26 2997.45

The land use change matrix presents the dynamics of the changes within a particular land cover class. Total coverage of each class at the base line or reference year (1996 in this case) is shown in the second row from the bottom. While the total coverage in the latter year (2017 in this case) is show on the furthest column on the right. The entries in each of the other cells moving from top to bottom show the areas of a particular land use which have shifted from the initial land cover class to another class in the follow up year. On the other hand, the entries from left to right show the new acrages that have been gained by a class in the follow up year. The values at the intesrsection of the same class between initial and follow-up year show the stable areas that have not shifted in the two epochs of analysis. Changes are computed by subtracting the totals of a particular land cover class in the initial year (vertical sums) from the total coverage in the latter epoch (horizontal totals). Negative changes (shaded in orange), imply a reduction in coverage of the respective class from the baseline year of 1996 to the follow-up year of 2017 while the positive changes (shaded in green) signify an increase in the coverage of the respective class). It therefore follows that in Memba district, (Table 14), dense forest class, mangroves, grasslands and bareland reduced in coverage while the other classes increased in coverage.

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

3.2.4.5. Overall land cover changes in 3.2.4.6. Geographic distribution in the 3.2.4.5. Overall land cover changes in 3.2.4.6. Geographic distribution in the Dondo district change of status of coastal forest in Dondo Dondo district change of status of coastal forest in From the land cover change matrix for Dondo district district (TableFr om15), the there land were cover net change losses matrix in the for forest, Dondo mangrove district Dondo district (Table 15), there were net losses in the forest, mangrove Geographically, the hotspots of degradation of coastal and shrubland land cover classes between 1996 and Geographically, the hotspots of degradation of coastal and shrubland land cover classes between 1996 and forests in Dondo districts are towards the north-western forests in Dondo districts are towards the north-western 2017.20 17. Conversely Conversely there there appeared appeared to to be be gains gains in the in the part of the district that has traditionally hosted most of its grassland,grassland, cropland, cropland, settlement settlement andand barelands. barelands. Of Of partdense of the forests. district In that addition, has traditionally other vulnerable hosted most areas are the of its dense forests. In addition, other vulnerable the focusthe focus ecosystems ecosystems in inthis this study, study, thethe mostmost significant significant coastal areas towards the shoreline. This particularly due areas are the coastal areas towards the shoreline. This changeschanges were were in the in thedense dense forest forest classes classes which which lost lost nearly particularlyto the high due concentration to the high concentrationof populations of inpopulations these areas. It a quarternearly ofa quarter the coverage of the coverage in the in20 the years 20 year ofs analysis.of inis thesealso evidentareas. It thatis also there evident is pressure that there on is thepressur foreste classes analysis. Mangrove forest classes in the district less than Mangrove forest classes in the district less than 10% of onfrom the forestBeira classesand Dondo from Beira towns and Dondoin the townsSouth in Western 10% of the coverage. the coverage. theparts South of theWestern district. parts Potential of the district. areas Potential of regeneration areas are By lookingBy looking at at thethe individualindividual ecosystems, ecosystems, the forestthe forest ofin regeneration the wetlands are inand the thewetlands estuarine and the parts estuarine towards the classesclasses mainly mainly shifted shifted toto shrublands,shrublands, grasslands grasslands and and partswestern towards boundaries the western of the boundaries district. ofDue the to district. the dominant croplands while the mangrove classes changed to croplands while the mangrove classes changed to other Duecroplands to the dominant and grasslands croplands to andthe grasslandssouthwest, to agroforestry other forest classes, grasslands and shrublands. This the southwest, agroforestry could provide a potential forest classes, grasslands and shrublands. This reveals could provide a potential alternative for improving the reveals the systematic change in the forest classes to alternativetree cover for in improvingthe district. the tree cover in the district. the systematicshrublands, change grasslands, in the cr oplandsforest classes and ultimately to shrublands, to grasslands,settlements croplands and barelands. and ultimately From the to same settlements analysis, itand is barelands.also noteworthy From the that same settlements analysis, specifically it is also noteworthyemerged that from settlements areas that specificallywere initially shrublands, emerged grasslands from areas and that werecr initiallyoplands. shrublands, grasslands and croplands.

Figure 54: Geographic distribution of the changes in the status of coastal forests in Dondo district

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Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

3.2.4.7. Geographic distribution in the shorelines towards Beira town, the mangroves have 3.2.4.7. Geographic distribution in the change largelythe eastern been mangrove degraded. forests, Apart their from being human in an influence estuarine change of status of mangrove forests in onarea the also eastern exposes mangrove them tofor otherests, their influences being in includingan of status of mangrove forests in Dondo district estuarine area also exposes them to other influences Dondo district includingflooding floodingand sediment and loadsediment from loadDondoriver. from Dondoriver. The main mangrove forests in Dondo have tradionally Thebeen main in mangrove the eastern for shorelinesests in Dondo of the have district. tradionally From 1996 The degradationdegradation patternpattern of of mangroves mangroves in in Dondo Dondo district district been-2017, in the the eastern main stable shorelines stands of ofthe mangrove district. Fr forestom 1996 were araree notnot limitedlimited to to the the edges edges of ofthe the forest forest but but shore shore -2017,found the to main be alongstable the stands same of shorelines. mangrove In forest the westernwere extensiveextensive degradationdegradation intointo the the for ests,forests, resulting resulting in in foundshorelines to be along towards the sameBeira shorelines.town, the Inmangroves the western have potentialpotential mangrove forestforest fragmentation. fragmentation. largely been degraded. Apart from human influence on

Figure 55: Geographic distribution of changes in the mangrove ecosystem in Dondo district

Table 16: Land cover change (in hectares) in Dondo district from 1996-2017

Initial land cover classes (1996)

Dense Open Mangrove Shrubland Grassland Cropland Wetland Settlement Bareland Water Total Forest Forest Forest New Dense Forest 16361.82 6198.39 225.72 7465.41 1286.73 122.85 19.08 3.87 0.27 373.14 32057.28 land Open Forest 10881.9 6675.84 82.35 7683.39 2048.58 243.72 16.92 4.23 0.45 69.93 27707.31 cover classes Mangrove 123.03 24.84 1741.5 83.52 13.95 4.77 0 0 0.63 112.05 2104.29 (2017) Shrubland 10646.19 10552.68 78.03 71458.92 10741.23 2457.36 7.47 57.87 29.25 96.12 106125.1 Grassland 3877.74 3971.79 104.94 23598.09 9371.52 2567.07 52.47 21.78 33.75 145.62 43744.77 Cropland 707.58 678.78 3.06 8296.38 3836.79 9445.68 13.77 70.56 0 84.87 23137.47 Wetland 81.18 20.07 3.78 284.58 1077.48 29.79 41.94 0.09 0 57.69 1596.6 Settlement 82.17 66.51 0.18 2697.93 587.79 1581.75 0 1369.35 0.99 0 6386.67 Bareland 0.9 1.71 9.63 107.1 3.06 5.76 0 0.36 313.47 21.78 463.77 Water 98.1 11.25 54.45 94.23 69.57 104.76 0 0 11.25 1592.1 2035.71 Total 42860.61 28201.86 2303.64 121769.6 29036.7 16563.51 151.65 1528.11 390.06 2553.3 Changes -10803.3 -494.55 -199.35 -15644.4 14708.07 6573.96 1444.95 4858.56 73.71 -517.59

Once again the classes with the negative changes (shaded in orange) have reduced in coverage from tha baseline year in 1996 to the follow-up year in 2017 while the positive changes (shaded in green) increased in coverage over the period of analysis. Consequently, there was a net reduction in coastal forest classes, mangroves and shrublands in Dondo district in the period between 1996 and 2017. In addition, due to anthropogenic activities, climate change and tidal fluctuations, amount of open water surfaces in the district also reduced.

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

3.2.4.8.3.2.4.8. Overall Overall land land covercover change change in in grasslands.forest classes, For thethe mangrovemain shift wasforests, towards the effect shrublands of tidal Inhassoro district andand shoreline to grasslands. changes For of the the mangrove 20 years was forests, also theevident effect Inhassoro district asof a tidal section and of shoreline the previous changes mangrove of the forests 20 years particularly was also From the land cover change matrix of Inhassoro district inevident the northern as a section shores wasof the taken previous up by mangrove water. forests Fr(Tableom the 16), land net cover losses change were matrix recorded of Inhassor in coastalo district forest (Tclassesable 16), and net in losses mangroves were inrecorded the period in coastal from 1996-2017. forest Ofparticularly note also in theis the northern expansion shores of was the taken areas up under by classesSince Inhassoroand in mangr traditionallyoves in thehas period had the from least 1996 coverage-2017. settlement,water. particularly taking over areas that were Sinceof mangrove Inhassor oforest traditionally of the three has hadstudy the districts, least coverage a loss of initiallyOf note occupied also is the by expansionforests, shrublands of the areas and grasslands.under Similarly, there was also a four-fold expansion in the areas of approximatelymangrove forest 70 hectaresof the three of mangroves study districts, in the a 20loss years settlement, particularly taking over areas that were under of underapproximately analysis was70 hectar approximatelyes of mangr moreoves than in the20% 20 loss initially occupied by forests, shrublands and grasslands. yearsof mangrove under analysis cover inwas the approximately district. Of all more the three than forest20% Similarly, there was also a four-fold expansion in the lossclasses, of mangrove the main cover shift inwas the towards district. shrublandsOf all the three and to areas under

3.2.4.9. Distribution of changes in the coastal forests in Inhassoro district

Figure 56: Geographic distribution in the change of status of coastal forests in Inhassoro district

Geographically, the hotspots of forest degradation in be in the area approximately 20km from the shoreline. theGeographically, mainland areas the of hotspotsInhassor oof district forest appear degradation to be onin beBecause in the ofarea the approximately relatively low 20kmconcentration from the ofshoreline. human thethe eastern mainland parts areas of the of districtInhassoro towards district the appear shoreline to be Becausesettlements of the in relativelythe western low interconcentrationiors of the ofdistrict, human most (Figuron thee 53). eastern In Bazarutoisland, parts of the district there towards is consistent the shoreline spatial settlementsregenerated in for theests western appear interiors towards of thethe westerndistrict, mostpart of distribution(Figure 53). of In degradation Bazarutoisland, locations there alongis consistent the lengths spatial regeneratedInhassoro district. forests appear towards the western part of of distributionthe island. Theof degradation main stable locations forest classes along appearthe lengths to Inhassoro district. of the island. The main stable forest classes appear to

3.2.4.10.Coastal Distribution Resilience to of Climate changes Change in Baseline; the Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment mangrove forests in Inhassoro district

In both mainland Inhassoro district and in towards the north-eastern part of Inhassoro district Bazarutoisland,3.2.4.10. Distribution there have been of changes significant in losses the in the andclasses. also The in Bazarutoisland. spatial pattern of Ar theeas loss of regeneration of the mangroves are mangrovemangrove classes. forests The spatialin Inhassoro pattern ofdistrict the loss of the aparticularlyappears to be in theconcentrated southern patchin the closer forest to towards Inhassor theo mangroves appears to be concentrated in the forest town.north-eastern part of Inhassoro district and also in In both mainland Inhassoro district and in Bazarutoisland, Bazarutoisland. Areas of regeneration are aparticularly there have been significant losses in the mangrove

Figure 57: Distribution in the changes of mangrove forests in Inhassoro district

in one epoch was considered to be least stable. This 3.2.4.11. Stability of corals and seagrass other hand, locations where, the respective ecosystem 3.2.4.11. Stability of corals and seagrass assumption was motivated by the fact that detecting bedsbeds in in Inhassor Inhassoroo district district was only detectable in one epoch was considered to be coralsleast stable. and seagrasses This assumption is highly was dependent motivated onby thethe fact To visualizeTo visualize the the stability stability of sea of -sea-basedbased classes classes over over the the turbiditythat detecting and tidal corals characteristics and seagrasses of isthe highly ocean. dependent It perioperiodd of analysisinof analysisin Inhassor Inhassoroo district, district, an an arithmetic arithmetic sum thereforeon the turbidity follows and that tidal highly characteristics turbid and ofturbulent the ocean. ocean It sumof of the the corals corals and and seagrasse seagrasse classes classes in the in thefour four epochs of surfacestherefore arfollowse the leastthat highlysuitable turbid for the and sustainability turbulent ocean of epochsanalysis of analysis was computed. was computed. Locations whereLocations corals where or seagrass coralssurfaces and are seagrass the least beds. suitable At the for s amethe sustainabilitytime, corals andof coralsbeds, or dependingseagrass beds, on the depending class under on analysis the class was availableunder seagrasscorals and beds seagrass in such beds. surfaces At the ar samee also time, least corals detectable. and analysisfor each was of available the four forepochs each ofwas the considered four epochs to be the Basedseagrass on beds this assumption,in such surfaces the are map also in leastfigure detectable. 57 wasmost considered stable habitat to be ofthe the most respective stable habitatecosystem. of the On the highlightsBased on thisthat assumption, geographic the distribution map in figure of the 57 stabilityhighlights of respective ecosystem. On the other hand, locations corals and seagrass beds in Inhassoro district. The least where, the respective ecosystem was only detectable stable locations are are potentially the most vulnerable. 85 89

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

that geographic distribution of the stability of corals most vulnerable. In addition, the thin line of seagrass to From the analysis, the most stable corals in Inhassoro to be unstable. This may be due to the flat form of the and seagrass beds in Inhassoro district. The least stable shorelinethe northern that shores exposes of the the mainland seagrass district beds toalso the appear tidal are thoselocations that are ar epotentially deep within the themost sea vulnerable. while the corals to be unstable. This may be due to the flat form of the around the coastlines both for the mainland areas and influencesshoreline that from exposes the ocean the whileseagrass also beds making to the flattidal thoseFrom in close the analysis,to the shor thees most of Bazarut stable ocorals island in ar Inhassoroe the shorelines easily accessible to humans. are those that are deep within the sea while the corals influences from the ocean while also making the flat most vulnerable. In addition, the thin line of seagrass to shorelines easily accessible to humans. the northernaround the shor coastlineses of the both mainland for the district mainland also areas appear and those in close to the shores of Bazaruto island are the

Figure 58: Spatial distribution of the variability in the stability of corals (a) and seagrass beds (b) in Inhassoro district

Table 17: Land cover change (in hectares) in Inhassoro district from 1996-2017

Initial land cover classes (1996)

Dense Open For- Man- Shru- Grass- Cropland Wet- Settle- Bare- Water Total Forest est grove bland land land ment land Forest New Dense 9885.96 8404.11 17.01 12607.29 1038.42 326.34 2.79 0.18 0.63 5.22 32287.95 land Forest cover Open 6118.02 14827.68 2.52 32984.1 5885.19 80.01 1.17 0.09 0.54 3.24 59902.56 class- Forest es (2017) Man- 11.7 10.8 219.96 3.78 6.3 2.88 0 0 0.36 0 255.78 grove Shru- 18186.75 40401 36.27 53946.72 25272 2185.29 17.01 14.85 31.5 145.35 140236.7 bland Grass- 5502.96 12194.37 3.51 25724.52 7057.35 3264.39 23.94 8.1 101.25 32.85 53913.24 land Cropland 2427.75 3520.89 0.18 8699.58 3589.38 4101.03 2.07 12.78 256.23 1.35 22611.24 Wetland 48.6 145.35 3.87 28.98 34.74 20.43 2.61 0 25.65 0.63 310.86 Settle- 157.86 203.49 0.36 660.24 284.4 657.27 0 674.01 198.18 1.35 2837.16 ment Bareland 2.97 7.47 0.27 10.44 131.22 101.79 0 0.72 2479.68 4.68 2739.24 Water 120.78 126.99 43.65 189.72 176.4 87.39 0.54 0 48.06 436.32 1229.85 Total 42463.35 79842.15 327.6 134855.4 43475.4 10826.82 50.13 710.73 3142.08 630.99 Changes -10175.4 -19939.6 -71.82 5381.37 10437.84 11784.42 260.73 2126.43 -402.84 598.86

From the change detection statistics (Table 16), there was a net loss (shaded in orange) in the coastal forest classes and in the barelands in Inhassoro district. On the other hand the land cover classes that appeared to have had major increases in coverage in the district for the period between 1996 and 2017 were shrublands, grashlands, croplands and settlements indicating the potential influence of human activities in changing the forests and barelands into the other classes.

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

3.3. Socio-economic results and inter- overlapoverlap andand affectaffect allall coastalcoastal ecosystemsecosystems both both terrestrial terrestrial 3.3. Socio-economic results and inter- and marine. They also impact other ecosystems such pretations and marine. They also impact other ecosystems such pretations asas interti intertidaldal mud mud and and sandflats sandflats which womenwhich ar ewomen are ThisThis sectionsection summarisessummarises sociosocio-economic-economic inputs inputs for for all all significantlysignificantly dependentdependent onon for thethe shellfishshellfish fishery fishery. . thethe threethree districts. districts. Socio Socio-economic-economic situation situation analysis analysis actsacts as a cross-cuttingcross-cutting theme, as many of these domains

Table 18 Links between socio economic behaviours and ecosystems

Institutions and Coral Seagrass Mangrove Coastal for- Sand Dunes practices Reefs Beds forests ests Institutions and x x x x x culture Environmental x x x x x economics Fishing practices x x x x Forest harvesting x x x practices Agriculture prac- x x x tices Fire practices x x x

The section starts with a review of two key previous projects as well and then outlines the Success Factor Analysis (SFA). This is a central part of the socio-economic analysis of the baselines. It then discusses the general socio-economic linkages to each of the ecosystems analysing some factors in more depth. It then highlights specific relevant elements in each district, including results from stakeholder interactions before providing inputs into the community plans. Recommendations have been generated throughout the text as appropriate and collated in the recommendations section 4.

3.3.1. Review of previous projects and attributed to its integrated livelihood approach, which delivered tangible development in remote and complex 3.3.1. Review of previous projects and studies and is still ongoing (IFAD. 2012). The Sofala Bank studies Projectfishing areaswas an and important beyond milestonethe fisheries in thesector. development The 3.3.1.1.3.3.1.1. ProjectProject document document and and district district profiles ofproject the artisanalhad impacts fishery at the sector. household, This institutional is attributed and to its policy levels (IFAD, 2016). This included better incomes profilesThe Coastal Resilience to Climate Change (CRCC) integrated livelihood approach, which delivered tangible project document and its annexes, especially the district developmentand assets among in remote beneficiaries, and complex enhanced fishing human areas and and The Coastal Resilience to Climate Change (CRCC) profiles (IUCN, 2017, Annexes a, b &c.), were particularly beyondsocial capital, the fisheries improved accesssector. to The social project and market had impacts project document and its annexes, especially the important inputs into the social assessment. There is a atinfrastructure, the household, as well institutional as better andparticipation policy levels in grass (IFAD,- district profiles (IUCN, 2017, Annexes a, b &c.), were rich source of district level socio-economic information 2016).roots institutions This included and betterin particular incomes in savingsand assets and among credit particularly important inputs into the social assessment. contained in these documents that has not been repeated beneficiaries,groups. The project enhanced made an importanthuman contributionand social capital, There is a rich source of district level socio-economic here but referred to as appropriate. improvedto policy formulationaccess to social and legislationand market favouring infrastructure, the as information contained in these documents that has not wellartisanal as better fishery participation subsector in and grass- helped roots strengthen institutions and been3.3.1.2. repeated Sofala here Bankbut referred Artisanal to as Fisheriesappropriate. ininstitutions particular in in the savings subsector. and creditThe development groups. The of project the Project (SBAFP) madeNational an Strategicimportant Plan contribution for the Artisanal to policy Fishery formulation Sector 3.3.1.2. Sofala Bank Artisanal Fisheries and(Plano legislation Estratégico favouring para o theSector artisanal da Pesca fishery Artesanal subsector In recent years there have been two important projects and(PESP helpedA 2006 strengthen-2016), was institutions one of the projectin the’s highestsubsector. Prin oject coastal (SBAFP) fisheries management both supported by Theachievements development of the National Strategic Plan for the InIFAD. recent These years were there the have Sofala been Bank two importantArtisanal projectsFisheries Artisanal Fishery Sector (Plano Estratégico para o Sector inProject coastal (SBAFP), fisheries (IFAD. management 2016) and both the Artisanalsupported Fisheries by Importantly the project helped fishery communities da Pesca Artesanal (PESPA 2006-2016), was one of the IFPromotionAD. These Project were the (ProPESCA), Sofala Bank which Artisanal started Fisheries in 2012 organize into groups and also promoted a culture of Project (SBAFP), (IFAD. 2016) and the Artisanal Fisheries savings and credit, which continues under the ProPesca Promotion Project (ProPESCA), which started in 2012 project this provides a good basis upon which to start 88 and is still ongoing (IFAD. 2012). new activities under CRCC. The impact evaluation The Sofala Bank Project was an important milestone in reported a remarkable impact on the access of the the development of the artisanal fishery sector. This is artisanal fishery communities to informal microfinance 92 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

project’s highest achievements Importantly the project more plausible linkages to ecosystem governance. helped fishery communities organize into groups and Recommendation: Link with and build upon the ASCA also promoted a culture of savings and credit, which work that has been undertaken by SBAFP and ProPESCA. continues under the ProPesca project this provides a good basis upon which to start new activities under Post harvesting activities: SBAFP did some groundwork CRCC. The impact evaluation reported a remarkable towards the diversification of the economic base of the impact on the access of the artisanal fishery communities rural poor through improved post-harvesting activities to informal microfinance (through accumulating savings and the project’s training activities led to improved and credit associations - ASCAs), which led to increased post-harvesting activities (e.g. salting and drying) and its personal savings and improved investment capacity in infrastructure development component created better the artisanal fishery subsector (IFAD 2016). The project recorded improved engagement in women with the ASCAs which is in common with the lessons for this kind(through of project. accumulating savings and credit associations - ASCAs), which led to increased personal savings and The reviewimproved commented investment that: capacity in the artisanal fishery “All insubsector all, the (IF effectivenessAD 2016). of this component shows Sofala Bank Artisinal Fishing Project mixedThe results. project Even recorded if the project improved succeeded engagement in mobilizing in women microfinance results ASCAswith at communitythe ASCAs whichlevel, isit indid common not succeed with the in lessonsrealizing for their fullthis social kind of and project. economic potential by linking these Impressive achievements in linking beneficiaries savingsThe groups review commented with formal that: financial institutions and to informal microfinance institutions. However, commercial“All in all,banks the effectivenessfor productive of creditthis component and other shows forms the creation of effective links with the formal of financialmixed servicesresults. Even for livelihood if the project enhancement. succeeded in It did not financial sector is a missed opportunity. 1,187 put enoughmobilizing emphasis ASCAs aton community value-addition, level, it promotiondid not succeed of ASCAs were created against a target of 600. marketin linkagesrealizing astheir well full associal creation and economic of micro-enterprises. potential ASCAs were created through various NGOs and “ by linking these savings groups with formal financial institutions and commercial banks for productive credit had the objective to target the poorest sections It wentand on other to say: forms of financial services for livelihood of the community and women. The project However,enhancement. the linkages It did with not put the enough formal emphasis financial on sector managed to reach 20,077 members, of which 46 and privatevalue- addition, sector actorspromotion along of market the fishery linkages valueas well aschain per cent were women. Taken together, ASCAs remaincreation weak ofand micro constrain-enterprises. impact “ on productivity were able to collect a total MZM 41 million and onIt wentthe incomeon to say: base of artisanal communities. The savings and approved credit of MZM 51.7 million evidenceHowever, suggests the l inkagesthat ASCAs with the are formal still mainlyfinancial used sector by during project implementation. These are individualsand private for savings. sector actorsThe evaluation along the fisherydid not value find chain much remain weak and constrain impact on productivity remarkable achievements for poor rural families evidence that these groups have been federated into and on the income base of artisanal communities. The in areas where access to credit was (and it is) viable institutions with greater voice and capability to evidence suggests that ASCAs are still mainly used by difficult, very few banks were present and the link toin dividuals formal and/or for savings. commercial The evaluation financial did not institutions. find much Both the quantitative and qualitative analysis found that demand for financial services was high. IFAD, evidence that these groups have been federated into 2016. the amountsviable institutions invested with in greaterproductive voice andactivities, capability which to could linkhave to beenformal financed and/or commercial by taking financial credit frominstitutions. ASCAs, are veryBoth small. the quantitative This indicates and qualitatthat byive and analysis large found ASCAs that remainedthe amounts weakly invested linked to in productive fisheries activities, activities which and did not managecould have to promote been financed higher by investmentstaking credit fromin fisheries ASCAs, Box 1 Sofala Bank Artisanal Fishing Project microfinance result are very small. This indicates that by and large ASCAs technologicalremained innovations, weakly linked which to fisheries require activities the availability and did access to markets, which indirectly contributed to better of biggernot manageamounts to of p romotefinancial higher capital investments for acquisition in fisheries and incomes. However diversification activities but it did technological innovations, which require the availability maintenance over the years” not fully achieve their objective. The involvement of of bigger amounts of financial capital for acquisition and access to markets, which indirectly contributed to better It should be noted, however, the VSLA type of ASCA the private sector and the development of small and maintenance over the years” incomes. However diversification activities but it did is not supposed to be federated especially if this medium-sized fishery enterprises and relevant linkages not fully achieve their objective. The involvement of increasesIt should the beoperational noted, however, costs the and VSLA interest type of rates ASCA as according to the impact evaluation report (IFAD 2016) is not supposed to be federated especially if this theremained private at sectoran embryonic and the level, development and this would of appe smallar and the group independence keeps costs manageable by increases the operational costs and interest rates as medium-sizedso today. fishery enterprises and relevant linkages community members, neither are they aimed a large the group independence keeps costs manageable by according to the impact evaluation report (IFAD 2016) scale commercial enterprise focusing mostly on women’s Recommendation: Assess whether supporting post community members, neither are they aimed a large remainedharvesting at activities an embryonic as a CRCC level, project and activitythis would will have appear economic empowerment. Thus strong private sector scale commercial enterprise focusing mostly on women’s soa valuetoday. addition for the management of ecosystems linkageseconomic are likely empowerme to be inappropriate.nt. Thus strong Later private we sectordiscuss linkages are likely to be inappropriate. Later we discuss 3.3.1.2.1. Institutional analysis more plausible linkages to ecosystem governance. 89 In summary the evaluation commented “In terms Recommendation: Link with and build upon the of impact on institutions and policies, the project ASCA work that has been undertaken by SBAFP and culminated in the adoption of PESPA. Yet, there ProPESCA. were shortcomings in the co-management approach Post harvesting activities: SBAFP did some groundwork and enforcement process of the management towards the diversification of the economic base of the measures stemming from PESPA. PESPA recognized rural poor through improved post-harvesting activities the importance of developing linkages to formal and the project’s training activities led to improved microfinance institutions and markets, but it did not post-harvesting activities (e.g. salting and drying) and its promote any conducive policies. Grass-roots institutions infrastructure development component created better are weak because by and large they have not been federated into apex organizations. This would have

