Exploitation of Coral Reef Fishes For the Marine Aquarium Trade in Kenya: a Preliminary Assessment - Final Technical Report Contract 19/2004

Item Type Report

Authors Okemwa, G.M.; Fulanda, B.; Ochiewo, J.; Kimani, E.N.

Publisher Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI)

Download date 24/09/2021 06:45:39

Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/1834/8990

Exploitation of Coral Reef Fishes For the Marine Aquarium Trade in Kenya:

A Preliminary Assessment

FINAL TECHNICAL REPORT CONTRACT 19/2004

Principal Investigator: G. M. Okemwa Co-investigators: B. Fulanda, J. Ochiewo and E. N. Kimani

Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute P.O. Box 81651-80100, Mombasa Kenya

September 2006 Okemwa G. M. et al. (2006) Exploitation of Coral Reef Fishes for the Marine Aquarium Trade in Kenya

Table of Contents

1.0 BACKGROUND - 4 -

2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS - 6 -

3.0 RESULTS - 10 -

3.1 Trade Links and Dynamics of the Supply Network - 10 -

3.2 Monitoring and Regulation of the Trade - 10 -

3.3 Harvest and Handling Methods Used - 11 -

3.4 Packaging and Transportation - 12 -

3.5 Key Collection Sites - 14 -

3.6 Export Markets - 14 -

3.7 Species Harvested - 16 -

3.8 Catch and Effort Trends in the Shimoni Area - 18 -

3.6 Post Harvest Mortality of Fish - 20 -

3.9 Impacts of Aquarium Fish Collection in the Shimoni Area - 21 -

4.0 Socioeconomic Dynamics of the Aquarium Industry in Kenya - 24 -

5.0 DISCUSSION - 27 -

5.1 Constraints and Limitations of the Study - 32 -

5.2 Recommendations - 33 -

6.0 REFERENCES - 36 -

LIST OF FIGURES: Figure 1. Map of Kenya coast showing key collection sites ...... - 9 -

Figure 2. Monthly trends in the volume of fish exported from Kenya ...... - 15 -

Figure 3. Temporal trends from the Shimoni area ...... - 19 -

Figure 4. Mortality of fish landed from Shimoni ...... - 20 -

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Figure 5. A) Differences in fish abundance of target aquarium fish between unfished and fished sites in Shimoni; B) Differences in species diversity of target fish between fished and unfished areas in Shimoni...... - 22 -

Figure 6. Fish abundance of target species between unfished and fished sites ...- 23 -

Figure 7. Age frequency distribution of aquarium fish collectors...... - 25 -

LIST OF PLATES Plate 1. Divers fishing at Shimoni...... - 12 -

Plate 2. Loading of fish for transportation to holding aquaria...... - 12 -

LIST OF TABLES: Table 1. Export Destinations for Marine Aquarium Fish From Kenya ...... - 15 -

Table 2. Species distribution by percentage of the top 20 species harvested from Shimoni (Mar 2004 – Apr 2005) ...... - 17 -

Table 3. The top 5 species most harvested grouped by family from Shimoni ....- 18 -

Table 4. Summary of the catch dynamics of marine aquarium fish collection at Shimoni (March 2004 - Apr 2005...... - 19 -

Table 5. Single-classification ANOVA comparing variance in benthic cover in unfished and fished sites in Shimoni ...... - 24 -

Table 6. Socioeconomic Characteristics of Aquarium Fish Collectors ...... - 25 -

Table 7. Pearson Rank Correlations ...... - 26 -

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We graciously thank WIOMSA-MARG 1 for financial support. We also thank Kenya Tropical Sea Life, and Kenya Airways - Cargo Section, Moi International Airport Mombasa for the data provided. Logistic support was provided by the Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute, Kenya Wildlife Services, and the Department of Fisheries. We particularly thank Ms. Janet Kaleha, Kisite Marine National Park Warden, Mr. Ali Musin, Kwale District Fisheries Officer; Mr L. Thairu (Fisheries Department), Mr. C. Muthama (KMFRI) for technical assistance during the course of the study. Finally, we thank the unnamed fish collectors for sparing their time us.

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Abstract

Kenya ranks among the top exporting countries in the marine aquarium trade within the Western Indian Ocean region. However the industry has received limited attention by way of research and monitoring despite being established in the mid 1970’s. Over time, there have been increased concerns about the environmental impacts of aquarium fish collection in Kenya resulting in resource use conflicts. A survey was conducted in 2005 with the aim of providing baseline quantitative information on the dynamics of the fishery. The survey evaluated trends in the harvest and export of marine ornamental fish in order to better understand the dynamics of the industry using available government statistics, logbook returns from a leading export company and airfreight data. Trends in key species harvested in Shimoni, their mortality rates and the catch per unit effort of fish collectors was further assessed. To assess impacts of fish collection in Shimoni, a rapid underwater fish census was conducted comparing fished and protected sites. Key findings of the study include the first time estimation of approximately 192 fish species that are harvested and exported from Kenya. Approximately 70% of the fish harvested from Shimoni during March 2004 to April 2005 belonged to 4 families namely Pomacentridae-damselfish, Labridae - wrasses, Acanthuridae- surgeonfish and Gobiidae-gobies. Ten species made up 58% of the catch, with the most harvested species for the trade being the anemonefish Amphiprion allardi (10%) and the angelfish Centropyge acanthops (9%). The aquarium fish collectors landed an average of 24 - 33 fish/ man/day. However differences were observed between divers and snorkellers. Results of the underwater census revealed differences in fish density, species richness and habitat characteristics between fished and protected sites, with fished sites having an overall higher density and abundance of target fish species and higher algal abundance. Among the key recommendations from the survey is the need to strengthen monitoring, to improve current regulatory mechanisms, and to promote strong stakeholder involvement in management of the fishery.

Key Words: Kenya – Shimoni - marine aquarium reef fish – fisheries management – harvest trends - collection impacts - species diversity

1.0 BACKGROUND

Ornamental marine species (corals, invertebrates and fish) are the highest value-added product that can be harvested from coral reefs and are an important source of income for many rural, coastal communities in developing countries (Lem, 2001). Globally, the marine ornamental fish trade began in the 1930’s but became firmly established in the 1950’s on a commercial scale, and further expanded into a multimillion industry in the 1970’s, with fisheries operating all around the tropical world (Moore and Best, 2001). The trade in aquarium fishes (including freshwater fish) is now a major industry involving approximately 350 million fish annually with a value of $963 million (Tissot & Hallacher 2003). Between 1.5 and 2 million people worldwide are believed to keep marine aquaria (Moore & Best, 2001). The marine fish account for about 10 to 20% of the global aquarium trade with a total of 1,471 species of fish being traded. (Andrews 1990; Wabnitz, 2003) and has an import

- 4 - Okemwa G. M. et al. (2006) Exploitation of Coral Reef Fishes for the Marine Aquarium Trade in Kenya value ranging between $28 - 44 million USD. The largest demand (99%) for ornamental fish is from home hobbyists, and the remaining 1% is from public aquaria and research institutes. The trade involves over 40 countries in the supply market with 85% of the organisms being exported from the Philippines and Indonesia and the remaining 15% being obtained mainly from the Pacific Island countries, Hawaii, the Caribbean, Florida, the Red Sea, Sri Lanka, Indian Ocean Island countries, and East Africa (Baquero 1999; Wood 2001). The three major destinations include North America, Europe, and Southeast Asia. Within the Western Indian Ocean, Kenya ranks first among countries that include Mauritius, South Africa, Madagascar, Tanzania and Reunion respectively. On a global scale, Wood (2001) ranked Kenya’s aquarium fishery as medium in size involving the collection of 50,000 – 200,000 individuals.

