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2006 - Boosting Science Learning - What will it take? 1997-2008 ACER Research Conference Archive

2006

Boosting Science Learning - What Will it Take? (Conference Proceedings)

Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER)

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Foreword v

Keynote papers 1 Jonathan Osborne 2 Towards a science education for all: The role of ideas, evidence and argument Léonie Rennie 6 The community’s contribution to science learning: Making it count Rodger Bybee 12 Boosting science learning through the design of curriculum materials

Concurrent papers 21 Barry McCrae 22 What science do students want to learn? What do students know about science? Denis Goodrum 31 Inquiry in science classrooms – rhetoric or reality? Kerri-Lee Harris 36 Addressing the looming crisis in the supply of suitably qualified science teachers Russell Tytler and David Symington 40 Boosting science learning – what will it take? Lawrence Ingvarson and Anne Semple 42 How can professional standards improve the quality of teaching and learning science? Deborah Corrigan 49 No wonder kids are confused: the relevance of science education to science Jim Davies 56 Rethinking science education through rethinking schooling Concurrent papers continued Sue Thomson 61 Science achievement in Australia: Evidence from National and International surveys Susan Rodrigues 66 Creating Powerful Teacher Education Opportunities: The need for risk, relevance, resource, recognition, readiness and reflection  Peter Fensham 70 Research and boosting science learning: Diagnosis and potential solutions  Mark Hackling 74 Primary Connections: A new approach to primary science and to teacher professional learning

Panel discussion 81  Russell Tytler and David Symington (chairs) Putting it to the experts: Boosting science learning – what will it take?

Poster presentations 85

Conference program 93

Hyatt floorplan 97

Conference delegates 99 Research Conference 2006 Planning Committee Professor Geoff Masters CEO, Conference Convenor, ACER

Dr John Ainley Deputy CEO and Research Director National and International Surveys, ACER

Ms Kerry-Anne Hoad Manager, Centre for Professional Learning, ACER

Professor Mark Hackling Professor of Science and Technology Education, Edith Cowan University, WA

Associate Professor Barry McCrae Senior Research Fellow, ACER

Ms Marion Meiers Senior Research Fellow, ACER

Professor Leonie Rennie Dean Graduate Studies, Office of Research and Development, Curtin University of Technology, WA

Professor Russell Tytler Professor of Science Education, Deakin University, VIC

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Research Conference 2006 iv ForewordForeword

 Geoff Masters Australian Council for Educational Research Research Conference 2006 is the eleventh national Research Conference. Through our research conferences, ACER provides significant opportunities at the national Geoff Masters is CEO of the Australian Council level for reviewing current research-based knowledge in key areas of educational for Educational Research (ACER), Immediate policy and practice. A primary goal of these conferences is to inform educational Past President of the Australian College of policy and practice. Educators and a member of the UNESCO National Commission in Australia. For more Research Conference 2006 brings together key researchers, policy makers and than 20 years, Professor Masters has been an international leader in developing better teachers from a broad range of educational contexts from around Australia and measures of educational outcomes. He has overseas. The conference addresses the question ‘Boosting Science Learning – what chaired the IEA Technical Advisory Committee will it take?’ for the introduction of the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS); chaired We are sure that the papers and discussions from this research conference will the initial OECD PISA International Technical make a major contribution to the national and international literature and debate on Advisory Group; directed the only national survey promoting interest and engagement in science. of Australian primary school literacy levels; and worked with all Australian states and territories to We welcome you to Research Conference 2006, and encourage you to engage introduce statewide testing programs in literacy in conversation with other participants, and to reflect on the research and its and numeracy. In 2005-06 he undertook an investigation of options for the introduction of an connections to policy and practice. Australian Certificate of Education on behalf of the Australian Government.

Professor Geoff N Masters Chief Executive Officer, ACER

Research Conference 2006 vi KeynoteKeynote paperspapers

 Towards a science education for all: The role of ideas, evidence and argument

Abstract Witness the publication of the AAAS edited volume on inquiry (Minstrell & This presentation offers a critical Van Zee, 2000), the release of Inquiry analysis of contemporary science and the National Science Education education and the values on which it Standards (National Research Council, rests. Science education wrestles with 2000), and the inclusion of ‘scientific two competing priorities: the need enquiry’ as a separate strand in the to educate the future citizen about English and Welsh science national science; and the need to provide curriculum. The latter, in particular, Jonathan Osborne the basic knowledge necessary for has now been incorporated into future scientists. It is argued that the King’s College, London a more embracing program which evidence would suggest that it is the explores ‘How Science Works’ with latter goal that predominates – a goal an eponymous title (Qualifications and Jonathan Osborne holds the Chair of Science which exists at least, in part, in conflict Education at the Department for Educational Curriculum Authority, 2005). These and Professional Studies, King’s College London with the needs of the majority who developments serve as signposts to an where he has been since 1985. Prior to that will not continue with science post ideological commitment that teaching he taught physics in high schools. Professor compulsory education. The argument is science needs to accomplish much Osborne is currently the head of department advanced that there are four essential and the President of the US National Association more than simply detailing what we for Research in Science Teaching (NARST). He elements to any science education know. In addition, there is a growing has conducted research in the area of primary – the development of conceptual recognition of the need to educate children’s understanding of science, attitudes to understanding; the improvement of our students and citizens about science, informal learning, argumentation and cognitive reasoning; improving students’ teaching the nature of science. He was a co- how we know, and why we believe editor of the influential report Beyond 2000: understanding of the epistemic nature in the scientific world view. While Science Education for the Future, winner of the of science; and affording an affective acknowledging that the distinctive NARST award for best paper published in JRST experience that is both positive and feature of science is its ontology, the in 2003 and 2004, and is a co-PI on the National engaging. The decline in students’ Science Foundation funded Centre for Informal argument will be presented that such Learning and Schools. A particular agenda for interest in school science is, in part, due a shift requires a new focus on the his research is advancing the case for teaching to the emphasis on science for future following: (1) how evidence is used science for citizenship. To this end, he has scientists. This presentation will aim to in science for the construction of conducted a significant body of work exploring show how a focus on ideas, evidence the teaching of ideas, evidence and argument in explanations; and (2), the development schools. and argument can offer an education of an understanding of the criteria used that is more appropriate to the needs in science to evaluate evidence. Central of the future citizen and the values of to this perspective is a recognition contemporary youth. that language is not merely an adjunct to science but a core constitutive Introduction element (Norris & Phillips, 2003; J.F. Osborne, 2002)). In particular, that the Curriculum innovations in science, such construction of argument, and its critical as those sponsored by the Nuffield evaluation, are discursive activities Foundation in the UK and the National which are central to science and central Science Foundation in the USA in to the learning of science. the 1960s and 70s, have had little impact on the practices of science The starting point for this argument is teachers (Cuban, 1990; Welch, 1979). the recognition that science education Four decades after Schwab’s (1962) exists on the ‘horns of a dilemma’. argument that science should be taught On the one hand, it wishes to pursue as an ‘enquiry into enquiry’, and almost the liberal notion of demonstrating a century since John Dewey (1916) and communicating the best that is advocated that classroom learning be a worth knowing about this discipline. student-centred process of enquiry, we In so doing, it seeks to lay before still find ourselves struggling to achieve the neophyte student the wondrous such practices in the science classroom. achievements of science, showing that

Research Conference 2006  it has freed us from the shackles of is there any recognition that students Yet confronted with the need to received wisdom, teaching a respect have a right to what Arnold has called engage a broader set of public(s) for empirical evidence as the basis of the ‘best that is worth knowing’. Rather, in the debate, society is confronted belief, and offering a vision of how new the outcome leaves many students with a dilemma that the majority of knowledge can be created. with an ambivalent or negative attitude people lack the knowledge to make an informed choice. What, then, does Yet, science’s dilemma (its second to science (Gardner, 1975; Osborne, it mean to offer a science education horn) is that it can only function Simon, & Collins, 2003; Schibeci, 1984). that would contribute to enabling effectively within a tradition where it is Yet, science education for all can only young people to make good decisions taught as received knowledge (Kuhn, ever be justified if it offers something of about issues associated with science 1970) – knowledge that is unequivocal, universal value to all (Millar & Osborne, and technology? This presentation will uncontested and unquestioned 2000). ‘Science for all’ requires a argue the view that science is one of (Claxton, 1991). Presented to the ‘science curriculum for all’ – one that the greatest cultural achievements of young student in this manner, it is recognises the cultural significance western society, if not the greatest. Any perceived as a body of authoritative of science by offering insights to the education in science must attempt to knowledge which is to be accepted knowledge, practices and processes of communicate, therefore, not only what and believed. This second perspective science. In essence, a science education is worth knowing, but also how such is an inevitable product of a view that that pursues depth rather than breadth, knowledge relates to other events, why sees the function of science education coherence rather than fragmentation, and it is important, and how this particular as a propaedeutic training for the insight rather than mystification. In such view of the world came to be. That next generation of scientists. The a curriculum, the study of the history of in short, as well as teaching what we fundamental flaw with this approach ideas and the evidence on which they believe to be true in science, there is a is that, while the unity and salience of are founded must lie at the core. need to address why we believe it to such information is apparent to those be true. It will be suggested that such who hold an overview of the domain, an approach provides a better balance its significance is arcane for the young The goal of a science to the following goals of learning student. Only for those who finally curriculum for all science. enter the inner sanctum of the world of the practising scientist will any sense What kind of science curriculum might The conceptual: There is a body of of coherence become apparent. As then justify science’s compulsory status? domain-specific knowledge which a consequence, only those that ever The starting point of the argument is essential to any understanding of reach the end get to comprehend the to be presented begins with the view science. At one level, this is simply a wonder and beauty of the edifice that that it is the developments of science knowledge of the entities that populate has been constructed. and technology which are most the world – that is, what is meant by likely to pose the political and moral a cell, an atom or an electric current. More fundamentally, such an education dilemmas for the generations to come Engaging with scientific concepts is does harm to the future citizen (Irwin, not possible unless individuals are 1995; Layton, Jenkins, McGill, & Davey, (Independent Editorial, 1999). The provided with the opportunities for 1993) and limits the development question of how we address climate these concepts to be introduced, of the young person’s understanding change; whether we replace ageing and with time to learn their use and of the scientific enterprise. First, it nuclear reactors; invest more heavily how to interpret their meaning in an oversimplifies and misrepresents the in energy conservation; or how to appropriate context. practices and processes of science, minimise the effects of flu pandemics providing an education which fails are just some of the examples that are The epistemic and social practices of to develop the skills and knowledge currently confronting contemporary science: If the rationality of science necessary to understand or interpret society. And, since answering such is secured by a methodological contemporary accounts of science, questions makes demands on the finite commitment to evidence as the scientists and their findings. And second, and precious resources available to a epistemic basis of belief, then surely the its failure to develop any understanding given society, the public have a right to careful consideration of the practices of the nature of science beyond naïve part of the decision-making process. In that lead to secure and reliable empiricist notions (Driver, Leach, Millar, short, the case that only science should knowledge should be a core feature of & Scott, 1996), leaves the majority decide what are the salient questions of school science? An exploration of some poorly educated about science. Never interest is unacceptable. of science’s crowning achievements,