93 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Recommendation: Assess whether supporting post 3.3.1.3. ProPESCA project harvesting activities as a CRCC project activity will have a value addition for the management of ecosystems The ProPESCA project is a large IFAD / OFID investment of USD 43.5 million over seven years on the whole 3.3.1.2.1. Institutional analysis coastline, with IFAD financing USD 21.1 million and the Opec Fund for International Development (OFID) USD In summary the evaluation commented “In terms of 13.5 million (IFAD,2012). The development goal is to impact on institutions and policies, the project culminated improve incomes and livelihoods of households involved in the adoption of PESPA. Yet, there were shortcomings in artisanal fisheries. Its purpose is to increase the volume in the co-management approach and enforcement of high value fish on a sustainable basis and increase the process of the management measures stemming from returns obtained from traded fish. Some 26 growth poles, PESPA. PESPA recognized the importance of developing in 7 provinces along the coast line, were identified within linkages to formal microfinance institutions and markets, 24 districts to participate in ProPESCA, representing but it did not promote any conducive policies. Grass- about half of the 51 coastal districts of Mozambique. roots institutions are weak because by and large they ProPESCA started in March 2011. The OFID loan was have not been federated into apex organizations. This declared effective in January 2012 and is ongoing. The would have given them more leverage in policy dialogue project is making investments in the fish value chains with government authorities and resource allocation at the participating growth poles. These will include processes”. strengthening fisher capacity, fish market and related Recommendation: CRCC to consider strengthening infrastructure, input and output traders and community the conducive policies towards linking microfinance as well as national and district government capacities institutions with ecosystem managment to manage artisanal fisheries sustainably. There are four components – Supporting development of Higher Value 3.3.1.2.2. Environment and natural Fish; Improving Economic Infrastructure; developing resources management. Financial Services and Institutional Strengthening, Overall the SBAFP the evaluation assess that, the impact Policy Initiatives and Project management. The project on natural resources management was limited. However, is continuing the work of supporting ASCAs and the role of the project in preparing the ground for the microfinance. long-term sustainable management of marine resources Parallel to and linked to ProPESCA, IFAD administers a of the Sofala Bank was valuable. This was achieve by the grant from the Belgian Fund for Food Security (BFFS) adoption of PESPA and the co-management approach for the Coastal HIV/Aids Prevention and Nutrition which were key to promoting an enabling environment Improvement Project (CHAPANI), effective from May and set the basis for the sustainable management of the 2012, with the overall goal to improve food security and marine resources of the Sofala Bank. However, this was livelihoods of households involved in artisanal fisheries. not the same as “reducing unsustainable practices that The grant recipient Associação Moçambicana Ajuda de threaten the natural resource base in the project area” Povo para Povo (ADPP). ADPP is IUCN’s partner in the as foreseen. Despite improvements in fishers’ awareness SUSTAIN project. It will mobilise people in the fishing and capacity to fish more sustainably, the adoption of communities to increase their knowledge of and change different and more targeted fishing techniques than risky sexual behaviour and (as of the second year) those used at the start of the project appears to be less diversify their regular diet. widespread than expected given the thrust of the project in this regard.. Recommendation: Coordinate closely with the Ministry (or ProPESCA project) including the savings and credits Recommendation: CRCC to promote the adoption shemes as well as the nutrition and food security of more sustainable and ecosystem friendly fishing component as it relates to coastal resilience techniques

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Figure 59: Fishing communities supported by Propesca (IFAD 2012)

95 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

3.3.2. Success factor analysis project. The project team can also be clear about which factors it is attempting influence, or remove barriers. The results of the success factor analysis, which was carried out during the provincial workshops as a group With regards to the results during the provincial exercise, indicates the perception of project participants workshops it can be seen the different provincial teams of the status of the 32 key success factors in the project had different perceptions about the extent to which area. The success factors are based on the analysis of a certain success factors were in place. In some cases there wide range of restoration projects. would be expected provincial differences but in other (e.g. the legal situation) it would be expected to be the The absence of success can be caused by barriers same. Overall the facilitation team felt that the teams which may need to be removed before progress can were being overly optimistic about which of the success be made. One of the key benefits of the success factor factors were already in place. The pattern expected analysis is that it facilitates a discussion by the project at the beginning of such a process is that there would participants over, and learning about the factors that will be less greens and more yellows and red boxes than is lead to project success. These factors can be built into shown in the project sites from this exercise. the project monitoring and evaluation framework and revisited for example every 6 months or annually on the

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Table 19Table Preliminary 19 Preliminary restoration restoration success factor success analysis factor analysis

KEY: GREEN= IN PLACE YELLOW= PARTLY IN PLACE RED= NOT IN PLACE KEY: GREEN= IN PLACE YELLOW= PARTLY IN PLACE RED= NOT IN PLACE Theme Feature Key success factor Provincial-level Responses Theme Feature Key success factor Provincial-level Responses Inhass- Inhass- Memba Dondo oro Memba Dondo oro Restoration (marine & terrestrial) generates economic benefits Yes Yes Yes Restoration (marine & terrestrial) generates economic benefits Yes Yes Yes Restoration (marine & terrestrial) generates social benefits Yes Yes Yes a. Benefits Restoration (marine & terrestrial) generates social benefits Yes Yes Yes a. Benefits Restoration (marine & terrestrial) generates environmental benefits Yes Yes Yes

Restoration (marine & terrestrial) generates environmental benefits Yes Yes Yes

Benefits of restoration are publicly communicated Partially Partially Partially b. Awareness Benefits of restoration are publicly communicated Partially Partially Partially b. Awareness Opportunities for restoration are identified Partially Partially Yes

Motivate Opportunities for restoration are identified Partially Partially Yes

Motivate Crisis events are leveraged Partially Partially Yes c. Crisis events Crisis events are leveraged Partially Partially Yes c. Crisis events ally Law requiring restoration exists Partially allyYes Yes d. Legal Law requiring restoration exists Partially Yes Yes d.re quirementsLegal Law requiring restoration is broadly understood and enforced Partially Partially Partially requirements Law requiring restoration is broadly understood and enforced Partially Partially Partially

Marine (coastal, inshore and ocean) and terrestrial (soil, water, Yes Yes Yes Marineclimate, (coastal,and fire) inshoreconditions and are ocean) suitable and for terrestrial restoration (soil, water, Yes Yes Yes climate, and fire) conditions are suitable for restoration e. Ecological Marine or terrestrial plants and animals that can impede restoration Partially Yes Yes Marine or terrestrial plants and animals that can impede restoration Partially Yes Yes e.conditions Ecological are absent conditions are absent Native seeds, seedlings, or sources populations are readily available Yes Yes Yes Native seeds, seedlings, or sources populations are readily available Yes Yes Yes

Competing demands (e.g., food, fuel) for degraded coastal and Partially No Partially f. Market Competingforestlands aredemands declining (e.g., food, fuel) for degraded coastal and Partially No Partially f.conditions Market forestlands are declining conditions Value chains for products from restored areas exists Partially Yes Yes Value chains for products from restored areas exists Partially Yes Yes Land and natural resource tenure are secure Yes Yes Yes ble Land and natural resource tenure are secure Yes Yes Yes

Enable Policies affecting restoration are aligned and streamlined Partially No Partially

Ena Policies affecting restoration are aligned and streamlined Partially No Partially g. Policy Restrictions on clearing remaining natural forests or damaging Yes No Yes g.conditions Policy Restrictionscoastal habitats on clearing(wetlands re mainingmangrove, natural dune, forestsseagrass, or coraldamaging reef) Yes No Yes conditions coastalexist habitats (wetlands mangrove, dune, seagrass, coral reef) exist Coastal habitat clearing and damage restrictions are enforced Partially No Partially Coastal habitat clearing and damage restrictions are enforced Partially No Partially Local people are empowered to make decisions about restoration Partially Partially Yes Local people are empowered to make decisions about restoration Partially Partially Yes h. Social Local people are able to benefit from restoration Yes Yes Partially h.conditions Social Local people are able to benefit from restoration Yes Yes Partially conditions Cultural factors support and do not impede restoration Partially Yes Yes Cultural factors support and do not impede restoration Partially Yes Yes i. Institutional Roles and responsibilities for restoration are clearly defined Partially Yes Partially Roles and responsibilities for restoration are clearly defined Partially Yes Partially i.conditions Institutional Effective institutional coordination is in place Partially Partially Yes conditions Effective institutional coordination is in place Partially Partially Yes

National and/or local restoration champions exist Partially Yes Partially j. Leadership National and/or local restoration champions exist Partially Yes Partially j. Leadership Sustained political commitment exists Partially Yes Yes Sustained political commitment exists Partially Yes Yes Restoration "know how" relevant to candidate landscapes exist Yes Yes Yes k. Knowledge Restoration "know how" relevant to candidate landscapes exist Yes Yes Yes k. Knowledge Restoration "know how" transferred via peers or extension services Yes Partially Partially Restoration "know how" transferred via peers or extension services Yes Partially Partially l. Technical Restoration design is technically grounded and climate resilient Partially Yes Partially Restoration design is technically grounded and climate resilient Partially Yes Partially l.design Technical Restoration limits "leakage" Partially Partially No design Restoration limits "leakage" Partially Partially No Positive incentives and funds for restoration outweigh negative Partially No Yes m. Finance and Positiveincentives incentives and funds for restoration outweigh negative Partially No Yes Implement m.incentives Finance and incentives Implement incentives Incentives and funds are readily accessible No Partially Partially Incentives and funds are readily accessible No Partially Partially Effective performance monitoring and evaluation system is in place Yes Partially Partially Effective performance monitoring and evaluation system is in place Yes Partially Partially n. Feedback n. Feedback Early wins are communicated Partially No Partially Early wins are communicated Partially No Partially

109

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Generally looking at the patterns of analysis it can be 3.3.3. Institutions and culture seen that in terms of “motivation” it is considered that the benefits of restoration are understood. The presence 3.3.3.1. Traditional authorities – Régulo of cyclones as climate related crisis events has helped The Régulo are the traditional authorities of the area and focused efforts towards restoration, although in Dondo a key institution that the project needs to engage with. it was felt that these lessons were not being fully learnt. This is a hereditary position based on clan succession There was a feeling that information around restoration and an integral part of Mozambique social, cultural and was not fully communicated and that the legal position political fabric. The position of the Regulo is recognised related to restoration was not fully understood. In terms by the Government of Mozambique especially since Law of an enabling environment for restoration this showed a 15/2000 which allows for integration of the traditional mixed picture with many of the factors of success being authority in state governance through a legitimating present in Inhassoro, although this would seem to be process. Thus the traditional authorities, have to some only a partial picture) and less present in Memba and extent, to represent the state at community level (IUCN Dondo. The project should pay attention to those factors 2017). Nevertheless, the Ministry of State Administration showing contradictory results for example, competing does not recognize the regulado and even the village demands for food and fuel, the security of tenure to as administrative units and yet it is at these levels where carry out restoration activities, the alignment of policies the community-based natural resource management is and restrictions and enforcement on habitat removal or genuinely sustained. damage. This latter point is particularly important as the cost or restoring ecosystems is more, considerably more Each regulo has a clear geographical area of responsibility in some cases, than keeping those same ecosystems (regulado). The structure of traditional authority is intact and continuing to provide goods and services. legitimized and recognized by state representative. Within the regulado there are the villages and bairros. Thus the balance of investment must be in retaining The bairros and villages are Frelimo administrative units. intact ecosystems rather restoring in one area, while That means in terms of traditional authority structure, another area degrades. In terms of the implementation of each regulado is further subdivided in cabos (GDM restoration the project can help support local champions 2015). In Memba, for example, there are about 689 to emerge as well as increasing and transferring the regulos of first, second and third categories to govern a restoration “know how”. total population of 268.602 inhabitants More details on This latter issue is particularly important in mangrove the Regulo and allied institutions for each of the project restoration as many of the current efforts have led to districts can be found in the District profiles appended to failure. The project will have to pay attention to funds the project document (IUCN, 2017) In addition to social and incentives, monitoring and communications. responsibilities the Regulo has ecological responsibilities being responsible for a geographical area and has Recommendation: It is recommended that the success custodianship of certain ecologies within his or her factor analysis is carried out at the district level and jurisdiction (see below). The Regulo recorded for the repeated periodically during the project. It is a relatively project coastal areas are found in Table 13. quick exercise but enables a deeper reflection of the processes, barriers and successes attendant with restoration and can form part of the projects monitoring effort.

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Table 20 Regulo in the project area

SN. Name of Regulo Location Number of SNS Memba District 1 Jaime Alicora Memba 3 Dondo District 2 Maguacua Dondo-Chonamacon- 2 do Inhassoro District 3 Chibo Chibo 3 4 Fequete Queixa Inhassoro sede 3

Recommendation: The project needs to work small but in some cases can be extensive. In many proactivity with the Regluo of the project area and Recommendation: The project needs to work proactivity in thecases project these area sites that have perform a relationship this numina with other function. areas in supporting them to become champions for ecological with the Regluo of the project area and supporting In thethe landscapeproject areas as these arsitese often are locationsunder a collectivefor decision - themrestoration. to become This champions effort should for startecological first with restoration. the communitymaking onresponsibility societal and with land the m Reguloanagement taking matters. overall Thissacr efforted natural should sites start under first theirwith thecustodianship sacred natural several sites of individualSome traditionalleadership leadersfor their refer care. to These them sites as ‘acupuncture are often underwhich their have custodianship become degraded. several of which have become quitepoints’ small in but the in landscapesome cases indicated can be extensive. their importance In many degraded.Gender note on traditional authorities. Like many casesin thethese cultural sites havelandscape a relationship in as acupuncture with other pointsareas inar e in the body. Thus they are not just isolated places Gendertraditional note societies on traditional the Regulo authorities. has been a Likemale many the landscape as these are often locations for decision- but ‘punch above their weight’ in terms of cultural traditionaldominated societies institution the that Regulohave customarily has been givena male making on societal and land management matters. influence in the landscape. The same has been seen dominatedweight to theinstitution opinion that of malehave customarilyelders. They given have weight not Some traditional leaders refer to them as ‘acupuncture for biodiversity with many sacred natural sites remaining tobeen the opinioneither gender of male or elders. youth Theyresponsive have not although been either there points’ in the landscape indicated their importance in genderare usually or youth mechanism responsive where although the voice there of womenare usually are the localcultural concentrations landscape in ofas biodiversityacupuncture in points the landscape are in the mechanismheard (The where role of the the voice Queen of women Mothers are in heard these (The systems role body.(Verschuur Thus theyen etare al. not 2010), just isolatedwhere other places areas but have‘punch lost ofar thee particularly Queen Mothers important). in these To systemsretain relevance are particularly in the abovetheir their biodiversity. weight’ in Sacr termsed ofnatural cultural sites influence can, therefore, in the be important).modern and To increasingly retain relevance equitable in genderthe modern and youth and landscape.considered The ansame institution has been in seentheir forown biodiversity right, and within some increasinglydispensation equitable these institutions gender and need youth to, and dispensation in-fact in manyjurisdictions sacred natural have sites been remaining given their local own concentrations legal persona. thesemany institutions cases are, need becoming to, and more in-fact gender in many and cases youth are, of biodiversityIn the project in thedistricts landscape a list of(Verschuuren 11 sacred naturalet al. 2010), sites becomingresponsive. more Pr ojectsgender like and CRCC youth can responsive. help these Projects intuitions wherewere other recorded areas ( Thaveable lost14). theirOf th osebiodiversity. where data Sacred was likeunderstand CRCC can the help ways these in intuitionswhich they understand can adapt the to theways naturalprovided sites can,2 were therefore, forests, be2 sand considered dunes andan institution 1 was a coral inchanging which they realities can ofadapt gender to theexpectations changing andrealities mor es.of in theirreef. ownIn Dondo right, and Inhassorin some ojurisdictions they are small have of been 1-2ha gender expectations and mores. given their own legal persona. Recommendation: Support the institution of the but in Memba they are large with a collective size of over 100ha. The majority are degraded and would be Recommendation:Regulo to support Support gender the equity institution in the culturalof the Regulo In the project districts a list of 11 sacred natural sites tomanagement support gender and requityestoration in the of culturaltraditional management land and weregood recorded targets (Tablefor resto 14).ration Of efforts.those where It is recommended data was and restoration of traditional land and sea domains. that the project works with the restoration of sacred sea domains. provided 2 were forests, 2 sand dunes and 1 was a coral reef.natural In Dondo sites and as Inhassoroan entry point they andare smalla means of 1-2ha of engaging but 3.3.3.1.3.3.3.1. Sacred Sacred Natural Natural Sites Sites in Membathe Regulo they as are a championlarge with ofa restorationcollective size the ofwider over areas Culturally most communities in Mozambique, and indeed 100ha. The majority are degraded and would be good Culturally most communities in Mozambique, and under their stewardship. sub Saharan Africa have special places to venerate and targets for restoration efforts. It is recommended that the indeed sub Saharan Africa have special places to intercede with the spirits of the ancestors, hold ceremonies project works with the restoration of sacred natural sites venerate and intercede with the spirits of the ancestors, or bury their dead. These are often natural places such as as an entry point and a means of engaging the Regulo hold ceremonies or bury their dead. These are often forests, lakes, rivers, mountains, rocks. In fact almost any as a champion of restoration the wider areas under their naturalnatural feature places can such take as foronests, these lakes, properties, rivers, mountains,technically stewardship. rocks. In fact almost any natural feature can take known as ‘numina’ (Verchuuren et al. 2010), for example thereon these are sand properties, dunes technicallyand coral reefs, known as aswell ‘numina’ as forests (Verchuuren et al. 2010), for example there are sand dunes and coral reefs, as well as forests in the project area that perform this numina function. In the project areas these sites are under a collective community 95 responsibility with the Regulo taking overall individual leadership for their care. These sites are often quite

Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Table 21 List of 11 sacred natural sites in the project area and details

Site Approximate SN Ecosystem Ecological conditions Name Size Social conditions e.g. forest, Describe the ecology and What is the purpose of the site? Are the Enter the dune, Estimate of the species. Is the site well cultural institutions and rules strong and name of the grassland, site in hectares. preserved or degraded, functioning or have declined. Other local site. coral reef explain. information. Memba District – Regulo Jaime Alicora Ask for spirits for good individual and community practices e.g. 1 Namarupi Forest + 50 hectares Degraded rainfall, good fishing / production;People are sometimes satisfied. 2 Nicoma Grassland 30 hectares Degraded + than 10 3 Munindira Coral reef Preserved hectares + than 20 4 Namarupi Dune Degraded hectares Dondo-Chonamacondo District – Regulo Maguacua Theca- 4 Forests 1 Small wildlife animals Cemetery Theca 5 Farol Dunes 1 Small wildlife animals Preservation of tradition Inhassoro sede District – Regulo Chibo Degraded (greater trawl 6 Gatsala Dunes 2 The cultural institution are strong fishing effort) Degraded (greater trawl 7 Afonso Dunes 1 the cultural institution are strong fishing effort) Degraded (greater trawl 8 Chesi Dunes 1 the cultural institution are strong fishing effort) Inhassoro sede District – Regulo Fequete Degraded (greater trawl 9 Madiane Coral reef 2 The cultural institution are strong fishing effort) Degraded (greater trawl 10 Ana Coral reef 1 he cultural institution are strong fishing effort) Degraded (greater trawl 11 Passagem Coral reef 1 he cultural institution are strong fishing effort)

Recommendation: CRCC project work proactively with communities and Regulo on the conservation of degraded sacred natural sites.

3.3.3.2. Culture and restoration 1. To what extent is culture an important factor that can influence ICZM in the area? From the application of the 10 questions on culture (Wild, 2016) to five Regulo came the detailed answers • It is high because the community respects its culture below. Generally is can see culture can have an influence and traditions, so the intervention must take into on restoration, that working with the Regulo is important account these aspects and they can be a champion for restoration. There is • There is respect for those areas that are cultural sites. cultural change under way. See gender note above. For example certain cultural areas forest cannot have any develop any activities within them. The project 10 Questions on culture for Forest Landscape Restoration also has to respect these areas. – Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM). Each • The social and cultural factors influence integrated bullet represents an answer from a different Regulo. 100 96 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

management of coastal areas, because, for example, • Governance and rights; natural and sacred sites; food; the forests are conservation areas, and the holy sites Institutions and cultural leaderships and spirituality serve the community for worship when there are and religion problems such as scarcity of rain or poor fish catches. • The fishermen think that the female presence in the • Social and cultural factors can influence the inte grated fishing centers influences the low and bad catches and management of coastal zones, as each place has its even the onset of bad weather. The solutions for this way of life and obeys habits, rules and local behavior are: 2. What are the main themes or domains where culture o The use of domestic utensils (Washing dishes, pots influences FLR? and pans) is not allowed in fishing centers, i.e. on the a. Related to land, land tenure, governance and rights: beach, using sea water; i. On land tenure the government aproves individuals to o Prohibition of the presence of women in fishing centers buy a piece of land. To make it official they authorise 4. In your opinion is culture an opportunity for, or a barrier transactions in the government land office. to, ICZM in the area? ii. Land can return to community and government can re- • It is a barrier (x2) issue it to someone else F (Has that happened?) It has • It is an opportunity (x1) happened once Are there any regulations regarding a. If a barrier how? the marine and inter-tidal habitiats. No there is not specific regulations.How does government recognise o Barrier, because at some extent it delays development the authority of the Regulo ? The government provide b. If it is an opportunity how? with them a monthly stipend and a uniform. o Because at one time among people in the community, vii. Could he as reglo create an area to designate a women were forbidden to be close to men, especially degraded area as no-go area or as a sacred area? This in the meetings, they were forced to isolate themselves, can be done, but hisown area is not much degraded, they had no voice. Today with the approach of several but in areas of destruction the Regluo can help to cultures, these myths have been abandoned. restore. 5. How does culture influence gender and youth regard viii. Can a community develop a plan – Yes the community to ICZM? can develop and the Regulo can support. • Culture influences gender. Nowadays everyone (man b. Related to specific landscapes, features in the land- and woman) practices fishing for food, selling and for scape, and/or specific sites (forest or non-forest) e.g. their subsistence, the same applies equally to young sacred natural sites. people. i. Lake fresh water called Casinhenga near the sea • Existence of selective activities where only men (cemetery). Forest called Ziziwa-Galasse 1.5ha. Sacred participate and practice sites in the dunes (used for cemetery). Dues some of • Culture does not influence gender and youth the cemetary is beeing eroded due to sea level rise. Subsidiary question: How is the institution of the No SNSin the marine areas. Regulo adapting to the constitutional requirement of ii. (Praia de Farol-tremor de terra - Beach of Light- house- women’s empowerment? earthquake) • Traditionally the issue of gender – has pushed man c. Related to specific plant and animal species: in front of everything – the government is pushing i. Food: fish, vegetables women in all activities this is giving them a new mind set – as women can now be engaged with. ii. Taboos and beliefs does not exist 6. Does the overarching group culture of the area lead iii. Medicines does not exist predominantly lead to restoration or degradation? iv. Construction mixed • Prior to the establishment of the CCP in the zone the v. Others system of degradation was predominated due to lack a. Arts and crafts: there is a school for arts and crafts of knowledge; in recent years has been to moving d. Related to institutions and cultural leadership: - Yes restoration. related to Regluo. • There is a behaviour of change especially from fishing e. Related to spirituality and religion: community – used use very destructive gears – even scuba diving and a destroying culture now they are no 3. What are the main themes or domains where societial longer doing that. Community now has a new mind culture influences ICZM?

97 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

set. There has been a huge campaign and the regulo programmes e.g. National cultural laws or policy, is the focal point for reducing bush fires, make sure World Heritage Convention, Living Cultural Heritage they open fire breaks etc. Convention, National Biodiversity Strategy and Action • It leads to restoration Plan? 7. Are their cultural or religious institutions that are • No answers. particularly important for ICZM? 10. Which is the government department that is • Yes, they are important because at some point they responsible for working with Regulo. educate even though the message is not always • Reglos deal with district localities. Ministry of state received. administration. • They are very important 3.3.3.3. Community Councils for Fishers • Yes (CCP) and fisheries co-managment committees. 8. In what way should the ICZM progamme (CRCC) that is The Community Council for Fisheries (CCP – Conselho currently being implemented take into account culture, Comunitario de Pescas) is a local co-management and can a restoration culture be developed? If yes structure established under the Marine Fisheries How? Regulations, 2003 with responsibility of supporting • Through gender equity, women must be involved the sustainable management of the artisanal fisheries in all processes in the community and outside the resources and with the right to establish the boundaries community. of the fishing area of the community, develop use • In the case of the Dondo District, restoration activity and access rights (Swennenhuis 2011). Key informant has not yet started interviews were held with leaders of the CCP in Memba, • Yes. Through behavior change and environmental Dondo and Inhassoro. education

9. Is any relevant culture or cultural services recognised in existing national laws, conservation or science

Table 22 Total number of fishers

Districts Memba Dondo Inhassoro Number of CCP’s 4 2 7 Number of Fish cen- 37 8 14 ters Number of fisher-Total 2949 1835 368 2167 1829 no data (ND) Men 782 6 ND Women

This data was collected through a direct interview with the CCPs focal points in the distructs and may not necessarily match what is indicated in fishery census. From this data it shows that in Memba District women are 26.5% of the total number of fishers while in Dondo District women are 0.33% of the total number of fishers. No data were provided in Inhassoro District.

Recommendation: The project pays greater attention In the context of the project it seems that the CCP are to female foot fishers in areas of coral reefs and not comprehensively addressing ecosystem protection, associated sand and mud flats. In the community management and restoration. This may be the case reserve in Memba, Baixo Pinda Fishing Center, the with mangroves but it is not clear with other ecosystems. community to could be encouraged to use the reserve 98 It is important that governance is undertaken across mechanism to expand to the adjacent shellfish fishery the whole value chain right back to the ecosystem. For to restore its productivity. example the ProPESCA project is dealing with many parts of the fishing value chain but it is not clear that The CCP’s have now been established for over 15 years. it is undertaking maintaining ecosystem health and In general they are seen to function well although productivity. This is potentially a role that the CCRC not at full capacity. Non-the-less they are playing an can play in supporting the ProPESCA activities to more important role in fisheries and marine management. It strongly link to ecosystem health and productivity. was recognised that one of the main strengths of the CCP is to mobilize the community as the government cannot interact with the fishers by themselves. The main challenges are not sufficient transport to go and visit the fishing centres and so do this community mobilisation. The CCP do cooperate with each other and fishers that reside in one CCP can fish in the area of another CCP if they inform the host CCP either by phone or on paper. While the advent of mobile phones has made this relatively easy it is less likely that a paper system works in reality. This does, however, fulfil and important principle of community management that there are boundaries to the resources and harvesters can be held accountable across those boundaries. One problem is to ensure that all fisheries have licenses, as a number of fishers operate without them, and, therefore, do not follow the rules, an issue raised by government staff. Even licenced fishers may not follow the rules. In Inhassoro the focus group claimed that 85-90% of fishers follow the rules. At the time this was considered highly unlikely and subsequent data indicated 50%, however, this will need to be validated during the establishment of the project monitoring and evaluation system.