There have been increased concerns in Kenya on the potential impacts of intensive collection of fish on the exploited populations and their associated habitats which has generated localized user conflicts between aquarium fish collectors and other stakeholders (mainly artisanal fishers, dive-tourism operators and environmentalists). Despite being established in the early 1970’s, it was notable that the marine aquarium industry in Kenya has received limited attention by way of research and monitoring. As a result, there is a lack of quantitative and qualitative data available to verify the impacts of exploitation and the overall status of the export trade which is critical in guiding the Kenya government not only to mitigate these concerns but also to improve the overall management of the fishery so as to ensure long term sustainability. The need to institute research on the fishery was identified as critical to addressing the concerns of stakeholders. This overall aim of study was therefore to provide an overview of the harvesting and trade of marine ornamental fish in Kenya. The specific objectives of the study were to:

1. Evaluate trends in the aquarium export market and assess the trade links and dynamics in the supply network.

2. Identify key collection sites along the Kenya coast and assess the impacts of aquarium fish collection on a local scale by conducting: (a) A catch assessment survey of fish collectors in the Shimoni area and (b) A rapid assessment survey of impacts of aquarium fish collection on the abundance of key aquarium fish species in the Shimoni area

3. Assess the socio-economic dynamics of aquarium fish collection.

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2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

Trends in the Export Market and Identification of Key Harvest Sites

To identify the species traded, customs shipping data was obtained from the Department of Fisheries. However based from preliminary assessments, it was observed that the shipping lists were often under reported. In addition, we noted that the different companies used varying common names for the same species leading to the possibility of mis-identification errors. This made it difficult to collate reliable data on a national level. A more reliable approach was to use logbook data on aquarium fish collection from a leading export company. The company provided us with access to their harvest records for March 2004 to April 2005 which we collated in a database for analysis. The logbooks contained daily returns on fishing sites, fishing method, species, and number caught, amount paid by species. Air freight data from the Moi International Airport in Mombasa was obtained for January to December 2005 to determine export destinations and estimate of the volume of trade for all the companies.

Impacts of Aquarium Fish Collection

To assess catch and effort dynamics, a shore based approach was initially proposed, however it was quite difficult to collect accurate data in the field due to the nature of the fishery where the time spent handling the fish in the field must be minimized as much as possible to reduce chances of stress induced mortality. Assessment of catch dynamics was thus based on the logbook data recorded for the Shimoni area. Visits were also made to the holding facilities to confirm the identification of species.

A pilot rapid underwater survey was conducted in the Shimoni area over a period of 3 days during January 2005 to compare the abundance of species targeted by aquarium fish collectors in fished vs. unfished sites. The fished sites that were chosen were dictated by the locations where ornamental fish companies use to collect fish. Thus, we requested a fish collector to accompany and guide us in selecting sampling sites in the fished area. Fish

- 6 - Okemwa G. M. et al. (2006) Exploitation of Coral Reef Fishes for the Marine Aquarium Trade in Kenya counts were estimated during the neep tide using an underwater visual transect search method (English et al 1997). A paired control-impact design adapted from Tissot & Hallacher (2003) was used. 2 sites were surveyed representing a fished site and unfished site (control). The sites had a depth range of 5 to 8m. Within each site, four 50m line transects were censused by two observers who swam at a constant speed along the transect counting all fish seen within 5m (2.5 m on either side) of the line. The sampling sites were marked using a GPS. Fish were the identified to species level, counted and recorded on waterproof slates. A third diver swam along the same transect line to estimate benthic substratum type and cover using a line- intercept transect method whereby the type of substrate was recorded every 5 m along the transect. Benthic substrate categories included: live hard coral, dead coral (corallite structure still visible), coral rock (corallite structure not visible), sand (<0.5cm) and rubble (0.5 to 15cm), algae, macroalgae and algal turf. The percentage cover of the various categories was then calculated for each site. Due to the limited data, the counts were pooled for assessment. The data was pooled from the four transects in order to compare differences between the fished and unfished sites for a 1000 m2 area.

Socioeconomic Dynamics of Aquarium Fish Collection

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with some aquarium fish exporters and aquarium fishermen to obtain descriptive statistics on the socio-economic dynamics of the aquarium fish industry. While the aquarium fish exporters were interviewed in their business premises, the fishermen (divers and snorkellers) were mainly been interviewed at Shimoni and Mtwapa. Appointments were made when these fishermen returned from the sea for interviews to take place later in the afternoon. The conventional artisanal fishermen were also interviewed to capture their perceptions about the aquarium fishery.

Definitions of socioeconomic parameters analyzed in the study were as follows:

• INCOME: income earned from the aquarium fishery.

• AGE: age of the aquarium fisherman.

• EDUCATION: levels of education attained by the aquarium fisherman, where 1 is a code for uncompleted primary education, 2 is a code for completed primary education, and 3 is a code for secondary education.

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• GEAR: what gear the aquarium fisherman uses where 1 is the code for snorkelling and 2 is the code for diving.

• EXPERIENCE: Number of years in the aquarium fishery.

Data Analysis

Preliminary analysis of the catch data was conducted using Shapiro Wilk’s test for normality which indicated non-normal distribution patterns (W=.988, P=.5311). To test the null hypothesis that the daily catch rates and earnings of divers and snorkellers are similar, the nonparametric Mann-Whitney test for equality of the median (Sokal & Rohlf, 1995) was used. Student t test was used to compare differences in number of species landed as the data showed a normal distribution in the preliminary test. The substrate cover and mortality data was arcsine transformed before being tested for differences. Differences in substrate cover between sites were assessed using a single-classification ANOVA (Sokal & Rohlf, 1995).

The Study Site

Shimoni (4°39’S, 39°23’E) is a highly favoured site for the collection of marine aquarium fish in Kenya. The area is situated of the southern coast of Kenya near the Tanzanian border (Figure 1) and consists of a Marine Protected Area (MPA) offshore complex (Kisite Marine National Park, KMNP) containing three coral islands and submerged patchy reefs which cover an area of approximately 39km2 (Emerton & Tessema, 2001) and a shallow shelf 10 to 20 m deep (Watson & Ormond, 1994). The marine park is managed as a no-take zone where no consumptive utilisation is allowed. Fishing activity is however allowed in the reserve. Apart from the collection of coral reef fish for the aquarium trade, traditional fishing is also carried out using various fishing gears including gill nets, basket traps, fence traps, cast nets and trammel nets.

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Figure 1: Map of Kenya coast showing key collection sites for marine aquarium fish

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3.0 RESULTS

3.1 Trade Links and Dynamics of the Supply Network

The supply network in Kenya is fairly simple, running directly from the collectors to the exporters and straight to the export market. Thus, there are no middlemen involved in Kenya’s trade. At the time of the study, a total of 8 companies were licensed to export marine aquarium fish in Kenya. Assessment of airfreight data indicated that only two companies dominate the market exporting approximately 65% of the consignments. The exporters employ or contract local fish collectors who are paid according to a set price per piece that has been determined for each species that is delivered alive and in a healthy state to the holding facilities. Pricing of fish is very competitive and is determined by various factors including demand, rarity, and difficulty in catching, ornamentation, abundance and the size of the fish.

The Department of Fisheries confirmed that there were 145 licensed fish collectors working full time for the aquarium trade at the time of the study. The fish collectors tend to be young men of 25 to 42 years, with a mean age of 34 years. We however noted that there is some unlicensed collection of aquarium fish. The study also revealed incidences where fishermen who are licensed to target other fisheries (e.g. lobsters) collect aquarium fish to supplement their income on a part time basis.

3.2 Monitoring and Regulation of the Trade

The management regime for the marine aquarium trade is described in the Fisheries Act (Cap 378). Currently aquarium fish exporters and collectors are charged a minimal fee to obtain annual licenses from the Department of Fisheries. An export fee of 3% tax on the FOB value of each consignment is currently charged by the Department. Collection of fish and invertebrates from marine parks are prohibited although not well enforced. The use of poisons and explosives is prohibited in the Act as well. The Act stipulates that exporters must furnish a monthly return of their exports using a prescribed form provided by the department,

- 10 - Okemwa G. M. et al. (2006) Exploitation of Coral Reef Fishes for the Marine Aquarium Trade in Kenya failure to which the license can be cancelled. However, the use of logbooks documenting details of catch and effort is not an official requirement, although some of the exporters prefer to keep logbooks for their own records. There are no restrictions on species harvested except those listed under CITES. In Kenya, CITES is administered and enforced by the Kenya Wildlife Services assisted by the Customs department.