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take?  even of such simple ideas as the as a form of pedagogy comes from argumentation has the potential to explanation of day and night, would the increasing evidence that learning (a) improve students’ conceptual permit science teachers to show that to argue is learning to think (Billig, understanding of science; (b) enhance scientific knowledge was hard won – 1996), and from the increasing their ability to reason and think critically; the product of imaginative and creative empirical evidence emerging from (c) develop a deeper understanding endeavour, derived often in the face the work of social psychologists that of the nature of belief in science; and of fierce opposition. More importantly, the knowledge and understanding of (d) to make the quality of the learning it would permit the science teacher school-age children can be facilitated by environment and learning experience to show how science uses a range of collaborative work between peers. more enjoyable. methods; the features that demarcate The affective and social: the education of science from non-science; the social young people in science should afford References practices and values that both sustain experiences that generate inspiration the scientific enterprise and lead to the Adey, P., & Shayer, M. (1994). Really at the achievement of their scientific production of reliable knowledge; the raising standards. London: Routledge. culture. Thus, while being challenging, moral and ethical issues raised by the it must offer ‘feelings of understanding’ Billig, M. (1996). Arguing and thinking application of scientific knowledge; and and fascination at what it has to offer. (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge to explore the relationship between Such elements are crucial to motivation University Press. science and technology. and enduring engagement. In addition, Claxton, G. (1991). Educating the The cognitive: from a liberal perspective, science like any other subject must enquiring mind: The challenge for one of the goals of education is to recognise the growing body of evidence school science. London: Harvester: develop the autonomous individual (Daniels, 2001; Doise & Mugny, 1984; Wheatsheaf. who is capable of making rational Rogoff, 1998) that suggests that learning decisions. It is, for instance, almost a is best facilitated through a process Cuban, L. (1990). Reforming, again, commonplace assumption of post- of social interactions and discourse again and again. Educational Researcher, Enlightenment ethics and political where children are offered structured 13, 3-13. theory that individual autonomy is a experiences that engage them in their Daniels, H. (2001). Vygotsky and necessary condition of human fulfilment zone of proximal development. Such pedagogy. London: Routledge Falmer. (Winch, 2006). In a society where experiences not only teach them how science and technology permeates its to reason, but also how to listen, Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and foundational fabric, the ability to pursue how to evaluate the arguments of education. New York: The MacMillan what might constitute a worthwhile others, and how to construct counter- Company. life is dependent on the ability to think arguments – skills that are essential for Doise, W., & Mugny, G. (1984). The critically about science and technology. life as an adult in general. social development of the intellect. Science education bears a responsibility If an education for citizenship is to be Oxford: Pergamon. for providing experiences which both the primary focus of formal science maximise students’ cognitive potential Driver, R., Leach, J., Millar, R., & Scott, education – the central question – the argument which underlies, for P. (1996). Young peoples images of is: what is the appropriate mix of instance, the CASE program (Adey & science. Buckingham: Open University these elements? The argument will Shayer, 1994) to accelerate cognition Press. be developed that the four pillars of through science education – and to such an education are a knowledge Gardner, P. L. (1975). Attitudes to ensure that the experiences are offered of scientific ‘facts’; an understanding of Science. Studies in Science Education, that require the practice and application the methods and process of science; 2, 1-41. of critical thinking in science. Thus, an awareness of the context and science education must show how Independent Editorial. (1999, January 2, interests of the various actors; and an argument and its evaluation – in short, 1999). The real challenges of the next ability to analyse the risk and benefits critical thinking – is a core feature of century are scientific. The Independent, of developments in science and science. p 3, (Review Section). technology. Perhaps a more fundamental reason Irwin, A. (1995). Citizen Science. Drawing on a wide body of research, for the inclusion of this element is its London: Routledge this paper will argue that a focus value as a pedagogic heuristic. The on examining ideas, evidence and case for the inclusion of argumentation

Research Conference 2006  Kuhn, T. E. (1970). The Structure Schwab, J. J. (1962). The teaching of of Scientific Revolutions (2nd ed.). science as enquiry. Cambridge, MA: Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Harvard University Press. Layton, D., Jenkins, E. W., McGill, S., & Welch, W. (Ed.). (1979). Twenty- Davey, A. (1993). Inarticulate Science? five Years of Science Curriculum Perspectives on the Public Understanding Development. (Vol. 7). Washington, of Science. Driffield: Nafferton: Studies DC: American Educational Research in Education. Association. Millar, R., & Osborne, J. F. (2000). Winch, C. (2006). Education, autonomy Meeting the challenge of change. and critical thinking. London: Studies in Science Education, 35, Routledge. 190–197. Minstrell, J., & Van Zee, E. (Eds.). (2000). Teaching in the Inquiry-based science classroom. Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science. National Research Council. (2000). Inquiry and the National Science Education Standards. Washington DC: National Academy Press. Norris, S., & Phillips, L. (2003). How literacy in its fundamental sense is central to scientific literacy. Science Education, 87, 224-240. Osborne, J. F. (2002). Science without Literacy: a ship without a sail? Cambridge Journal of Education, 32(2), 203-215. Osborne, J. F., Simon, S., & Collins, S. (2003). Attitudes towards Science: A Review of the Literature and its Implications. International Journal of Science Education, 25(9), 1049–1079. Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. (2005). Programme of Study for KS4 from 2006. London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. Rogoff, B. (1998). Cognition as a collaborative process. In W. Damon (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 679–744). New York: Wiley. Schibeci, R. A. (1984). Attitudes to Science: an update. Studies in Science Education, 11, 26-59.

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take?  The community’s contribution to science learning: Making it count

Underpinning the title of this address science education was unlikely to are two assumptions. The first is that produce the outcome of scientific the community should contribute literacy. For example, in our survey of to science learning. To justify this students in a stratified random sample assumption, I describe a little of of secondary schools, less than 20 per what we know about the outcomes cent told us that, very often or almost of learning science. The second always, science at school was useful, assumption is that the potential dealt with things they were concerned community contribution needs some about, or helped them make decisions Léonie Rennie assistance to ‘make it count’. To about their health. Sadly, these findings Curtin University of Technology explain this, I outline community-based are consistent with a large corpus of opportunities for learning science, meld research findings: ‘A recurring evidence- Léonie Rennie is Professor of Science and this with what we know about learning based criticism of traditional school Technology Education at the Science and outside of school, and then use case science has been its lack of relevance Mathematics Education Centre and Dean, studies to illustrate how we can make for the everyday world’ (Aikenhead, Graduate Studies at Curtin University of it count. 2006, p. 31). As a result, many students Technology, Perth Western Australia. She has a background in science teaching and curriculum, are simply disenchanted with the school and is particularly interested in how people Outcomes from learning science curriculum on offer because learn, and want to learn, in a variety of settings. the culture of school science, with its She is a co-author of the Report “The Status science at school traditional emphasis on what Aikenhead and Quality of Teaching and Learning science in Australian Schools” and has participated in A major driver for this conference termed ‘canonical science concepts’, is national school-community projects arising from theme is declining enrolments in science at odds with students’ self-identities, that report. Currently, she is working on two at all levels of education where it is and they find science at school research projects relating to integrated curriculum unimportant, unengaging, and irrelevant in science, mathematics and technology, and a not compulsory and the consequent state-wide program to enhance scientific literacy shortage of people pursuing science- to their life interests and priorities. For in the community. Her scholarly publications related careers. Research suggests them, science has little personal or include over 150 books and monographs, book that a significant reason for this is that cultural value. chapters and refereed journal articles. She has delivered keynote addresses to audiences in science at school does not engage the Of course, this is not true for all Australia, Brazil, South Africa, Sweden, the US majority of our students. Why might students. There are some for whom and the Netherlands on her research relating to this be so? the rather abstract canonical science gender, learning and assessment in science and technology, both in school and out. Several years ago, Denis Goodrum, concepts are a comfortable fit. These Mark Hackling and I surveyed the are the students most likely to study quality of teaching and learning science further science, but they are the in Australian schools (Goodrum, minority. The majority seems to be Hackling, & Rennie, 2001). Our review disinterested, even alienated, and many of international trends made it clear able students give science superficial that the aim of science education is attention by memorising information to assist students to achieve scientific for assessments, for example, rather literacy. We defined this term by than achieving meaningful learning that stating that scientifically literate people will last. Over the last 30 or so years, are interested in and understand the an incontrovertible accumulation of world around them; engage in the research on learning in science indicates discourses of and about science; are that ‘most students tend not to learn able to identify questions, investigate, science content meaningfully (i.e., do and draw evidence-based conclusions; not integrate it into their everyday are sceptical and questioning of claims thinking)’ (Aikenhead, 2006, p. 27). made by others about scientific matters; Our challenge is to turn around this and make informed decisions about disinterested majority by making it the environment and their own health worth students’ while to learn science and well-being. Yet Denis, Mark and in a meaningful way. This requires I found that, in most cases, current changing the science curriculum so that