103 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Recommendation: The project pays greater attention to One problem is to ensure that all fisheries have licenses, as female foot fishers in areas of coral reefs and associated a number of fishers operate without them, and, therefore, sand and mud flats. In the community reserve in Memba, do not follow the rules, an issue raised by government Baixo Pinda Fishing Center, the community to could be staff. Even licenced fishers may not follow the rules. In encouraged to use the reserve mechanism to expand to Inhassoro the focus group claimed that 85-90% of fishers the adjacent shellfish fishery to restore its productivity. follow the rules. At the time this was considered highly The CCP’s have now been established for over 15 years In unlikely and subsequent data indicated 50%, however, general they are seen to function well although not at full this will need to be validated during the establishment of capacity. Non-the-less they are playing an important role the project monitoring and evaluation system. in fisheries and marine management. It was recognised In the context of the project it seems that the CCP are that one of the main strengths of the CCP is to mobilize not comprehensively addressing ecosystem protection, the community as the government cannot interact with management and restoration. This may be the case with the fishers by themselves. The main challenges are not mangroves but it is not clear with other ecosystems. sufficient transport to go and visit the fishing centres and It is important that governance is undertaken across so do this community mobilisation. the whole value chain right back to the ecosystem. For The CCP do cooperate with each other and fishers example the ProPESCA project is dealing with many that reside in one CCP can fish in the area of another parts of the fishing value chain but it is not clear that CCP if they inform the host CCP either by phone or on it is undertaking maintaining ecosystem health and

paper. While the advent of mobile phones has made this productivity. This is potentially a role that the CCRC relatively easy it is less likely that a paper system works in can play in supporting the ProPESCA activities to more reality. This does, however, fulfil and important principle strongly link to ecosystem health and productivity. of community management that there are boundaries to the resources and harvesters can be held accountable across those boundaries.

Ecosystem health Market Traders & HHarvestersarvesters SSpepeciceises Ecosystem health Market & productivity transporterrs harvestedharvested & productivity

FigureFigure 60: 60: Governance Governance linkageslinkages along thethe valuevalue chain chain

AnAn exampleexample ofof thethe linkageslinkages to the ecosystem waswas withwith demanddemand and and uncontr uncontrolledolled harves harvestingting is is leading leading to to An example of the linkages to the ecosystem was with the harvesting is leading to declining crab catches, at the thethe mangrove mangrove swimmingswimming crab (Scylla serrata) fisheryfishery decliningdeclining crab crab catches, catches, at at the the same same time time ther there hase has been been inin DondomangroveDondo Distrct.Distrct. swimming ItIt waswas crab reported (Scylla inin serrata) one ofof fishery thethe fishingfishing in Dondo same time there has been significant losses in the area of significantsignificant losses losses in in the the area area of of mangr mangrovesoves due due to tofelling felling campscampsDistrct. thatthat It foregn foregnwas reported buyersbuyers insend one trucks of the dailydaily fishing toto buybuy camps that mangroves due to felling and coastal erosion probably andand coastal coastal erosion erosion probably probably caused, caused, at at least least in inpart, part, by by mangrovemangroveforegn buyers crabscrabs sendforfor livelive trucks export daily to to China. buy mangrove ThisThis highhigh crabs for caused, at least in part, by sea level rise. seasea level level rise. rise. live export to China. This high demand and uncontrolled

ForeignerForeigner Foregners CrabCrab FishermenFishermen MangroveMangrove MangroveMangrove ss LiveLive Traders & SwimmingSwimming Crab Crab HealthHealth CrabCrab Transporter popupopulaltaiontion MarketMarket employees healthhealth

FigureFigure 61: 61: Simplified Simplified value chain for thethe exports of of live live mangrove mangrove swimming swimming crab crab

3.3.3.4.3.3.3.4. EnvirEnvironmentonment committees boatsboats and and fish fish drying drying and, and, therefore, therefore, there there needs needs to tobe b e coorcoordinationdination between between the the dif differferentent committees. committees. Very little information was gathered regarding Very little information was gathered regarding Recommendation: CRCC project support the enhanced environmentalenvironmental committees.committees. In general thesethese appearappear toto Recommendation: CRCC project support the enhanced 99coorcoordinationdination and and cooperation cooperation between between the the key key coastal coastal functionfunction lessless wellwell thanthan thethe CCP. They diddid notnot appearappear to be in place in all project areas and the relationship zonezone management management institutions institutions including including government government to be in place in all project areas and the relationship agencies, the Reglo, CCP and the environment with the CCP was not clear, for example over the agencies, the Reglo, CCP and the environment with the CCP was not clear, for example over the committees. managementmanagement ofof mangrmangroves. It was highlighted thatthat thethe committees. fishingfishing communitycommunity needneed wood products especiallyespecially forfor

104 104 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

3.3.3.4. Environment committees resilience plan with integrated bylaws and as a result a revolving fund is capitalised as a performance grant. Very little information was gathered regarding Community members that demonstrate commitment to environmental committees. In general these appear to the community plan can take loans from the fund for their

function less well than the CCP. They did not appear small enterprise activities or for household needs. This is to be in place in all project areas and the relationship a form of community-based ‘eco-credit’ that is a growing with the CCP was not clear, for example over the concept within the world of natural resources and management of mangroves. It was highlighted that the climate change finance. In a project in Pemba, Zanzibar, fishing community need wood products especially for Tanzania, this MaliVerde or Community Environmental boats and fish drying and, therefore, there needs to be Conservation Fund (CECF) model is being used with coordination between the different committees. fishing communities to help incentivise. Recommendation: CRCC project support the enhanced coordination3.3.3.5. and cooperation Savings betweenand loans the groupskey coastal zone management institutions including government agencies, Poupançathe Reglo, e Crédito CCP Rotativo and – PCR,the whichenvironment are committees. Accumulating savings and credit associations (ASCAs). In general in Mozambique these are 3.3.3.5. Savingsdeveloped andon the loans Care Internationalgroups model known

Poupançaas e Village Crédito Savings Rotativo and Loans – A ssociationsPCR, which (VSLA) are Accumulating. PCR/VSLA savings ar ande one credit of Africa’ associationss success stories (ASCAs). in In generalterms in Mozambiqueof community solidarity these -arebased developed savings and on the Care Internationallending mechanisms. model Theknown SBAFP as Village final evaluation Savings recommended that these have a stronger link to and Loans Associations (VSLA) . PCR/VSLA are one of

Africa’s successfisheries stories activities in terms and this of hascommunity now been solidarity- taken up in the ProPESCA project. Thus the CCP are based savings and lending mechanisms. The SBAFP final associated with PCR which are supporting their evaluation recommended that these have a stronger link activities. The SBAFP final evaluation had also to fisheriessuggested activities that and it wasthis ahas project now failure been totaken scale up in the ProPESCAthese project. associations Thus up the to CCP a tertiary are associatedlevel and to with PCR whichstrongly are supporting link these to their private activities. sector value The chains. SBAFP final evaluationThis is likelyhad alsoto have suggested been asking that too it muchwas a ofproject failure to thesescale savingsthese associations groups that arupe oftento a mosttertiary popular level and to stronglywith women. link these They to ar privatee not designed sector value to strongly chains. This is likelyfederate to have nor tobeen play askingstrong privatetoo much sector of functions. these savings groupsThe scale that of are savings often generatedmost popular and thewith fees/levels women. They are notof interest designed char gedto strongly is much morefederate at the nor household to play strong privateand livelihood sector functions.level than forThe commercial scale of activity. savings They are, however, critically important savings generated and the fees/levels of interest charged is institutions and an important part of financial “Box 2 MKUBA model much more at the household and livelihood level than infrastructure and the fact they are operational in closed areas for octopus fisheries and the restoration of for commercial activity. They are, however, critically the CRCC project area is a great plus. mangroves through the local Tanzanian NGO Mwambao important savings institutions and an important part of Coastal Community Network and Flora and Fauna One of the limitations of the PCR/VSLA model was financial infrastructure and the fact they are operational International (FFI) and GreenFi Ltd a company providing that they address the double bottom line not the in the CRCC project area is a great plus. tools to support eco-credit programmes. This is under triple bottom line, thus strongly addressing the the Swahili name MKUBA (Box 2). One of theeconomic limitations and of social the butPCR/VSLA not the environmentalmodel was that “Box 2 MKUBA model they addresspillars the of double development. bottom Over line notthe thepast triple seven bottom years closed areas for octopus fisheries and the restoration of mangroves through the line, thus IUCNstrongly has addressingdeveloped an the innovation economic on andthe model social local Tanzanian NGO Mwambao Coastal Community Network and Flora and but not theto addrenvironmentaless the environmental pillars of development.(IUCN, 2013, Kakuru Over Fauna International (FFI) and GreenFi Ltd a company providing tools to support eco-credit programmes. This is under the Swahili name MKUBA (Box 2). the past sevenand Masiga, years IUCN 2016, hasIUCN, developed 2017). This an isinnovation to link the on the modelcommunity to address fund theestablished environmental in a PCR/VSLA (IUCN, 2013,group with Kakuru anda communMasiga,ity 2016, environmental IUCN, 2017). action This plan, is to for link example the a CRuRAP. The concept is that the community commits community fund established in a PCR/VSLA group with to and develops a community land-use or resource/ a communityresilience environmental plan with integrated action plan, bylaws for and example as a result a CRuRAP. Thea revolving concept fund is is that capitalised the community as a performance commits grant. to and developsCommunity a memberscommunity that land-use demonstrate or resource/commitment to the community plan can take loans from the fund for their small enterprise activities or for household needs. This is a form of community-based ‘eco-credit’ that is a growing concept within the world of natural 100 resources and climate change finance. In a project in Pemba, Zanzibar, Tanzania, this MaliVerde or Community Environmental Conservation Fund (CECF) model is being used with fishing communities to help incentivise

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Table 23: PCR groups in the project districts Table 23: PCR groups in the project districts

District DistrictNumber ofNumber Total of numberTotal numberMale Male Female FemaleFishers Fishers groups groupsof membersof members Memba Membano data (ND)no dataND (ND) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Dondo Dondo7 7 318 318 157 157 161 161 142 142 Inhassoro Inhassoro62 62 1523 1523 262 262 1261 1261 ND ND

From the data recieved from the districts there are From the data recieved from the districts there are 3.3.4. Envir3.3.4.onmental Environmental economics economics and and From the data62 PCR recieved groups fromin Inhassor the districtso where theirthere membership are the development and implementation of community 62 PCR groups in Inhassoro where their membership cost-benefit analysis 62 PCR groupsconsist in of Inhassoro 81% being where women their and membership 17% being men.costresource The- benefit management analysis plans such as the CRuRAPs. consist of 81% being women and 17% being men. The consist of 81%average being group women size and is 24. 17% This being profile men. is typical The for PCR In addition to institutional and cultural as- average group size is 24. This profile is typical for PCR In 3.3.4. addition Environmental to institutional economics and cultural and as - cost- average groupgroups size in is many 24. This parts profile of sub is-Saharan typical forAfrica. PCR There is pect, economic values are very important in groupsgroups in in many manyno informationparts parts of subof onsub-Saharan-Saharan how many Africa. Africa.fishers There Thereform is these is groupspect,benefit economic analysis values are very important in no informationalthough on how the many total fishers number form of fishers these groupsin Inhassor o was supporting or preventing degradation. As althoughno information the total on number how many of fishers fishers in Inhassorform theseo was groups supporting or preventing degradation. As 368 but with no gender breakdown. ProPESCA projectIn addition todescribed institutional in andthe culturalmethodo aspect,logy, economic an element of 368although but with the no total gender number breakdown. of fishers ProPESCA in Inhassoro project was describedvalues are veryin the important methodo in logy,supporting an element or preventing of focal point confirmed that due to increased demand for environmental economics and cost-benefit focal368 butpoint with confirmed no gender that breakdown. due to increased ProPESCA demand project for environmentaldegradation. As economicsdescribed inand the cost methodology,-benefit an membership they have expanded the PCR support to membershipfocal point confirmed they have expandedthat due to the increased PCR support demand to for element of analysis environmental was attempted. economics and Unfortunately cost-benefit the other community members and it was unfortnute analysisthat was attempted. Unfortunately the othermembership community they members have expanded and it was the unfortnute PCR support that to analysis wasrapid attempted. natur e Unfortunately of the baseline the rapid assessment nature did the number of fishers supported by PCR is not beingrapid nature of the baseline assessment did theother number community of fishers members supported and by it PCRwas isunfortnute not being that of the baselinenot assessmentallow for a did detailed not allow data for collectiona detailed that the numbertracked. of fishers The dasupportedta for Dondo by district PCR indicatesis not being a muchnot allow for a detailed data collection that tracked. Thesmaller data for number Dondo of district 7 PCR indicates groups, anda much has anntypicaldata collectionwould that have would supported have supported a full costa full benefitscost anal- smallertracked. number Thepattern, data of 7 forPCRwith Dondo agroups, much district largerand has indicatesgroup anntypical size a ofmuch 45 per groupwould have supported a full cost benefits anal- pattern, with a much larger group size of 45 per group benefits analysis. smaller numberof which of 749% PCR were groups, men and and 45% has were anntypical fishers. Theysis. ysis. of which 49%very were small men number and 45% of werefemale fishers. fishers The recorded for Dondo verypattern, small with numberwould a much inofdicated female larger that fishersgroup most sizerecorded if notof 45 all for perthe Dondo groupfishers in the3.3.4.1. 3.3.4.1. Economic Economic value of mangrove value of mangrove would indicated that most if not all the fishers in the 3.3.4.1. Economic value of mangrove of which 49%PCR were groups men were and 45%men, were which fishers. is unusual The for very PCR. forest,Given coral reef and seagrass PCRsmall groups number were of female men, which fishers is recordedunusual forfor PCR. Dondo Given would forest, coralforest, reef coral and seagrassreef and seagrass the data from eleswehere in the report it does seemThis that analysis This was analysisbased on was global based figures on global on the figur ecosytemes on the theindicated data from that eleswehere most if not allin the fishersreport it in does the seemPCR groups that This analysis was based on global figures on the the number of female fishers is being under recordedmonetary benefitsecosytem monetaryand localized benefits andGIS localized mapping GIS done thewere number men, whichof female is unusual fishers for is PCR.being Given under the recorded data from ecosytem monetary benefits and localized GIS and the shellfish fisheries, which could be significantduring for this assessmentmapping done on theduring degraded this assessment mangrove, on coral the degraded andeleswehere the shellfish in the fisheries, report it whichdoes seemcould thatbe significant the number for of mapping done during this assessment on the degraded coastal resilience is being ignored. reef and seagrassmangrove, beds coralecosystems.Due reef and seagrass to the challengesbeds ecosystems. coastalfemale resiliencefishers is isbeing being under ignored. recorded and the shellfish mangrove, coral reef and seagrass beds ecosystems. Recommendation: Pilot the IUCN MaliVerde (Mkuba)with gettingDue verifiable to the challenges localized with monetarygetting verifiable data, theselocalized Recommendation:fisheries, which could Pilot bethe significant IUCN MaliVerde for coastal (Mkuba) resilience Due to the challenges with getting verifiable localized solidarity evolution of the PCR – in the project area.figures are monetaryindicative data,and illustrates these figur thees areconomice indicative losses and solidarityis being ignored. evolution of the PCR – in the project area. monetary data, these figures are indicative and This model has been specially designed to incentivisewhen the ecosystemsillustrates the in subjecteconomic are losses degrdaded. when the These ecosystems in This model has been specially designed to incentivise illustrates thesubject economic are degrdaded.losses when Thesethe ecosystems figures can in be found in Recommendation:the development Pilot the andIUCN implementation MaliVerde (Mkuba) of communi subjectty are degrdaded. These figures can be found in the development and implementation of community figures cantable be found 24 below in table with details24 below for eachwith detailsdistrict for in tables 25 solidarity evolution of the PCR – in the project area. table 24 below with details for each district in tables 25 resource management plans such as the CRuRAPs.each districtto in 26. tables 25 to 26. resourThis modelce management has been plansspecially such designed as the CRuRAPs. to incentivise to 26.

Table 24 Total estimated annual economic losses from selected ecosystems in the CRCC project area Table 24 Total estimated annual economic losses from selected ecosystems in the CRCC project area

Economic Economic(Monetary) (Monetary) value (USD) value (USD) Ecosystem/DisEcosystem/Dis- Memba- MembaDondo DondoInhassoro InhassoroTotal Total trict trict Coral reef Coral reef4,890 4,890- - 127,411 127,411132,302 132,302 Seagrass Seagrass 358,666 358,666- - 44,000 44,000402,666 402,666 MangrovesMangroves 424809 424809101,357 101,35739,616 39,616212,041 212,041 Total annualTotal ec annualo- $788,367 eco- $788,367$101,357 $101,357$211,027 $211,027$1,100,751 $1,100,751 nomic lossnomic due loss due to degradationto degradation

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Mangroves, for example, provide habitat, food and the economic values of coral reefs has a range between MangrMangroves,nutrientsoves, for forfor example, 1300example, animal provide provide species, habitat, habitat,many food which foodand ar eand theeconomic economicUSD 100,000 values values and of of USDcoral coral 600,000 reefsreefs hashas per a akm2 range range per between yearbetween (Wells, nutrientscommer forfor cially1300 1300 importantanimal animal species, fish species, and many shrimp. many which The arwhiche Millennium are USDUSDS., 1 100,00000,000 & Ravilious, and and USD USDC., 2006; 600,000 600,000 Laurans, per per km2 km2 Y.,et per per al., year yearA. 2013;(Wells, (Wells, commercommerciallyEcosystemcially importantimportant Assessment fish fish andgave and shrimp. seashrimp. food The fromThe Millennium mangrMillenniumoves S.,S., & Fatoyinbo, &Ravilious, Ravilious, etC., al.,C., 2006; 2008). 2006; Laurans, This Laurans, is Y compared.,et Y.,etal., A. al., 2013; with A. the 2013; value Ecosystema market AssessmentAssessment value ranging gavegave from seasea $7,500 food food from fromto $167,500/km²/mangr mangrovesoves Fatoyinbo,Fatoyinbo,estimated et et al., byal., 2008).World 2008). WildlifeThis This is is compared Fundcompared in 2016 with with forthe the mangrovevalue value a market marketyear (Wells, value value rangingS., ranging & Ravilious, from from $7,500 $7,500C., 2006). to to$167,500/km²/ Due $167,500/km²/ to these estimatedestimatedforest ofby by USD World World 4,185 Wildlife Wildlife per hectareFund Fund in in per2016 2016 year for for (T mangrove ulikamangrove N. et yeareconomic (Wells, (Wells, S., S.,and & Ravilious, & ecological Ravilious, C., importance, C.,2006). 2006). Due theto Due these United to these forestforestal., of of2017). USD USD 4,185 Despite 4,185 per perthese hectare hectare significant per peryear yearbenefits, (Tulika (Tulika N. the et N. global et economicNations and andEnvir ecological onmentecological Primportance,ogramme importance, Worldthe United Conservationthe United al.,al., 2017). mangrove2017). Despite Despite cover these thesehas decrsignificant significanteased bybenefits, 35%benefits, from the global1980the global to NatiNationsMonitoringons EnvirEnvironmentonment Center Pr (UNEPProgrammeogramme-WCMC) World World in Conservation 2006 Conservation has mangrovemangrove2000 (Fatoyinbo, cover cover has has decret decreasedal.,eased 2008). by Bryan by35% 35% fromDewsbury from 1980 1980 to(2014), to Monitoringestimated Center Center the total(UNEP (UNEP-WCMC) economic-WCMC) value inin 20062006 of mangrove hashas estimated forests 20002000estimated (Fatoyinbo, (Fatoyinbo, the et total etal., al., economic2008). 2008). Bryan valueBryan Dewsbury ofDewsbury seagrass (2014), (2014),at USD estimatedthe attotal 200,000 economic the total USD/km2 economicvalue toof 900,000USD/km2mangrove value of mangrove forests atper 200,000for yearests while estimatedestimated1749.81 the the per total total ha. economic economic value value of seagrassof seagrass at USDat USD atUSD/km2 200,000 USD/km2to 900,000USD/km2 to 900,000USD/km2 per year per yearwhile while the 1749.811749.81 per per ha. ha.

Table 25 Loss from degradation of Mangrove forests, seagrass and Coral reefs in Memba District Table 25 Loss from degradation of Mangrove forests, seagrass and Coral reefs in Memba District Land cover class 1996 2003 2010 2017 Average deg- Average Average Land cover class 1996 2003 2010 2017 Averageradation deg- Average TEV per Averageannual perradation year (ha) TEV year per /ha annualloss per year (ha) year /ha ($) perloss yera ($) per yera (4) (4) Mangrove forest 4152 3076 3565 2530 -77 5500 (424,809) Mangrove forest 4152 3076 3565 2530 -77 5500 (424,809) Seagrass 11450 9298 -102.4761905 3500 (358,667) Seagrass 11450 9298 -102.4761905 3500 (358,667) Coral reefs 2854 2795 -2.80952381 1740 (4,891) Coral reefs 2854 2795 -2.80952381 1740 (4,891) Average annual 5500 (788,367)

Averageloss annual 5500 (788,367) loss

From the above table, Memba district encountered USD 788,367 from deforestation of seagrass, mangrove FrFromomthe thethe deforestation aboveabove table,table, of Memba mangroveMemba district district forest encountered s,encountered seagrass and the USDUSDforest 788,367788,367 and from coralfrom deforestation rdeforestationeefs. of ofseagrass, seagrass, mangrove mangrove thedeforestation deforestationcoral reefs. of The ofmangrove mangroveaverage annualforests, forest losss, seagrass seagrass was estimated and and coral at forestforest and and coral coral r eefs.reefs. coralreefs. r eefs.The average The average annual annual loss was loss estimated was estimated at at

Table 26 Loss from degradation of Mangrove forests, seagrass and Coral reefs in Dondo District Table 26 Loss from degradation of Mangrove forests, seagrass and Coral reefs in Dondo District Land cover class 1996 2003 2010 2017 Average Average Annual Land cover class 1996 2003 2010 2017 degradationAverage Average TEV per Annualloss per degradationper year TEV year per /haloss year per per per year(ha) year /ha year perha ($) (ha) ha ($) Mangrove forest 2646 2277 2523 2259.73 -18 5500 Mangrove forest 2646 2277 2523 2259.73 -18 5500 (101,357) (101,357) Seagrass 0 3500 Seagrass 0 3500 Coral reefs 0 1740.81 Coral reefs 0 1740.81 Average annual

Averageloss annual (101,357) loss (101,357) In Dondo District, only information on mangrove could 2017. Generally, from 1996 to 2017, there is an average degradation of 18.4 ha per year. Using total economic In Dondobe obtainable District, byonly GIS information & mapping on team. mangrove As shown could 2017. Generally, from 1996 to 2017, there is an average degradationvalue estimated of 18.4 haby UNEPper year-WCMC. Using in total 2006, economic the average be obtainablethe table, thereby GIS were & mapping a degradation team. Asof mangroveshown valueannual estimated loss fromby UNEP mangrove-WCMC forest in 2006, degradation the average is the table,forest therecover werefrom a1996 degradation to 2003. Frof ommangrove 2003 to 2010, 102 annualestimated loss from at USDmangrove 101,357. forest degradation is forestmangrove cover from forest 1996 cover to 2003. increased From and 2003 then to 2010,reduced in estimated at USD 101,357. mangrove forest cover increased and then reduced in 108 108 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

In Dondo District, only information on mangrove could be 1996 to 2017, there is an average degradation of 18.4 ha obtainable by GIS & mapping team. As shown the table, per year. Using total economic value estimated by UNEP- there were a degradation of mangrove forest cover from WCMC in 2006, the average annual loss from mangrove 1996 to 2003. From 2003 to 2010, mangrove forest cover forest degradation is estimated at USD 101,357. increased and then reduced in 2017. Generally, from

Table 27 Loss from degradation of mangrove forests, seagrass and coral reefs in Inhassoro District

Land cov- 1996 2003 2010 2017 Average deg- TEV per Annual loss er class radation year/ha per year per per year (ha) (ha)

Mangrove 1002.392 1326.6 1131.57 851.13 -7.2 5500 -39616.238 forest Seagrass 928 338 420 664 -12.6 3500 (44,000.00) Coral 2340 897 2589 803 -73.2 1740.81 (127,410.71) reefs Average (211,027) annual loss

Considering the business as usual, mangrove forest been collected. The lighter version or ROAM as carried cover has increased from 1996 to 2003 and decreased out in this assessment did not fully allow for this process. from 2010 to 2017. Both seagrass and coral reef have Consideringdecreased from the 1996business up toas 2003usual, and mangrove have incr foresteased cover versionThus the or data ROAM presented as carried here out is onlyin this indicative assessment of what did might be achieved. hasin 2010 increased then decrfromeased 1996 to in 2003 2017. and Considering decreased thefrom total 2010 not fully allow for this process. Thus the data presented toeconomic 2017. Both value seagrass of both classes, and coral the reef average have annual decreased hereTable is 23 only provides indicative some of preliminarywhat might ecosystembe achieved. fromdegradation 1996 up loss to is2003 calculat and edhave at USDincreased 211,027 in 2010 in then Tablemanagement 23 provides and restor someation transitions.preliminary These ecosystem decreasedInhassoro Districtin 2017. as Considering shown in the the above total economictable. value managementtransitions can andbe subjected restoration to cost transitions.-benefit analysis These to of both classes, the average annual degradation loss is transitionsgague which can are be most subjected likely to to bring cost-benefit the appropriate analysis to calculated3.3.4.2. atCost USD 211,027Benefit in analysisInhassoro District as shown gaguelevel of which return. are This most does likely not meanto bring that the CBA appropriate is the in the above table. As described in the methodology section, the levelonly criteriaof return. used This in deciding does not the mean transitions that CBAto pursue is the 3.3.4.2.restoration opportunityCost Benefit assessment analysis methodology onlyas some criteria may used be essential in deciding despite the transitionshigh cost but to itpursue can asinform some project may bechoices. essential In the despite case ofhigh all ecosystems,cost but it can As(ROAM) described uses in cost the- benefitmethodology analysis section, (CBA) thatthe restoration is applied to identify restoration transitions. Usually this process informthe project project is unlikely choices. to In be the able case to of reduce all ecosystems, the climate the opportunity assessment methodology (ROAM) uses projectchange is impact unlikely on to them, be able however, to reduce it is the known, climate for change cost-benefitis done right at analysisthe end of(CBA) the ROAM that prisocess applied when to identify the transitions have been well identified, the areas impactexample, on thatthem, reducing however, human it is known, impacts for on example, reef will that restorationto restore ar transitions.e fully delimited Usually and this sufficient process cost is done and right reducinghelp their human resilience impacts to climate on reef change, will help and their the resilience same is atbenefits the end data of (analysed the ROAM by hectareprocess ofwhen ecosystem) the transitions has toconsider climateed change, true of other and ecosystems.the same is considered true of have been well identified, the areas to restore are fully other ecosystems. delimited and sufficient cost and benefits data (analysed by hectare of ecosystem has been collected. The lighter

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Ecosystems From To Description Coral 1 Over-harvested Healthy fish popula- Reduced fishing pressure or increased net mesh Reef fish populations sizes to build up populations of reef fish e.g parrot Transitions tions fish that eat and keep reefs healthy. 2 Use of physi- Use of benign or low No use of traps or drag nets in reef areas, to reduce cally damaging impact fishing gear physical damage to the reef structures fishing gear 3 Coastal pollu- Reduced coastal pol- Control of sources of pollution, plastic bags etc. to tion lution reduce pollution impacts on coral. 4 Open access Locally-managed e.g. Locally control of gear types, locally managed fishing fishing marine reserves (LMMA/TURF reserves etc.)