Standards for packaging of the fish in Kenya are regulated by Customs using guidelines provided by the International Air Transport Association (IATA). The guidelines convey information on container construction; dispatch preparations (e.g. number of fish per box, oxygen content and air temperatures); and general care and loading of the consignments. The guidelines are often flouted by exporters in Kenya in order to minimize the export costs incurred by the exporter.

3.3 Harvest and Handling Methods Used

Fish collectors use masks and snorkels in shallow reefs (0 – 6m) or SCUBA gear used in deep waters (8 to 25m) and employ a selection of dip and scoop nets. Collection occurs through out the year but effort may be influenced by monsoon seasons which affect the clarity and turbulent nature of the water. During the rough southeast monsoon season, fishing is mostly restricted to snorkelling in shallow depths close to shore. The length of fishing trips varies from one day to periods of 4 to 7 days depending on the distance of the harvest site, lunar cycle, the weather, and the resource demand. Fishing is conducted in 2 groups of fishers who set of in 2 boats consisting of 5 to 10 fishers. While divers fish in large groups, snorkellers may fish alone or in pairs. There was no report or observation of the use of cyanide or dynamite to harvest fish for the marine aquarium trade in Kenya. Furthermore, use of such destructive methods is illegal in Kenya. An exporter confirmed that Kenya’s fish are in high demand due to their superior quality fuelled by the growing demand for “green” marine products which exists in overseas markets.

Exporters facilitate the fish collectors fully by providing them with fishing gear which includes fishing nets, snorkels, and diving gear flippers and diving suits. The exporters also

- 11 - Okemwa G. M. et al. (2006) Exploitation of Coral Reef Fishes for the Marine Aquarium Trade in Kenya hire motorized planked boats (≈7-10m) for use during the fishing trips and also transport the catch using their vehicles from the collection site to their holding tanks.

3.4 Packaging and Transportation

The harvested fish are temporarily packaged in plastic bags or containers at the jetty and transported in vans to the holding facilities (Plate 1 and 2). This transportation phase lasts between 30 minutes to 3 hours depending on the distance of the fishing site. On arrival at the holding facilities, fish are released into aerated tanks or buckets and held in quarantine for acclimatization to life in captivity as well as to detect and treat any injuries or infections before shipment. Any fish with injuries or infections are isolated and treated accordingly. Fish that do not recover are not exported. Under tank conditions, water quality is the most critical factor to the survival of the fish. Where large numbers of fish are stocked in small spaces, the buildup of nitrogenous wastes, most notably ammonia, requires the exporter to implement expensive measures to manage the water quality appropriately by investing heavily on aquarium maintenance equipment (e.g. aeration and filtration equipment). The quality of holding facilities however varied with the smaller companies having relatively substandard facilities. It was noticeable that exporters who had invested greatly on their overheads (e.g. employing and training collectors, maintenance of incentives for collectors, infrastructure for holding facilities, and good packaging and handling of fish had better quality fish and a bigger clientele in terms of orders and shipments.

Plate 1: Divers fishing for aquarium fish at Plate 2: Loading of fish for transportation to Shimoni holding aquaria

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Upon receipt of an order from a client, the exporter must obtain an export permit from the Fisheries Department before any consignment can leave the country. Once this is done, certified consignments are then packaged in plastic bags filled with oxygen and sealed. The sealed plastic bags are placed in insulated boxes and transported to the airport. Upon clearance by the customs department, the consignments are then air freighted to the destination markets.

Packaging is an important and costly aspect of the export trade and more often boxes are rejected by airlines due to leakage while in transit resulting from inferior packaging. Assessment of airfreight data indicated that approximately 4% of the boxes dispatched during the study period were rejected by airlines due to leakages. An official of Kenya’s national cargo carrier recommended that the government should establish national standards on the packaging to be used by all exporters. This would reduce the number of rejected consignments and consequently the rate of fish mortality in transit. Airline carriers incur heavy insurance costs for transporting rejected consignments back to the exporters. Thus, they are key stakeholders of the marine aquarium trade who are affected by the lax enforcement of set regulations.

Airlines charge a freight fee which determines more than 50% of the final price of the fish. Airlines hence remain key players in Kenya’s marine aquarium trade. The Free on Board (FOB) export value of the fish is negotiated with the client and is influenced by the quality and size of the consignment and the presence of rare species in a consignment.

Transhippers are also important stakeholders in the Kenyan market. There are three major transhippers operating in Kenya. Transhipping involves grouping the orders of several retailers and/or wholesalers and placing them with an exporter, collecting the shipment at the airport, clearing customs and redistributing the boxes without opening them (Olivier, 2001). The responsibility for the entire shipment falls onto the retailer. Since tropical fish market is international, fish prices are also controlled at the retail end of the chain.

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3.5 Key Collection Sites

All aquarium fish exported from Kenya are caught from the wild. The preference of fishing sites is highly influenced by accessibility and ease of fish collection at specific locations. The study revealed that collection is mainly carried out along the Southcoast, Mombasa and Kilifi environs (Figure 1). Key fishing sites identified include Shimoni, Diani, Nyali, Jumba, Mtwapa, Vipingo, Shariani, Msumarini, Kanamai, Kilifi, Watamu, Malindi, and Lamu. Of these sites, the most popular sites are at Shimoni and Nyali respectively. Interviews also revealed that some species are localized or more abundant in certain fishing sites, thus the choice of sites may be determined by the species sought and the accessibility of the fishing sites.

3.6 Export Markets

The study determined that Kenya exports to around 15 countries including United Kingdom, USA, South Africa, Hong Kong, Germany, France, Japan, Netherlands, Austria, Israel, Denmark, Poland, Hungary, Italy, Romania and Austria (Table 1). Approximately 84% of the shipments from Kenya were destined for U.K, USA, South Africa, Hong Kong and Germany respectively. Collectively however, the UK, USA and the European Community are the top importers of fish from Kenya. The success of the ornamental fish industry in these countries, supporting large imports of marine tropical fish annually is attributed to the fact that ornamental fish keeping is a growing hobby. However, countries such as Singapore, Hong Kong, and Netherlands purchase Kenya’s aquarium fish mostly for re-export. The destination of transhipped consignments was however unknown as the final destination point was not indicated in the data.

Fluctuations in the volume of exports were observed with peaks occurring during the months of October and March (Figure 2). Not all companies export consignments on a monthly basis; however, interviews with a major exporter confirmed that the season kicks off from October to March.

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Table 1. Export Destinations for Marine Aquarium Fish from Kenya

Country Kg Weight Percent (Packaging and Water) UK 40,694 19.3 USA 40,448 19.1 Unknown (Transhipped) 29,538 14.0 South Africa 29,292 13.9 Hong Kong 18,765 8.9 Germany 18,704 8.8 France 17,120 8.1 Japan 12,068 5.7 Netherlands 1,333 0.6 Hungary 951 0.4 Poland 875 0.4 Italy 710 0.3 Israel 425 0.2 Romania 290 0.1 Austria 152 0.1

Total 211,365 100

25000 22763 22377 21684 20732 19342 19210 20000 17983 18261 1554516184 15000 11983

10000

5301 5000 Kgs (Water and Packaging) Kgs

0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Figure 2. Monthly trends in the volume of fish exported from Kenya during 2005

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3.7 Species Harvested

Selection of species is influenced by how colourful the fish is as well as how easy it is to feed and maintain it aquaria. Collectors generally target juveniles mainly because they are more colourful, easier to handle and airfreight (Wood, 2001). A total of 192 marine aquarium fish species, from 35 families, were harvested from the Shimoni area (see Appendix 1). A total of 16373 pieces (including invertebrates) were landed from the Shimoni area by the company with fish species making up approximately 97%. Approximately 70% of the fish belonged to 4 families namely Pomacentridae- damselfish (31%), Labridae – wrasses (23%), Acanthuridae – surgeonfish (13%) and Gobiidae – gobies (8%). The greatest species diversity was observed among 5 families namely wrasses with a record 42 species, butterflyfish with 23 species, damselfish with 17 species, surgeonfish with 14 species, and gobies with 11 species. The top twenty species harvested made up 77% of the total number of fish landed at Shimoni (Table 2). It was evident from the study that the key species targeted by the aquarium fish collectors are not targeted for food fisheries except for two species from the lutjanidae family (Lutjanus kasmira and Lutjanus sabae), one species from the siganidae family (Siganus stellatus) and 1 species serranidae family (Cephalopholis sp). These were however harvested from Shimoni in extremely low numbers (0.3% of the total species harvested).