Research Conference 2006  it has demonstrable relevance and value Media, particularly television variety of physical environments where to these students. A powerful avenue and the internet, but also learning may occur, and also extends to achieve this involves bringing school radio, newspapers, magazines the range of people and social and science and the out-of-school science (especially related to hobbies) and cultural circumstances available to advertising, are pervasive sources community much closer together. In stimulate learning. Further, placing of science-related information, but this way, the nature and content of of variable quality. opportunities for learning in out- school science is exposed to scrutiny, of-school contexts enables science for students to judge whether or not These resources provide almost knowledge to be demonstrated in the it is worth their while to engage with continuous opportunities for students everyday world, thus aiding transfer of it, and if they do, achieve a useful level to learn about science, explicitly or learning to new situations. of scientific literacy or even build a implicitly. Consequently, students come Third, meaningful learning requires the science-related career in adult life. In to school informed (and sometimes assimilation of new experiences with other words, we aim to develop in misinformed) by their experiences in previous experiences to revise and students not only the ability but also the community. Teachers need to be reconstruct understanding. Learning the desire to learn science meaningfully aware of what students have already takes time because it is cumulative. at school and thus have a disposition to ‘learned’ from these sources in order Linking community resources with engage with, and use, science long after to harness their potential and engage science at school means that learning school. We aim to prepare them for students’ interests. occurs in circumstances or places that life-long learning in science. students may continue to experience Learning science from or visit after they have left school, so Community-based community resources the likelihood of subsequent learning is enhanced when familiar circumstances opportunities for In the context of learning science jog old memories to help assimilate outside of school, it is helpful to learning science new experiences. consider learning as a personal Within our community is a range of process that is contextualised and Readers will recognise the socio- institutions and services that deal with takes time (Rennie & Johnston, 2004). constructivist perspective that underpins science. Some relevant to school-age Understanding these characteristics these characteristics of learning. If children are outlined in the following enables us to see how extending students choose to learn, they will (incomplete) list. learning beyond school science and construct their own knowledge and The students’ families and friends into the community multiplies learning understanding from the experiences – the people with whom they opportunities. First, because people and sources of information available spend most time – are important have different interests, backgrounds to them. In fact, if the ultimate aim of models for learning. Teachers and motivations, learning is a personal science education is scientific literacy, need to understand the roles process. Catering for people’s different then the best school science can these people play, engage their do is give students a repertoire of support and avoid possible conflict learning styles and prior experiences when dealing with controversial requires a range of different learning experiences that can be retrieved from science-related issues. opportunities. Using community memory to aid interpretation of new resources to complement those in situations and provide direction for Institutions, such as museums, school increases the variety of stimuli making decisions about them. zoos, aquaria, environmental centres and similar places that and sources of information, and thus have an educational aspect to their increases the likelihood that students Using scientific mission, are significant community will want to engage in meaningful resources for science. learning. knowledge in real-world Many community and government Second, learning is contextualised contexts – a caveat organisations endeavour to educate according to where, when, with whom, Research shows that, in the context the public about science-related and how it happens. Falk and Dierking of real-world issues, individuals need issues, including health (e.g., skin (2000) articulated the personal, social to transform (i.e., deconstruct and cancer, smoking, obesity), safety and physical contexts that interact (e.g., fire, electricity, chemicals) and reconstruct) the information they conservation (e.g., recycling, water to shape learning outcomes. Using obtain into a form that is usable resources, pollution, quarantine). community resources extends the to them in their own personal

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take?  circumstances; that is, construct watching other students’ efforts) rather of developing school–community ‘knowledge for practical action’ than the science concepts. Solving their partnerships, briefly describe two (Layton, Jenkins, Macgill, & Davey, task required students to ‘repackage’ examples and identify their successful 1993). Students must do this same their canonical science knowledge to characteristics. Readers seeking further transformation in order to use the fit an imperfect, but real, context. Such information are referred to a review science knowledge available to them to experiences are invaluable because they of research in the field of out-of- make decisions in new situations. But encourage deep thinking in science, school learning (Rennie, in press) and attempting to use science learned in and a realisation that although scientific guidance for teachers in using the other school to resolve science issues in the knowledge may be a useful starting community resources mentioned earlier real world is complicated. Here is an point, decisions for practical action must (Braund & Reiss, 2004). example. be made in context. Academically talented Year 9 students Aikenhead (2006) concluded from Successful were challenged to make a solar- an extensive review that ‘when the school–community powered boat as part of an integrated science curriculum does not include science, technology and mathematics the difficult process of transforming partnerships curriculum (Venville, Rennie, & Wallace, abstract canonical content into content 2004). Students needed to construct for taking action, canonical science Monitoring Air Quality – a  an electric circuit incorporating solar remains unusable outside of school for science-awareness raising project cells and a small electric motor that was most students’ (p. 30). Science curricula Poor air quality with smoke haze, affixed to a hull. The motor operated can only do this by moving beyond the especially in winter, was a recurring a winch to wind up fishing line and textbook, using community resources environmental problem in a mill hence pull the boat through the water. to explore community issues, and town. A local science teacher led his During science lessons, students learned keeping three things in mind. First, there Year 9 academic extension class on a about series and parallel circuits, Ohm’s are so many uncontrollable variables project to raise community awareness Law, and the relationships V=IR, P=VI, that the canonical science concepts and understanding of the problem, P=W/t and W=Fs. From the second taught in the traditional science establish a website so that current equation, students could see that for curriculum rarely have immediate meteorological information would maximum power output, high voltage practical relevance in real-world be available online, and erect air was needed (favoured by a series situations. At best, they provide only monitoring equipment on the roof of circuit) together with high current abstract explanations and imperfect the police station as a tangible outcome (favoured by a parallel circuit), so predictions. Second, it is often the case of the project. there was a trade-off in designing the that ‘the science knowledge featuring circuit to incorporate the solar cells. in everyday contexts is characterised The major contributor to poor air Further, the resistance of the motor by uncertainty and dispute amongst quality was suspected to be the varied according to load, and the load scientists’ (Ryder, 2001, p. 37). Third, (foreign-owned) paper mill. However, (pulling the boat through the water) there are often competing social and students found that it was not a depended mainly on the design of cultural values that provide conflicting simple matter to blame a company the hull, but also on the location and interpretations of how to use science that employed many of their parents efficiency of the winch, among other knowledge. Teachers must become and sponsored the local football team. things, and could not be calculated. aware of these issues and help students The company even donated the Students used trial and error, rather learn to cope with uncertainty and expensive air-monitoring equipment to than application of the science concepts risk. Doing so is an important part of the project! When students inspected (which provided algorithms to get the becoming scientifically literate. the mill, they concluded that it was ‘right’ answer, but could not be used operated responsibly and was a trivial Using community resources requires because other variables came into contributor to the haze. They soon time and effort to ensure worthwhile play), to get their boat to ‘work’. The realised that the smoke haze resulted outcomes. Organising a successful field complications of ‘real-world’ contexts from domestic wood-fired stoves and trip, for instance, involves overcoming were amply illustrated, and students’ heaters, many of which were poorly administrative and financial hurdles, as boat-building and circuit construction maintained. Students surveyed the well as careful pedagogical planning. knowledge eventually drew from a community about their knowledge In the short space remaining, I range of sources (friends, parents, and use of wood burners via the local will concentrate on the challenge

Research Conference 2006  newspaper and published their results behaviour and activity; and collected • are integrated into science at school there. Community interest was so samples of organisms from the Lake to and so legitimise participation by high that at one time students had learn about food webs and food chains students and teachers; to be rostered to answer telephone in the context of the ecology of the • involve negotiation and decision-making calls to the school. A town meeting area. In addition, students prepared, with the community in regard to organised a petition for the local conducted and analysed a community • social, political and economic member of parliament requesting that survey regarding awareness about factors, the government implement a buy-back tiger snakes, and they designed and • differing perspectives from different scheme to reduce reliance on wood made snake safety posters, badges and groups, and burners. Not all went according to plan, wallet cards. The project culminated in however. The launch of the monitoring students demonstrating the outcomes • information collected (both local website was postponed due to of their work at a community and science-related); difficulties in coordinating bureaucracies night at the Wildlife Centre, with • have a tangible outcome to indicate to obtain a continuous stream of PowerPoint presentations, role-plays when the project is complete and meteorological data to publish on of administering first aid, dioramas, and has achieved something worthwhile. the website, and there were ongoing information signs for the lake perimeter. In addition to these characteristics, software problems. Nevertheless, Evaluation of this project revealed these projects had something else evaluation showed very high levels that participants worked together to in common – some funding. A small of community awareness about this explore a science-related problem and amount of money provided seed project and positive changes in people’s generated new understanding of the funding and the impetus to get the ideas about science education (Rennie snakes’ role in lake ecology and ways to projects underway, but the outcomes & ASTA, 2003). promote safe living with tiger snakes. were far in excess of what money Class lessons dealt with science issues could buy. (combustion, smoke haze settling in Reasons for success valleys, etc.) and this science content Making the was given relevance by the context of Living with Tiger Snakes was one of 24 the project. Risks, benefits, trade-offs, School Community Industry partnerships community’s social interactions between various in science (SCIps) projects across contribution count community members and groups, and Australia (ASTA, 2005), an initiative If the major aim of school science communication and understanding of built upon the Science Awareness- education is to assist students to the science and technology issues in the Raising Project (Rennie & ASTA, achieve scientific literacy, then the dynamic social context that was central 2003), which included the Monitoring focus must be on developing the skills to the project provided significant Air Quality project. Both projects were that underlie that concept. In Table 1, opportunities to develop scientific led by the Australian Science Teachers the components of scientific literacy literacy. Association (ASTA) and supported by the Department of Education, Science referred to earlier have been separated and matched with the skills and abilities Living with Tiger Snakes – a and Training. Together these projects validated the following guiding principles that underpin them. wildlife science partnership for effective school-community projects. The Manager of Herdsman Lake Successful projects: Wildlife Centre led a project involving • are based on some issue/stimulus the cooperation of Years 4–7 students that comes from the community and and teachers at a nearby school to is not imposed; develop a community educational • require local knowledge to ensure program to reduce the indiscriminate input of community members; killing of venomous tiger snakes. Over approximately six weeks, at the Lake • are educative, because they: and at school, students enjoyed a • focus on science as a way of presentation by a snake expert on knowing, thinking and acting, and snake identification, behaviour and first • model science inquiry (working aid; endeavoured to observe snake scientifically);

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take?  Table 1 Components of scientific literacy and underlying skills and abilities References