Seagrass 1 Use of physi- Use of benign or low Fishing gear is likely to have minimal impact on bed Transi- cally damaging impact fishing gear seagrass. Beach seine nets may have some tions fishing gear impact on the shallowest seagrasses but more attention is needed to look at the loss of seagrass (especially in Inhassoro) 2 Economical- Less economically vul- It may be that the project may not be able to have ly vulnerable nerable fishers direct impact on the ecosystem health of seagrass fishers beds. If this is the case then the project should focus on building economic resilience of fishers who are suffering as a result of seagrass declines. 3 Open access Locally-managed Locally control of gear types, may help seagrass fishing fishing beds – but this needs examining. Locally managed marine reserves (LMMA/TURF reserves etc.) 4 Coastal pollu- Reduced coastal pol- Pollution may be having an impact so the control of tion lution sources of pollution may be important e.g. assessing impact of oil and gas industry. Mangrove 1 Uncontrolled Identification and pro- Not all areas of mangroves have the same coastal uses of all tection of mangroves protection function. Those areas with the highest mangroves with critical coastal protective function need to be identified and given protection values special attention 2 Over harvest- Sustainable harvesting In general mangroves can be harvested sustain- ing of Man- of Mangroves ably, however, overharvesting will lead to weak- groves ening of individuals and so sustainable harvesting regimes need to be promoted. Coastal 1 Unsustainable Proper use of fire Fire is generally overused in the coastal forest Forests use of fire types. Some ecosystems are fire vulnerable and others are fire resilient. Community Based Fire management should be supported to manage fire such that the ecosystems are not compromised. 2 Protection Clearing of coastal The most valuable areas of high biodiversity value of high value forests for charcoal and forests should be identified and managed on sus- coastal forests agriculture tainable basis.

Cost-benefit analysis can, then, be applied to these project support to these transitions. For example different transitions. An interesting case study is a transition with a high return on investment for the community reserve established in Memba. It is communities may need less government initial suggested a cost-benefit analysis is carried out on this investment than a transition with a low return on well-established reserve. Knowing the cost-benefit investment for communities. ratios will also help structure the government and 104

110 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Cost-benefit analysis can, then, be applied to these Recommendation: Expand the successful community different transitions. An interesting case study is reserve in the community to areas of coral reef the community reserve established in Memba. It is suggested a cost-benefit analysis is carried out on this 3.3.6. Socio-economic dimensions of seagrass well-established reserve. Knowing the cost-benefit beds ratios will also help structure the government and project • Seagrass beds are important ecosystems from a support to these transitions. For example a transition climate change perspective. They have important with a high return on investment for communities may fisheries values. They are seen generally as a resilient need less government initial investment than a transition ecosystem. In the project area seagrasses are most with a low return on investment for communities. extensive in Inhassoro district with 88km2 of seagrass bed in the area between the mainland and the offshore 3.3.5. Socio-economic dimensions of coral islands. reefs • In the Inhassoro area there is an important local fishery • Climate change impacts on coral reefs (sea tem- based on seagrass fish species. Fisher leaders reported perature rise, subsequent bleaching and mortality, to the survey team the widespread loss of seagrass in and sea water acidification) are seen as the greatest this area in recent years. The losses have been so great current human derived impacts on coral reefs. The that they have requested that the government hold 2017 bleaching and subsequent death of large areas a period of mourning for the loss of the beds. This of Australia’s Great Barrier Reef has dramatically would seem to be a strong local expression of (actual highlighted the vulnerability of this ecosystem to or near) ecosystem collapse. These local stakeholders climate change. Subsequent global analysis on re- expressed that they felt this was a very high priority silient coral reefs (WWF Resilient Reefs analysis) has action for the CRCC project. indicated some limited number of reefs areas have a • Fishers consider that the oil and gas industry may be natural resilience to climate change. One such area responsible for this loss. Localized disturbance from is Northern Mozambique along with Tanzania. This operations or more widespread pollution events may indicates the CRCC project activities to support the have impacts on seagrass but none of these are known coral reef ecosystems is particularly important. to occur in Inhassoro in the oil development thus far. • Coral reefs are one of the more prominent ecosys- Other causes like disease and temperature increase tems in Memba district, and are likely to be a key focus may have impacts, but it is important to understand for that district. Unfortunately during this assessment the widespread loss of this ecosystem. there was not the time to visit the reefs themselves, and Recommendation: Carry out an in depth joint scientific most interaction was through the fishing community, and participatory study with stakeholders (fishers and although it must be said that of all the ecosystems, diver operators) into the reported widespread loss of the information gained from local stakeholders about seagrass beds in Inhassoro district coral reefs was the lowest. This was limited to some indication of degradation and the fact that at least one 3.3.7. Socio-economic dimensions of coral reef is a culturally important sacred natural site. mangrove forests • Coral reef fish, however, form a key part of the artisanal fishery. Different fishing practices have different 3.3.7.1. Historical background of mangrove impacts upon the reefs, traps and seine nets, for forests in Mozambique example, can cause physical impacts, and overfishing Mangroves provide a number of valuable ecosystem of some fish groups (e.g. parrot fish) can reduce the services that contribute to human wellbeing, including grazing function and hence allow damaging algal provisioning services (timber/construction material, growth. Thus managing human impacts on the coral fuelwood and charcoal); Regulating (flood, storm and reefs is likely to be one of the best actions that can be erosion control: prevention of salt water intrusion), habitat undertaken by the project. (breeding, spawning and nursery habitat for commercial • Other causes of coral reef damage were not observed fish species, biodiversity) and cultural services (recreation, (e.g. pollution) however, the field visits were not aesthetic, non-use). Mangroves ecosystem services have comprehensive enough to detect pollution impacts. characteristics of public goods and level of consumption Recommendation: Seek a greater understanding of of some of these services by one beneficiary does the sacred dimension of the coral reef sites, as well as not reduce the level of service received by another documenting in detail the impact of local fishing practice (mangroves play the role of coastal protection and storm on both the health of the ecosystem and the constituent buffering) (Barbosa, F.et al., 2001). This makes private target fish species. sector less involved and the management of mangrove

105 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

forests becomes harder due to the open access, unless and decreased flow of freshwater to mangroves caused common pool management regime is put in place. by constructions of dams, uncontrolled coastal migration There is a market failure as mangrove ecosystem services and business growth along the coast. The rate of are under supplied by market system. Consequently, mangrove deforestation in Mozambique was estimated mangroves are generally undervalued in both private and as 18821 hectares per year and it was high in Maputo public decision making relating to their use, conservation and Beira. The development of large scale aquaculture and restoration. Lack of understanding and information in Mozambique results in negative impact like depletion onimportance the economic of mangr valueoves of asmangrove natural capitalecosystem is likely services to ofestimated mangrove as 1regions,8821 hectar pollutiones per yearof mangrove and it was habitats hasbe ignoredgenerally (Barbosa, led to F their.et al., omission 2001). in public decision andhigh depletionin Maputo ofand fauna Beira. resources The development traditionally of largeused in making. Without evidence of the economic value of small scale fisheries. (Barbosa.et al., 2001). Coastal sand There are nine mangrove species in Mozambique scale aquaculture in Mozambique results in negative mangrovesand the major that use can is be for compared building materials, with alternative firewood, public depositionimpact like hasdepletion also been of mangrove indicated regions,as one of pollution the causes investment,fencing, fish thetraps importance and medicinal of purposes.mangroves Eco aslogically natural of significantmangrove habitats mangrove and mortalitydepletion (Sitoe. of fauna et al.,resour 2014).ces mangroves play a role an important role as nursery and capital is likely to be ignored (Barbosa, F.et al., 2001). Thetraditionall area ofy usedmangrove in small forest scale in fisheries. Mozambique (Barbosa.et decreased al., Therefeeding are grounds nine ofmangrove many important species commercial in Mozambique fish from2001). 408,000 Coastal sand ha in deposition 1972 to has 357,000 also been ha indicated in 2004, and crustacean species. Forest and land legislation act as one of the causes of significant mangrove mortality and the major use is for building materials, firewood, resulting(Sitoe. et inal., a 2014). deforestation rate of 15.9 km2 year−1. In fencing,in Mozambique fish traps envisages and medicinal community purposes. participation Ecologically in 2001, mangrove forests in Mozambique had an area of the protection of natural resources including mangrove The area of mangrove forest in Mozambique decreased mangroves play a role an important role as nursery and approximatelyfrom 408,000 ha 396,080 in 1972 hato 357,000 located ha mostly in 2004, in sheltered feedingforests. However, grounds ther of manye are still important some pr essures commercial to fish shorelinesresulting in and a deforestation river estuaries rate (Barbosa, of 15.9 F.etkm2 al., year−1. 2001) Inand andmangroves, crustacean including species. uncontr Forestolled and exploitation land legislation for act only2001, 26 mangrove 123 ha were forests in inconservation Mozambique (Macamo, had an area C. & of A. firewood, clearing of mangrove for solar salt production; in Mozambique envisages community participation in Sitoeapproximately 2017; Herr, 396,080 D. et al.,ha 2017).located mostly in sheltered theuncontr protectionolled influx of natural of people resources from interior including region mangrove to the shorelines and river estuaries (Barbosa, F.et al., 2001) coast; charcoal production and pole harvesting pollution forests. However, there are still some pressures to and only 26 123 ha were in conservation (Macamo, C. & mangroves,and decreased including flow of freshwateruncontrolled to mangr exploitationoves for A. Sitoe 2017; Herr, D. et al., 2017). firewood,caused by clearingconstructions of mangrove of dams, for uncontrolled solar salt production; coastal uncontrolledmigration and influx business of people growth from along interior the coast. region The to the coast;rate of charcoal mangrove production deforestation and polein Mozambique harvesting pollutionwas

Table 28 Summary of mangrove forest cover trends

Years Mangrove forest cover Source (ha) 1972 408000 Sitoe, A. et al., (2014); Macamo, C. & A. Sitoe (2017); Sitoe, A. et al., (2012). 1990 396080 Barbosa, F.et al., (200); Fatoyinbo et al., (2008) 2004 357000 Sitoe, A. et al., (2014); Sitoe, A. et al., (2012). 2013 300000 Macamo, C. & A. Sitoe (2017); Herr, D. et al., (2017);

From the figures in table 24; mangrove forest cover for critical management actions across different insti- was reduced from 408000 ha in 1972 to 300000 ha in 2013 (108,000ha in 41 years). This makes an average tutions potentially complicating management. deforestation rate of 2,571.4 ha per year. FAO (2015) • What became apparent during the assessment was in the global forest resource assessment estimated the the lack of detailed knowledge of re-establishment deforestation rate of mangroves forests to be 2644ha of mangroves through natural regeneration, appro- per year from 2005 to 2010 and this was likely to be the priate engineering works and where appropriate, same deforestation rate from 1990 to 2015. This is also planting of mangroves. It was reported that current compared with an annual mangrove deforestation rate replanting efforts had largely failed requiring reflec- for Africa of 274000 ha per year as stated by (Valiela, et tion on the methodologies utilised. al., 2001). Recommendation: Provide improved information on the • Mangroves are where marine and terrestrial man- 106current best practices in mangrove re-establishment. agement systems overlap. They are harvested for This may require the establishment of clear tenure construction materials as well as being productive for specific communities, so that management fisheries (e.g. live crab exports) and nurseries for responsibilities are known. inshore and pelagic fish. They are also a key part of the coastal defences, which when compromised have Recommendation: Mangrove management is used as a severe impacts (e.g. Dondo district). They are a locus testing ground for integrated institutional coordination where the CCP, Environment Committees, Regulo and government support institution’s work in concert.

112 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

From the figures in table 24; mangrove forest cover mangroves through natural regeneration, appropriate was reduced from 408000 ha in 1972 to 300000 ha in engineering works and where appropriate, planting 2013 (108,000ha in 41 years). This makes an average of mangroves. It was reported that current replanting deforestation rate of 2,571.4 ha per year. FAO (2015) efforts had largely failed requiring reflection on the in the global forest resource assessment estimated the methodologies utilised. deforestation rate of mangroves forests to be 2644ha Recommendation: Provide improved information on the per year from 2005 to 2010 and this was likely to be the current best practices in mangrove re-establishment. This same deforestation rate from 1990 to 2015. This is also may require the establishment of clear tenure for specific compared with an annual mangrove deforestation rate communities, so that management responsibilities are for Africa of 274000 ha per year as stated by (Valiela, et known. al., 2001). Recommendation: Mangrove management is used as a • Mangroves are where marine and terrestrial testing ground for integrated institutional coordination management systems overlap. They are harvested where the CCP, Environment Committees, Regulo and for construction materials as well as being productive government support institution’s work in concert. fisheries (e.g. live crab exports) and nurseries for inshore and pelagic fish. They are also a key part of 3.3.7.1.1. Mangrove restoration costs the coastal defences, which when compromised It proved difficult to get economic information for the have severe impacts (e.g. Dondo district). They are a establishment of costs and benefits. Table 25 sets out locus for critical management actions across different the estimated costs of the restoration of one hectare of institutions potentially complicating management. mangrove forests. This estimate is adapted from the • What became apparent during the assessment was literature and stands at about USD 7000/ha the lack of detailed knowledge of re-establishment of

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3.3.7.1.1. Mangrove restoration costs the estimated costs of the restoration of one hectare of Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastalmangrove and Marine forests. Ecosystems This estimate Restoration is adapted Assessment from the It proved difficult to get economic information for the establishment of costs and benefits. Table 25 sets out literature and stands at about USD 7000/ha

Table 29 Provisional mangrove restoration costs per hectare

Description Units Cost per unit Number of Total cost ($)/ ($) units ha Senior level staff time One day per 119 12 1428 Month Middle-level staff time One day per 68 12 816 Month Junior level staff time Twice a month 42 24 1008 Planning cost Meetings 50 3 150 Maintenance cost (moni- year 100 10 1000 toring) Travel cost and communi- year 71 10 710 cation Transport of seedlings Truck rental 96 1 96 Planting cost Person-days 116 1 116 Seedlings production cost Plants 0.29 2500 725 Seedlings maintenance Months 45 6 270 Safety equipment Boots, masks, 74 1 74 gloves Boat rental Boat rental 116 1 116 Plastic bags for seedlings bags 0.03 2500 75 Hydrological restoration – Total cost 232 1 232 Material and equipment Hydrological resto- Total cost 141 1 141 ration-Labor Maintenance after resto- Total cost 31 1 31 ration Total cost 6988

Source: Adapted table from Tulika N. et al., 2017

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Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment of fire in forest ecosystems can be very different 3.3.8. Socio-economic dimensions of requiring nuance fire policies. Importantly is the little coastal forests documented phenomenon of what can be called ‘old-growth anthropogenic forests’ where human 3.3.8.• Coastal Socio-economic forests are complex dimensions mosaic of coastal ecosys - salinecommunities ecosystems have atsuppr theessed coast fire (salt in grassland/ marshes, flats, foreststems for a number of reasons. mangroves,forest transition dunes zones etc). over longThe periodsrelationship of time with o Firstly they are very high in both structural and grasslands(several centuries) can be particularly leading to theproblematic. emergence The of high role • Coastal forests are complex mosaic ecosystems for a biological diversity. Within what looks like extensive and impact of fire in forest ecosystems can be very number of reasons. biodiversity old growth forests. Colonial observers woody vegetation types in the coastal area, are in re- differentmisunderstood requiring these nuance to be fireremnant policies. primary/climax Importantly o Firstlyality athey multitude are veryof different high vegetationin both structural types. Some and isfor theests little in savannah documented ecosystems, phenomenon leading ofto perversewhat can biologicalof this variety diversity. is a result Within of diffewhatring looks geological, like extensive soil bepolicy called outcomes ‘old-growth (Fairhead anthropogenic and Leach, 1996).forests’ This where woodyand groundwater vegetation conditions,types in the but coastal there ar area,e important are in humanperception communities remains havewidespread suppressed today. fire in grassland/ reality a multitude of different vegetation types. Some forest transition zones over long periods of time anthropogenic or human caused elements. o Finally forest lands have been targeted for human of this variety is a result of differing geological, soil (several centuries) leading to the emergence of high o Secondly coastal forests are not well studied agriculture (both for crops and livestock) and oth- and groundwater conditions, but there are important biodiversity old growth forests. Colonial observers generally and especially in Mozambique, thus there er uses over long periods using fire as a tool. The anthropogenic or human caused elements. misunderstood these to be remnant primary/climax is limited literature to refer to, and investment in the agricultural purpose has been to exploit the fertility forests in savannah ecosystems, leading to perverse o Secondlybasic ecological coastal forests and taxonomic are not well studies studied is very generally low. (often mining) of the forest generated humic soils, policy outcomes (Fairhead and Leach, 1996). This and especially in Mozambique, thus there is limited while all sorts of wood and non-wood products have o Thirdly there is not widespread scientific consen- perception remains widespread today. literaturesus on a) to how refer to describeto, and these investment forests; in(terms the forbasic also been used for human fuel, construction and ecologicalforests and and other taxonomic woody studiesvegetation is very are low.diverse and o tools.Finally The forest subsequent lands have patterns been oftargeted land use, for bot humanh o Thirdlydefined therein multiple is not ways. widespread Examples scientific are for ests, consensus agriculturelong-established (both for and crops recent and addlivestock) a further and layer other of uses over long periods using fire as a tool. The agricultural onwoodland, a) how to wood, describe thicket, these scrub, forests; bushland, (terms forshrubland forests complexity. purpose has been to exploit the fertility (often mining) andwooded other woodysavannah vegetation etc. Even are official diverse definitions and defined have in Figure 52 for Inhassorro, is a depiction of some of multipletheir limitations), ways. Examples and b) are some forests, of the woodland, basic ecolog wood,- of the forest generated humic soils, while all sorts of thiswood variety and in non-wood the project products area, adapted have also to beenindicated used for thicket,ical pr ocessesscrub, bushland, (especially shrubland with regard wooded to the savannahrole of the ecosystems that are fire-resilient and non fire- human fuel, construction and tools. The subsequent etc.fire Even and grazing),official definitionsas well as over have longtheir- termlimitations), human and resilient (due to their tidal nature fire is not a feature b)interactions some of the and basic management ecological –processes often via (especiallycommuni- patterns of land use, both long-established and recent ty manipulation of fire and grazing. Confusion and of addmangrove a further for layerests). of All complexity. of the project districts have withmisperceptions regard to the in roleacademia of fire ar ande amplified grazing), among as well as transitions Figure 52 for Inhassorro, is a depiction of some of this overdevelopment long-term prhumanofessionals interactions and the and wider management communi -– variety in the project area, adapted to indicated the oftenty. via community manipulation of fire and grazing. Confusion and misperceptions in academia are ecosystems that are fire-resilient and non fire resilient o Fourthly forests, which form mosaics within them- amplified among development professionals and the (due to their tidal nature fire is not a feature of mangrove selves, also form mosaics with other ecosystem wider community. forests). All of the project districts have transitions types especially grasslands, wetlands and high saline o Fourthlyecosystems forests, at the which coast (saltform marshes, mosaics flats,within man them-- selves,groves, also dunes form etc). mosaics The relationship with other with grasslandsecosystem typescan beespecially particularly grasslands, problematic. wetlands The role andand impact high

5 Given the and the non-steady state of ecosystems and the widespread anthropogenic influence on them the concepts of ‘primary’ and ‘climax’ vegetation types currently have less value 109 114

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Non fire-resilient Fire-resilient

Figure 62: Schematic transition from forest and wood land types to agricultural land with human use and disturbance (including fire) in Inhassoro district.

Figure 53 schematic transition from forest and wood common agricultural practice. Grasslands, however, land types to agricultural land (machamba) with human will thrive under an annual burning regime and high use and disturbance (including fire) in Inhassoro biodiversity ‘old-growth grassland’ require fire to Figuredistrict, 53 adapted schematic from transition EOH, 2015. from Not forest included and herewood collapsemaintain completely the biodiversity under andan annual control burning the invasion regime, of landis grassland types to whichagricultural is and land important (machamba) ecosystem with in human the a commonlow biodiversity agricultural tree and practice. shrub Grasslands,species. however, useproject and area.disturbance (including fire) in Inhassoro district, will thrive under an annual burning regime and high adapted from EOH, 2015. Not included here is grassland •biodiversity We learnt fr ‘old-growthom the Reglo grassland’ of Dondo district require that fire ther eto has been a campaign in recent years to reduce the which• The is and use importantof fire in trans ecosystemition zones in the (high project forest area. - maintain the biodiversity and control the invasion of amount of use of fire in agriculture. Modern con- woodland) also has cultural dimensions, with farm- low biodiversity tree and shrub species. • The use of fire in transition zones (high forest - woodland) servation agriculture practices emphasise the build ers, hunters and beekeepers using fire for different also has cultural dimensions, with farmers, hunters • We learnt from the Reglo of Dondo district that purposes and having different cultural elements. In up of soil humus by reducing the use of fire and by and beekeepers using fire for different purposes and theremulching has been crop a wastes. campaign in recent years to reduce some societies the burning of large areas prior to the the amount of use of fire in agriculture. Modern having different cultural elements. In some societies • Community-Based Fire Management (CBFiM) is an planting season is a sign of male status (R. Wild pers.obs.). conservation agriculture practices emphasise the build the burning of large areas prior to the planting season approach taken in a number of countries e.g. in Gha- up of soil humus by reducing the use of fire and by •is aFor sign policy of male (and status project (R. activities) Wild pers.obs.). particularly im- na (MoLNR, 2011) that could be considered for the portant is the correct use and management of fire mulching crop wastes. • Forin policy fire-resilient (and project and the activities) prevention particularly or suppr importantession CRCC project. • Community-Based Fire Management (CBFiM) is an is in the non correct fire-resil useient and ecosystems. management The use of fire of cutting in fire- Recommendation: The ecological dimension of fire resilientand fire and (slash the preventionburn agriculture or suppression causes the in transfor non fire-- approach taken in a number of countries e.g. in Ghana mation of non fire-resilient forests into other types in the project terrestrial ecosystems and vegetation resilient ecosystems. The use of cutting and fire (slash (MoLNR, 2011) that could be considered for the CRCC types needs to be properly assess and a nuanced fire burnwith agriculture great loss ofcauses biodiversity the transformation and structural comof non- project. plexity (Figure 53). In this process coastal forest is policy, tailored to each vegetation should be produced fire-resilient forests into other types with great loss of Recommendation: The ecological dimension of fire in transformed over a period of time to Cashew, Man- and promoted, through Community-Based Fire biodiversity and structural complexity (Figure 53). In the project terrestrial ecosystems and vegetation types go and Cassava parkland. The bottom line ecolog- this process coastal forest is transformed over a period needsManagement to be properly approaches assess and a nuanced fire policy, ically, policy wise and for the project is that the use of time to Cashew, Man- go and Cassava parkland. The tailoredRecommendation: to each vegetation The project should should be assist produced the and of fire is ‘okay’ in some ecosystems’ and ‘not okay’ in bottom line ecologically, policy wise and for the project promoted,identification through and sustainableCommunity-Based management Fire Management of high others! High biodiversity old-growth grasslands and conservation value forests where fire is not normally a is thatwoodlands the use need of firefire, oldis growth‘okay’ high in forsomeests ecosystems’– need approaches andno ‘not fire. okay’ in others! High biodiversity old-growth feature – through a stakeholder engagement process Recommendation: The project should assist the •grasslands Even in fireand-resilient woodlands ecosystems need fire, (e.g. old Miombo growth wood high- identification• The majority andof the sustainableboats observed management being used in ofar- high forestslands) – needthe overuse no fire. of fire is damaging. Fire resilient and fire dependent miomobo woodland will col- conservationtisanal fishing value were forests either where dug - fireout canoes is not or woodennormally a • Evenlapse in completely fire-resilient under anecosystems annual burning (e.g. regime, Miombo a featureclinker – through built vessels a stakeholder (launch). engagement Some locally process grown ag- woodlands) the overuse of fire is damaging. Fire ricultural timbers such as cashew are used, where the • The majority of the boats observed being used in resilient and fire dependent miomobo woodland will supply is likely to be sustainable if ongoing planting of cashew is maintained. Access to indigenous wood 110

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artisanalfor boat fishing building were is becomingeither dug-out more canoesconstrained or wooden and Recommendation:(e.g. Oil and Gas) Carryhave widerout a detailedutility in assessmentthe building ofof the clinkerthe prices built higher. vessels The (launch). source forSome boat locallybuilding grown logs timberecosystem species based used climate in boat resilience. construction An example in the projectis agriculturalin both Memba timbers and such Dondo as cashew was at are least used, 30 -where 50km the districtsshown in including Figure 53. sources In this figureand quantities the area of of Critical supplies. supplyremoved is likely from to the be communities sustainable if that ongoing use them. planting It of CarryingHabitat was out provisionallycritical habitat defined assessments during arethe a2014 productive EIA cashewwould isbe maintained. advisable to Access secur eto long indigenous-term supplies wood for partfor the of expansionthe EIA process. of the Sasol Studies project.The that have area been shown carried boatof such building timber is bybecoming careful and more sustained constrained local andforest the outas a in zone the contextof tourism of developmentcoastal development potential (e.g.comprises Oil and pricesmanagement. higher. The Sub sourcestitution for boatwith buildingfibreglass logs boats in both is Gas)the INA haveTUR wider tourism utility development in the building area, of ecosystemwhich coincides based Membapossible and but Dondo less desirable was at least as 30-it severs 50km theremoved commu from- climatewith a Zone resilience. of Tourism An example Interest (ZIT),is shown defined in Figure in studies 53. In thenity communities link with the that ecosystem use them. and It reduceswould be an advisable income thison behalf figure of the INA TURarea in of 2010. Critical The location Habitat of proposedwas provisionally tostream secure forlong-term the timber supplies producing of such community. timber by careful definedoil wells, knownduring the at the2014 tim EIAe of for the the EIA, expansion is also shownof the Sasol and sustained local forest management. Substitution project.(EOH, 2015). The area shown as a zone of tourism development Recommendation:with fibreglass boats Carry is out possible a detailed but lessassessment desirable as potential comprises the INATUR tourism development of the timber species used in boat construction in the it severs the community link with the ecosystem and area, which coincides with a Zone of Tourism Interest project districts including sources and quantities of reduces an income stream for the timber producing (ZIT), defined in studies on behalf of INATUR in 2010. The supplies.community. location of proposed oil wells, known at the time of the Carrying out critical habitat assessments are a EIA, is also shown (EOH, 2015). productive part of the EIA process. Studies that have been carried out in the context of coastal development