Table 3 lists the top 5 species harvested among the key families. Species of high value which are often difficult to catch or rare included the puffers Arothron stellatus, A. meleagris, A. mappa, and A. nigropunctatus, the triggerfish Balistoides conspicullum, the angelfish Pomacanthus chrysurus and P. maculosus, and an extremely rare hybrid of the two species which indeed is the highest valued fish harvested. A variety of invertebrates were also harvested that included starfish, brittlestars, tubeworms, sea-anemones, coral shrimp, featherworms, anemone crabs, sea urchins and lobsters.

The survey also revealed that export of ‘live rock’ by some companies is carried out. The trade in all hard (stony) corals both live and dead is regulated under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Live rock is defined by CITES as pieces of dead coral rock which are covered with coralline

- 16 - Okemwa G. M. et al. (2006) Exploitation of Coral Reef Fishes for the Marine Aquarium Trade in Kenya algae not included in the appendices. The rock is shipped moist (covered in newspapers) and boxed. Live rock is considered to be the backbone of reef aquariums functioning as a structural and decorative base for the 'mini reef' as well as a bioactive filter for the recycling of nitrates and other waste products. The inhabitants of live rock include tunicates, sponges, molluscs, bryozoa and calcareous algae. Demand for “live rock” is consequently increasing as 'mini-reefs' become more feasible and popular (Wabnitz, 2003). In Kenya, live rock requires a CITES export permit if organisms from CITES-controlled species (such as coral, mollusk, etc) are attached to the rock. Further investigations need to be carried out to ascertain areas of collection and the quality of the rock.

Table 2. Species distribution by percentage of the top 20 species harvested from Shimoni (March 2004 – Apr 2005).

Species % of Total Collected Fish

1. Allard’s anemonefish, Amphiprion allardi 10.4 2. African pygmy angelfish, Centropyge acanthops 9.0 3. Rainbow wrasse, Halichoeres iridis 7.4 4. Palette surgeonfish, Paracanthurus hepatus 6.1 5. Lyretail anthias, Pseudanthias squampinnis 5.3 6. Striped sailfin tang, Zebrassoma veliferum 4.9 7. Beautiful prawn goby, Cryptocentrus aurora 4.2 8. Fire dartfish, Nemateleortris magnifica 4.0 9. Skunk anemonefish, Amphiprion akallopisos 3.7 10. Vermiculate wrasse, Macropharyngodon bipartitus 3.2 11. Pink flasher, Paracheilinus carpenterri 3 12. Twostripe goby, Valencienna helsdingenni 2.5 13. Midas blenny, Ecsenias midas 2.3 14. Exquisite wrasse, Cirrhilabrus exquisitus 2.2 15. Vanderbilt’s chromis, Chromis vanderbilti 2.1 16. Twotone chromis, Chromis dimidiata 1.5 17. Bluestreak cleaner wrasse, Labroides dimidiata 1.4 18. Volitans lionfish, Pterois volitans 1.3 19. Emperor angelfish, Pomacanthus imperator 1.3 20. Indian Dascyllus, Dascyllus carneus 1.3

Total Number of fish in Top 20 Rank: 12,355 77

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Table 3. The top 5 species most harvested grouped by family from Shimoni (Mar 2004 – April 2005)

Pomacentridae: Labridae: Acanthuridae: 1. Amphiprion allardi 1. Halichoeres iridis 1. Paracanthurus hepatus 2. Amphiprion akallopisos 2. Macropharyngodon bipartitus 2. Zebrassoma veliferum 3. Chromis vanderbilti 3. Paracheilinus carpenteri 3. Zebrassoma desjardini 4. Chromis dimidiata 4. Cirhillabrus exqusitus 4. Ctenochaetus strigosus 5. Dasyllus carneus 5. Labroides dimidiata 5. Naso lituratus

Gobiidae: Chetodontidae: Pomacanthidae: 1. Cryptocentrus aurora 1. Chaetodon falcula 1. Centropyge acanthops 2. Valencienna helsdingeni 2. Chaetodon dolosus 2. Pomacanthus imperator 3. Valencienna strigata 3. Chaetodon unimaculatus 3. Pomacanthus semicirculatus 4. Valencienna peullaris 4. Chaetodon zanzibarensis 4. Pomacanthus maculosus 5. Valencienna sexguttata 5. Chaetodon kleinii 5. Pomacanthus chrysurus

Blennidae: Scorpaenidae: Tetraodontidae: 1. Ecsenius midas 1. Pterois volitans 1. Arothron mappa 2. Meiacanthus mossambicus 2. Pterois radiata 2. Arothron hispidus 3. Aspidontus taeniotus 3. Dendrochirus brachypterus 3. Arothron nigropunctatus 4. Atrosalarius fuscus fuscus 4. Rhinopias frondosa 5. Exallias brevis 5. Pterois antennata

3.8 Catch and Effort Trends in the Shimoni Area

Divers landed approximately 71% of the catch and also landed significantly more diverse species per day compared to snorkellers (Table 4). The mean overall diversity of species landed per man/day at Shimoni ranged from 16 - 22 species with the lowest number occurring landed occurring during the month of February. The mean catch per unit effort (CPUE) ranged from 24 to 33 fish/man/day.

The most commonly species harvested by divers included: the Pygmy angelfish Centropyge acanthops, the Rainbow wrasse Halichoeres iridis, the Palette surgeonfish Paracanthurus hepatus, the Twotone chromis Chromis dimidiatus, and the Twostripe goby Valenciennea helsdingeni. Among the species most harvested by snorkellers were the anemonefishes Amphiprion allardi and A. akallopisos, the sailfin tang Zebrasoma veliferum, the fangblenny Meiacanthus mossambicus and lionfish Pterios volitans.

- 18 - Okemwa G. M. et al. (2006) Exploitation of Coral Reef Fishes for the Marine Aquarium Trade in Kenya

Temporal trends in the number of fish collected monthly at Shimoni indicated notable peaks in landings between the months of October and March (Figure 3) which were correlated with the fishing effort (no of fisher days, where 1 fisher day = 1 fish collector’s trip ).

2500 60

2000 Total No. of Fish 50 Total No. of Fisher Days 40 1500 30 1000 20 500

Total Number of Fish 10 Number of fisher days 0 0 Mar April May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar April

Figure 3. Temporal trends in volume of fish collected and fishing effort (No of fisher days) from the Shimoni area from March 2004 – March 2005 by a leading export company

Table 4. Summary of the catch dynamics of marine aquarium fish collection at Shimoni (Mar 2004 – Apr 2005).

Fishing Method Total No. No. species No. pieces Percent Earnings (USD Fish day1 man1day1 Mortality day1 man1 day1 (± 1SD) (± 1SD) (± 1SD) (± 1SD) Snorkelling 5408 5 ± 2 20 ± 22 3 ± 6 5 ± 6.4

29 ± 19 1 ± 4 12.6 ± 6.8 SCUBA diving 10634 9 ± 4

24 ± 21 2 ± 5 9 ± 7.8 All Grps 16042 7 ± 4

Significance Level P = 0.001 P =0.001 P=0.001 P=0.001 (Mann-Whitney U) * exchange rate 1 USD= 72Ksh

- 19 - Okemwa G. M. et al. (2006) Exploitation of Coral Reef Fishes for the Marine Aquarium Trade in Kenya

3.6 Post Harvest Mortality of Fish

Because tropical fish are transported great distances from the harvest site to overseas destinations, and because many people are involved through the ‘chain of custody’, there are a number of possible causes of post-harvest mortality which include: a) physical damage to the fish during collection; b) poor handling, c) inferior water quality during transportation and in the holding tanks d) diseases and stress (in the facilities) and f) collection of species which are difficult to sustain in aquaria (Schmidt et al. 2005). We estimated that 1 - 5 % of the fish harvested died during transit from the harvest site to the holding facilities with an overall average approximately 2% (± 3SD).