Scientifically literate people Underlying skills and abilities Aikenhead, G. (2006). Science education for everyday life. New York: Teachers’ Apply science knowledge and skills College Press. Are interested in and understand in daily life Australian Science Teachers Association the world around them Seek information to explain new (2005). SCIps School Industry phenomena or solve problems Partnerships in Science: Final Report. Feel comfortable to listen to, and to Canberra: Department of Education, Engage in the discourses of and about read, write and talk about science in Science and Training. (Available at science everyday situations http://www.scips-asta.edu.au/gui/ files/final_report.pdf)Braund, M., Think through issues and identify, & Reiss, M. (Ed.). (2004). Learning Are able to identify questions, obtain and use needed information science outside the classroom. London: investigate, and draw evidence-based Understand the meaning of ‘fair test’ RoutledgeFalmer. conclusions Defend an argument Dierking, L. D., Falk, J. H., Rennie, L., Anderson, D., & Ellenbogen, K. Are sceptical and questioning of Distinguish between fact and opinion claims made by others about scientific (2003). Policy statement of the matters Assess quality of evidence ‘Informal Science Education’ Ad Hoc Committee. Journal of Research in Make informed decisions about the Recognise and cope with risk and Science Teaching, 40, 108–111. uncertainty in decision making environment and their own health Falk, J. H., & Dierking, L. D. (2000). and well-being Choose to act responsibly and ethically Learning from museums: Visitor experiences and the making of meaning. The outcomes of the partnership Learning in the community, away from Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press. projects described above are consistent the constraints of the school curriculum, Goodrum, D., Hackling, M., & Rennie, with research findings about effective has been described by the National L. (2001). The status and quality excursions, incursions, and many other Association for Research in Science of teaching and learning of science kinds of school–community links, Teaching’s Ad Hoc Committee on in Australian Schools. Canberra: because they encouraged development Informal Science Education as ‘learning Department of Education, Training of the skills and abilities identified in that is self-motivated, voluntary, guided and Youth Affairs. (Available at http:// Table 1. An essential characteristic is by the learner’s needs and interests, www.dest.gov.au/sectors/school_ that they were built into, not added learning that is engaged in throughout education/publications_resources/ on to, the school science curriculum. his or her life’ (Dierking, Falk, Rennie, profiles/status_and_quality_of_ In fact, if there were three simple rules Anderson, & Ellenbogen, 2003, p. 109). science_schools.htm) about using community resources This is the kind of learning we need to successfully, they would be: encourage at school, to boost learning Layton, D., Jenkins, E., Macgill, S., & and interest in science. Involving Davey, A. (1993). Inarticulate science? 1. Integration: Experiences with community resources promotes Perspectives on the public understanding community resources are integral, opportunities for learning science of science and some implications for not peripheral, to science at school; that students perceive as relevant science education. Nafferton, England: 2. Preparation: Teachers and students and worthwhile, so that learning Studies in Education Ltd. understand what the tasks and is meaningful and lasting. By using expected outcomes are and what Rennie, L. J. (in press). Learning science experiences in the community to help outside of school. In S. K. Abell & needs to be done to achieve them, students develop and practise the skills and N. G. Lederman (Eds.), Handbook of and abilities that contribute to scientific research on science education. Mahwah, 3. Accountability: Teachers and literacy, we will make the community’s NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. students are jointly responsible for contribution count. ensuring task completion.

Research Conference 2006 10 Rennie, L. J., & Johnston, D. J. (2004). The nature of learning and its implications for research on learning from museums. Science Education, 88(Suppl. 1), S4–S16. Rennie, L. J., & The Australian Science Teachers Association. (2003). The ASTA Science Awareness Raising Model: An evaluation report prepared for the Department of Education Science and Training. Canberra, Australia: ASTA. (Available at http://www.dest.gov.au/ sectors/school_education/publications_ resources/profiles/science_awareness_ raising_model_evaluation.htm) Ryder, J. (2001). Identifying science understanding for functional scientific literacy. Studies in Science Education, 36, 1–42. Venville, G., Rennie, L. J., & Wallace, J. (2004). Decision making and sources of knowledge: How students tackle integrated tasks in science, technology and mathematics. Research in Science Education, 34, 115–135.

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 11 Enhancing science teaching and student learning: A BSCS perspective

Abstract a contemporary understanding of how students learn. How can curriculum materials enhance science teaching and student learning? BSCS also has used the National Science In answering this question I draw Education Standards to guide the decisions upon my experience at the Biological about the content in curricula developed Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS) to or revised since the mid-1990s when the describe the design and development standards were released. of effective science curricula. Recent studies have indicated that Rodger W. Bybee Describing effective curriculum when BSCS programs are used with Biological Sciences Curriculum Study materials requires an understanding of fidelity, the gains in student learning are (BSCS), Colorado Springs, Colorado, USA how students learn science. Research great. These results may be attributed in the cognitive and developmental to close attention to criteria for learning Rodger W. Bybee is executive director of the sciences provides a body of knowledge in the selection of science content Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS), a for curriculum developers. Three and instructional sequence, the use non-profit organization that develops curriculum principles of learning provide the basis of ‘backward design’ in developing materials, provides professional development, and materials, the extensive support for conducts research and evaluation for the science for curriculum and instruction in the education community. sciences (Donovan & Bransford, 2005). teachers in the form of teachers’ guides, and the complementary professional Prior to joining BSCS, he was executive director 1. Students have preconceptions about development of teachers implementing of the National Research Council’s Center how the world works. for Science, Mathematics, and Engineering the curriculum. 2. Students’ competence in science Education (CSMEE), in Washington, D.C. He How can curricula enhance science participated in the development of the National requires factual knowledge and teaching and student learning? A slightly Science Education Standards, and in 1993-1995 conceptual understanding. he chaired the content working group of that deeper and more specific question than National Research Council project. 3. Students can learn to control their that is: what is the form and function Dr. Bybee has written widely, publishing in both own learning through metacognitive of effective curriculum materials? education and psychology. He is co-author of strategies. These questions will be addressed a leading textbook titled Teaching Secondary in the following discussion. After a School Science: Strategies for Developing These findings have clear and direct Scientific Literacy. His most recent book is implications for the design and brief introduction to BSCS (Biological Achieving Scientific Literacy: From Purposes to development of science curricula. Sciences Curriculum Study), I will first Practices, published in 1997. Over the years, he discuss what we know about how has received awards as a Leader of American 1. Science curriculum and instruction students learn science and introduce Education and an Outstanding Educator in should facilitate conceptual change. America. In 1998 the National Science Teachers an instructional model based on this Association (NSTA) presented Dr. Bybee with 2. Science curriculum and instruction research from the cognitive sciences. the NSTA’s Distinguished Service to Science should be based on fundamental I will then review the curriculum Education Award. concepts and complementary facts. development process at BSCS and 3. Science curriculum and instruction describe a contemporary high school should provide opportunities for program and evidence of student students to learn and develop learning attributed to that program. metacognitive strategies. Since the late 1980s, BSCS has used a A brief history of BSCS research-based instructional model to A committee of the American Institute organise and sequence developmentally of Biological Sciences (AIBS) established appropriate experiences for students BSCS in 1958. At its birth, BSCS had a that consist of the following phases: single grand vision – to change the way engagement, exploration, explanation, biology was taught in American high elaboration and evaluation. Known schools. BSCS accomplished this goal as the BSCS 5E Instructional Model, by publishing three innovative biology this model addresses the need for textbooks in 1963. These textbooks systematic science teaching based on became known as the Yellow Version

Research Conference 2006 12 (Biological Science: An Inquiry into Life), This introduction provides a context 3. A ‘metacognitive’ approach to the Blue Version (Biological Science: for the BSCS perspective on curriculum instruction can help students Molecules to Man), and the Green development and what we do learn to take control of their own Version (Biological Science: An Ecological to enhance science teaching and learning by defining learning goals Approach). These textbooks were learning. I will describe what goes into and monitoring their progress widely adopted in the United States, contemporary curriculum development in achieving them (Donovan & and by the mid-1970s, BSCS programs at BSCS and use BSCS Science: An Bransford, 2005, pp. 1–2). had over 50 per cent of the high Inquiry Approach, a new multidisciplinary Based on these research findings, school biology market. Further, the program for high schools, as an example. curriculum materials should be designed international community recognised the Our work begins with an understanding with the knowledge that students’ quality of these new biology programs of recent research on learning. current conceptions may not align and began adapting them for use in with recognised scientific knowledge their respective countries. One of the How students learn about how the world works and those enduring examples is the adoption of science current conceptions must be engaged the BSCS Green Version by Australia. and challenged in order for change to The Australian program is titled ‘The If one is interested in enhancing occur. Second, both facts and a sound, Web of Life’. To date, BSCS programs science teaching and learning, it seems conceptual framework are essential. have been translated into 25 languages only reasonable to begin with an And, third, curriculum and instruction for use in more than 60 countries. understanding of how students learn science. Several decades of research should embed ‘metacognitive’ strategies. Though BSCS began with a focus on in the cognitive and developmental Finding 1 reminds us that students high school, the organisation quickly sciences have built a knowledge base have preconceptions, misconceptions, expanded beyond high school by that curriculum developers can use. This and naïve theories, which is to state developing programs for elementary research has been synthesized by the the obvious. Identifying the means to school, middle school, and college. A National Research Council (NRC) and facilitate conceptual change seems 1992 BSCS elementary program Science How described in several publications, to me to be the essential insight and for Life and Living was adopted for People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, extension of the research on students’ Australian schools by Denis Goodrum and School (Bransford, Brown, & understanding of how the world works and his colleagues. In Australia, that Cocking, 2000), Knowing What Students – from a scientific perspective. The program was adapted and implemented Know (Pellegrino, Chudowsky, & Glaser, work of individuals such as Rosalind as Primary Investigations. 2001), and How Students Learn: Science in the Classroom (Donovan & Bransford, Driver and her colleagues (1986; 1989), BSCS is a ‘curriculum study’. Our name 2005). Three principles of learning from Peter Hewson and his colleagues (1981; indicates that the organisation does this body of knowledge establish the 1989), Richard White and Richard not focus on curriculum development basis for curriculum and instruction. Gunstone (1992), Mike Atkin and in isolation. BSCS also has provided Robert Karplus (1986), and Bill Kyle and professional development and 1. Students come to the classroom Jim Shymansky (1989) addressed the conducted research and evaluation with preconceptions about how crucial process of conceptual change studies for as long as we have the world works. If their initial and science teaching and set the stage developed instructional materials. understanding is not engaged, they for the design and implementation may fail to grasp the new concepts of instructional models in curriculum This brief introduction and history of and information, or they may learn programs. At BSCS we had to meet BSCS sets the stage for an important them for the purposes of a test the challenge of translating the findings point: BSCS and organisations like it in but revert to their preconceptions and insights from the aforementioned the United States and other countries outside the classroom. individuals to something understandable, such as Australia have developed 2. To develop competence in an usable, and manageable by science sophisticated approaches to designing, area of inquiry, students must (a) teachers. In the late 1980s, we created developing and implementing innovated have a deep foundation of factual the BSCS 5E Instructional Model, which curriculum materials. The time, effort knowledge, (b) understand facts and I will return to later in the discussion. and expertise of professional ideas in the context of a conceptual curriculum development groups stand framework, and (c) organise Finding 2 reminds us that any discipline as an important innovation from the knowledge in ways that facilitate is based on a structure of facts and Sputnik era. retrieval and application. concepts. Although this idea at first