Figure 63: Map of critical habitat in Inhassoro District

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stability. With the increasing unpredictable weath- 3.3.9. Socio-economic dimensions of events, cyclones and sea-level rise Mozambique will 3.3.9. Socio-economic dimensions of sand er events, cyclones and sea-level rise Mozambique need to maintain the coastal protection that the existing sand dunesdunes will need to maintain the coastal protection that the dunes provide. The maintenance of vegetation cover existing dunes provide. The maintenance of vegeta- • Sand •dunes Sand are dunes characteristic are characteristic features of the features Mo- of the on dunes is an important policy decision. zambiqueMozambique coast and severalcoast and of theseveral project of thedistricts. project districts.tion cover on dunes is an important policy decision. • Sand substrates, both dune and non-dune are less They arTheye geologically are geologically linked to linkedother areasto other of sandy areas of sandy• Sand substrates, both dune and non-dune are less attractive for agriculture, but this does not prevent substratesubstrate that have that not have necessarily not necessarily been thrown been up thrown upattr active for agriculture, but this does not prevent the expansion of agriculture into these sub-optimal into dunes.into Biophysicallydunes. Biophysically dunes have dunes a progr haveessive a progressive the expansion of agriculture into these sub-optimal habitats. Where old-growth sand forests, which can evolutionevolution from the from coast the where coast landward where landwardblown sea blown seahabitats. Where old-growth sand forests, which can be high in biodiversity, have developed, they can be sand is sandpiled isinto piled low intohills, lowtermed hills, ‘dunes’. termed Over ‘dunes’. Over abe high in biodiversity, have developed, they can be vulnerable to resource overharvesting. a periodperiod of time of these time sand these hills sand become hills vegetatbecome- vegetatedvulnerable to resource overharvesting. ed initiallyinitially with withshrubs shrubs and thicketand thicket and eventuallyand eventually forests.• Localised • Localised damage damage to sand to dunes sand candunes occur can simply occur simply from from foot traffic, which in a situation of high winds forests. In In thethe dipsdips between between the the dunes dunes where where the the water foot traffic, which in a situation of high winds can initiate can initiate the process of dune erosion and collapse. water tabletable is is high high a awetland wetland feature feature termed termed a ‘dune a ‘dune slack’ the process of dune erosion and collapse. Installing Installing wooden walkways in such vulnerable situa- slack’ cancan form form complete complete with with its own its vegetationown vegetation type. wooden walkways in such vulnerable situation can type. DunesDunes themselves themselves act act as ascoastal coastal protection protection but aretion canreduce reduce the the risk risk of of dune dune erosion. erosion. but are vulnerablevulnerable to windwind erosion. erosion. If Ifthe the vegetation vegetation coverRecommendation: Recommendation Develop: policiesDevelop and policies land -useand plansland-use plans cover isis removed removed (overharvesting, (overharvesting, agriculture agriculture & fir &e), fire), thatlong- maintainthat maintaineffective effectivevegetation vegetation cover on sandcover dunes on sand dunes long-stablestable du nesdunes can can start start moving moving once oncemore moreand and suchcan thatsuch their thatstability their is notstability compr isomised. not compromised. Ensure Ensure can becomebecome destructive destructive of other of other ecosystems ecosystems and and humanplanning planning departments departments do not allow do not the allow development the development of human infrastructure. of unplannedunplanned settlement settlement where wherethey damage they damage sand sand dunes, dunes, and prevent local damage through the use of • High •levels High of levels economic of economicdevelopment, development, settlement settlement and prevent local damage through the use of appropriate appropriate infrastructure. developmentdevelopment and tourism and can tourism compromise can compromise dune dune infrastructure. stability. With the increasing unpredictable weather

Figure 64: Summary diagram of ecological services and sensitivities in Inhassoro District. (from EOH, 2015)

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3.3.10. Gender observations There is a prostitution risk at temporary fish landing 3.3.10. Gender observations stationsdo not generally(this maybe to outsidesea. There the scopeis a prostitution of the project risk but at The project is undertaking a full gender analysis ittemporary should be fishaware landingof this dynamic). stations (this maybe outside Theand theseproject comments is undertaking are limited a full to observationsgender analysis and Rolethe scope of women of the in projectfire management but it should needs be toaware be better of this theseencounter commentsed during are thelimited field to work. observations encountered dynamic). Role of women in fire management needs to during the field work. Data shows women to outnumber understood. Data shows women to outnumber men as fishers. Yet be better understood. men as fishers. Yet the project is not addressing key Consideration of gender and traditional authorities (see the project is not addressing key ecosystems of interest ecosystemsto women (mud of interest and sand to flats).women They (mud fish and the lesssand flats). sectionConsideration 3.3.3.2) of gender and traditional authorities (see Theycharismatic, fish the lower less vcharismatic,alue shellfish lower and dovalue not generallyshellfish and section 3.3.3.2) to sea.

3.3.11. Supplementary social information Memba district Table 30 Example details of main fisheries from Sirissa CCP

CCP Name: Sirissa District - Administrative Post, Name of concerned Regulo: Memba – Posto Administrativo de Lurio: Jaime Alicora SN Name of No. Fishers Fishing gear Target Ecological Institutional Fishing cen- (m/f) type/fishery fishery conditions conditions tre) and trends 1. Sirissa 820 Line, gill, Horse mangrove The manage- (230m/590w) hunting mackerel, and coral ment level 2. Mutacaua ? (spear or stone fish, reefs are in is good; the foot fish- octopus, a degraded fisheries are 3. Lúrio 270 (70m/200w) ing?), drag anchoveta, state successful in 4. Sala 320 net (beach pompano, that they ban (120m/200w) seine?), fuzileiro the destruction 5. Muamba- 402 (90m/312w) camboa (?), and oth- of corals and mangroves as caia surface gill ers. nets. well as the use of mosquito 6. Chaunde 382 (82m/300w) nets in fisheries. The challenge Total 2194* of the CCP is to (592m/1602w) further increase awareness so that all people in the community are aware.

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Table 31 Source timber for boat construction in Memba

Boat types Timber sp. Who Source of Cost Longevity used makes timber 1. Canoe, dugout from the Cashew tree Local com- From the 5,000 to 5 to 7 years trunk of one tree, used for munities villages (not 6,000 line (and small net fish- in the forest) Metical ing?). 2. Launch, made from -Umbila (Ptero- Local com- Mazua and 200,000 5 to 10 years planks by a boat-builder/ carpus ango- munities Shipenhe to (depending carpenter used for larger lensis D.C.), (near Mem- 300,000 on mainte- net fishing Jambire (Millet- ba HQ) Metical nance) tia stuhlmannii Taub.)*

*Sources: Memba informant Mr. Abdul, scientific names from Mate, et al. 2014.

Figure 65: Fishing Centers in the District of Memba (Source: Impacto, 2012, in IUCN 2017)

fishers who joint the interview later. The success of Landing site Baixo Pinda CCP. the CCP were that fishing was now more sustainable, The team interviewed leaders from the Baixo Pinda they had created a community reserve, they carry out CCP which was established in 2001. In this settlement patrolling and they had stopped the community openly fishing is the main activity with agriculture second. The defecating on the beach. The main challenges were main fish caught are line fish and seine netting. The that the CCP were few (20 people) and the numbers of fisher leaders stated although there was no cooperative fishers high. there was a fishers association, a fact disputed by young 114

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Landing site Baixo Pinda CCP. 3.3.12. Supplementary social information The team interviewed leaders from the Baixo Pinda CCP Dondo district which was established in 2001. In this settlement fishing Beira workshop: Participants highlighted the low survival is the main activity with agriculture second. The main fish rates of planted mangroves in the district (around 10%) caught are line fish and seine netting. The fisher leaders mainly due to poor evaluation of ecological conditions stated although there was no cooperative there was a and they asked about preconditions put in place to avoid fishers association, a fact disputed by young fishers who such failure in the CRCC project. joint the interview later. The success of the CCP were that fishing was now more sustainable, they had created During the field work in Dondo district (22.11.18) a a community reserve, they carry out patrolling and they number of key features were recorded. had stopped the community openly defecating on the • Sacred forest managed by the Regulo beach. The main challenges were that the CCP were few • High conservation value forests (20 people) and the numbers of fishers high. • Old growth grasslands with high biodiversity Baixo Pinda Community Reserve establishment. • Invasion into the grassland by a Eucaplyptus sp. The community, with a support project set up a • Patches of riverine and what appeared sand forests community reserve in 2003. The objective of the reserve • Low grade agriculture in poor soils was to look after the population of small fish. The reserve • Burning of forest areas is in a shallow bay adjacent to the community and specifically for beach seine. The reserve is open only for Widespread transporting of charcoal from Dondo forests 3 days a month only and they use a 4cm (2 finger) mesh to Beira Meetings were held in Tsengo and Praia Nova size. The benefits they report is that they have a high fishing centres (see annex 3 for full details). A meeting quantity of fish, and they fish they catch are of bigger was held with fishing community in Tsengo fishing size. Although the quantity of fish that they catch per centre, including 3 fishers, 5 traders and one farmer and fisher is about the same now (2 boxes per month) there a Regulo/fishers leader, of these 2 were women. are many more fishers now and the income is higher. The The community reported that between 1962 to 1963 the young male fishers were welcome to join fishing in the sea and the river where far apart, but that 2005 coastal reserve as long as they followed the rules. Traders now erosion started and the casuarinas that protected the soil come specifically to the village when they are harvesting were uprooted this allowed the sea to enter and quite a the reserve. Trading is carried out by individual negation large area of the village and also mangroves were lost. with traders and not by auction (which might be more They also reported that earlier their canoes were small, lucrative for the fishers). Interestingly the fish market but now they have improved ones, amd the fishing gears constructed by the government was not used as the are improved including the crab cages. Tsengo is largely community had rejected it. The reason for this could not a temporary fishing centre and that most of fisherman be established. It would be very interesting to carry out a have their houses and families in the Tsengo headquarters cost benefit analysis (CBA) on the reserve establishment and Beira, where they have schools, hospitals and other as it seems the investment in establishing the reserve has services. been returned many times over in the last 15 years. We did not learn which project supported the establishment Crab fishing: One of the fishers had been crab fishing of the reserve. for 2 years. He and other crab fishers use thin wire mesh cage to crabs. He reported an increase in crab prices This reserve might be an idea situation to try increasing with the November 2017 being 100MT/kg but since net mesh sizes to increase over fish catch size (Sary, 1997). January 2018 it has been 120MT/kg. He also reported Adjacent to this small bay reserve is an extensive area of a decline in catch. In terms of community organisation sand flats with an active women’s foot fishery for shellfish. the fisherman are part of a CCP and some are part of a Interestingly this area was not within the reserve and revolving fund group. there were no limitations established for this area (other Fish catches: In late nineties the minimum amount of than those set by the spring and neap tides). It might 30kg per fisherman in two hours of fishing. Currently be worth exploring if a similar reserve approach could the minimum amount after 5 hours of fishing is 10kg per increase shellfish catches and reduce women’s catch fisherman. This is caused not only by the reduction in effort. the fish quantity in the sea but also by the increase on the number of fisherman. The number of traders also increased.

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Meeting with secretary of the CCP of Tsengo in Praia After 15 years the main successes of the CCP are Nova - Mr. Custodio. The roles of the CCP are the regarding conflict resolution and control of mangrove following: degradation, while the main challenges are regarding 1. mangrove protection, the collection of license fee, control of closed period - the fisherman do not want to stop fishing in the period. 2. conflict resolution The PCR has 20 members and the now defunct IDPP 3. patrolling the fishing gear (Institute for Development of Small Fishing) supported 4. collection of license fee their creation. The timber for canoes construction comes 5. and control the fishing closed period - the closure from Zavane area and, it is becoming more difficult to period is from December to March acquire the timber as the prices are increasing now.

There are 250 fishermen in Praia Nova who use the It should be noted that Dondo is included in the list following techniques: of high biodiversity value forests in the Eastern Africa Coastal Forests Ecoregion - Strategic Framework for 1. line fishing - 15kg to 30kg daily for fisherman Conservation 2005 – 2025. (WWF-EARPO. 2006) Figure 2. palangre fishing - 10 kg to 40 kg daily for fisherman 56 and Table 28. 3. surface fishing - 10kg to 40kg daily for fisherman

4. deep-sea fishing - 1 to five box daily for fisherman

2. palangre fishing - 10 kg to 40 kg daily for fisherman 3. surface fishing - 10kg to 40kg daily for fisherman 4. deep-sea fishing - 1 to five box daily for fisherman After 15 years the main successes of the CCP are regarding conflict resolution and control of mangrove degradation, while the main challenges are regarding the collection of license fee, control of closed period - the fisherman do not want to stop fishing in the period. The PCR has 20 members and the now defunct IDPP (Institute for Development of Small Fishing) supported their creation. The timber for canoes construction comes from Zavane area and, it is becoming more difficult to acquire the timber as the prices are increasing now. It should be noted that Dondo is included in the list of high biodiversity value forests in the Eastern Africa Coastal Forests Ecoregion - Strategic Framework for Conservation 2005 – 2025. (WWF-EARPO. 2006) Figure 56 and Table 28.

Figure 66: High priority conservation landscapes in the coastal Forests of Mozambique (including Dondo)

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Table 32 High priority conservation landscapes in the coastal forests of Mozarrbique (including Dando)

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3.3.13. Supplementary social information have declined. It is so serious that we requested the Inhassoro district government to declare a period of mourning for our seagrass beds. If this new project does not do something 3.3.13.1. Decline in sea grass beds Inhassoro about the seagrass it has done nothing. We wonder what District. has happened to it. None of it has washed up on the shore. When we had the 2000 cyclone much seagrass The topic of discussion with the group around social washed upon the shore line. For about 3-4 years after the context, culture, gender and finance was introduced. cyclone we had strange fish from Sofala in our sea-grass Fisher leaders, however, wanted to focus on the seagrass beds. After 3 years the sea grass recovered. decline and so the focus of the discussion was adapted. CCP leader, Filipe Viegas Hopack CCP Fequete. “I agree fishers have a special culture, however our biggest issue is that since 2015 we have experienced a widespread loss of seagrass with a white colour all over the place. (note. Possibly caused by the sand becoming visible with the loss of sea grass/or from whitening of seagrass leaves) the consequences is that fish population has dropped and our incomes

Photo. Mário Feliciano de Sousa, of Petane CCP continues the sketch map.

CCP leader, Mário Feliciano de Sousa, CCP Petane, confirmed the situation and said he discussed with the divers operators who reported the sea grass physically shrinking. The fishermen mentioned the impact of the reduction of sea grasses: the corals productivity is reducing and as well the fishing production. This is an opportunity to the restoration through the project, said the director of the SDAE. The quantity of fish they get now is too small. The line of sea grasses now is to narrow, maybe 200 meters, before it was about 7km. The question is where are the sea grasses now? The project should first look at what is happening in the sea, because the community depends on the fishery to survive. The group decided to produce a map the seagrass beds. Discussion: One of the fisher leaders thought that the gas drilling was to blame and a discussion ensued. The baseline team said that it was important to draw this kind of event to the government. The strength of description was appropriate, however, it was advised not to jump to conclusion on the cause.

Photo. Filipe Viegas Hopack draws the loss of seagrass in Fequete CCP

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Team comments: Several causes for the decline were Physical damage from other sources was considered conjecturedTeam comments: including: Several causes for the decline were unlikely.Physical damage from other sources was considered Gasconjectured exploration. including: This was considered unlikely as Climateunlikely. change, Climate Itchange, was speculated It was speculated that increase that inincrease impact,Gas exploration. if any, would This most was consideredlikely be only unlikely proximate as impact, to temperaturein temperature may mayhave havean impact an impact but this but is not this reported is not theif any, drilling would sites. most This likely issue be onlyshould proximate be referred to the to thedrilling inreported the literature. in the literature. relevantsites. This EIA issue processes. should beIt was referred noted tothere the is relevant hostility EIA Disease.Disease. AA possible cause isis wastingwasting diseasedisease asas observed betweenprocesses. the It fishers was noted and the there company. is hostility between the observedin other sea in other grass sea beds grass (Robblee beds (Robbleeet.a. 1991) et.a. 1991) Physicalfishers damageand the from company. beach seine Physical nets. The damage team from beach 3.3.13.2. Recommended Actions observedseine nets. at The the team same observed day significant at the same damage day tosignificant 3.3.13.2. Recommended Actions seagrassdamage tobeds seagrass from beach beds seines.from beach However, seines. th However,is impact •• SeeSee if ifthe the satellite satellite image image series series pick up pick the SG up the SG isthis localized impact tois thelocalized shoreline to the and shoreline not to the and deeper not towater the reduction.reduction. deeper water where the declines are reported. where the declines are reported. •• InterviewInterview divedive operators operators / /get get contracts. contracts. • Carry out a loss of income case study from seagrass • Carry out a loss of income case study from seagrass decline E. decline E. • Carry out an ecological study on the seagrass beds • Carryincluding out an more ecological detailed study participatory on the seagrass documentation beds includingof the pattern more detailed of loss withparticipatory fishes. documentation of the pattern of loss with fishes. • Confirm the drivers of decline and develop action plan • Confirmto resolve the drivers of decline and develop action plan to resolve Recommendation: The CRCC project works with dive Recommendation:operators who are The the CRCC “experts” project under works the with water dive by operatorssetting up whoa dive ar operatore the “experts” contact under group. the water by setting up a dive operator contact group.

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Figure 67: CCP in Inhassoro district visited during the project scoping mission in 2017.

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3.3.13.3. Fishers institutions in Inhassoro District

Figure 68: Map of CCP areas from Inhassoro from community CRCC consultation meetings 2017

Following the discussion on seagrass decline the Ms. Judite Paceli of SDAE-Inhassoro made the comment discussion turned to institutional arrangement and the that some fishers are not part of the CCP and do not FollowingCCP. the discussion on seagrass decline the followanother the CCP? rules. discussion• Each village turned has to a CCPinstitutional that were arrangement formed a long and the A.Q. Yes What fishers percentage can fish of infishers another follow CCP the area rules? but will need CCP.time ago. The objective of the CCP is to promote to inform that CCP either by phone or on paper. A. 85-90% • sustainableEach village use has of a the CCP fishing. that were formed a long time Ms. Judite Paceli of SDAE-Inhassoro made the comment ago. The objective of the CCP is to promote sustainable that(It was some felt fishersby the team are this not level part of complianceof the wasCCP and donot • The main strengths of the CCP is to mobilize the unusually high and may be exagerrated) communityuse of the fishing.as the government cannot interact with the follow the rules. • fishersThe main by themselves strengths . ofCCP the has CCP also is cr eated to mobilize awareness the Q.These What communities percentage doof havefishers PCR follow (VSLA). the rules? A discussion oncommunity different issues. as the governmentFor example cannot there hasinteract been with a the ensued about the MITADER fund which was to pay for A. 85-90% lotfishers of awareness by themselves. on the needCCP hasto conserve also created sea turtles.awareness engines but the fishermen were not happy (the reason However,on different due issues. to the lossFor exampleof sea grass there beds has there been in a no lot (Itwas was not feltclear). by Thethe diteamstrict focalthis pointlevel thoughof compliance the optionof awareness for fishermen on the other need than to to conserve fish turtles. sea turtles. wasprogramme unusually was high still andcontinuing may bealthough exagerrated) there was These an institution change from IDPP – IDPA. •However, The main due challe to ngesthe loss are of not sea sufficient grass beds transport there into nogo communities do have PCR (VSLA). A discussion ensued andoption visit for other fishermen communities. other than to fish turtles. aboutIt was the reported MITADER by government fund which stafwasf into the pay pr forovincial engines • The main challenges are not sufficient transport to go butworkshop the fishermen in Inhambane were thatnot Inhassorhappy (theo district reason is facingwas not • There is also a problem to ensure that all fisheries and visit other communities. clear).deep changes The district in last focal years point, and though there is the exploitation programme of have licenses. • There is also a problem to ensure that all fisheries have wasoil andstill gas. continuing In the last although years (fr thereom 2014), was itan is observedinstitution Q. Can fishers that reside in one CCP fish in the area of licenses. changethe degradation from IDPP of – seagrass,IDPA. It was which reported is the by ecosystem government another CCP? staff in the provincial workshop in Inhambane that Q. Can fishers that reside in one CCP fish in the area of that ensure the conservation of the general biodiversity, A. Yes fishers can fish in another CCP area but will need accompanied of low level of fish captures. Close to to inform that CCP either by phone or on paper. Inhassoro there is the Bazaruto National Park, created 121

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Inhassoro district is facing deep changes in last years, and it is observed that these animals are changing their and there is exploitation of oil and gas. In the last years hotspots, and now they are seen outside the park, and (from 2014), it is observed the degradation of seagrass, close to fisher zones. This could be for grazing. There is which is the ecosystem that ensure the conservation of a reduction of mangrove, seen in the south and north. the general biodiversity, accompanied of low level of The most important ecosystems are coral reefs and fish captures. Close to Inhassoro there is the Bazaruto seagrasses. National Park, created to protect dugongs and turtles,

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3.3.14. Inputs into the community-based ecosystem management and restoration plans The following plan inputs identifies actions that communities can take against the appropriate project results.

Plan activities against Districts Responsibility When results 3-7. Result 3: Baseline studies conducted and utilized to develop the Programme ‘took kit’ to guide activity design, implementation and monitoring; Develop the programme toolkit content per ecosystem 1.1 Participatory assessment of reef-damaging current practices integrated with the RLE Create methodology 1 Coral reefs Memba Communities with proj- 2019 for local innovation and linking with global best practic- ect team es and 1.2 Develop the project ‘coral reef tool kit’ 2.1 Communities collaborate with national and international scientists by forming and Action Learning Group and 2. Seagrass beds Inhassoro Communities with proj- 2019 researching into the extensive loss of seagrass beds ect team 2.2 With the inputs from the ALG, global science and best practice develop ‘seagrass tool kit’ 3.1 Mangrove conservation and re-establishment (ensuring no further decline and restoration of those areas that are feasible. The level of degradation in some 3. Mangroves Dondo, Communities with proj- 2019 mangroves may be such that they can no longer be ect team restored 3.2 Carry out an assessment on internatonal best-practices on mangrove management and re-establishment to develop a ‘mangrove tool kit’

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4.1 Develop fire control protocols for different kinds of terrestrial ecosystems; agricultural land, grasslands (focusing on old-growth grasslands), fire-dependent Dondo, woodland, fire non-dependent high forests. Put this Communities with proj- 4 Coastal forests Memba 2019 information in to a ‘fire management tool kit’ ect team (north) 4.2 Participate with project staff to identify and map non fire-resilient and fire resilient forests 4.3 Contribute to developing the ‘coastal forests tool kit’ 5 Sand dunes 5.1 Participate with project staff to identify vulnerable sand Communities with proj- 2019 dunes and create a ‘sand dune tool kit’ ect team Result 4: Community resilience strengthening actions carried out in an inclusive and participatory manner involving men and women and resulting in tangible benefits and positive changes in governance, natural resource management and local level livelihoods; 6 General and cross-cut- 6.1 20 selected communities in the project area each de- Memba Communities with proj- 2019 ting: CRuRAPS velop CRuRAPS for each appropriate ecosystem type ect team which will be matched with a MaliVerde mechanism. 6.2 Each community identifies a set of community level bylaws for each ecosystem types to be endorsed by the district authorities 6.3 Implement the bylaws (effectively implementing the CRuRAPS) monitoring and reporting on the numbers of infractions and the use of the fine monies. 7 Establishment of TURF Self-identification of communities that wish to set up local Memba Communities with proj- 2019 reserves (local marine marine (or terrestrial) management areas. ect team management areas):

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8 Mangroves 8.1 Mangrove forest co-management groups ensure the Dondo, Communities with proj- 2019 protection and sustainable harvesting of mangroves ect team through CRuRAPS 9 Coastal forests 9.1 Training of community members in, and the implemen- Dondo, Communities with proj- 2019 tation of in fire management and prevention techniques Memba ect team and plans. (north) 9.2 Monitor for sustainable harvesting 10 Sand dunes 10.1 Implement sand dune restoration actions such as the Communities with proj- 2019 maintenance of vegetation cover ect team 10.2 Install wooden raised walkways to access the beach where there is risks of wind erosion to sand dunes. Result 6: Enhanced awareness and understanding of the wider community on the Communities with proj- importance of sustainable natural resource use, the role of ecosystems and nature ect team based solutions and the impacts of climate change for resilience livelihoods; 11 General and cross cut- 11.1 Community participation programme supported by All districts Communities with proj- ting ‘Resilience Radio Programme’ - propose collaboration ect team with Farm Radio International 11.2 Learning-visits between communities to successful intervention implementation e.g. the community beach seine reserve in Memba 11.3 Awareness raising about the MaliVerde mechanism

Result 7: Innovative conservation finance mechanisms established to ensure longer Communities with proj- term investments in and sustainability of resilience and adaptation action. ect team 12 MaliVerde mechanism 12.1 Proactively establish within each CCP the MaliVerde All districts Communities with proj- 2019 – general and cross mechanism as a linkage between PCR groups (both ect team cutting operated by ProPesca and other NGOs) as an incentive mechanism to improve the development and implementation of the CRuRAPS.