Highest mortalities were observed among butterflyfish and angelfish (Figure 4). Among the butterflyfish, the species most susceptible to mortality included Chaetodon dolosus, Heniochus acuminatus, and Chaetodon falcula. Among the angelfish, the species highly susceptible were Pomacanthus imperator, P. chrysurus and P. maculosus. Larger sized fishes are more susceptible to physical injuries during collection due to their aggressive nature and are thus more susceptible to disease if not handled appropriately.

Combtooth blennies, 2% Go b ies , 1% Anthiases, 4% Surgeonfishes, 5% Butterflyfishes, 33% Wrasses, 6%

Damselfishes, 10%

Dartfishes, 12%

Angelfishes, 28%

Figure 4 Mortality of fish landed in transit to holding aquaria from the Shimoni area (March 2004 to April 2005).

- 20 - Okemwa G. M. et al. (2006) Exploitation of Coral Reef Fishes for the Marine Aquarium Trade in Kenya

Post harvest mortality is greatly influenced by how well equipped and managed the holding facilities are. It was observed that the quality of holding facilities varied from company to company, with some companies meeting relatively high standards and others having relatively basic infrastructure. Although we suspected that the rate of mortality in substandard holding facilities could be quite high, we were not able to quantify this due to the sensitive nature of such information.

3.9 Impacts of Aquarium Fish Collection in the Shimoni Area

The underwater fish census survey indicated differences in the abundance and diversity of target aquarium fish between control and impact sites (Figure 5a). The total density of fish in the fished sites was 34% lower than in the unfished sites. A total of 89 species were encountered during the survey, of which 84% were recorded in the unfished site, whereas 57% were recorded in the fished site (Figure 5b). Thus, species richness was 27% lower in the unfished sites.

The presence and abundance of species varied between the fished and unfished sites, although most of the species were more abundant in the unfished sites. Figure 6 presents density estimates of a selection of key species harvested by aquarium fish collectors. Species that were notably less abundant in the fished sites included Allard’s anemonefish Amphiprion allardi, the Cleaner wrasse Labroides dimidiata, the Convict surgeonfish Acanthurus triostegus, and Vanderbilt’s chromis Chromis vanderbilti. We however found some species such as the Pygmy angel fish Centropyge acanthops, Palette surgeonfish Paracanthurus hepatus, the Exquisite wrasse Cirhilabrus exquisitus and the Vermiculate wrasse Macropharyngodon bipatitus to be more abundant in the fished sites. This disparity could be attributed to the sampling regime used and/or the variance exhibited due to the patchy distribution of suitable benthic habitats.

- 21 - Okemwa G. M. et al. (2006) Exploitation of Coral Reef Fishes for the Marine Aquarium Trade in Kenya

Figure 5 A) Differences in fish abundance of target aquarium fish between unfished and fished sites in Shimoni; B) Differences in species diversity of target fish between fished and unfished areas in Shimoni

A) B)

5000 80

2 4500 4000 70 3500 60 3000 50 2500 40 2000 1500 30 1000 20 Number of fish / 1000m / Number fish of 500 No. Species 1000m2 / 10 0 0 Control Fished Control Fished

The single-classification ANOVA comparing differences in percent cover of benthic substratum between the fished and control site indicated that hard coral cover was significantly higher in the unfished site. Soft coral cover was significantly higher in the unfished site whereas the fished site had a significantly higher algal cover (Table 5). The other substratum categories, namely algal turf, dead coral, macroalgae, rubble and sand were not significantly different between the sites.

- 22 - Okemwa G. M. et al. (2006) Exploitation of Coral Reef Fishes for the Marine Aquarium Trade in Kenya

60 Control Fished 50 2

40

30

20

Number of Fish / 1000 m Number of Fish 10

0 C. A.allardii P. hepatus P. D. aruanus D. P. imperator C. acanthops C. guttatissimus C. trifascialis C. trafasciatus C.

1200

2 1000

800

600

400

Number of Fish /1000 m Number of Fish 200

0 N. carbeyrri C. dimidiata C. A. triostegus A. C. exquisitus C. M. bipartitus L. dimidiatus C. vanderbilti C. P. squampinnis P.

Figure 6. Differences in fish abundance of target species between unfished and fished sites

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Table 5. Single-classification ANOVA comparing variance in benthic cover (mean % ± SD) between unfished and fished sites where aquarium fish collection occurs in Shimoni

Substrate Type Control Site Fished Site ANOVA (n = 8) (n = 8) F P

Algal Turf 13.7± 16.1 6.1± 11.3 1.1 NS Algae 2.9± 4.5 35.5± 24.1 24.3 0.0002 Dead Coral 2.1± 6.1 0.0 1.0 NS Live Hard Coral 42.7± 27.0 7.9± 9.2 14.1 0.002 Live Soft Coral 9.0± 8.0 37.4± 27.3 6.2 3.03 Macroalgae 3.3± 7.7 0.0 2.5 NS Rubble 13.5 ± 13 3.4± 5.4 3.7 NS Sand 10.7± 11 8.8 ± 10.9 0.2 NS

4.0 Socioeconomic Dynamics of the Aquarium Industry in Kenya

For a long time, the aquarium fishery remained the least understood of all the reef fisheries along the coast of Kenya. This study presents an effort that has been made to provide an understanding into the socio-economic dynamics of the fishery. The study has revealed that aquarium fish export is increasingly gaining popularity in the Kenyan coast.

The mean age of the aquarium fish collectors was 32 years with the youngest interviewed fisherman being 22 years old. Some of the fishermen indicated that they got involved in the fishery when they were 17 years old. The most experienced fisherman was aged 52 years and he indicated that he had been in the aquarium fishery since the time it began in Kenya. The frequency distribution for age shows that 87.5% of the aquarium fishermen are less than 50 years old and therefore fall within the most productive age if we assume that the most productive age is 19 – 50 years (Figure 7).

- 24 - Okemwa G. M. et al. (2006) Exploitation of Coral Reef Fishes for the Marine Aquarium Trade in Kenya

5

4

y 3

2 Frequenc

1

0 22 24 25 27 28 30 32 34 35 36 50 52 Age (Years)

Figure 7. Age frequency distribution of aquarium fish collectors

Table 6 summarises results from interviews with 24 fish collectors. The average income earned by the aquarium fishermen ranged from a maximum of Ksh. 10,533 and the minimum is Ksh. 2,800 per month. The minimum earnings are especially attributed to the part time aquarium fishers who also engage themselves in the normal artisanal fishing or other economic activities. The maximum income earned was Ksh. 20,000 per month though there were indications that the fishermen could occasionally earn as much as Ksh.40,000 depending on their fishing effort and the species collected.

Table 6 Summary of Socioeconomic Characteristics of Aquarium Fish Collectors

Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

Income (KSh) 2800.00 20000.00 10533.3333 4467.3372 Age 22.00 52.00 32.3750 8.8946 Level of Education 1.00 3.00 1.7083 .6903 Household Size 1.00 8.00 4.0833 2.6852 Fishing Method 1.00 2.00 1.6250 .4945 Level of Experience 1.00 40.00 10.7083 11.4378

Logbook data concurred with the interview results indicating mean daily earnings per fisher which ranged from 8 – 10 US$ and between 140 and 340 US$ monthly. Divers however

- 25 - Okemwa G. M. et al. (2006) Exploitation of Coral Reef Fishes for the Marine Aquarium Trade in Kenya earned 40% more than their snorkelling colleagues. We noted the inclination of snorkellers to switch to SCUBA diving after some years in the industry as the attractive financial returns were more rewarding. Most aquarium fishermen prefer being divers because the species of fish landed by divers often command higher market value than those caught by snorkellers.

The average household size of aquarium fish collectors was 4 persons with the minimum size being 1 person for households where the aquarium fisherman is not married and the maximum household size being 8 people in households where the fisherman lives with a spouse and 6 children.

The average years of experience in the fishery was 10.7 with the lowest experience being 1 year and the longest experience being 40 years. However, it is highly likely that part of these years could have been spent in the conventional fishery even though the fishermen generalized this aspect. Table 7 shows a summary of the correlations between the descriptive characteristics discussed. There was a positive correlation between income and age and between income and experience. Thus, the more experienced aquarium fishermen earn more income than the less experienced fishers. This confirms the importance of experience in the aquarium fishery. There is a high positive correlation between type of income and the fishing method used. This shows that as one moves from snorkeling to diving, his income increases.