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 13 seems obvious, what is not so obvious Table 1 Design specifications for teaching and curriculum materials is that textbooks and classroom instruction often disregard the structure Key findings from Implications for Requirements for of disciplines in the information that is How Students Learn science teaching curriculum materials conveyed to students. Not only must Incorporation of these structures be made explicit, but information about common students must also be taught how preconceptions in the to retrieve information about the Teachers should process of conceptual discipline. Like many other educational recognise change, and the means by recommendations, using a curriculum preconceptions, which the curriculum can framework for instructional materials Students come to engage the learner, bring about conceptual has historical connections to Jerome educational experiences facilitate conceptual change. Bruner’s (1960) idea of that ‘structure with preconceptions. change, and employ of disciplines’ should be the basis for strategies that Inclusion of structured science curricula. respond to students’ sequences of experiences prior knowledge. that will elicit challenge and Finding #3 tells us that a ‘metacognitive’ provide opportunities to approach to instruction presents change preconceptions. an additional element to the design of instructional materials. Michael Base the curriculum on Martinez (2006) recently elaborated major concepts of science. Teachers should on this aspect of student learning. have a conceptual Connect facts to the Going beyond the introductory Students should develop understanding of organising concepts. definition of metacognition as ‘thinking a factual knowledge science and the about thinking’, Martinez proposed based on a conceptual Provide relevant appropriate factual the definition ‘monitoring and framework. experiences to illustrate the knowledge aligned control of thought’ and the specific concepts and opportunities with the concepts. function of meta-memory and meta- to transfer concepts to new comprehension, problem solving, and situations. critical thinking. Martinez suggests three ways of introducing metacognitive Teachers should strategies in science teaching make goals explicit and provide class time Make goals explicit in and curricula. First is an obvious materials. recommendation – students must have Students can take and opportunities experiences that require metacognition. control of their learning to analyse progress Integrate metacognitive skills Second, teachers should model through metacognitive toward those goals. development into activities. strategies. metacognitive strategies by ‘thinking Teachers should Use small group activities as aloud’ problem solving and inquiry- model metacognitive part of instructional units. based activities. Finally, students should ‘think aloud’ have opportunities to interact with strategies. other students. This suggests the need for group work and an inquiry-oriented Implications of the findings from The BSCS 5E approach to the science curriculum. cognitive science suggest the need for Using the key findings from How systematic instructional strategies. The Instructional Model Students Learn (Donovan & Bransford, next section describes an instructional Since the late 1980s, BSCS has used 2005), one can identify factors that are model used in contemporary BSCS. an instructional model consisting of important for science teaching and the the following phases: engagement, design of curriculum materials. I have exploration, explanation, elaboration done this in Table 1, which is based on and evaluation. The instructional an original table prepared by several emphasis for each phase of the model colleagues at BSCS (See, Powell, Short, is described in Table 2. & Landes, 2002).

Research Conference 2006 14 Table 2 The BSCS 5E Instructional Model metacognition. This recommendation aligns explicitly with the evaluation Phase Summary of emphasis phase of the BSCS model. However, each phase of the instructional model Strategies or activities designed to elicit thoughts or actions Engagement provides an opportunity for embedded by the student that relate directly to the lesson’s objective. assessment. Each phase allows teachers Experiences where students’ current understandings are and students to assess different aspects Exploration challenged by activities, discussions and currently held concepts of the students’ growing understanding to explain experiences. of science and abilities of scientific inquiry. Presentations of scientific concepts that change students’ Explanation explanations to align with scientific explanations. Designing and Activities that require the application and use of scientific Elaboration concepts and vocabulary in new situations. developing curriculum materials at BSCS Culminating activity that provides the student and teacher Evaluation with an opportunity to assess scientific understanding and Since the mid-1980s, curriculum intellectual abilities. development at BSCS has been initiated with a design study. These studies take about a year to conduct and involve a laboratory experiences, the committee Although the BSCS model was created current review of science education at also applied results from cognitive prior to the NRC synthesis of cognitive the grade level or levels under study; research. Researchers have investigated research, that research provides national and state priorities; careful the sequencing of science instruction, support for the model. Following is consideration of curricular elements including the placement and role a quotation from How People Learn such as content, instructional strategies, of laboratory experiences, as these (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking 2000). use of laboratory investigations, tests sequences enhance student learning. and assessment exercises; and issues An alternative to simply progressing The NRC committee proposed the of implementation and professional through a series of exercises that phrase ‘integrated instructional units’. derive from a scope and sequence development. The BSCS design chart is to expose students to Integrated instructional units studies result in a detailed curriculum take major features of a subject interweave laboratory experiences framework, specifications for a new domain as they arise naturally in with other types of science program, and a proposal to develop problem situations. Activities can be learning activities, including the curriculum. Table 3 lists recent lectures, reading, and discussion. structured so that students are able design studies and the resulting core to explore, explain, extend, and Students are engaged in forming evaluate their progress. (p. 172) research questions, designing curriculum materials. and executing experiments, The quotation presents a research- BSCS design studies have helped gathering and analyzing data, identify what to include in the program; based recommendation that uses terms and constructing arguments and for example, student materials, teacher to describe an instructional sequence conclusions as they carry out that very closely parallels the BSCS 5E investigations. Diagnostic, formative editions, and implementation guides. Instructional Model. The BSCS model assessments are embedded into Further, the design studies have clarified provides experiences and time for the instructional sequence and can the goals and constraints as best we students to recognise the inadequacy be used to gauge the students’ could prior to initial development. developing understanding and to of their current ideas, to explore new One of the important and enduring promote their self-reflection on outcomes of this work has been the ways of explaining the world, to reflect their thinking. (p. 82) on their thinking, and to construct new BSCS 5E Instructional Model. conceptions of the natural world. The BSCS 5E Instructional Model meets Since the mid-1990s, BSCS has the criteria for integrated instructional In 2006, the NRC published America’s used the National Science Education units described above. Note also the Standards (NRC, 1996) as the basis Lab Report: Investigations in High School inclusion embedded assessments and Science. This report further supports for several aspects of curricular design; the connection of those experiences for example, content and professional the use of instructional models such as to students’ self-reflection, or that used by BSCS. In the analysis of development.

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 15 Table 3 BSCS design studies and the phase and design an activity that the program begins with a two-week resulting core programs would assess students’ knowledge and ‘Science as Inquiry’ unit and is followed understanding of the content. After by three core units (eight weeks each): New Designs for Elementary School clarifying the desired outcomes and Life Science, Earth–Space Science, Science and Health (BSCS, IBM, 1989) means to assess for those outcomes, and Physical Science. In each of these Science for Life and Living: Integrating we design and develop experiences core units, the first several chapters Science, Technology, and Health (1992) that will provide students with the are devoted to helping students build BSCS Science T.R.A.C.S. (1999) opportunities to learn the content. This conceptual understanding of the core BSCS Tracks: Connecting Science and process is interactive as it may result concepts. The last chapter helps the Literacy (2006) in further refinement of the evaluation students understand how these core activity and activities in other phases concepts play a part in problems and New Designs for Middle School of the instructional model. Table 4 events in the integrated setting of Science (BSCS, IBM, 1990) summarises this process. the natural world. The final unit uses Middle School Science & Technology problems and projects that are relevant (1994, 1999) A contemporary to the lives of high school students to Developing Biological Literacy develop an integration of ideas across (BSCS, 1993) example the sciences. BSCS Biology: A Human Approach This discussion centers on an example, The design of the program units and (1997, 2003, 2006) BSCS Science: An Inquiry Approach. This lessons builds a conceptual foundation Biological Perspectives (1999, 2006) program is based on the design study, and introduces factual knowledge Making Sense of Integrated Science: Making Sense of Integrated Science through the use of meaningful activities A Guide for High Schools (BSCS, 2000) and is currently under that are structured by the BSCS 5E (BSCS, 2000) development (funded by the National Instructional Model. Table 5 displays the BSCS Science: An Inquiry Approach Science Foundation in 2000). The conceptual framework. (9–11) (2006) program has been conceptualised as a The use of a conceptual framework and BSCS Science: An Inquiry Approach standards-based science program for an instructional model accommodates (6–8) (proposed) grades 9 to 11. We explicitly used the National Science Education Standards the research on learning discussed in A Design Study for a Capstone (NRC, 1996) as the conceptual basis earlier sections (Bransford, Brown, & Biology Course (BSCS, 2006) for designing and developing this Cocking, 2000; Donovan & Bransford, program (see Table 5). Each year of 2005). Beginning in the late 1990s, BSCS incorporated the backward design Table 4 The Backward Design Process and the BSCS 5E Model process described by Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe in Understanding by Design (2005). In this process, we begin IDENTIFY DESIRED RESULTS with a clear statement about what we National Standards want students to learn (an enduring understanding based on the content standards). Next, we determine what will serve as acceptable evidence of student attainment of that targeted understanding. DETERMINE ACCEPTABLE Then, we decide what learning EVIDENCE OF LEARNING experiences would most effectively DESIGN EVALUATE ACTIVITIES develop students’ knowledge and understanding of the targeted content. The BSCS 5E Instructional Model DEVELOP LEARNING provides a concrete example of this EXPERIENCES AND ACTIVITIES process. After identifying the enduring ENGAGE, EXPLORE, EXPLAIN, understanding and stating the content ELABORATE outcomes, we go to the ‘evaluate’

Research Conference 2006 16 Table 5 BSCS Science: An Inquiry Approach Framework for Grades 9–11