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4. RECOMMENDATIONS AND Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment CONCLUSIONS4. RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS The combination of both IUCN methodologies ROAM Results from this project could potentially be used andThe RLE combination is a pioneering of both participative IUCN methodologies approach that ROAM as Resultsa framework from forthis mainstreaming project could ecosystempotentially riskbe used as a allowsand theRLE implementation is a pioneering of aparticipative robust and coherentapproach that assessmentsframework forand mainstreaming ecosystem on ecosystemdistrict strategies risk assessments and socio‐ecologicalallows the implementation analysis of the ofcoastal a robust and marineand coherent plans;and besidesecosystem this onframework district strategies could be- scaleand plans; up and besides ecosystems. Results from the different community socio-ecological analysis of the coastal and marine repthislicate framework thus informing could strategies, be-scale plansup and and replicatepolicies atthus consultationsecosystems. underpin Results science from -basedthe different findings ofcommunity the theinforming national level,strategies, such nationalplans and biodiversity policies ataction the plansnational ecosystemconsultations risk assessments underpin science-based for the 3 districts. findings of the (NBAP)level, orsuch national national adaptation biodiversity plans action(NAP). plans (NBAP) or Combiningecosystem an risk ecosystem assessments and afor social the 3approach districts. has 4.1.1.national Ecological adaptation plans recommendations (NAP). and addedCombining great value an ecosystemin understanding and a the social increasing approach has challengesadded great that coastal value communitiesin understanding face as thea result increasing conclusions4.1.1. Ecological recommendations and of challengesclimate change that andcoastal providing communities recommendations face as a result Theconclusions complexity of ecosystem dynamics and interactions andof providingclimate recommendationschange and providing on how recommendationsincrease their goesThe beyond complexity administrative of ecosystem boundaries. dynamics Therefore, and interactions social,and ecologicalproviding recommendationsand climate resilience. on howLong increase term their largegoes-scale beyond assessments administrative provide a moreboundaries. holistic Therefore, andsocial, sustainable ecological solutions and caclimate be then resilience. identified onlyLong term overviewlarge-scale of ecosystem assessments conservation provide a status.more holistic However, overview by andanalysing sustainable the issues solutions from both ca perspectives, be then identified socio- only theof scope ecosystem of this conservationproject was limited status. to However, district the scope economicby analysing and ecological. the issues A from joint bothapproach, perspectives, however, socio- administrativeof this project boundaries, was limited thus potentiallyto district af administrativefecting the requireconomices strong and coordination ecological. and A jointcommunication approach, however, finalboundaries, result of the thus RLE potentially evaluations affecting described the in final section result 3. of efforts,requires to ensur stronge a coherentcoordination output ofand results communication and Consideringthe RLE evaluations the restricted described geographical in section distribution 3. of recommendations.efforts, to ensure a coherent output of results and ecosystems and abovementioned study area restriction, recommendations. Despite the challenges and barriers Considering the restricted geographical distribution of Despite the challenges and barriers that both teams theecosystems four ecosystems and above were classifiedmentioned as study Critically area restriction, havethat encountered both teams and have overcome encountered this combined and overcome this Endangered (CR) (Table 33). It is to be noted that the combined approach provides the required baseline and the four ecosystems were classified as Critically approach provides the required baseline and present evaluation reflects ecosystem status at the understanding for conducting additional socio-economic Endangered (CR) (Table 33). It is to be noted that the understanding for conducting additional socio-economic district level. Evaluation at a larger scale (e.g. national analysis and identifying best practices to reinforce the present evaluation reflects ecosystem status at the analysis and identifying best practices to reinforce level) would potentially yield different interpretations resilience of the targeted coastal communities. district level. Evaluation at a larger scale (e.g. national the resilience of the targeted coastal communities. as level)accounting would for potentially larger surface yield areas different and being interpretations more DataData generated generated from from ROAM ROAM and RLEand canRLE feed can into feed into representatias accountingve of completefor larger ecosystem surface areas dynamics. and being more ecosystemecosystem services services scenario scenario modelling modelling software, software, such such as as representative of complete ecosystem dynamics. InVESTInVEST , to, to help help prioritising prioritising investments investments and and developing developing sustainablesustainable portfolios portfolios focusing focusing in na inture nature conservation conservation (conservation(conservation investments). investments).

Table 33 RLE assessment summary for coastal ecosystems in study areas

Study Site Memba Dondo Inhassoro & Bazaruto Coastal Forest CR (D2b) CR (D2b) CR (D2b) Mangrove CR (B1c) CR (B1c) CR (B1c) Coral reef CR (B1b) -- CR (B1b) Seagrass beds CR (B1b) CR (B1b)

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In all four ecosystems, ensuring that community acquiring more sustainable methods for fishing could members’ livelihoods are protected and/or enhanced, involve an active programme to support the community while implementing an ecological approach will require by removing inappropriate fishing gear and considering on-the-ground and policy actions. Spatial data for all four a low-pay mechanism for better technology. ecosystems assessed in the three districts will benefit Supplementary livelihoods, surrounding eco-tourism from ground-truthing of satellite images. This may not or community tourism may also provide a diversified easily furnish historical trends; though secondary sources income source, which may limit threats from fishing. can prove valuable to consider the spatial criteria. Issues surrounding by-catch, no or limited take zones, and One key conclusion from this project is the need for more, community managed marine areas could also be locally- and better quality data on marine ecosystems, both in determined solutions that can inform policy makers. A terms of distribution, as well as ecological processes. similar conclusion can be drawn for coastal forests and Although it is becoming more precise, classification mangroves. Considering coastal forests, in the three of marine ecosystems using remote sensing still has districts the principle threat identified was conversion for limitations. A great number of datasets is available at the agriculture, and unsustainable slash and burn agriculture. national level however, the quality and amount of data Restoration measures that consider agroforestry available decreased when downscaling from national to systems could present a social and ecological solution to district level. The interpolation of available data appears some parts of degraded coastal forest areas. as one of the major challenge that both teams have faced Additionally, understanding the historical dynamics along the process. of slash and burn, to ensure recovery of fallow lands For Mozambique, few datasets on corals and seagrass are may be a suitable response. A policy-oriented solution available via the public domain. This calls the need for a could consider threats from the extractive sectors. It is project to first ascertain whether data has been collected, important to understand whether communities are in but not public, and then prioritise data collection favour of and/or benefit from such extractive activities, on an as-need basis. Seagrass beds are particularly as on-the-ground measures may require assessing underrepresented in ecosystems studies probably due alternative income sources if community members are to the lack of awareness on their importance, despite the hired or paid off by industry. Overharvested forest and value they represent for coastal communities and their timber species must be given priority when considering future generations. restoration efforts, as depletion in their stocks can When talking about seagrasses, local fishermen are aware influence ecosystem characteristics and functionality. of the connections among these marine ecosystems and Typically, hardwood trees are climax species and can consequently of the services provided, e.g. food. They be an indicator of older forests that are more likely to greatly value seagrass and take their loss very seriously, harbour higher levels of diversity. to the point of requesting a period of mourning for the loss of seagrasses. Moreover, a need for tracking and 4.1.2. Socio-economic recommendations quantifying the fishing catch and techniques used by General recommendations local communities and other actors is needed. This is a first step towards understanding/ estimating the damage • Ecosystem management and restoration. Do not allow to coral reefs and seagrass beds due to fishing. in-tact areas to slide into degradation while attempting to restore others. Restoration is more expensive than With the appropriate data, it would be possible to conservation and sustainable use. There is no point and estimate threshold values of collapse from unsustainable it is very costly to restore in one place and let another fishing, by quantifying it as an indicator to criterion area degraded to be restored later. D (biotic processes), or possibly even criterion C as • Increasingly use environmental economics tools and a proxy to damaged substrates. This will allow the cost benefit analysis to make the case for restorative implementation of long term solutions for a sustainable development practices. Develop specific case studies, fishing activity in the area. A key recommendation is for example the Baxia Pinda community fishing reserve, to assess the potential or actual barriers to addressing Memba district, to make the case to decision-makers unsustainable fishing practices, which is identified as to increase investment in these approaches. a key threat to both coral and seagrass ecosystems in both districts. The responses could range from • Establish radio programmes for public awareness of participatory sustainable fisheries management plans, restoration in the project areas as has been undertaken considering seasonality, number of permits, duration by IUCN and Farm Radio Internatioinal in Malawi and of fishing period, and self-monitoring plans. Barriers to Uganda (e.g. Farm Radio International (2015).)

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Specific recommendations 13. Recommendation: CRCC project support the enhanced coordination and cooperation between the 1. Recommendation: Link with and build upon the key coastal zone management institutions including ASCA work that has been undertaken by SBAFP and government agencies, the Reglo, CCP and the ProPESCA. environment committees. 2. Recommendation: Assess whether supporting post 14. Recommendation: Pilot the IUCN MaliVerde (Mkuba) harvesting activities as a CRCC project activity will have solidarity evolution of the PCR – in the project area. a value addition for the management of ecosystems This model has been specially designed to incentivise 3. Recommendation: CRCC to consider strengthening the development and implementation of community the conducive policies towards linking microfinance resource management plans such as the CRuRAPs. institutions with ecosystem management 15. Recommendation: Cost-Benefit analysis is carried 4. Recommendation: CRCC to promote the adoption out on different restoration transitions to examine of more sustainable and ecosystem friendly fishing those which project-based investments likely to bring techniques appropriate returns. 5. Recommendation: Coordinate closely with the 16. Recommendation: Seek a greater understanding Ministry (or ProPESCA project) including the savings of the sacred dimension of the coral reef sites, as well and credits schemes as well as the nutrition and food as documenting in detail the impact of local fishing security component as it relates to coastal resilience practice on both the health of the ecosystem and the 6. Recommendation: It is recommended that the constituent target fish species. success factor analysis is carried out at the district 17.Recommendation: Expand the successful community level and repeated periodically during the project. reserve in the community to areas of coral reef It is a relatively quick exercise but enables a deeper 18. Recommendation: Carry out an in depth joint scientific reflection of the processes, barriers and successes and participatory study with stakeholders (fishers and attendant with restoration and can form part of the diver operators) into the reported widespread loss of projects monitoring effort. seagrass beds in Inhassoro district 7. Recommendation: The project needs to work 19. Recommendation: Provide improved information proactivity with the Regluo of the project area and on the current best practices in mangrove re- supporting them to become champions for ecological establishment. This may require the establishment restoration. This effort should start first with the sacred of clear tenure for specific communities, so that natural sites under their custodianship several of which management responsibilities are known. have become degraded. 20. Recommendation: Mangrove management is 8. Recommendation: Support the institution of the Regulo used as a testing ground for integrated institutional to support gender equity in the cultural management coordination where the CCP, Environment Committees, and restoration of traditional land and sea domains. Regulo and government support institution’s work in 9. Recommendation: Support the institution of the Regulo concert to support gender equity in the cultural management 21. Recommendation: The ecological dimension of fire and restoration of traditional land and sea domains. in the project terrestrial ecosystems and vegetation 10. Recommendation: CRCC project work proactively types needs to be properly assess and a nuanced with communities and Regulo on the conservation of fire policy, tailored to each vegetation should be degraded sacred natural sites. produced and promoted, through Community-Based 11. Recommendation: The project pays greater attention Fire Management approaches. to female foot fishers in areas of coral reefs and 22. Recommendation: The project should assist the associated sand and mud flats. In the community identification and sustainable management of high reserve in Memba, Fishing Center, the community to conservation value forests where fire is not normally a could be encouraged to use the reserve mechanism feature – through a stakeholder engagement process to expand to the adjacent shellfish fishery to restore its 23. Recommendation: Carry out a detailed assessment productivity. of the timber species used in boat construction in the 12. Recommendation: Engage with the foreign export project districts including sources and quantities of ers of Crab in Dondo district to support mangrove supplies. crab management by reducing pressure on small size 24. Recommendation: Develop policies and land-use of crabs. plans that maintain effective vegetation cover on sand

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dunes such that their stability is not compromised. This also represent the cost of inaction as these resources Ensure planning departments do not allow the will keep declining in business as usual. In other words, development of unplanned settlement where they conservation of existing resources will annual loss of damage sand dunes, and prevent local damage 1,898,372.79 in the three Districts. Seagrass was the most through the use of appropriate infrastructure. degraded ecosystem in Inhassoro and Memba Districts. 25. Recommendation: The CRCC project works with dive This is caused by inappropriate fishing techniques operators who are the “experts” under the water by that disturb the seagrass ecosystem. Ndondo is the setting up a dive operator contact group least vulnerable District in terms of coastal resources degradation. Lack of complete information on the 4.1.3.Socio-economic conclusions impact of reduced ecosystems like historical information Mangrove forests, seagrass and coral reefs are costal of fish catch, sources ecosystem of each category of ecosystems that provided significant economic good and fishes and exact number of people who are involved in services. These ecosystems are critical and contribute fishing industry were among the challenges for economic to the livelihood of many people in Mozambique. analysis and prediction of future scenarios. Lack of data Historically, these resources have gradually degraded related to the establishment of community reserve from 1996 up to 2018. Considering the economic value was also a challenge to estimate the cost of actions of these resources, the three District of study loose an (interventions) that may help to restore or conserve the annual average of USD 1,898,372.79 from degradation degraded ecosystems. of mangrove forests, coral reef and seagrass ecosystems.

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IUCN. 2013. Practical guidelines for establishing a Community Environment Conservation Fund as a tool to catalyse social and ecological resilience. IUCN Uganda Country Office. IUCN and WRI 2014a. A guide to the Restoration Opportunities Assessment Methodology (ROAM): Assessing forest landscape restoration opportunities at the national or sub-national level. Working Paper (Road-test edition). Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. 125pp. IUCN and WRI. 2014b. Forest landscape Restoration opportunity Assessment for Rwanda. Minirena (Rwanda). Vii +51ppIUCN 2017, CECF brochure: https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/content/documents/iucn_community_environment_conservation_fund_brief.pdf IUCN 2018. Forest Landscape Restoration Opportunities Assessment: 10 Districts of Zambezia and Nampula Report submitted to MITADER and SUSTENTA> Jacquet, J. L., Zeller, D (2007). National conflict and fisheries: Reconstructing marine fisheries catches for Mozambique pg 35 – 48: In Zeller, D., Pauly, D (2007). Reconstruction of marine fisheries catches for key countries and regions (1950 – 2005). Fisheries Centre Research Reports, 15(2) 163 Pgs. The Fisheries Centre University of British Columbia. (in Andrew 2017 opp.cit.). Johnston, R. J., & Rosenberger, R. S. (2010). Methods, trends and controversies in contemporary benefit transfer. Journal of Economic Surveys, 24(3), 479-510. Kakuru, W. and Masiga, M. 2016. Implementation of the Community Environment Conservation Fund (CECF) to enhance Forest Landscape Restoration in Uganda: Emerging lessons and recommendations for scaling up. IUCN Uganda Country Office. Laurans, Y., Pascal, N., Binet, T., Brander, L., Clua, E., David, G., & Seidl, A. (2013). Economic valuation of ecosystem services from coral reefs in the South Pacific: Taking stock of recent experience. Journal of environmental management, 116, 135-144. Macamo, C. & A. Sitoe (2017). Relatório de Governação Ambiental 2016 - Governação e gestão de mangais em Moçambique. 63 pp. Maputo, Centro Terra Viva. Mate, R., Johansson, T., & Sitoe, A. (2014). Biomass equations for tropical forest tree species in Mozambique. Forests, 5(3), 535-556. https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/5/3/535/htm last accessed Jan 2019. MITADER 2018. Forest Landscape Restoration Opportunities Assessment: 10 Districts of Zambezia and Nampula Provinces. MoLNR. 2011. Guidelines and Manual: Procedures for community-based fire management – CBFiM, Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources. Ghana. Robblee, M. B. ; T. R. Barber, P. R. Carlson, M. J. Durako, J. W. Fourqurean, L. K. Muehlstein, D. Porter, L. A. Yarbro, R. T. Zieman, J. C. Zieman. 1991. Mass mortality of the tropical seagrass Thalassia testudinum in Florida Bay (USA). Marine Ecology Progress Series. Vol. 71: 297-299, 1991. Sary, Z.; Oxenford, H.A.; D. Woodley, J.D. 1997. Effects of an increase in trap mesh size on an overexploited coral reef fishery at Discovery Bay, Jamaica. Marine Ecology Progress Serive, Vol 154:107-120. Sitoe, A. A., Mandlate, L. J. C., & Guedes, B. S. (2014). Biomass and carbon stocks of Sofala bay mangrove forests. Forests, 5(8), 1967-1981. Sitoe, A., Salomão, A., & Wertz-Kanounnikoff, S. (2012). The context of REDD+ in Mozambique: Drivers, agents and institutions (Vol. 79). CIFOR. Swennenhuis, J. (2011). Strengthening community based fisheries governance in Mozambique. A roadmap for IUCN. IUCN/UK AID. 29. (in Andrew 2017 opp.cit.) Tulika Narayan, Lindsay Foley, Jacqueline Haskell, David Cooley, and Eric Hyman. 2017. Cost-Benefit Analysis of Mangrove Restoration for Coastal Protection and an Earthen Dike Alternative in Mozambique. Washington, DC: Climate Economic Analysis Development, Investment, and Resilience (CEADIR) Activity, Crown Agents USA and Abt Associates. Prepared for the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). Wells, S., & Ravilious, C. (2006). In the front line: shoreline protection and other ecosystem services from mangroves and coral reefs (No. 24). UNEP/Earthprint. Wild, R.G. 2016. The Cultural Dimension of Forest Landscape Restoration in 10 questions. Study materials for a joint IUCN and Yale University training course run by the Environmental Leadership Training Institute - ELTI. Robert Wild, August 2016. Available from [email protected] .

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Wild, 2015. Defining restoration under the Bonn Challenge. IUCN. Unpublished. Wild, R.G. et al (multiple authors) 2010. The social values of Cultural, Sacred and Religious forests: Opportunities, Threats and Recommendations for policy and field level action. A submission to inform the UN Secretary General’s Report on “Social and Cultural Aspects of Forests” For International Year of Forests 2011 by IUCN Specialist Group on the Cultural and Spiritual Value of Protected Areas - CSVPA Wild, R.G. and McLeod, C. (Eds). 2008, Sacred Natural Sites: Guidelines for Protected Area Managers. IUCN- UNESCO. IUCN Best Practice Guidelines 16: IUCN Gland. Wild, R.G., Millinga, A. and Robinson, J.R. 2008. Microfinance and environmental sustainability at selected sites in Tanzania and Kenya. Report for LTS, WWF and CARE. World Resources Institute. (2015). The Restoration Diagnostic. A Method for Developing Forest Landscape Restoration Strategies by Rapidly Assessing the Status of Key Success Factors. Version 1.0. https://www.wri.org/sites/ default/files/WRI_Restoration_Diagnostic_0.pdf Valiela, I., Bowen, J. L., & York, J. K. (2001). Mangrove Forests: One of the World’s Threatened Major Tropical Environments: At least 35% of the area of mangrove forests has been lost in the past two decades, losses that exceed those for tropical rain forests and coral reefs, two other well-known threatened environments. AIBS Bulletin, 51(10), 807-815. Verschuuren, B.; Wild, R.G.; McNeely, J.A. and Oviedo, G. (2010) Sacred Natural Sites: Conserving Nature and Culture, Earthscan. Published September, 2010. Launched CBD COP 10. Additional references Bessell-Browne, Pia, Andrew P. Negri, Rebecca Fisher, Peta L. Clode, Alan Duckworth, and Ross Jones. “Impacts of turbidity on corals: The relative importance of light limitation and suspended sediments.” Marine pollution bulletin 117, no. 1-2 (2017): 161-170. Temudo, Marina P., and João MN Silva. “Agriculture and forest cover changes in post-war Mozambique.” Journal of land use science 7, no. 4 (2012): 425-442. Yamano,H., & Tamura, M.,(2004). Detection limits of coral reef bleaching by satellite remote sensing: Simulation and data analysis. Remote Sensing of Environment 90 (2004) 86-103 Vemu, S & Udaya B, P. (2010). Change Detection in Landuse and landcover using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques. International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology. 2. Poursanidis, D., Topouzelis, K., & Chrysoulakis, N,. (2018) Mapping coastal marine habitats and delineating the deep limits of the Neptune’s seagrass meadows using very high resolution Earth observation data, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 39:23, 8670-8687, DOI: 10.1080/01431161.2018.1490974 E. Woollen, C.M. Ryan, S. Baumert, et al.Charcoal production in the Mopane woodlands of Mozambique: what are the tradoffs with other ecosystem services? Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B, 371 (2016), p. 20150315 UNECA, ( 2017).An overview of urbanization and structural transformation in Africa. Economic Report on Africa. United Nations Economic Comission for Africa (UNECA). Ch.3 ,.2017.

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6. APPENDIX 6. APPENDIX

6.1. Appendix A. Summary of the five criteria (A-E) used to evaluate the risk status of an ecosystem

A. Reduction in geographic distribution over ANY of the following time periods:

CR EN VU

A1 Present (over the past 50 years). ≥ 80% ≥ 50% ≥ 30%

A2a Future (over the next 50 years). ≥ 80% ≥ 50% ≥ 30%

A2b Future (over any 50 year period including the present and future). ≥ 80% ≥ 50% ≥ 30%

A3 Historic (since 1750). ≥ 90% ≥ 70% ≥ 50%

B. Restricted geographic distribution indicated by EITHER B1, B2 or B3:

CR EN VU

2 2 2 B1 Extent of a minimum convex polygon enclosing all occurrences (Extent of Occurrence) ≤ 2,000 km ≤ 20,000 km ≤ 50,000 km

AND at least one of the following (a-c):

(a) An observed or inferred continuing decline in EITHER:

i. a measure of spatial extent appropriate to the ecosystem; OR

ii. a measure of environmental quality appropriate to characteristic biota of the ecosystem; OR

iii. a measure of disruption to biotic interactions appropriate to the characteristic biota of the ecosystem.

(b) An observed or inferred threatening processes that are likely to cause continuing declines in either geographic distribution, environmental quality or biotic interactions w the next 20 years.

B2 The number of 10 × 10 km grid cells occupied (Area of Occupancy) ≤ 2 ≤ 20 ≤ 50

AND at least one of a-c above (same subcriteria as for B1).

B3 A very small number of locations (generally fewer than 5) AND

prone to the effects of human activities or stochastic events within a very short time period in an uncertain future, and thus

capable of collapse or becoming Critically Endangered within a very short time period (B3 can only lead to a listing as VU). VU

C. Environmental degradation over ANY of the following time periods:

Relative severity (%)

Extent (%) ≥ 80 ≥ 50 ≥ 30

≥ 80 CR EN VU The past 50 years based on change in an abiotic variable affecting a fraction of the extent of C1 ecosystem and with relative severity, as indicated by the following table: ≥ 50 EN VU

≥ 30 VU

Extent (%) ≥ 80 ≥ 50 ≥ 30

The next 50 years, or any 50-year period including the present and future, based on change in an ab ≥ 80 CR EN VU C2 variable affecting a fraction of the extent of the ecosystem and with relative severity, as indicated by following table: ≥ 50 EN VU

≥ 30 VU

Extent (%) ≥ 90 ≥ 70 ≥ 50 Since 1750 based on change in an abiotic variable affecting a fraction of the extent of the ecosystem C3 with relative severity, as indicated by the following table: ≥ 90 CR EN VU 136 141

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≥ 70 EN VU ≥ 50 VU

D. Disruption of biotic processes or interactions over ANY of the following time periods:

Relative severity (%) Extent (%) ≥ 80 ≥ 50 ≥ 30

≥ 80 CR EN VU The past 50 years based on change in a biotic variable affecting a fraction of the extent of the ecosys D1 and with relative severity, as indicated by the following table: ≥ 50 EN VU ≥ 30 VU Extent (%) ≥ 80 ≥ 50 ≥ 30

The next 50 years, or any 50-year period including the present and future, based on change in a b ≥ 80 CR EN VU D2 variable affecting a fraction of the extent of the ecosystem and with relative severity, as indicated by following table: ≥ 50 EN VU ≥ 30 VU Extent (%) ≥ 90 ≥ 70 ≥ 50

≥ 90 CR EN VU Disruption of biotic processes or interactions since 1750 based on change in a biotic variable affecti D3 fraction of the extent of the ecosystem and with relative severity, as indicated by the following table: ≥ 70 EN VU ≥ 50 VU

E. Quantitative analysis …

CR EN VU

… that estimates the probability of ecosystem collapse to be: ≥ 50% within 50 y ≥ 20% within 50 y ≥ 10% within 100 y

These were then overlaid onto the 2017 map and values AppendixAppendix B.B. Accuracy Accuracy assessment assessment procedure procedure and results and results of the classified raster extracted to points. Each point The accuracy assessment process should follow therefore had a raster value and a corresponding ‘ground The accuracy assessment process should follow consistent and proven representative sampling satellitetruth point’. data. TheseA frequency were then table overlaid was ontothen the generated 2017 consistent and proven representative sampling procedure that reduces uncertainties and limitations mapusing and the values frequency of the tool,classified to show raster the extracted distribution to of procedure that reduces uncertainties and limitations encountered during the mapping process.This points.points Eachper class. point All therefore the classes had ahad raster a majority value and of pointsa encountered during the mapping process. This project project avoided the methods that estimate land cover correspondingcorresponding ‘ground to their truthrespective point’. classes, A frequency as a few table others avoided the methods that estimate land cover areas from areas from maps alone as then there is no indication waswere then matched generated elsewhere. using the frequency tool, to show maps alone as then there is no indication that mapping that mapping best practices are met, as inevitable the distribution of points per class. All the classes had best practices are met, as inevitable classification errors A pivot table was then generated to create an error classification errors are unaccounted for. Instead, amatrix majority and of the points percentage corresponding field toadded their andrespective calculated. itare was unaccounted decided to for.employ Instead, a common it was decided practice to and employ a classes, as a few others were matched elsewhere. common practice and compare the classified map classes The table was exported to Microsoft Office Excel and compare the classified map classes against carefully A pivot table was then generated to create an error against carefully selected reference or ground truth data, matrixformatted and tothe calculate percentage the fieldoverall added accuracy. and calculated. selected reference or ground truth data, to provide to provide such assurance. The ground truth data, also TheThe tableresults was showed exported an to overall Microsoft accuracy Office Excelof 85.1% and for such assurance. The ground truth data, also called called the reference data, helps to correct for systematic formattedInhassoro to 2017 calculate map, the 81.1% overall for accuracy. Memba 2017 map, the reference data, helps to correct for systematic map classification errors and provides the information Theand results 84.3% showed for Dondo an overall 2017 ac map.curacy Most of 85.1% of the for smaller map classification errors and provides the information Inhassoro 2017 map, 81.1% for Memba 2017 map, necessarynecessary for estimating thethe uncertaintyuncertainty of of map map classes classes andclasses 84.3% with for smaller Dondo sample2017 map. points, Most including of the smaller bareland, and the creation of confidence intervals in an error matrix. settlement and open water had 100% accuracy, while and the creation of confidence intervals in an error classes with smaller samle points, including bareland, the larger classes with larger sample points, including matrix.Random sample points, averaging 300 in number were settlement and open water had 100% accuracy, while generated in ArcGIS 10.3 and interpreted in imagery thethe larger forest classes classes with and larger grassland, sample hadpoints, lower including accuracy Random sample points, averaging 300 in number basemap within the software as well as Google Earth, thebetween forest classes50% and and 90%. grassland, had lower accuracy were generated in ArcGIS 10.3 and interpreted in both of which provide high resolution satellite data. between 50% and 90%. imagery basemap within the software as well as Google Earth, both of which provide high resolution 137

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Table 1 Accuracy assessment for Memba district 2017 land cover map

Reference data Percent Classnames Dense forest Open forest Mangroves Shrubland Grassland Cropland Settlement Bareland Wetland (%) Dense forest 8 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 72.73

Open forest 2 41 2 3 6 0 0 0 0 75.93 Mangroves 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 100.00 data Shrubland 1 12 0 165 10 8 0 0 0 84.18 Grassland 0 1 0 1 3 0 0 0 0 60.00 Cropland 0 0 0 4 3 7 0 0 0 50.00 Settlement 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 100.00 Classification Bareland 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 100.00 Wetland 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 100.00 Overall accuracy 81.1

Table 18 Accuracy assessment for Inhassoro district 2017 land cover map

Reference data Percent Classnames Dense forest Open forest Mangrove Shrubland Grassland Cropland Wetland Settlement Bareland Open water (%) Dense forest 16 5 0 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 64.0 Open forest 4 23 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 67.6

Mangrove 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100.0 data

Shrubland 7 3 0 96 21 1 0 0 0 0 75.0 Grassland 0 3 0 4 31 0 0 0 0 0 81.6 Cropland 0 0 0 1 3 11 0 0 0 0 73.3 Wetland 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 100.0

Classification Settlement 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 100.0 Bareland 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 100.0 Open water 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 100.0 Overall Accuracy 85.1

Accuracy assessment for Dondo district 2017 land cover map

Reference data Percent Classnames Dense forest Open forest Mangrove Shrubland Grassland Cropland Wetland Settlement Bareland Open water (%) Dense forest 10 3 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 66.7 Open forest 3 10 0 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 58.8 Mangrove 1 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 87.5

data Shrubland 0 1 0 22 2 1 0 0 0 0 84.6 Grassland 0 1 0 4 13 0 0 0 0 0 72.2 Cropland 0 0 0 0 2 13 0 0 0 0 86.7 Wetland 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 100

Classification Settlement 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 8 0 0 88.9 Bareland 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 100 Open water 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 100 Overall Accuracy 84.3

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6.2. Appendix C. Example of species associated with mangrove ecosystem

Invertebrate Crab Paeneid prawns Fish Reptile Birds Mammals Alpheus Uca Metapaeneus monocer Ambassis safgha Crocodilus niloticus Halcyon senegaloides Dolphin Upogebia Sesarma Penaeopsis hilarulus, Anguilla bicolor Varanus niloticus. Merops superciliosus Atilax paludinosus Saccostrea Scylla serrata Paeneus canaliculatus, A. mossambica Caretta caretta Zosterops senegalens Cephalophus monticola Balanus P. indicus Belonichthys fluviatilis Dermochelys coriace Alcedo semitorquata C. natalensis Cerithidia P. monodon Clarias gariepinus Ceryle rudis Cercopithecus albogula Littorina scab P. semisulcatus Ctenopoma ctenotis Corythornis cristata C. pygerythrus Oecophyllum Eleotris melanosoma Halcyon albiventris Dugong dugon Gilchristella aestuarius H. senegalensis Felis serval Gobius nebulosus Megaceryle maxima Kuhlia rupestris Ardea cinerea Oreochromis placidus A. goliath Periophthalmus kalolo A. purpurea Platygobius sp. Bubulcus ibis Syngnathoides baculeat Butorides striatus Therapon jarbua Egretta garzetta Tilapia sparrmanii. Haliaeetus vocifer Nycticorax nycticorax Pandion haliaetus Scopus umbretta Scotopelia peli Actitis hypoleucos Calidris minuta Calidris testacea Charadrius hiaticula C. marginatus C. pecuarius Corvus albus Dramas ardeola Pelecanus rufescens Phalacrocorax carbo P. africanus Pluvialis squatarola Tringa nebularia Xenus cinereus Weaver Phoenix Estrilda astrild Lonchura cucullata Quelea erythrops Vidua macroura.