Table 7. Pearson Rank Correlations (2-tailed) of Socioeconomic Descriptive Characteristics

INCOME AGE EDUC HHSIZE OCCUP EXPR

INCOME 1.000 .022 .051 -.134 .784 .112 . .920 .812 .532 .000 .602 AGE .022 1.000 -.024 .740 .126 .838 .920 . .912 .000 .557 .000 EDUC .051 -.024 1.000 .272 -.273 -.198 .812 .912 . .199 .196 .352 HHSIZE -.134 .740 .272 1.000 -.162 .689 .532 .000 .199 . .450 .000 OCCUP .784 .126 -.273 -.162 1.000 .148 .000 .557 .196 .450 . .491 EXPR .112 .838 -.198 .689 .148 1.000 .602 .000 .352 .000 .491 .

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Competition for a limited market is perhaps the greatest driving force in this industry not only among exporters but also among the fish collectors. Although some exporters have employed aquarium fish collectors on contractual basis, there are some smaller companies that prefer not to employ fishers on a long term basis but rather to hire by contract on demand or to subcontract employees of rival exporters thereby resulting in conflicts between exporters. In order to lure fish collectors whom they do not have any contractual obligations, they offer much higher prices to undercut their competitors. This has been a critical source of conflict among the aquarium fish exporters. During the study, we established that one aquarium fish exporter had just sacked seven highly experienced divers who had been compromised by one of his competitors.

Among the artisanal fishermen, there was a general perception that aquarium fish collectors are damaging the reef environment. However, they could not satisfactorily explain any observable damage that could be directly attributed to the aquarium fish collectors. A lobster fisherman had expressed the desire to become a middleman for the industry and perceived that aquarium fish collectors earn much more than other artisanal fishers. Thus, conflicts based on the fish resource did not exist.

5.0 DISCUSSION

The global trade in coral reef animals for an aquarium is having significant impacts on even the most remote and pristine reefs (Moore & Best, 2001). Within the Western Indian Ocean, Kenya is a leading export country of marine aquarium fish and is among the oldest having existed since the 1970’s. Although the ornamental fish trade in many countries remains a complex network, involving collection, distribution and marketing (Olivier, 2001), the survey revealed that the network in Kenya is fairly simple, running directly from the collectors to the exporters and straight to the export market. The industry in Kenya is however highly competitive, with conflicts between exporters not only arising over established clientele but also over fish collectors. The overall results from the study indicate that aquarium fish export

- 27 - Okemwa G. M. et al. (2006) Exploitation of Coral Reef Fishes for the Marine Aquarium Trade in Kenya is increasingly gaining popularity at the Kenyan coast with a growing interest from both local and international investors.

Wood (2001) ranked Kenya’s industry as medium in size involving the collection of 50,000 – 200,000 individuals; however, it was not possible to accurately ascertain the current true volume of fish and invertebrates exported from Kenya since reliance on the available government trade data on customs statistics would have resulted in a gross underestimation. A major factor that drives underreporting by exporters is the fact that a 3% tax is imposed by the government on the value of each consignment that is exported. Most of the exporters are consequently driven to understate or under-value their shipments in order to reduce the amount of tax payable. This trend is not unique to Kenya but occurs in other developing counties worldwide. There is need to identify mechanisms or incentives that will encourage factual reporting in addition to setting more stringent customs controls.

Among the 4000 coral reef fish species known, only 200 – 300 are exploited worldwide in the marine aquarium trade (FAO, 1995). While a huge diversity of species is demanded for the aquarium trade, a large part of the trade tends to be centred on individual species (Wabnitz, 2003). This study documented a first time estimation of 192 fish species harvested in Kenya. Of these species, the study showed a 58% dominance of only 10 species harvested from the Shimoni area. Of these species, the most harvested was the anemonefish Amphiprion allardi , the anglefish Centropyge acanthops and the wrasse Halichoeres iridis respectively. The total number of species estimated may not be comprehensive as it represents only one fishing site, nonetheless it is a good reference point for future assessments considering that the Shimoni area is the most harvested and preferred fishing site for marine aquarium fish collection in Kenya. The study also provided a first time estimation of the catch per unit effort of aquarium fish collectors in Kenya. Wood (2001) extrapolated CPUE estimates of 24-36 fish/ fisherman/day in the Cook Islands and 30 – 50 fish/day in Sri Lanka which are comparable to the mean estimates for Kenya in this study of 24 – 33 fish/ man/ day.

- 28 - Okemwa G. M. et al. (2006) Exploitation of Coral Reef Fishes for the Marine Aquarium Trade in Kenya

As in other countries worldwide, there have been concerns over the potential overexploitation of target species in Kenya. Wood (2001) affirms that the biggest threats are from local level depletions rather than species extinctions on a regional or global scale. Despite a dispersal phase at the planktonic larval stage, most coral reef fishes are relatively sedentary exhibiting site fidelity after settlement (Sale, 1980) and thus have a relatively small home range. Consequently, when heavy harvesting is exerted on a small area for a long time, aggravated by the selective removal of a few target species, may lead to shifts in the community structure and ecological balance of the reef habitats (Gasparini et a.,l 2004).

Many aquaria fish are herbivorous species that feed on benthic algae, which when removed could lead to an increase in algae that could threaten the reefs in general (Moore & Best, 2001). In line with this notion, the underwater fish census in Shimoni revealed increased algal cover in areas where aquarium fish collection is conducted confirming that local level habitat impacts due to aquarium fish collection are occurring in the area. A higher overall density and species richness was observed in the protected sites compared to the fished sites. Highly harvested species such as the clownfish Amphipiron allardi and the cleaner wrasse Labroides dimidiatus were notably reduced in the harvested sites. Amal et al. (2002) found that Labroides dimidiatus was more abundant at sites with greater numbers of sedentary fish, fewer predators, and where the species richness of the fish community was higher. Thus, the removal of such key species in large quantities for the aquarium trade is likely to have negative impacts on reef diversity in the long term as they play a key role in reef health. The vulnerability of a species may depend on a number of life history parameters, such as growth, reproduction and larval recruitment (Sale, 1980). Given that the abundance and distribution of certain species may be site specific and that the preference of fishing sites is highly influenced by accessibility and ease of fish collection at specific locations, the threat of localized depletions of populations of species in high demand prevails.

The introduction of alien species in countries that import marine ornamentals is an emerging concern well documented recently by Semmens et al. (2004). Results of their research documented 16 non-native marine fish species from 32 locales on the reefs of south-east Florida U.S.A. Among their list of invasive species, species we documented to be exported from Kenya were: the Indo-Pacific Lionfish Pterois volitans; the orbicular batfish Platax

- 29 - Okemwa G. M. et al. (2006) Exploitation of Coral Reef Fishes for the Marine Aquarium Trade in Kenya orbicularis; the emperor angelfish Pomacanthus imperator; Yellowbar angelfish Pomacanthus maculosus; Semicircle angelfish Pomacanthus semicirculatus; Moorish idol Zanclus cornutus; Orangespine unicornfish Naso lituratus; and the Sailfin tangs Zebrasoma desjardinii and Zebrasoma veliferum. Besides the aquarium trade, another well documented vector of alien introductions is ballast water exchange (Carlton and Geller, 1993).

In addition to the concerns about the direct effects of the marine aquarium trade, the use of destructive fishing practices (i.e. cyanide poisons and dynamite) is a strong concern worldwide. Rubec (1987) estimated that the cumulative mortality associated with exposure to cyanide through the four steps of the ‘chain of custody’ (from villages, to the exporters, importers, and then to retailers) was greater than 80%, if one excluded the acute mortality on the reef. Including the mortality on the reef, the cumulative mortality from reef to retailers was estimated to be greater than 90% (Rubec and Soundararajan, 1991). Although use of explosives and poisons have been documented in the artisanal fisheries of Madagascar, Mauritius, South Africa and Tanzania (Moore & Best 2001), they were not observed to be used in Kenya’s marine aquarium fishery. Habitat damage of corals may however be inevitable particularly during collection of species which inhabit branching corals (i.e Acropora and Pocillopora) such as the damselfish Dascyllus aruanus (Wood, 1985).