Major concepts addressed at each grade level Units 9 10 11 Abilities necessary to do, and understandings about, scientific inquiry with a focus on: • Design of scientific • Evidence as the basis for Science as Inquiry • Questions and concepts that investigations explanations and models guide scientific investigations • Communicating scientific • Alternative explanations and results models • Interactions of energy and • Structure and properties of • Motions and forces matter matter Physical Science • Chemical reactions • Conservation of energy and • Structure of atoms increase in disorder • Integrating chapter • Integrating chapter • Integrating chapter • Matter, energy, and • The cell • Biological evolution organization in living systems Life Science • Behavior of organisms • Molecular basis of heredity • Interdependence of organisms • Integrating chapter • Integrating chapter • Integrating chapter • Origin and evolution of the universe • Geochemical cycles • Energy in the Earth system Earth–Space Science • Origin and evolution of the Earth system • Integrating chapter • Integrating chapter • Integrating chapter • Personal and community health • Science and technology in Science in a • Population growth local, national, and global Personal and Social • Natural and human-induced • Natural resources challenges Perspective, Science hazards and Technology • Environmental quality • Understandings about science • Abilities of technological and technology design The following standards are addressed throughout grade levels and units: Science as a human endeavor Nature of science History of science

Evidence of student stand out with respect to the quality gains at both 9th and 10th grade levels were between 20 and 25 per cent. learning and effectiveness of the instructional materials and student achievement. Second, for both grade levels, classes A national field test of BSCS Science: First, overall results from pre- and characterised as having students with An Inquiry Approach was conducted ‘general ability,’ ‘high ability’, and classes post-tests were tracked per student in from January to June 2002. The field where these abilities were ‘mixed’, each test comprised urban, suburban, and a total of 1550 paired results. For all demonstrated a significant increase rural classrooms across 10 states, 31 pre-post tests, the results demonstrated from pre-test to post-test, independent teachers, 64 classes, and nearly 1600 strong and statistically significant gains in of ability level of students (See Figures students. Among the findings, several student achievement. Average student 1 and 2) (Coulson, 2002).

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 17 The BSCS Science: An Inquiry Approach 100 phase two field-test of the 10th Pre-test grade curriculum was carried out in 80 Post-test 8 states, with 10 teachers and their students. The field-test results yielded 60 strong, significant gains (p<.001) on all items in all chapter tests. When items were combined to create a st means 40

Te composite score for the chapter, the gains remained significant. In addition, 20 when scores were disaggregated by gender and socioeconomic status 0 General (N=385) Mixed (N=181) Honors (N=93) (students receiving free or reduced lunch verse those not receiving free or Ability level reduced lunch); there was no significant difference between groups (See Figures Figure 1 9th grade test score means by ability level 3, 4 and 5) (Stuhlstaz, 2006). Similar results were noted during the 100 phase one of the field test, where statistically significant gains were noted Pre-test across both 9th and 10th grade paired 80 Post-test pre- and post-test results from over 1500 students. 60

st means 40 How teachers learn Te So far my focus has been on the 20 design and development of curriculum materials. It is the case that the 0 optimisation of contemporary General (N=189) Mixed (N=351) Honors (N=231) curriculum materials requires new Ability level and different approaches to teaching. Although the idea was not entirely new Figure 2 10th grade test score means by ability level (Bruner, 1960), Deborah Ball and David Cohen (1996) made and elaborated As part of a classroom-based study, implementation category, their student connections between teacher learning student achievement was correlated test scores were correlated with the and curriculum materials, especially with level of fidelity of teacher teacher’s level of implementation. for reform-oriented programs. implementation. Based on classroom The results indicate that both 9th and The requirements for effective observations by BSCS staff, the external 10th grade students learned more from implementation of new programs evaluator used an observation protocol teachers who taught the materials with requires more than an introductory with high inter-rater reliability to medium and high fidelity than from workshop. Teachers must understand assess the degree of fidelity. Teachers teachers who taught the materials with the science content of the curriculum, demonstrating high fidelity of use of the significantly less fidelity (Coulson, 2002). understand the importance of the instructional materials were considered It is encouraging, however, that students instructional sequences, make use of ‘high implementers’. Teachers who still learned from the materials even different teaching strategies, as well as were teaching the materials with when they were in classrooms with appreciate the subtleties of responding somewhat less fidelity or significantly teachers identified as low implementers. to students’ preconceptions in order to less fidelity were considered ‘medium’ This finding points to the quality of our facilitate conceptual change. or ‘low’ implementers, respectively. student materials as well as importance After teachers were assigned to an There is a need to complement of our in-depth materials for teachers. professional development experiences

Research Conference 2006 18 and teacher learning through carefully 5 designed curriculum materials. 4.5 Promoting teacher learning through Pre-test 4.28 4.2 3.9 instructional materials has been 4 Post-test 3.39 referred to as educative curriculum 3.5 3.07 2.85 materials (Schneider & Krajcik, 2002; 3 ect 2.72 2.58 Davis & Krajcik, 2005). Beyond the 2.51 2.31 2.5 2.36 components designed for students, 2.05 2.03 2.08 curricular materials can be designed so 2 1.64 1.62 they contribute to science teachers’ Mean Number Corr 1.5

0.88 development of science subject matter, 1 knowledge and use of instructional 0.78 0.5 models and strategies, and pedagogical 0 content knowledge of science topics Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 11 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 and inquiry. (4) (n=242) (4) (n=239) (5) (n=68) (4) (n=68) (7) (n=292) (8) (n=289) (4) (n=108) (4) (n=105) (4) (n=58)

It would be an overstatement to Figure 3 indicate that BSCS has achieved all it could in the design and development of science curriculum. I do believe, Pre-test – free lunch Pre-test – no free lunch however, it is accurate to indicate we Post-test – free lunch Post-test – no free lunch 5 have continually evolved in directions 4.58 4.55 4.5 that optimise curriculum materials for 4.36 4.15 4 teachers’ effective use. 3.9 3.48 3.89 3.5 3.12 3.34 2.95 ct 3 Conclusion re 2.96 2.76 2.89 2.67 2.61 2.54 2.85 2.56 2.5 2.43 2.07 2.16 2.12 2.16 2.04 2.16 I began with the question – How can 2 1.97 1.94 1.8 1.8 1.75 curriculum materials enhance science 1.5 1.46 1.31 Mean Number Cor teaching and student learning? Based 1 0.9 on a contemporary understanding of 0.84 0.68 0.5 how students learn science, I used the 0.6 0 processes of design and development Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 11 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 of curriculum materials at BSCS to answer the question. That answer can Figure 4 be summarised in the following way. First, pay close attention to the criteria for student learning and the appropriate Pre-test female Pre-test male translation of those requirements Post-test female Post-test male 5 to curriculum materials. Second, use 4.52 4.62 4.5 4.47 an instructional model that provides 4.1 3.97 4 opportunities and time for conceptual 3.81 3.43 3.5 change and development of cognitive 3.09 3.32 3.04 ct 3 abilities. Third, use ‘backward design’ for re 2.68 2.87 2.76 2.92 2.79 2.57 2.8 2.57 2.5 the process of designing and developing 2.46 2.4 2.08 2.27 2.07 2.14 2.04 2.07 2 the scope and sequence of the 2.03 1.73 1.66 1.63 1.77 1.5 curriculum. Finally, incorporate a means 1.49 Mean Number Cor 1 to enhance teachers’ knowledge base, 0.99 0.65 0.5 0.78 including subject matter, pedagogical 0.65 content knowledge, and teaching 0 strategies. Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 11 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Figure 5

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 19 The complementarity of enhancing Davis, E. & Krajcik, J. (2005). Designing Pellegrino J., Chudowsky, N. & Glaser, science teaching and student learning educative curriculum materials to R. (2001). Knowing what students know: can be achieved through the design, promote teacher learning. Educational The science and design of educational development, and implementation of Researcher, 34(3): 3–14. assessment. Washington, DC: National curriculum materials. Our work at BSCS Academy Press. Donovan, S. & Bransford, J. (Eds.) provides a positive example of what (2005). How students learn: Science Powell, J. C., Short, J., & Landes, it takes to make the potential of this in the classroom. Washington, DC: N. (2002). Curriculum reform, statement a reality for teachers and National Academy Press. professional development and students. I believe the BSCS experience powerful learning in (Editor, R. W. can be generalised and applied by other Driver, R. (1989). Students’ concepts Bybee) Learning Science and the curriculum development groups. and the learning of science: Science of Learning. Washington, DC: Introduction. International Journal of In the end, we want to provide NSTA Press. Science Education, 11(95): 481–490. curriculum materials that enhance Schneider, R. & Krajcik, J. (2002). science teaching and student learning. Driver, R. & Odham, V. (1986). A Supporting science teacher learning: constructivist approach to curriculum The role of educative curriculum development in science. Studies in References materials. Journal of Science Teacher Science Education, 13:105–122. Atkin, J. M. & Karplus, R. (1986). Education, 13(3): 221–245. Hewson, P. (1981). A conceptual Discovery or invention? The Science White, R. & Gunstone, R. (1992). change approach to learning science. Teacher, pp. 45–51. Probing understanding. Bristol, PA: The European Journal of Science Education, Falmer Press. Ball, D. & Cohen, D. (1996). Reform by 3(4): 383–396. the book: What is – or might be – the Wiggins, G. & McTighe, J. (2005). Hewson, P. & Thorley, R. (1989). The role of curriculum materials in teacher Understanding by design. Alexandria, conditions of conceptual change in learning and instructional reform? VA: Association for Supervision and the classroom. International Journal of Educational Researcher, 25(9): 6–8, 14. Curriculum Development (ASCD). Science Education, 11(5): 541-563. Bransford, J., Brown, A., Cocking, R. (Eds.). (2000). How people learn: Kyle, W. & Shymansky, J. (1989). Brain, mind, experience, and school. Enhancing learning through conceptual Washington, DC: National Academy change in teaching. Research Matters Press. to the Science Teacher. National Association for Research in Science Bruner, J. (1960). The process of Teaching. education. New York: Vintage Books. Martinez, M. (2006). What is BSCS and IBM. (1989). New designs for metacognition? Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. elementary school science and health. 87, No. 9, pp 696–699. Colorado Springs, CO: BSCS. McGarrigle Stuhlsatz, M. A. (2006). BSCS and IBM. (1990). New designs BSCS science: An inquiry approach. for middle school science. Colorado 10th grade preliminary field test Springs, CO: BSCS. results. BSCS Evaluation Report (ER BSCS. (1993). Developing biological 2006–09 May). literacy. Colorado Springs, CO: BSCS National Research Council (NRC). BSCS. (2000). Making sense of (1996). National science education integrated science: A guide for high standards. Washington, DC: National school. Colorado Springs, CO: BSCS. Academy Press. Coulson, D. (2002). BSCS science: National Research Council (NRC). An inquiry approach. Field test (2006). America’s lab report: II curriculum evaluation report. Investigations in high school science. Annapolis, MD: PS International. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Research Conference 2006 20 ConcurrentConcurrent paperspapers