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CoastalCoastal Resilience Resilience to to Climate Climate Change Change Baseline; Baseline; Coastal Coastal and and Marine Marine Ecosystems Ecosystems Restoration Restoration Assessment Assessment 6.3. Appendix D. Fieldwork summary information

Team composition

Name Institution Position 6.3. Appendix D. Fieldwork summary information Robert WILD IUCN staff FLR financing expert AlainTeam NDOLI composition IUCN staff Senior programme officer - FLR

EphremName IMANIRAREBA IUCNInstitution staff FLRPosition economist JosephRobert NJUE WILD IUCNIUCN staf staff f GISFL Rofficer financing expert MariaAlain MA NDOLITEDIANE IUCNIUCN staf staff f SeniorSenior program programme officer officer - Forest - FLR JafEphremfer Ababu IMANIRAREBA WAKHAYANGA IUCNIUCN consultant staff RemoteFLR economist sensing Expert ManuelJoseph MENOMUSSANGA NJUE IUCNIUCN staf staff f SeniorGIS officer program officer - Coastal Marine SileneMaria BILA MATEDIANE IUCNIUCN staf staff f PrSeniorogramme program assistant officer - Forest - Forest

Jaffer Ababu WAKHAYANGA IUCN consultant Remote sensing Expert WorkshopManuel MENOMUSSANGA Agenda IUCN staff Senior program officer - Coastal Marine

Silene BILA IUCN staff Programme assistant - Forest Tempo Evento Interveniente

08.00-08:30 Registo de participantes Todos 08:30Workshop – 08:40 AgendaNotas de boas vindas CRCC ponto focal

08:40 – 08:55 Discurso de abertura Director provincial, DPMAIP Tempo Evento Interveniente 08:5508.00 – -09:0008:30 ApresentacaoRegisto de participantes dos participantes TodosTodos 09:0008:30 – –09.05 08:40 ApresentacaoNotas de boas da vindas agenda do workshop ManuelCRCC ponto focal 09.0508:40 – –09.20 08:55 IntervaloDiscurso de de café abertura TodosDirector provincial, DPMAIP 09.2008:55 – –09:30 09:00 ApresentacaoApresentacao de dos ROAM participantes & RLE : Objectivos, abragencia/ou componentes. JosephTodos

09:3009:00 – –09:40 09.05 VisãoApresentacao geral sobre da os agenda factores do de workshop mudança / ameaças e possível risco para o Manuel ecossistema - biofísico (exemplo de ROAM) 09.05 – 09.20 Intervalo de café Todos Joseph & Alain 09.20 – 09:30 Apresentacao de ROAM & RLE : Objectivos, abragencia/ou componentes. Joseph 09:40 – 10.00 Apresentação sobre as tendências socioeconômicas, institucionais e culturais Rob, Maria, Ephrem & Alain 09:30 – 09:40 queVisão afetam geral as sobre paisagens os factor costeirases de mudança e marinhas/marinhas / ameaças e possível(com exemplos risco para da o ROAM)ecossistema - biofísico (exemplo de ROAM) 10:00 – 10:30 ApresentaçãoJoseph & Alain sobre o mapeamento de degradação/ regeneração de ecos- Joseph, Jaffer sistemas, Análise multicritério e oportunidades de restauração, serviços 09:40 – 10.00 Apresentação sobre as tendências socioeconômicas, institucionais e culturais Rob, Maria, Ephrem & Alain ecossistêmicos e RLE. que afetam as paisagens costeiras e marinhas/marinhas (com exemplos da 10:30 – 12.00 PerguntasROAM) e respostas/ trabalhos em grupo para levantamento de dados / Todos membros da equipa fontes de informação/ 10:00 – 10:30 Apresentação sobre o mapeamento de degradação/ regeneração de ecos- Joseph, Jaffer 12:00 – 12:15 Consideraçõessistemas, Análise finais multicritério e oportunidades de restauração, serviços DPMAIP ecossistêmicos e RLE. 12:15 – 13:00 Almoço Todos 10:30 – 12.00 Perguntas e respostas/ trabalhos em grupo para levantamento de dados / Todos membros da equipa fontes de informação/

12:00 – 12:15 Considerações finais DPMAIP 12:15 – 13:00 Almoço Todos

ROAM - Restoration Opportunity Assessment Methodology (Metodologia de Avaliação de Oportunidades de Restauração) RLE – Red List of Ecosystem (Lista vermelha de Ecossistemas) 145 140

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Work Plan from 19 to 24 November

Activity Date Location Half Day workshop 19th November Inhambane Half day control survey 20th November Inhassoro Half Day workshop 21st November Beira Half day control survey 22nd November Dondo Half Day workshop 23rd November Nampula Half day control survey 24th November Memba

6.4. Appendix E. Information gathered 4. Extensionists, 6.4. Appendix E. Information gathered from 4. Extensionists,5. Members of Community Fishery Council from provincial workshops and district 5. Members of Community Fishery Council provincial workshops and district surveys. The data collection followed the same structure in the surveys. Introduction The threedata collectionprovinces, followed a half day the workshop same structure followed in by the field three provinces, a half day workshop followed by field FromIntr 19thoduction to 24th November a multidisciplinary team work in the target districts. work in the target districts. Summary of the Workshops from FrIUCNom 19th undertook to 24th threeNovember seminars a multidisciplinary and field work team for Summary of the Workshops The workshops followed the same programme (see data fromcollection, IUCN undertookfor the Coastal three seminars Resilience and to field Climate work for above).The The workshops provincial followed focal points the same for the programme CRCC project, (see Changedata (CRCC) collection, baseline for the mapping Coastal (teamResilience composition to Climate in wereabove). in charge The of provincial the moderation focal points of the for workshops. the CRCC project, annexChange 1). The (CRCC) seminars baseline were done mapping in Inhambane, (team composition Beira in annex 1). The seminars were done in Inhambane, Beira were in charge of the moderation of the workshops. and Nampula Cities, and the complementary filed work PresentationPresentation were were made made by the by Restorationthe Restoration Opportunity Opportunity and Nampula Cities, and the complementary filed work in the districts of Inhassoro, Dondo and Memba (annex AssessmentAssessment (ROAM) (ROAM) and and Red Red List List of of Ecosystem (RLE)(RLE) 2). in the districts of Inhassoro, Dondo and Memba (annex team, to introduce the participants to concepts of both 2). team, to introduce the participants to concepts of both The workshops had the participation of key stakeholders methodologicalmethodological approaches approaches that thatare arebeing being used used in inthe the from Thethe province,workshops district had the and participation community of level. key stakeholders ExerciseExercise of Restoration of Restoration Assessment Assessment and and for forthe the coastal coastal from the province, district and community level. Marine Ecosystem in Inhassoro, Dondo and Memba A. From the province level there were Marine Ecosystem in Inhassoro, Dondo and Memba A. From the province level there were representatives Districts.Districts. After After presentation presentation followedfollowed a a clarification clarification representativesof: of: section,section, group group work, work, presentation presentation of group of group work work to theto the a. Provincial Directorate for the Sea, Inland Waters and plenaryplenary and clarificationsand clarifications of the of thegroup group work. work. a. Provincial Directorate for the Sea, Inland Waters and Fisheries (DMAIP), Fisheries (DMAIP), 6.4.1.1. Opening session b. Provincial Directorate of Land, Environment and Rural 6.4.1.1. Opening session Developmentb. Provincial (DPTADER), Directorate of Land, Environment and Rural In InhambaneIn Inhambane the opening the opening and closureand closure were weremade made by the c. ProvincialDevelopment Directorate (DPTADER), of Agriculture and Food Security Delegateby the of Delegate the IIP, in of Beira the IIitP was, in Beiradone byit was the donefocal pointby (DPMASA),c. Provincial Directorate of Agriculture and Food fromthe DPMAIP focal pointand infrom Nampula DPMAIP by andthe Provincialin Nampula Director by the d. ProvincialSecurity Services (DPMASA), for Geography and Cadastre of DMAIP.Provincial All off Di rthemector mentionedof DMAIP. Allthe o importanceff them mentioned of the (SPGC), workshopthe importance due to the of challengesthe workshop faced due in to the the provinces challenges d. Provincial Services for Geography and Cadastre e. Provincial Directorate of Tourism (DPCT), and faceddistricts in thein particular,provinces andto preserve districts inthe particular, coastal toand (SPGC), f. Provincial delegation of National Fisheries Research marinepreserve resources. the coastal In Nampula, and marine were mentioned resources. mangrove In Nampula, Institutee. Provincial (IIP), Directorate of Tourism (DPCT), degradation,were mentioned use of mangrove harmful fishing degradation, arts useand of coral harmful reef g. Provincialf. Provincial delegation delegati ofon National of National Institute Fisheries for DisasterResearch degradationfishing arts as examples and coral of reef threats degradation to the ecosystem. as examples Was Risk ManagementInstitute (IIP), (INGC). mentionedof threats that, to thehealth ecosystem. ecosystems Was will mentioned lead to a that, better h. Civil Society Organizations such as ADEL Sofala (Local development,health ecosystems improvement will lead of communities’ to a better development, livelihoods, g. Provincial delegation of National Institute for Disaster Development Agency of Sofala), Malhalhe, AENA, a betterimpr ovementeconomy of for communities’ the country livelihoods,and improvement a better of Risk Management (INGC). Ocean Revolution Bitonga Divers, and Community tourismeconomy and country for the development. country and improvement of tourism h. Civil Society Organizations such as ADEL Sofala (Local Land Initiative (ITC). Afterand the country opening development. sessions and presentations of the Development Agency of Sofala), Malhalhe, AENA, participants,After the theopening CRCC sess projections andmanager presentations reminded of thethe B. FromOcean the Revolution district Bitonandga community Divers, and level:Community participantsparticipants, the theobjectives CRCC projectof CRCC manager project, reminded districts the Land Initiative (ITC). 1. District Services for Economic Activities, involved,participants steps thealready objectives done ofin CRCC the project project, anddistricts the 2. DistrictB. From Service the district for Planning and community and Infrastructures, level: objectivesinvolved, of thesteps workshop. already doneHe mentioned in the project the mappingand the 3. Local1. District leaders, Services for Economic Activities, of theobjectives marine ofand the coastalworkshop. ecosystems He mentioned as the the mainmapping resultof ofthe the marine workshops and coastal and ecosystems field work, as asthe wellmain as the 2. District Service for Planning and Infrastructures, result of the workshops and field work, as well as the 3. Local leaders, 141 identification of areas for restoration and the costs and

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identification of areas for restoration and the costs and To undertake the economic and social analyses, one of benefits for each identified intervention. the tools is the cost and benefits analyses. Normally the costs are higher in the first years of the intervention and 6.4.1.2. Presentations in the workshops the benefits are higher in the last years. It is important to Presentation 1: Overview ROAM and RLE identify who will be paying the costs and the investment. Process -CRCC Assessment Normally the communities are the first investers, they invest land, time and other resources. ROAM - Restoration Opportunity Assessment Methodology The analyses will include gender analysis and its contribution to build resilience in the coastal area. It is The project intends to evaluate restoration opportunities also important to evaluate the contribution of the youth in Dondo, Inhassoro and Memba. One of the tools to and the benefits they can have from restoration. Youths be used is ROAM, which helps to understand where to are the biggest group in the communities. The cultural do restoration and how to involve the community in this dimension should also be looked at, since its importance process. It is a participatory process that involves various may affect the development. Degradation Opportunities stakeholders. ROAM is done in three main step: and Interventions & Multi Criteria Analysis 1. Preparation - This meeting is for the participants to The study will make an analysis in the specific districts understand the methodology and help to identify the over years (20 years), for 11 aspects, e.g. mangrove status of the landscapes. cover. It was explained how to get the degradation 2. Data collection and data analysis - In this workshop data maps, prioritization and identification of opportunities for are collected, to understand the level of preparation restoration. It was given an example of the analyses made for restoration. The Cost and benefits analysis is done in 10 District ROAM in Nampula, Zambezia and explained in this stage. that, the criteria analysis may vary. The expectation from 3. Results and recommendations - Next year a report these workshop was to identify the interventions relevant will be compiled and presented to the partners for for each district based on the participants’ experience. feedback, to improve the results of the evaluation and identify strategies to be developed, based on the Questions and answers after the presentations results. in Inhambane (19.11.2018) RLE - Red List of Ecosystems 1. Q: How is the multi-criteria analysis done and how to The tool will be used to monitor and evaluate the define the criteria? processes of change in the ecosystems along the project 2. Q: The satellite images show many mangroves, but lifetime. For example: Coral reefs, coastal forests and there are other types of ecosystems, such as coastal seagrasses. The main objective is to evaluate the state dunes, marine reserves; will other ecosystems be of the ecosystems and the needs to improve them. considered in the study? A: Yes The tool will help to analyze the risk of collapse of the ecosystems. e.g. mangroves in Dondo, may be classified 3. Q: Inhassorro district has in place a land use plan and as vulnerable, in the beginning of the project and at the tourism master plan. It would be good to consider end of the project (as a result of the interventions in the existing tools when implementing the tools presented project), evaluate if the mangrove changed its status, for in the workshop. It is important to involve the instance from vulnerable to Least Concern). communities to have information about the changes in the site area, e.g. fisherman, local fisheries committees. Biophysical & Social economic Drivers of Degradation and the Restoration Diagnostic Assessment. The drivers 4. Q: i) Has any study in Inhassoro district already been used depend on the actual situation of each region. They done to identify the ecosystems to be restored? ii) Is can be biophysical or socio-economic vectors. Examples mangrove the only ecosystem to restore? If yes, what of vectors that may be relevant for mangroves include: is the current stage? iii) In relation to other marine and fires, sea level and increasing infrastructures in the coastal ecosystems, will remote sensing be sufficient? coastal zone. There are trained personnel to do seagrass and coral reef evaluations in deep areas. For the diagnosis of restoration opportunities, it is used the Restoration Diagnostic Assessment Tool. The tool Answer: The study is based on previous studies in the comprises 32 success factors (which can be seen as well area. A biophysical data collection will not be done at as barriers) divided in three main themes, motivation, this time, but information from other studies will be capacity and implementation. To evaluate each factor, it used to inform on the state of marine ecosystems. is used a traffic light color system (green, yellow and red) 5. Inhassoro is facing deep changes in last years, and and throughout the project it is possible to evaluate how the colours change. 142 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

we have exploitation of oil and gas. In the last years be addressed through Forest Landscape Restoration? (from 2014), it is observed the degradation of seagrass, • Increase access to resources which is the ecosystem that ensure the conservation of • Food security the general biodiversity, accompanied of low level of • Employment fish captures. Close to Inhassoro there is the Bazaruto National Park, created to protect dugongs and turtles, 3. What are the provincial and district goals/targets in and it is observed that these animals are changing their environmental protection?(These must be aligned with hotspots, and now they are seen outside the park, and the CRCC programme goals)? close to fisher zones. This could be for grazing. There is • In the Mozambique Sustainable Development Plan, a reduction of mangrove, seen in the south and north. there are targets for the province and districts to: 300ha The most important ecosystems are coral reefs and up to 2022 in Inhambane; Inhassoro 20ha up to 2022 seagrasses. • Reduce marine pollution by plastic Group work in Inhambane (19.11.2018) 4. What Type of Restoration Interventions (shown in appendix 1) can be adopted to reduce/eliminate Group 1 Factors of success socio-economic-environmental challenges and Comment: Involvement of communities, through the meet provincial/district/national socio-economic- direct contact with local leaders. environmental Goals/targets? Questions/Answers group 1 • Ecosystems restoration and environmental education Q: What is the status of the campaigns for planting trees 5. What are some of the factors to consider when mapping called “one student, one tree” and “one leader, one potential areas for new mangroves and seagrasses? forest”? • Local history, A: The campaigns are still going on. The SDPI in partnership • Community involvement, with SDAE take advantage of commemorative dates • Auscultation of stakeholders, (e.g. environment day) to encourage schools to plant • Environmental characteristics trees. It is recommended that schools plant fruit trees 6. List some of the GIS data/layer that could be useful and shade trees. The leaders already have forests, at for this assessment. the moment the work is to increase the planted areas. At the moment the focus is to plant fruit trees and not • Landsat images native forest species, especially in the cities. • Data may be found at provincial services on • Geography and Group 2 Mapping (Inhambane) • CENACARTA (Maputo) 1. What are the land use/Environmental/Socio- 7. For climate change vulnerability please provide Biophysical challenges (risks/threats) in the target indicator for each of the risk components (See appendix districts? 3). • Development in the coast: increase number of people • Exploration of hydrocarbons, living in the coast • Coastal development, • Food insecurity • Reduction of vegetation and use of wood fuel • People are more active in fishery 8. How would the maps be useful at your district/ Biophysical: provincial level for implementation? • Coastal erosion • Source of information to the public; • Loss of vegetation • Location of resources; • Reduction of biodiversity • For comparison in time and season • Environmental pollution • Tourism development 9. List some of the interventions (describing practices) that could be used for restoring degraded areas at Socioeconomic: the same time improving the livelihood of the habitat- • Development in the coast ants. • Social exclusion • Mangrove replanting, • Reducing access to resources 2. What are major social-economic challenges that could

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• Sea grasses, 10. In each of the intervention, state the criteria that • Radio program, TV, lectures in schools could be used to map their potential areas (please see appendix 2). • Existence of bad practices to the environment.

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Group 3- Stock taking group Inhassoro

Restoration Project Title Restoration Practices/Activities Year Admin Contact Start- post Person End CDS (Sustainable Soil erosion mitigation measures 2007- Inhassoro Manuel Development Centers) using low cost measures e.g. 2012 and other (IUCN) Costal zones – by the Cement bricks to protect cost, districts ministry of environment combined with vetiver grass, Climate Change Project Climate change local adaption Inhassoro Afonsina plans (e.g. coping strategies at (844141058) district level)

Ministry of Agriculture/ Plant mangrove native tree spe- Inhassoro SDAE cies specially. Skill sharks No information, call Anuario Inhassoro Anuario (848918848) District land use plan GIS analysis for land cover etc. Inhassoro Manuel Zonation for conservation, tour- (IUCN) ism, settlements, etc General Urbanization plan Plan well, with the coming of oil for Inhassoro (on-going) and gas company (SASOL) A project increasing the Success: Involvement of com- river bed of Mutamba munity leaders, River which provide water to Inhambane Ana Isabel – SDPI Inham- 846506407 bane amacucha@ gmail.com Taigo Cherene - SPGC 844684260 chmiri- one8@ yahoo.com. br Cremildo Carlos Zacarias 842171887 - SPFFB mrcsiban- da@gamil. com

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Questions and answers after the presentations Main Answers in Beira (21.11.2018) 1. Co-participation of community in costs and benefits. For instance: if the issue is mangrove restoration, the Main questions community will help in that. 1. Caetano Gimo (agricultura) a. First is that it is more expensive to restore than to a. Comment: the presentations are complementary maintain an ecosystem. If it is too expensive to b. Is it possible to have the presentations? restore, the priority will be on the benefit and not on the cost to restore. When making our project c. In the districts, the focal point will be there, but costs, it is important to find the cost of restoration he thinks the focal points in the district will need and find ways to cover that costs. E.g. give incentives assistance from focal point at province level. How the for restoration and pay for restoration services; if a results in the district will have a follow-up? cyclone hit, the government must give assistance 2. District focal point: the communities will take part in to the community, it would be better to give money the activities of mangrove restoration? before and restore the mangrove. a. What really men cost benefit of restoration? if the 2. The project will work with 4 ecosystems: coral reefs, restoration cost is high then the benefits we are not mangroves, coastal forest and seagrasses; the project going to restore? is marine and terrestrial, agriculture and other land 3. Provincial focal point: the province do not have the uses will be used. exactly information on the extension mangrove area a. The project will support all income generation to be restored. However there is other ecosystems activities in the coastal area not only fishing. to be considered. Will the project focus only in man- b. The elaboration of mangrove strategy is an ongoing groves? process, and it is not finished. Though as MIMAIP 4. Community leader of Chinamacondo. What are the is partner in this project this will be addressed. The concrete actions to be implemented in the district? In mapping being performed in the project will be the district there are areas of agriculture and fisheries aligned with the strategy. Depending on the scale and exploitation of mangrove. It is important to know of the mapping planned by MIMAIP there will be the real areas to be addresses. How the community no need to re-map the mangroves in these three leaders will be involved. Actores to be involved na districts. provincial e no distrito; 3. Restoration is a slow process that bring result in a 5. Adel sofala. There is a specific strategy for man- long-term. The project will focus in strengthen grove, and one of the element is mapping. How is the institutions in techniques and means that may this mapping is aligned with the strategy. What is the address the mangrove degradation. level of coordination? 4. The project will work with 4 ecosystems: coral reefs, 6. Community leader of Tsengo. Welcome the project mangroves, coastal forest and seagrasses; the project and community is open to the support which will is marine and terrestrial, agriculture and other land come with the project uses will be considered. The project will not focus 7. Junito Amade: Want to understand about mapping only on restoration, but also in conservation of the and if the project will involve OCBs and community health areas (mapping). For the degraded areas, the leaders will be involved in this process. project will prioritize the areas for restoration. The 8. Eugenio Sigauque: MIMAIP is elaborating a man- degradation of mangrove happens due to various grove strategy that plan to map the mangroves. aspects: economic, social, legal, etc. The process Is there any coordination between this mapping of mapping is done looking at all the other aspects exercise and the mapping that is being planned in that results in mangrove degradation. From the the strategy? study it will be identified the main activities to deal with this degradation. Sometimes the problem may a. The project areas were chosen based on the specific come from outside the community, community may ecosystems? cut mangrove for domestic uses, while people from 9. One of the problems that make people cut man- outside cut for commerce. It is important to identify groves, is the socio-economic situation. How to the causes to address correctly the problems. overcome this socio-economic issues. What are 5. The socio economic issues is critical. Because people examples of other countries? develop by degrading ecosystem. All ecosystems can 10. When the project will start to implement restoration be managed to be productive and this is a challenge. in the communities? This year. 6. There is great experience in this area, in forest, wood-

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land, mangrove, grazing areas, wet lands, farm lands protection of resources; iii) Empowering communities (grazing and threes). There are examples from Niger with alternative sources of income and Ethiopia, initiated by the community themselves, 5. What are some of the factors to consider when i) Will brings benefits to community, iii) the best mapping potential areas for new mangroves and examples are from Africa and; iv) communities initiate seagrasses. by themselves. Answer: i) type of soils; 7. Uganda as an example of community involvement in ii) Soil moisture restoration. A revolving fund was create as incentive iii) Vulnerability; for communities to restore. E.g. the communities iv) Cost / benefit issues create their own plans and laws and, make a compromise to adhere to the laws and, a grant is given 6. List some of the GIS data/layer that could be useful to the communities. The fund is available for all for this assessment. community members. Anyone can have access to the i) Population density map; credit if prove that is contributing to restoration. ii) Satellite image; 8. The mangrove strategy is an ongoing process, iii) Agro ecological zones and it is not finished; but because the MIMAIP is a 7. For climate change vulnerability please provide partner of the project this will be addressed. It will be indicator for each of the risk components (See necessary to see the scale of mapping in the strategy appendix 3). and in CCRC mapping. Answer: i) population pressure; Group Work in Beira (21.11.2018) Group 1- Factors of ii) Gender imbalance; success (Beira) Group 2- Mapping (Beira) iii) Low schooling index 1. What are the land use/Environmental/Socio- 8. How would the maps be useful at your district/pro- Biophysical challenges (risks/threats) in the target vincial level for implementation? districts? Answer: i) Ease of project implementation process ii) Answer: Natural causes: Erosion, Cyclones and floods Identify the phases of implementation 2. What are major social-economic challenges that could 9. List some of the interventions (describing practices) be addressed through Forest Landscape Restoration? that could be used for restoring degraded areas Answer: Improved livelihoods, increase of marine flora at the same time improving the livelihood of the and fauna. habitatants. 3. What are the provincial and district goals/targets in Answer: i) reforestation of mangrove ii) alternative source environmental protection?(These must be aligned of income with the CRCC programme goals). 10. In each of the intervention, state the criteria that Answer: i) decrease the rate of coastal erosion; ii) increase could be used to map their potential areas (please in biodiversity (flora and fauna) see appendix 2). 4. What Type of Restoration Interventions (shown in Answer: i) salinity and soil acidity; appendix 1) can be adopted to reduce/eliminate ii) Water flow; socio-economic-environmental challenges and iii) costs/benefits (measuring the benefit of intervention) meet provincial/district/national socio-economic- environmental Goals/targets? Answer: i) mangrove reforestation; ii) strengthen the