On average, 3% of fish harvested from Shimoni were dead on arrival at the holding facility. However, this estimate will vary between companies. In a monitoring survey of six deliveries made to an Indonesian export facility, Schmidt et al. (2005) found fish mortality rates (the sum of those dead on arrival (DOA), dead after arrival (DAA), and those injured to the point of being unmarketable) running between 10–40% with injured fish making up a considerable percentage of the losses. However, they noted that cyanide was used to harvest the fish. It was observed that most of the post harvest mortalities in Kenya occur as a result of injuries afflicted during harvesting and or during acclimatization at the holding facilities. Survival at the holding facilities is thus highly influenced by how advanced the equipment being used is. We were however unable to determine the magnitude of losses after arrival to the facility. It is probable that the mortalities in Kenya’s facilities could be significantly lower since cyanide poison is not used in the harvesting process. Most recently, Rubec and Cruz (2006)

- 30 - Okemwa G. M. et al. (2006) Exploitation of Coral Reef Fishes for the Marine Aquarium Trade in Kenya concurred with this perspective as they found that lower mortalities are associated with net caught fish compared with cyanide caught fish in the Philippines. Nonetheless, it is plausible to state that, whatever the situation may be more fish must be collected to replace lost individuals so as to meet the market demand of clients (Wood, 2001). Consequently, with better post-harvest care and handling, it is possible to markedly reduce mortality rates of marine ornamental fish during collection and transport (Rubec & Cruz, 2005), thereby reducing the overall harvest pressure.

It is important to bear in mind that there are other factors that cause damage and changes to coral reef habitats leading to serious effects on fish population structure, biodiversity, succession and ecosystem functions such as the indiscriminate use of illegal fishing nets (e.g. beach seines, undersized gill nets and spear guns). Various studies on the effects of artisanal fisheries conducted in protected vs. non-protected coral reefs in Kenya have revealed changes in abundance of fish species and a number of secondary and tertiary effects on other faunal groups in unprotected reefs (McClanahan & Muthiga, 1988; Watson & Ormond, 1994; McClanahan & Obura, 1995; McClanahan & Arthur, 2001). Furthermore, recent surveys of reefs in many parts of the world have found that many species of high demand in the aquarium trade are either absent, or in drastically low numbers when compared to unfished areas (Hodgson, 1999; Tissot, 1999; Tissot & Hallacher, 1999, 2003).

Captive breeding will undoubtedly constitute an ever-growing component of international ornamental marine species management programmes, especially as aquarium technology, larval foods and knowledge continue to improve (Dawes, 1999). Research into the feasibility of capturing coral reef fish at the larval stage and then rearing the larvae in aquaria to a marketable size for export is being conducted in various parts of the world (Hair et. al. 2002, 2004; Lecaillon, 2004; Lecchini et. al. 2006) with promising results using different methods of capturing (e.g. light traps, crest nets and nets that are either towed or dropped in the water column). The rationale for harvesting fish at the larval stage of their lifecycle is that post larvae are very abundant before settlement, but the process of settlement is accompanied by very high mortality primarily due to high predation rates. The fish are thus removed prior to high mortality thereby having a negligible impact on the natural populations. According to Lecaillon (2004), approximately 50 species are reproduced in captivity. Of these, however,

- 31 - Okemwa G. M. et al. (2006) Exploitation of Coral Reef Fishes for the Marine Aquarium Trade in Kenya relatively few have been bred in commercial quantities with the most popular commercialized fish species being the clownfish, mainly Amphiprion species (Dawes, 1999, Lecaillon, 2004).

In conclusion, this study was the first in-depth effort to document exploitation of marine aquarium reef fishes and the dynamics of the trade in Kenya. It is thus hoped that information will provide an important basis for future studies that will guide in the development of management policies for the sustainable exploitation of marine aquarium reef fishes in Kenya.

5.1 Constraints and Challenges in Implementing the Study

As stated previously, a major shortcoming of the study was the inability to accurately estimate the true volume of fish exported from Kenya due to the unavailability of reliable government statistics. In addition, although the rapid fish census survey met the objectives of the study to assess impacts aquarium fish collection on targeted fish populations in the Shimoni area, it was not possible to employ a more rigorous sampling design due to time and logistic constraints. Increasing the number of transects in addition to conducting repeated counts over a period of three or more years will increase the sensitivity of detecting species specific impacts. Similarly, due to time constraints, the socioeconomic survey mainly focused on the exporters and fish collectors but failed to interview other stakeholders (hoteliers, managers, conservationists). It is hoped that a second phase of the project will be able to cover aspects that this study was not able to achieve.

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5.2 Recommendations

There is an outstanding need to understand the biology and population dynamics of key target species (i.e reproductive capacity, growth and larval settlement and recruitment, and sex ratios) of key targeted species which influence the natural fluctuations in the abundance of the target species. This information will be critical in understanding a species’ potential for extinction so that conservation interventions can be prioritized.

The reduction of post-harvest mortality plays a central role in the management of the trade (Schmidt & Kunzmann, 2005). To ensure minimum mortalities, collection of fish that have been documented not to survive well in captivity should not be permitted. For instance, aquarists have confirmed that Chaetodon bennetti, C. meyeri, C. trifascialis and C. trifasciatus are very difficult to maintain in captivity because they exclusively feed on coral polyps and are thus virtually impossible to maintain in captivity (Edwards & Shepherd, 1992; Mee, 1993). These species were harvested from Shimoni in extremely low numbers during the study (only 30, 0.26%), they should however not be exported due to their low chances of survival in captivity.

Standards regarding the harvesting and handling of fish, the quality of holding facilities and packaging materials used should therefore be developed and incorporated into the Fisheries Act. Training of fish collectors should also be carried out in collaboration with the exporters and relevant institutions so as to ensure that best fishing and handling practices are maintained. This will also increase their general awareness on the various environmental and social issues pertaining to their fishery.

Efforts towards the development of a management plan for the sustainable collection of wild marine aquarium fish in Kenya need to be stepped-up. Moreover, the need to improve current regulatory and monitoring mechanisms concerning the marine aquarium fishery is also critical to improving the overall management of the fishery. Enforcement of the current regulations stipulated in the Fisheries Act needs to be improved at all stages of the local supply chain. Strengthened monitoring of the fishery will be an instrument for improved

- 33 - Okemwa G. M. et al. (2006) Exploitation of Coral Reef Fishes for the Marine Aquarium Trade in Kenya validation of data thereby leading to better characterization of changes and trends in the volume of exports and ecological impacts of the trade.

Mechanisms need to be put in place to facilitate collection of effort data on a long term basis so as to monitor changes resulting from heavy collection pressure. Long term monitoring of changes in CPUE can be used as an indicator of potential overexploitation that can be further assessed with additional under water visual census surveys. To ease the burden of data collection for both the exporters and the department of fisheries, a possible solution that has been tried successfully in the Maldives would be to develop a pro forma species lists collaboratively with the exporting companies using agreed common and scientific names (Edwards, 2002). Excel spreadsheets can be made available to the exporters on which the numbers being exported can be entered on a consignment by consignment basis and then summarized on a monthly basis as is required by the Fisheries Act. Inclusion of catch details can enable assessment of catch and effort for each collection area. A selection of index sites should also be established to specifically monitor the environmental impacts of the fishery. Through such initiatives, for instance, species most vulnerable to collection pressure will be easily identified so that precautionary measures can be put in place.

Suggestions have been made to ensure that the aquarium fish collectors are affiliated to local beach management units so that their activities can be monitored more efficiently. Any new regulatory measures that are developed should not hamper the economic viability of the fishery thereby exacerbating user conflicts in the industry but be focused on achieving a balance between reef health, collection of organisms, and community benefits. The development of policies that will not only maximize the survivorship of the targeted species and the integrity of the reef habitat but also reduce illegal or underreporting of export details by exporters can only be obtained through strong stakeholder involvement. Collaborative dialogue and participation of all stakeholders (i.e those in the ‘chain of custody”, artisanal fishers, dive tourism operators, managers, researchers, and environmentalists) is imperative for the successful management of the fishery.