21 What science do students want to learn? What do students know about science?

Abstract from three of the countries (Denmark, Iceland and Korea) are also undertaking In 2006, for the first time, science a computer-based assessment of will be the major focus of the PISA science. In Australia, over 350 schools, assessment of 15-year-olds. A major drawn from both the government and innovation in PISA 2006 is that many non-government sectors in all states of the science units contain one or and territories, have been selected to two items designed to assess students’ take part in PISA 2006. During July and attitudes towards science – in particular, August, a random sample of up to 50 Barry McCrae their interest in learning about science students from each chosen school will and their support for scientific enquiry. Australian Council for Educational Research undertake the assessment – about 18, A second major innovation is that some 000 students overall. and The University of Melbourne of the items assess students’ knowledge about science – that is, their knowledge Barry McCrae joined ACER in 2001 as a Principal of scientific methodology. This paper PISA 2006 scientific Research Fellow and leader of the Mathematics, Science and Technology test development team. presents some field trial results that shed literacy framework Associate Professor McCrae was previously light on what science students want to In accordance with science’s elevation Deputy Head of the Department of Science learn, and how their knowledge about to major domain status in 2006, the and Mathematics Education at the University of science compares with their knowledge Melbourne where he now holds an honorary PISA science framework (OECD, in of science (biology, chemistry, physics, appointment of Principal Fellow. At the University, press2) has been significantly expanded Barry was involved with the pre-service and Earth and space science). post-service training of mathematics and science over that used for the 2000 and teachers, both primary and secondary. During his PISA 2006 is the third cycle of the 2003 assessments. The PISA 2006 career, Barry has made significant contributions OECD Programme for International Science Expert Group, chaired by at state and national levels in the fields of Student Assessment (PISA)1 which is Rodger Bybee, was responsible for the mathematics education and computer education. designed to measure how well 15-year- development of the framework. At ACER Barry has undertaken key roles in a olds are prepared for life beyond school number of national and international projects, as they approach the end of compulsory including directing state-wide assessments and PISA 2006 Definition of producing the Australian report for the TIMSS schooling. PISA takes place every three scientific literacy 1999 Video Study of Year 8 mathematics years and covers the domains of reading, teaching. Barry played a leading role in the mathematical and scientific literacy. For the purposes of PISA 2006, scientific PISA 2003 assessment of problem solving and An ACER-led consortium has been literacy refers to an individual’s: managed framework and item development for the PISA 2006 assessment of scientific responsible for the conduct of PISA • scientific knowledge and use of that literacy. This included the conceptualisation and since its inception in 2000. In 2006, for knowledge to identify questions, to development of items for the optional computer- the first time, science will be the major acquire new knowledge, to explain based assessment, and items to assess students’ focus of the assessment. attitudes toward science. Barry is overall head of scientific phenomena, and to draw framework and item development for PISA 2009. Reading literacy was the major evidence-based conclusions about assessment domain in PISA 2000 and science-related issues; mathematical literacy was the major • understanding of the characteristic focus in PISA 2003. PISA 2000 was features of science as a form of conducted in 32 countries, including human knowledge and enquiry; 28 OECD countries (OECD, 2001), • awareness of how science and 41 countries participated in PISA and technology shape our 2003, including all 30 OECD countries material, intellectual, and cultural (OECD, 2004). environments; and A total of nearly half a million 15-year- • willingness to engage in science- olds representing 58 countries are related issues, and with the ideas of being assessed in the main PISA 2006 science, as a reflective citizen. study. A total of about 3000 students

1www.pisa.oecd.org 2The information in this paper about the framework is taken almost directly from the OECD publication.

Research Conference 2006 22 Knowledge

What you know: Context Competencies • about the natural world (knowledge of science) Life situations Identify scientific issues; How you • about science itself that involve Require • explain phenomena do so is • (knowledge about science) science and you to: scientifically; and influenced technology • use scientific evidence. by: Attitudes

How you respond to science issues (interest, support for scientific enquiry, responsibility)

Figure 1 Framework for PISA 2006 science assessment

The previous PISA definition of motivation to act responsibly biology, and Earth and space science, scientific literacy has been enhanced to towards natural resources and and their knowledge about science. include aspects of individuals’ attitudes environments. This is the attitudinal Knowledge about science refers to towards science. The definition also dimension of the assessment. knowledge of the means (‘scientific gives more emphasis than before to an enquiry’) and goals (‘scientific individual’s understanding of the nature Knowledge component explanations’) of science. This is of science and to the role of science- elaborated in Figure 2. Knowledge based technology. PISA 2006 will assess students’ about science questions will constitute knowledge of science, selected from approximately 40 per cent of the Organisation of the domain the major fields of physics, chemistry, cognitive assessment. For the purposes of assessment, the PISA 2006 definition of scientific literacy Scientific enquiry may be characterised as having the • origin (e.g., curiosity, scientific questions) following four interrelated components • purpose (e.g., to produce evidence that helps answer scientific questions, as shown in Figure 1: current ideas/models/theories guide enquiries) • Recognising life situations involving • experiments (e.g., different questions suggest different scientific investigations, science and technology. This is the design). context for assessment. • data type (e.g., quantitative [measurements], qualitative [observations]) • Understanding the natural world • measurement (e.g., inherent uncertainty, replicability, variation, on the basis of scientific knowledge accuracy/precision in equipment and procedures) that includes both knowledge of the • characteristics of results (e.g., empirical, tentative, testable, falsifiable, natural world, and knowledge about self-correcting) science itself. This is the knowledge Scientific explanations component of the assessment. • types (e.g., hypothesis, theory, model, law) • Demonstrating competencies that • formation (e.g., data representation; role of extant knowledge and new include identifying scientific issues, evidence, creativity and imagination, logic) explaining phenomena scientifically, • rules (e.g., must be logically consistent; based on evidence, historical and and using scientific evidence. This is current knowledge) the competency component. • outcomes (e.g., produce new knowledge, new methods, new technologies; • Indicating an interest in science, lead to new questions and investigations) support for scientific enquiry, and Figure 2 PISA 2006 knowledge about science categories

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 23 Attitudinal dimension nevertheless useful for illustrative trial are presented. Note, however, purposes. that convenience samples rather than The PISA 2006 science assessment random samples were employed in Question 1, 3 and 4 of Bread Dough will evaluate students’ attitudes in the field trial and so they cannot be assess the competency ‘Explaining three areas: Interest in science, Support regarded as representative samples phenomena scientifically’, and draw on for scientific enquiry, and Responsibility of 15-year-old students. Accordingly, students’ knowledge of physical systems towards resources and environments (see these results must be treated with (in particular, chemistry). Question 2 Figure 3). The student questionnaire caution and regarded as hypotheses requires students to recognise which will be used to gather data on to be investigated when analysing variables need to be changed and which students’ attitudes in all three areas the main study results rather than as need to be controlled in an experiment in a non-contextualised manner. substantiated findings. Data concerning students’ Support for and so it assesses students’ knowledge scientific enquiry, and one aspect of about science (category: Scientific their Interest in science (namely, their enquiry). The competency classification is Students’ attitudes towards Interest in learning about science), also ‘Identifying scientific issues’. science will be gathered by embedding Likert- The final item in Bread Dough Interest in learning about science: For the style items in about two-thirds of (Question 5) is the only released item sample unit Health Risk?, above average the test units. The decision to assess that was designed to assess students’ interest was shown in the second students’ attitudes towards science Support for scientific enquiry. Like all and third statements of Question 3 reflects the view expressed in the PISA attitudinal items, it is placed last in but low interest was shown in the science framework that they should the unit in order that students engage first statement. In general, students be regarded as important outcomes of with the context prior to providing an expressed most interest in learning science education. opinion on the three statements. about health or safety issues that The ‘scores’ on the embedded attitudinal they may encounter personally (e.g. Attitudinal items are distinctively ‘Learning which diseases are transmitted items will be used to construct scales formatted to remind students that they for Interest in learning about science and in drinking water’), and least interest have no correct answer and will not in learning about abstract scientific Support for scientific enquiry. They will not count in their test score. Question 3 of be combined with the scores on the explanations (e.g. ‘Learning about Health Risk? is an example of an item the different arrangements of atoms other test items to produce an overall designed to assess students’ Interest in score of scientific literacy. in wood, water and steel’) and how learning about science. The other two scientific research is conducted. items in Health Risk? assess students’ PISA 2006 science test knowledge about scientific enquiry. This outcome is in agreement with that items Question 1 requires students to make of Osborne and Collins (2001) who a judgement about the relevance of a found that students are most interested PISA science items are arranged in scientific study and Question 2 requires in the aspects of science that they groups (units) based around a common the identification of relevant variables perceive as being relevant to their lives, stimulus. Two sample units, Bread that were not controlled in the study. and least interested in topics that they Dough and Health Risk?, are included The competency involved in both perceive as being of little relevance to in the Appendix to this paper. The questions is ‘Using scientific evidence’. themselves. Further support comes items shown were used in the field from the responses of students in trial in 2005 as part of the item Field trial results England to the ROSE questionnaire3. development process for the 2006 Jenkins and Pell (2006) report that girls PISA main study but are not included During 2005, about 260 science items were most interested in learning about in the final selection. Some of these (70 units) were trialled for inclusion health-related issues, and that topics items have undergone minor revision in the PISA 2006 assessment. The such as ‘How crude oil is converted since the field trial and some of them field trial was conducted in all 58 into other materials’ held little interest have measurement properties that countries participating in PISA 2006 for both boys and girls. However, the make them less than ideal for inclusion and involved over 95 000 students. In popularity of health-related issues was in an international test, but they are this section, some results of the field found to be not as strong for boys

3The Relevance of Science Education (ROSE) project is an international comparative study designed to gather and analyse information from 15-year-olds about their attitudes to science and technology and their motivation to learn about science and technology. See www.ils.uio.no/english/rose/