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Group 3 Stock taking group (Beira)

Restoration Restoration Practices/Activities Year Start-End Admin pos Localities Contact Person Project Title PCR (Promotion of Only the promotion of saving and saving with the CCPs crediting groups for community Sengo, Farol, council of fish (CCP) Mozisa and Praianova) Promotion of Campaign of tree plantation in Continuous Savane Sengo Amelia Chaves – mangrove restoration mangroves monitored by Natural 829121497 government (a Resource Management Committee (DPTADER) campaign) CGRN (equivalent to CCP on forest) Jose Chivunvuro – 8 2995432 (DPMAIP) PROMEC – Supporting Cassava production and Ended 8 years Economic Promotion processing (Soil is sandy and can (lasted for 5 yea of smallholder only tolerate cassava and very farmers. Funded limited maize). Avoid bush burn, Austrian leave all the organic matter on development Agency ground – Zero tillage Co-management Teaching CCPs best practices Continuous Amelia Chaves – promoted by DPMAIP avoiding degradation of seagrasses 829121497 (DPTADER)

Jose Chivunvuro – 8 2995432 (DPMAIP) PROPESCA Support small scale fishermen, Started: 2010 Eugenio 848295451 sponsored by awareness raising on best finish End: March 201 FIDA and European practices friendly to marine and Union coastal ecosystems SwioFISH Inspection of fishing activities and 2017-2021 Cesar punishing bad practices, interventions with PCR groups fisheries management inspections (strengthen inspection capacity, awareness) statistics. Investigation (biodiversity of shrimps, and other species) Group members names

Ms. 829121497 [email protected] Amelia Chaves Jose 84 2995432 [email protected] Chivunvuro Barnete 846316165 [email protected] Caetano Gimo Stauti 862151988 Janeiro Luis

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Questions/Answers group 3 • Disappearance of fishing resources, • Disappearance of mangrove forest, About the promotion of mangrove restoration. From the • Reduction of income of families comments it was said that: i) 90% of the seeds planted died, ii) the reforestation was done without a previous 2. What are major social-economic challenges that could evaluation of the ecological conditions of the place, iii) be addressed through Forest Landscape Restoration? for the current project, in case of mangrove restoration, Answer: communities and technicians will learn appropriate • Reproduction of marine species restoration techniques for zoning, establishment of the • Increased protection of resources and nursery, planting, management, etc. In addition it was • Increased productivity emphasized that i) any type of reforestation is difficult because species may not be suitable, areas may have had 3. What are the provincial and district goals/targets in no mangrove before, etc; ii) restoration is more expensive environmental protection?(These must be aligned than protection; iii) when the mangrove is devastated, the with the CRCC programme goals). soil also degrades, erosion may occur and the conditions Answer: No answer for mangrove growth get deteriorated. 4. What Type of Restoration Interventions (shown in Questions and answers after the presentations in appendix 1) can be adopted to reduce/eliminate Nampula (23.11.2018) socio-economic-environmental challenges and meet provincial/district/national socio-economic-environ- Q. When will be the validation seminar? mental Goals/targets? A. It is expected to be by the end of January. Answer: i) mangrove reforestation; ii) casuarina Q. In the district of Memba it is notorious the issue of reforestation cutting of mangroves. Degradation is both caused 5. What are some of the factors to consider when by natural reasons and by the action of man. He mapping potential areas for new mangroves and could see in the presentations many details about seagrasses? mangroves, but hardly nothing on coral reefs, which is the predominant ecosystem in the north of Nampula. Answer: i) Economic, environmental and cultural issues He mentioned that in some areas fisherman use 6. List some of the GIS data/layer that could be useful harmful practices to the coral reefs. for this assessment. A. Yes, coral reefs are important and will be part of the • Geographical coordinates, study. • Altitude in relation to sea level, Q. I would like a demonstration on how the costs of 7. For climate change vulnerability please provide mangrove degradation will be assessed. In addition indicator for each of the risk components (See to the mangroves restoration, another issue is appendix 3). erosion. I would like to know if the project will have a component linked to the roads. Or if there may be Answer: i) Exposure: temperature and rain coordination with the provincial director of public ii) Adaptability: Land tenure, land ownership and works. existence of institutions A. There will be no training on cost and benefit analysis, 8. How would the maps be useful at your district provincial but for further information Ephrem can assist. level for implementation? Regarding the infrastructures the project does not Answer: Control of risk areas, awareness work, future focus on this sector. The CRCC does not have the consultations same approach as the PROPESCA project. 9. List some of the interventions (describing practices) Group Work in Nampula (23.11.2018) that could be used for restoring degraded areas Factors of success Mapping (Nampula) at the same time improving the livelihood of the 1. What are the land use/Environmental/Socio-Biophys- habitants. ical challenges (risks/threats) in the target districts? Answer: Mangrove reforestation Answer: Environmental 10. In each of the intervention, state the criteria that • Mangrove cutting risk; could be used to map their potential areas (please • Erosion-bare land; see appendix 2). • Changes the climate and affects precipitation Answer: i) Meetings with local governments, ii) Socio-economic: community consultation, iii) Community awareness and implementation of activities

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Group 3. Stock taking Memba

Restoration Restoration Prac- Year Tar- Estimat- Admin Localities Contact Project Title tices/Activities Start- get ed Area post Person End Area Treated (Ha) (Ha) CARE project – 1- Open field for im- 2014 - Simuco implemented by proved seed multipli- 2017 Baixo Pinda INGC cation The activ- 2- Community aware- ity 2 was ness of forest fires implemented in all Memba coast GEREN – Natural 1- Community aware- 2001 - NA Na Memba Geba Macadica – Resources ness on sustainable 2008 sede Simuco 84 7215471 Management Proj- management of natu- Mazua Serissa ect implemented ral resources Lurio by SNV PPANNCD – Ar- 1- Awareness raising 2007 - NA NA All 84 7939789 tisan Fishing and to address the use of 2013 Memba Climate Change harmful fishing arts; coastal adaptation project participative man- zone in North of Nam- agement of resources pula and Cabo and coastal protec- – Implemented by tion; IDPPE and SDAE Create Agriculture 1. Training on asso- 2015 - NA NA Mazua and Livestock and ciativism and com- 2017 Mining associa- munity mobilization tion – on the creation of ag- financed by riculture and mining community Land association Initiative (ITC) implemented by AENA

There was a comment on the presentation and was suggested to include the names of the organizations in charge of the projects and not the partners from the government. For example, SDAE in Memba undertook many activities such as: conservation agriculture, extensionism, soil conservation. That is why it appear in the table as a project.

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Notes from the field visits survive. Notes from the field visits TheThe fishermen fishermen think think that that the the drillings drilling’s in in the the sea sea may may cause Field Work in Inhambane (Inhassoro), 20.11.2018 causethe dying the dying of the of thalgae,e algae, because because of ofthe the need need of of water MeetingField Workwith fishermanin Inhambane and technicians (Inhassoro), from SDAE20.11.2018 and waterto cool to coolthe machines.the machines. But furtherBut further studies studies are neededare to SDPIMeeting (Inhassoro) with fisherman and technicians from SDAE and neededunderstand to understand this phenomenon. this phenomenon. SDPI (Inhassoro) Participative mapping of Inhassoro coast During the discussions it was pointed that other causes, suchDuring as climatethe discussions change mightit was bepointed the reason, that other and itcauses, was Participative mapping of Inhassoro coast such as climate change might be the reason, and it was advised that the fishermen and communities register everythingadvised that that thehappens. fishermen and communities register everything that happens. All communities have Community Fishing Councils (CCP).All communities have Community Fishing Councils (CCP). TheThe CCPs CCPs have have the the function function of of monitoring monitoring / controlling / controlling thethe use use of of marine marine resources, resources, raise raise awareness awareness about about bad bad practicespractices (harmful (harmful fishing fishing gear , fisgear,hing atfishing night), andat night), and sensitizesensitize people people to to pay pay licenses. licenses. MainMain successes successes / strengths / strengths of the CCP: of the CCP: • •In InhassoroIn Inhassoro people peoplewere not wereawar e about not aware about theimportancetheimportance of some of some species, species, the theCCPs CCPs helped helped to to spreadspread this this awareness awareness about about turtles turtles for forinstance. instance. • •The The CCPs CCPs inform inform commun communitiesities about about laws. laws.Inhassoro CCPS, has a lot of experience in this work, and Inhassoroparticipate CCPS, in has exchanges a lot of experienceof experience in this of experience work,with and otherparticipate provinces in exchanges Savings / ofcredit: experience of experience with other provinces SavingsPCR (promoted / credit: by IDPPE): each CCP has one PCR. Years back there was the District Local Development Fund PCR(commonly (promoted called by IDPPE): 7 million). each The CCP fisherman has one PCR. and other Yearspeople back in thether districte was thecould District access Local to the Development fund, but it was Fundno well-conceived (commonly called and 7 did million). not have The expected fisherman results. and other people in the district could access to the fund, but6.5 it wasField no Work well-conceived in Beira and(Dondo), did not 22.11.2018have expected results.Meeting with fishing community in Tsengo 6.5 Field Work in Beira (Dondo), 22.11.2018 • Community Members Presents Meeting with fishing community in Tsengo i. Nelinho Joao - Trader • Community Members Presents ii. Albino Joaquim - Fisherman i. Nelinho Joao - Trader iii. Ben Joaquim - trader ii. Albino Joaquim - Fisherman iv. Pedro Pacro - trader iii. Ben Joaquim - trader v. Juliao evaristo - trader iv. Pedro Pacro - trader vi. Joao Muchaque - crab fisherman vii. Armando Martinho - fisherman viii. Armando Castro - trader

ix. Memora Armando - trader - woman x. Gisela Kaido - farmer - woman TheThe fishermen fishermen mentioned mentioned the impact the ofimpact the reduction of the ofreduction xi. Daureel Jose Bcemdaze - Community Leader ofTsengo seaof sea grasses: grasses: the the corals corals productivity productivity is red is reducingucing and and as as - fisherman wellwell the the fishing fishing production. production. This This is isan an opportunity opportunity to tothe the restorationrestoration through through the the project, project, said said the the director director of theof the Question- Tell us the history of you village SDAE. SDAE. Between 1962 to 1963 the sea and the river where far. TheThe quantity quantity of of fish fish they they get getnow now is too is toosmall. small. The line but in 2005 the erosion started the casuarines that were Theof sealine ofgrasses sea grasses now is now to narrow,is to narr maybeow, maybe 200 200 meters, protecting the soil the casuarinas that protected the soil meters,before beforit wase aboutit was 7km.about The 7km. question The question is where is wher are ethe were uprooted by the erosion. Before our canoes were aresea the grasses sea grasses now? The now? project should first look at what is small, but now we have improved ones, all our fisher arts Thehappening project shouldin the sea,first lookbecause at what the iscommunity happening depends in the are improved including the crab cages. sea,on the because fishery the to communitysurvive. depends on the fishery to 151

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Most of fisherman have their houses and families in the 6. Mangrove protection, Tsengo headquarter and Beira, where they have schools 7. Conflict resolution and hospitals. 8. Patrolling the fishing gear Question to the crab fisherman - where you fish crabs 9. Collection of license fee and give more information on your activity? 10. And control the fishing period/entrance - the closure period is from December to March I fish crabs for two years. the price of crabs is horein January (120MT/Kg). But in November it cost 100MT/ Q- How the fishermen leave in the closure period kg. We use thin mesh cage to crabs. 1. In the closure period there still allowed to do line Q- Community organization fishing and the surface fishing In terms of community organisation the fisherman are Q- Number of fisherman in praia nova 250 fishermen in part of a CCP and some are part of a revolving fund praia nova group. Q- Main fishing types Q- Mangrove stage of conservation 5. Line fishing - 15kg to 30kg daily for fisherman The mangrove have suffered with the erosion. 6. Palangre fishing - 10 kg to 40 kg daily for fisherman 7. Surface fishing - 10kg to 40kg daily for fisherman Q- Daily fish quantity 8. Deep-sea fishing - 1 to five box daily for fisherman In late nineties the minimum amount of 30kg per Q- Successes and challenges of the CCP fisherman in two hours of fishing. Currently the minimum amount after 5 hours of fishing a minimum amount of After 15 years the main successes of the CCP were on fishing is 10kg per fisherman. This is caused not only by conflict resolution and control of mangrove degradation the reduction in the fish quantity in the sea but also by and conflict resolution. the increase on the number of fisherman. The main challenges were regarding the collection of The number of traders also increased. license fee, control of closed period - the fisherman do not want to stop fishing in the period. The means of work Q- The kinds of fish Corvina (.... sp) - 80Mt/kg are personals Malola (... sp) - Q- How many members in the group of community Garoupa (...sp) - 100Mt/kg revolving funds groups (PCR) and who support the creation? Big Serra (....sp) - 80 Mt/kg - small serra 20Mt for four to five fishes. The PCR has 20 members and IDPP (extinct institute for Development of Small Fishing) support the creation. Q - Marine ecosystems where they fish Q- Where the acquire the timber for canoes construction Muddy bottom - normally fish malola, Bague and Mapute It comes from Zavane area and, it is becoming more Rocky bottom - is the favorite for the fisherman, due to difficult to acquire the timber as the prices and raising the high quality of fish. Here they fish garoupa [grouper now. sp.], red fish [red snapper], and peixe pedra. [Manuel to help with the scientific names of these species] Field Work in Nampula (Memba), 24.11.208 Sand bottom - here they fish garoupa, red fish, peixe It started with an informal meeting with the head of the pedra and corvina Locality of Geba. In the meeting he mentioned that The fishery has declined and fishermen are forced to fish he expects that the project classifies the status of the in the high seas mangrove, and with that information build awareness about utilization and conservation of mangrove in Q- Forest species used to produce canoes, houses Memba. species used to produce the canoes He mentioned the location of fire free forests in Memba: Canoes - Mussassa, Mpepe, Mbau Stick Houses - kanda, baixo Pinda, Fica, Nwepane, Nakapa and Metemane (in Mtuodage this area, there are saline and tuna is available). There are Firewood and charcoal - Mussassa, tongole, mkute, CCPs in Memba, and one of the tasks of the CCPs is to nfunvo collect harmful fish gear. Meeting with secretary of the CCP of tsengo in praianova Meeting with the President of CCP - Mr. Assan and - Mr. Custodio [second name] secretary of the CCP - Mr. Amissa Q- Role of the CCP 152 Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Baseline; Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Restoration Assessment

Q- What are the main source of income for the community 4. Patrolling - the fishermen fish every 12 days, for one of baixo pinda? day 1. Agriculture - cashew nut; sesame, maize, cassava Q- Challenges of the CCP 2. Fish - is the most important source of income all The number of active members reduced, when they households fish perceived the CCP was a nonprofit community Q- The fishing arts used and type of fishing techniques organization 1. Line fish Q- More information on the community marine reserve? 2. Surface and deep fishing Within marine reserve the fishing is every 30 days for 3 3. Cages day using seine beach fishing with a fishing net of 2 to 4. Seine beach fishing 2,5 inches. Each fisherman fish 2 boxes of a mixed fish per day. 5. Marine hunting 6. Catch fishing - octopus, oysters and clams The CCP ensure the accomplishment of the community reserve rules. Whoever does not comply with the law Q - Do you fish in groups? pays the fine or goes to the police. 1. Seine beach fishing is done in groups of 30 to40 fishermen During the visit it was possible to see some species there: seagrasses, algae, starfish, sea urchin, sea cucumber, 2. Surface and deep fishing - groups of 7 to 9 fishermen Ombe, 3. Line fishing - a group of 3 fishermen Q - Involvement of women in fishing Q- Is there any fishermen cooperative? There is no a cooperative but an association. Note: when The women are doing catch fish. The men do not see any a group of youth fisherman join in the meeting they advantage on this type of fish. declared that there is no any fishermen association in the The table below shows the type of fish men and women community. catch, and the difference in prices in 10 years interval. Q- What are most important fishing type? Meeting with permanent secretary of Memba in The most important fishing type are seine beach fishing headquarters 24/11/2018 and deep fishing. Number of fishermen per administrative post including Q- How long was the CCP created? The CCP was created men and women in March 2001 1,349 - Memba headquarter 3,000 - Baixo Pinda Q- Success of the CCP 1,003 - Simuca 1. The fishermen are aware on the sustainable fishing 1,112 – Sirica practices;

2. The creation of community reserve in 2003 3. Reduction of the fecalims in the beach

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Fishing in Memba District Fishing is one of the main economic income generating activities. Both male and female are involved in fishing activity in Memba District.

Table 6-1 Fish prices reported by male fisheres for Memba district

Historical prices (MTC) Fish catch (kg/month) Fishing type Species 2010 (or 2015(or 2018 2010 (or 2015(or 2018 (Gear type) near date) near date) near date) near date) Peixe 50.00 70.00 100.00 1000 900 900 Line of hand, pedra ongline, trawl Fusilier 50.00 70.00 80.00 1500 1300 950 Ground drag, hand line Pompano 50.00 70.00 100.00 1200 1000 800 Line of hand, longline, trawl Horse 45.00 60.00 70.00 5000 6000 3500 Ground Drag mackerel Anchoveta 50.00 150.00 250.00 8000 9000 7500 Drag to the beach Octopus 25.00 40.00 60.00 400 350 280 Harpoon Others 25.00 35.00 40.00 5000 6500 3500 Catch

The above table summarize the historical price and fish catch of fishing sector in Memba. A general remark from the above table, the prices have increased for all type fishes but the fish catch has decreased. This might be due to several reasons including the degradation of source ecosystem (seagrass, mangrove and coral reefs) and changes in climatic conditions. More than 1000 people are involved in fishing of each of the above mentioned category species.

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Table 6-2 Fish prices reported by female fishers for Memba district

Historical prices (MTC) Fish catch (kg/month) Source ecosys- Species 2010 (or 2015 (or 2018 2010 (or 2015 (or 2018 tem near date) near date) near date) near date) Octopus 25.00 40.00 60.00 34 24 10 Seagrass Clam 20.00 25.00 30.00 20 15 8 Coral , reef, mangrove Anchove- 50.00 150.00 250.00 300 450 1000 - ta (6 kgs) Sea cu- 25.00 35.00 5.00 10 9 5 - cumber a) Shells b) 15.00 20.00 5.00 400 14 4 -

Similarly to the previous male fisher table, the prices of fish increased from 2010 to 2018 while the fish catches decreased except for Anchoveta species. The increase in fish catch for Anchoveta might be due to the current fishing type where a mosquito net is being used as fishing gear type (which is not sustainable).

Table 6-3 Additional information on shell prices

Shells classification 2010 2015 2018 Comments 1st grade shells 25.00 35.00 5.00 In 2018, the demand was lower due to the situation of the market 2nd grade shells 15.00 20.00 5.00 3rd grade shells 10.00 5.00 5.00 sea cucumber 1st grade sea cu- 15.00 35.00 40.00 cumber 1ª (each) 2nd grade sea cu- 10.00 30.00 40.00 cumber 1ª (each)

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List of participants Inhambane 19 November 2018 Name Institution Telefone E-mail gende M F Instituto de Investigacao Avene Eduardo Uetima Pesqueira 823063276 [email protected] x Sandra A. Nhacuongue DPTADER 849117717 [email protected] x Vanda M.A.E. Massing Mahalhe 846394684 [email protected] Stella Mariza DPCULTURI 847803333 stellamarizaferrã[email protected] x Frank Ussivane DPASAI 847276421 [email protected] x Pelaciro Malhaieie UEM-ESHTI 823958508 [email protected] x Cremildo Carlos Zacari SPFFB.DPTADER 842871887 [email protected] x José Felisberto Gujam o DPMAIP 825325740 [email protected] x Tiago M. Chenene DPTADER-SPGC 844684260 [email protected] x Ana Isabel Macucha GDI-SDAE 846506407 [email protected] x Fernando Uaene Macique GDI-SDAE 846459416 [email protected] x Horácio José ORM/Bitonga Divers 845506206 [email protected] x António Cabral ORM/Bitonga Divers 825147877 [email protected] x Jaffer Wakhanganga Geopsy Research [email protected] x Dr Alain Ndoli IUCN [email protected] x Silene Bila IUCN 846035949 [email protected] x Pelle Bagersund IUCN [email protected] x Maria Julieta Martinho IUCN 824770170 [email protected] x Joseph Njue IUCN 0785186361 [email protected] x Eprhaim Imanirareba IUCN 0788822950 [email protected] x Robert Wild IUCN [email protected] x

20th November 2018, Inhassoro, Focus group discussion

Name Institution Telephone E-mail gende H M Benedito Pedro Mabote Substituto do Chefe da Localidad 847106409 [email protected] x Alberto Zuanze SDAE-Inhassoro 848378572 [email protected] x Herculano P. Chadreque SDAE-Inhassoro 848735599 x Mário Feleciano de Sous Pescador CCP petane 845717260 x Felipe Viegas Holack Pescador CCP Fequete 848385080 x Judite David Paceli SDAE-Inhassoro 847032287 [email protected] x Manuel Luis Gerente SDPI- Inhassoro 845407043 [email protected] x Belmiro Marrengula SDPI- Inhassoro 848470410 [email protected] x

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Beira 21 November 2018 Name Institution Telephone E-mail gende H M Jonito Amade DPMAIP 865521689/84894713 x Staute Janeiro Luís CCP Farol Dondo 821544729/86215198 Silene Bila IUCN 846035949 [email protected] x x Jaffer Wakhanganga IUCN [email protected] x Joseph Njue IUCN 785786361 [email protected] x Pelle Bagersund IUCN 8247737598 [email protected] x Feliciano Domingos Jos DPMAIP 862154945 [email protected] x Daniel José Bendzane Sengo 879641449 x Eugenio Sigauque ADEL 840475864 [email protected] x Ricardo Luis Denco Sec de Chinamacond 863627621 [email protected] x Domingos M. António SDAE-Dindo 848648642 [email protected] x Jorge Luis Mabingo DPMAIP SOFALA 847712636 [email protected] x Amélia Cumbi DPTADER Sofala 829121497 [email protected] x José Chivamusso DPMAIP-Sofala 842995432 [email protected] x Barnete Caetano Gimo DPASA Sofala 825857676 [email protected] x Eprhaim Imanirareba IUCN 0788822950 [email protected] x Dr Alain Ndoli IUCN [email protected] x Eprhaim Imanirareba IUCN 0788822950 [email protected] x Maria Julieta Martinho IUCN 824770170 [email protected] x Graça Raquel Chaleco SDPI-Dondo 845275054 [email protected] x Nampula 23 November 2018

Name Institution Telephone E-mail gende M F Celestino João DPC Turismo 844946446 x Inocência Armando Joaquim DPTADER 846412220 [email protected] x Ali Omar INGC NPL 840657669 [email protected] x Benedita Rosa Ricardo SDPI 842877434 ricardobeneditarosa @gmail.com x Mario José Vacene DPMAIP 864037718 x Paulo Mário Avelino DPMAIP 865262804 x Muireque Variano DPMAIP 847364744 [email protected] x Maria Julieta Martinho IUCN 824778170 [email protected] x Ephraim Imanirareba IUCN 0788822950 [email protected] x Pelle Bagersund IUCN [email protected] x Jaffer Wakhanganga Geopsy Research [email protected] x Dr Alain Ndoli IUCN [email protected] x

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Manuel Menomussunga IUCN 8249991570 [email protected] x Roberto L. livia SDAE memba 841877725 [email protected] x Gilberto Aiuba CCP Angoche 843122805 [email protected] x Félix Viegas DPTADER 844769691 x Rufina Domingos DPASA 828882830 [email protected] x Razaque António Extensao DPMAIP 861631371 x Silene Bila IUCN 846035949 [email protected] x Mahamude Sunate DPMAIP NPL 850144350 x Zacarias Taiar DPMAIP NPL 847829837 [email protected] x Joseph Njue IUCN 0785186361 [email protected] x Casimiro Ussene DPMAIP NPL 846018143 x Jumesy João AENA 840655902 [email protected] x

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QUESTIONNAIRES USED Questionnaires used

Culture

Community finance

ROAM CRCC: Community financing questionnaire for restoration

District: Inhassoro Name of respondent: Provincial focal point (name?). Date:

1. Are most households in the district able to save money? If so how?

Yes

2. Are most households in the district able to borrow money? If so how?

Yes, from friends.

3. In case of household emergencies, food purchase, health issues or paying school fees how to most household find cash resources? (tick all that apply) a. Borrow from friend or relative ü b. Borrow from microfinance institution or bank c. Exploit natural resources (e.g. make charcoal/fishermen) üCharcoal making far from the forest, or going fishing. d. Wage labour from other community members e. Government cash or food for work programmes f. Money lender (ajiota/loan shark) g. Community or group savings h. Other selling livestock ü 4. Which is the most commonly used? Going fishing or doing trading

5. What proportion of households in the district depend on paid wage labour by neighbours for a sizable portion of their income? a. Less that 20% b. 20-50% c. More than 50%

Does not know

6. What proportion of households in the district depend on government safety net (e.g. cash or food for work) for a sizable portion of their income? a. Less that 20% b. 20-50% c. More than 50%

No government safety nets

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7. What are the main financial institutions as the village level? a. Formal banks – no banks accounts at village level ûNo banks at the village level b. Microfinance banks c. Cooperatives – û there are no cooperatives but there are fishers associations. d. Solidarity groups (e.g. CARE International village savings and loans associations). ü (VSLA/PCR) e. Traditional rotating savings groups ü e.g. Xitike f. Money lenders. there are few but not many g. Mpesa/mobile account. ü h. Others? 8. Are there any financial institutions at the village level focused on climate? If yes describe. PCR working with CCP 9. Are there any financial institutions at the district level focused on soil, land or forest restoration? If yes describe. At district there is fund for 7million MT which people (groups and individual) can make projects and apply to borrow funds and pay back. Most people do not actually pay back. This is not specially for poor people and the focus on agriculture, fishponds, livestock, tourism etc. There is some social security for the poorest elderly.

10. What are your recommendations for supporting local financial institutions to provide incentives village level restoration?

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