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In summary, some of the suggested strategies that need to be considered in the management of the fishery are:

• Revision of the legal framework to improve licensing requirements

• Development of standards for operators in collection and handling and packaging of fish.

• Improved monitoring (of the fish resources, of operations, of exports)

• Production of awareness materials and development of training schemes for fish collectors to enhance use of best practice methodologies

• Strengthened stakeholder participation in the management of the fishery

◦ ◦

◦ ◦

◦ ◦

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6.0 References

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Andrews, C. (1990). The ornamental fish trade and fish conservation. J. Fish Biol. 37: 53 - 59.

Baquero, J. (1999). Marine Ornamentals Trade Quality and Sustainability for the Pacific Region.South Pacific Forum Secretariat Trade and Investment Division. Suva, Fiji.

English, S., C. Wilkinson, & V. Baker eds. (1997). Survey Manual for Tropical Marine Resources, 2nd Edition. Australia Institute of Marine Science. Townsville. 390 pp.

Carlton, J.T. & J.B. Geller (1993). Ecological roulette: the global transport of nonindigenous marine organisms. Science 261:78 - 82.

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Edwards, A. J. (2002). Guidelines for Ornamental Fish Sampling, Data Collection and Analysis of the Aquarium Fish Trade PERSGA Training Workshop Report 48 pp.

Edwards, A.J. & A.D. Sheperd (1992). Environmental implications of aquarium fish collection in the Maldives, with proposals for regulation. Environmental Conservation 19 (1): 61 - 72.

Emerton. L. & Y. Tessema (2001). Marine Protected Areas: the Case of Kisite Marine National Park and Mpunguti Marine National Reserve, Kenya IUCN 32 pp.

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Gasparini, J.L., S.R. Floeter, C.E.L. Ferreira & I. Sazima (2004). Marine Ornamental Trade in Brazil. Biodiversity and Conservation 14: 2883 – 2899.

Hair, C.A., J.D. Bell & P.J. Doherty. (2002). Development of new artisanal fisheries based on the capture and culture of postlarval coral reef fish. WorldFish Center Final Report to ACIAR.

Hair, C., R. Warren, A. Tewaki, C. Haro & W. Phillips (2004). Catching and rearing post larval cleaner shrimp for the aquarium trade: results from a WorldFish Center project in Solomon Islands. NAGA, WorldFish Center Quarterly. 27: 42 - 48.

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Appendix 1. Reef fishes most harvested for the marine aquarium trade in Kenya (classification of fish follows Lieske & Myers, 2001 with further reference from FishBase http://www.FishBase.com)

Acanthuridae Chaetodontidae Acanthurus leucosternon Chaetodon auriga Acanthurus lineatus Chaetodon bennetti Acanthurus nigrofuscus Chaetodon dolosus Acanthurus triostegus Chaetodon falcula Acanthurus xanthopterus Chaetodon guttatissimus Ctenochaetus strigosus Chaetodon kleinii Naso annulatus Chaetodon leucopleura Naso brevirostris Chaetodon lineatus Naso elegans Chaetodon lunula Naso vlamingi Chaetodon madagascarensis Paracanthurus hepatus Chaetodon melannotus Zebrasoma desjardinii Chaetodon meyeri Zebrasoma scopas Chaetodon nigropunctatus Zebrasoma veliferum Chaetodon trifascialis Chaetodon trifasciatus Antennariidae Chaetodon unimaculatus Histrio histrio Chaetodon vagabundus Chaetodon xanthocephalus Apogonidae Chaetodon zanzibariensis Apogon cookii Forcipiger flavissimus Forcipiger longistroris Balistidae Heniochus acuminatus Balistapus undulatus Heniochus monocerus Balistoides conspicullum Melichthys indicus Cirrhitidae Odonus niger Cirrhitichthys oxycephalus Pseudobalistes fuscus Paracirrhites arcatus Rhinecanthus aculeatus Paracirrhites forsteri Sufflamen bursa Dasyatidae Blennidae Dasyatis kuhlii Aspidontus taeniatus Taeniura Lymma Atrosalarias fuscus fuscus Ecsenius midas Ephippidae Exallias brevis Platax orbicularis Meiacanthus mossambicus Platax teira Salarius fasciatus Gobiidae Caracanthidae Amblyeleortis stenitzi Caracanthus sp Amblyeleortis wheeleri Amblyogobius sphynx Carangidae Cryptocentrus aurora Gnathanodon speciosus Cryptocentrus sp. Gobiodon citrinus Centriscidae Paragobiodon echinocephalus Aeoliscus strigatus Valenciennea helsdingeni Valenciennea puellaris Valenciennea sexguttata Valenciennea strigata

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Appendix 1: continued

Haemulidae Pomacanthidae Plectorhincus orientalis Apolemichthys trimaculatus Plectorhincus picus Apolemichthys xanthotis Centropyge acanthops Labridae Centropyge multisippinnis Anampses caerulepunctatus Pomacanthus chrysurus Anampses meleagrides Pomacanthus imperator Anampses twisti Pomacanthus maculosus Bodianus anthioides Pomacanthus semicirculatus Bodianus axillaris Pygoplites diacanthus Bodianus bilunulatus Pomacentridae Bodianus diana Abudefduf saxatilis Cheilinus chlorourus Abudefduf sexfasciatus Cheilinus trilobatus Amphiprion akallopisos Cirrhilabrus exquisitus Amphiprion allardi Coris aygula Chromis dimidiata Coris caudimacula Chromis vanderbilti Coris formosa/frerei Chromis viridis Coris gaimard Chromis sp. Epibulus sp Chrysiptera annulata Gomphosus coeruleus Dascyllus aruanus Halichoeres cosmetus Dascyllus carneus Halichoeres hortulanus Dascyllus trimaculatus Halichoeres iridis Plectroglyphidodon dickii Halichoeres nebulosus Plectroglyphidodon lacrymatus Hemigymnus melapterus Pomacentrus pavo Hologymnosus annulatus Pomacentrus sp Hologymnosus doliatus Pomacentrus sulfureus Labroides bicolor Lutjanidae Labroides dimidiatus Lutjanus kasmira Labropsis xanthonota Lutjanus sebae Macropharyngodon bipartitus Macropharyngodon cyanoguttatus Malacanthidae Macropharyngodon negrosensis Malacanthus latovittatus Novaculichthys macrolepidotus Novaculichthys taeniorus Microdesmidae Paracheilinus carpenteri Nemateleortris magnifica Paracheilinus mccoskeri Ptereleotris evides Paracheilinus octataenia Pseudocheilinus evanidus Monacanthidae Pseudocheilinus hexataenia Aluterus monocerus Pseudodax moluccanus Aluterus scriptus Pseudojuloides cerasinus Oxymonacanthus longistoris Stethojulis strigiventer Thalassoma hardwicke Mullidae Thalassoma hebraicum Parupeneus cyclostomus Thalassoma lunare Parupeneus macronemus

Lutjanidae Notopteridae Lutjanus kasmira Xenomystus nigri Lutjanus sebae

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Appendix 1: continued

Ostraciidae Lactoria cornuta Lactoria diaphana Ostracion cubicus Ostracion meleagris

Scaridae Cetoscarus bicolor

Scorpaenidae Dendrochirus brachypterus Dendrochirus zebra Pterois antennata Pterois radiata Pterois volitans Rhinopias frondosa Scorpaenopsis sp Synanceia verrucosa Serranidae Cephalopholis argus Cephalopholis sp Epinephelus flavocaeruleus Nemanthias carberryi Pseudanthias evansi Pseudanthias kashiwae Pseudanthias squampinnis

Siganidae Siganus stellatus

Sphyraenidae Sphyraena barracuda

Syngnathidae Corythoichthys haematopterus Doryramphus dactiliophorus Doryramphus excisus

Tetraodontidae Arothron hispidus Arothron mappa Arothron meleagris Arothron nigropunctatus Arothron stellatus Canthigaster amboinensis Canthigaster janthinoptera Canthigaster smithae Canthigaster solandri Canthigaster valentini

Torpedinidae Torpedo fuscomaculata

Zanclidae Zanclus cornutus

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