Research Conference 2006 24 who expressed stronger interest in ‘destructive technologies and events’. Per cent correct (Males – Females) 5 Support for scientific enquiry: The ‘personal relevance’ influence was 4 also the main factor here with most 3 support being shown for investigation 2 into health and safety issues (e.g. ‘It is INT important to research how diseases 1 are spread’), although a high level 0 of support also was expressed for PS ES LS KAS research that would assist the survival -1 of endangered species. Least support -2 was expressed for research that Knowledge component appeared to have little or no practical application (e.g. ‘Studying fish in a tank Figure 4 PISA 2006 field trial items per cent correct is important even though the fish may according to knowledge component behave differently in the wild’). The gender difference pattern for subject of closer scrutiny when the Interestingly, students tended not the knowledge of science items is main study results become available to value scientists’ explanations of consistent with that found for Year 8 throughout the second half of 2006. everyday phenomena more than students in TIMSS 2002/03 (Martin, alternative explanations. For example, Mullis, Gonzalez, & Chrostowski, 2004). for Bread Dough, below average References Of most interest, though, since this support was shown for the second and appears to be the first international Jenkins, E. W., & Pell, R. G. (2006). The third statements and low support for assessment of students’ knowledge Relevance of Science Education Project the third statement. about science, is that females out- (ROSE) in England: A summary of performed males on these items. findings. Leeds: Centre for Studies in Students’ scientific knowledge Science and Mathematics Education, The field trial showed the six cognitive Summary University of Leeds. sample items included with this paper Martin, M. O., Mullis, I. V. S., Gonzalez, Science is the major assessment to be of moderate to high difficulty. E. J, & Chrostowski, S. J. (2004). domain for the first time in PISA 2006. The hardest items in the group were TIMSS 2003 International science The definition of scientific literacy has two of the three knowledge about report: Findings from IEA’s Trends in been expanded to include aspects of science items, Question 2 of Bread International Mathematics and Science individuals’ attitudes towards science and Dough and Question 2 of Health Risk?. Study at the fourth and eighth grade. a much stronger emphasis than before The easiest item, answered correctly Chestnut Hill, MA: Boston College. by over 40 per cent of students, was is placed on individuals’ understanding of Question 4 of Bread Dough which the nature and methodology of science OECD (in press). The PISA 2006 assesses understanding of the particle itself (their knowledge about science). An assessment framework: science, reading model of matter. innovative aspect of the 2006 assessment and mathematics. Paris: OECD. is that items designed to assess students’ OECD (2004). Learning for tomorrow’s Internationally, no gender difference ‘interest in learning about science’, and world. First results from PISA 2003. was apparent in the performance on their ‘support for scientific enquiry’, are Paris: OECD. the sample items or on the test overall. embedded in the test units. However, as shown in Figure 4, gender OECD (2001). Knowledge and skills for The field trial conducted during 2005 differences become apparent when life. First results from PISA 2000. Paris: in all 58 countries participating in performance is analysed according OECD. to the knowledge component of the PISA 2006 yielded some interesting Osborne, J., & Collins, S. (2001). Pupils’ items: physical systems (PS), Earth and preliminary results concerning students’ views of the role and value of the space systems (ES), living systems (LS), attitudes and knowledge. Of particular science curriculum. International Journal and knowledge about science. interest is that girls outperformed boys on knowledge about science items. This of Science Education 23(5), 441–467. and other field trial findings will be the

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 25 Appendix: PISA 2006 Sample Science Items

BREAD DOUGH

To make bread dough, a cook mixes flour, water, salt and yeast. After mixing, the dough is placed in a container for several hours to allow the process of fermentation to take place. During fermentation, a chemical change occurs in the dough: the yeast (a single- celled fungus) helps to transform the starch and sugars in the flour into carbon dioxide and alcohol.

Question 1: BREAD DOUGH

Fermentation causes the dough to rise. Why does the dough rise?

A The dough rises because alcohol is produced and turns into a gas. B The dough rises because of single-celled fungi reproducing in it. C The dough rises because a gas, carbon dioxide, is produced. D The dough rises because fermentation turns water into a vapour.

Research Conference 2006 26 Question 2: BREAD DOUGH

A few hours after mixing the dough, the cook weighs the dough and observes that its weight has decreased.

The weight of the dough is the same at the start of each of the four experiments shown below. Which two experiments should the cook compare to test if the yeast is the cause of the loss of weight?

Stopper Stopper

Container Container

Flour, Flour, water, salt water, salt with yeast no yeast Scales Scales

Experiment 1 Experiment 2

Open Open container container

Flour, Flour, water, salt water, salt with yeast no yeast Scales Scales

Experiment 3 Experiment 4

A The cook should compare experiments 1 and 2. B The cook should compare experiments 1 and 3. C The cook should compare experiments 2 and 4. D The cook should compare experiments 3 and 4.

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 27 Question 3: BREAD DOUGH

In the dough, yeast helps to transform starch and sugars in the flour. A chemical reaction occurs during which carbon dioxide and alcohol form.

Where do the carbon atoms that are present in carbon dioxide and alcohol come from? Circle ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ for each of the following possible explanations.

Is this a correct explanation of where the Yes or No? carbon atoms come from?

Some carbon atoms come from the sugars. Yes / No

Some carbon atoms are part of the salt Yes / No molecules.

Some carbon atoms come from the water. Yes / No

Question 4: BREAD DOUGH

When the risen (leavened) dough is placed in the oven to bake, pockets of gas and vapours in the dough expand.

Why do the gas and vapours expand when heated?

A Their molecules get bigger. B Their molecules move faster. C Their molecules increase in number. D Their molecules collide less frequently.

Question 5: BREAD DOUGH

How much do you agree with the following statements?

Tick only one box in each row. Strongly Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Disagree a) I would trust a scientific report more than a baker’s explanation of the weight loss in 1 2 3 4 dough. b) Chemical analysis is the best way to identify the products of fermentation. 1 2 3 4 c) Research into the changes that occur when food is prepared is important. 1 2 3 4

Research Conference 2006 28 HEALTH RISK?

Imagine that you live near a large chemical factory that produces fertilisers for use in agriculture. In recent years there have been several cases of people in the area suffering from long-term breathing problems. Many local people believe that these symptoms are caused by the emission of toxic fumes from the nearby chemical fertiliser factory.

A public meeting was held to discuss the potential dangers of the chemical factory to the health of local residents. Scientists made the following statements at the meeting.

Statement by scientists working for the chemical company

‘We have made a study of the toxicity of soil in the local area. We have found no evidence of toxic chemicals in the samples we have taken.’

Statement by scientists working for concerned citizens in the local community

‘We have looked at the number of cases of long-term breathing problems in the local area and compared this with the number of cases in an area far away from the chemical factory. There are more incidents in the area close to the chemical factory.’

Question 1: HEALTH RISK?

The owner of the chemical factory used the statement of the scientists working for the company to argue that ‘the emission fumes from the factory are not a health risk to local residents’.

Give one reason, other than the statement by scientists working for the concerned citizens, for doubting that the statement by scientists working for the company supports the owner’s argument.

......

......

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 29 Question 2: HEALTH RISK?

The scientists working for the concerned citizens compared the number of people with long-term breathing problems close to the chemical factory with those in an area far away from the factory.

Describe one possible difference in the two areas that would make you think that the comparison was not a valid one.

......

......

......

Question 3: HEALTH RISK?

How much interest do you have in the following information?

Tick only one box in each row. High Medium Low No Interest Interest Interest Interest a) Knowing more about the chemical composition of agricultural fertilisers 1 2 3 4 b) Understanding what happens to toxic fumes emitted into the atmosphere 1 2 3 4 c) Learning about respiratory diseases that can be caused by chemical emissions 1 2 3 4

Research Conference 2006 30 Inquiry in science classrooms: Rhetoric or reality?

Abstract education history, one would expect to see inquiry as an integral part of If one scans the science curriculum our secondary science classrooms. statements of the Australian States Unfortunately, this is not the case. In and Territories, one will find a the 2001 review of science teaching consistent theme of inquiry and inquiry and learning in Australian schools, a pedagogy pervading these documents. disappointing picture of secondary With the rhetoric of these policy science is described (Goodrum, documents and our sense of science Hackling, & Rennie, 2001). Many Denis Goodrum education history, one would expect secondary students are taught science to see inquiry as an integral part of University of Canberra that is perceived by them to be neither our secondary science classrooms. relevant nor engaging. Furthermore, Unfortunately, this is not the case. traditional didactic teaching methods Denis Goodrum has been in involved in many Many secondary students are taught national and international activities in science that offer little challenge, excitement education. In 1998, Professor Goodrum was science that is perceived by them or opportunities for engagement are a visiting scholar at the National Research to be neither relevant nor engaging. common. There is a considerable gap Council in Washington DC working on a project Furthermore, traditional didactic between the intended curriculum as examining inquiry and the National Science teaching methods that offer little Education Standards. described in the various curriculum challenge, excitement or opportunities documents and the actual curriculum During the 1990s, he was Project Director of for engagement are common. There the National Primary School Project that was experienced by students. underwritten by the Australian Academy of is a considerable gap between the Science. This project resulted in the curriculum intended curriculum as described in resource Primary Investigations and an associated the various curriculum documents and How do we convert professional development model and package. the actual curriculum experienced by rhetoric into reality? In 2000, he led a research team that completed students. This presentation describes The key to educational innovation, a significant and extensive national study for the a national pilot study, the Collaborative Federal Government into the status and quality reform and improvement is the Australian Secondary Science Program of teaching and learning of science in Australian teacher. It is now generally accepted (CASSP), which attempts to provide schools. Recently he was Project Director of the that to improve learning in our schools Collaborative Australian Secondary Science Project better information for responding to we need more and better teacher (CASSP) which evaluated a teacher change the challenge of converting the inquiry model through the development of integrated professional learning. curriculum and professional development rhetoric into classroom reality. resources. Presently he is responsible for two Professional learning and development national projects Science by Doing and the Introduction cover a wide range of courses and Australian Science Education Framework. training activities as well as a variety He has extensive administrative experience in If one scans the science curriculum of ‘on the job’ experiences. Loucks- so far as he has carried out the roles of Head statements of the Australian States and Horsley, Hewson, Love and Stiles of Department, Head of School, and Dean of Territories, one will find a consistent (1998) in their book, Designing Faculty within the university sector. He has served theme of inquiry and inquiry pedagogy on numerous state and national Boards including Professional Development for Teachers Board of the Australian Deans of Education, pervading these documents. This theme of Science and Mathematics, outline Scitech and the ACT Curriculum Renewal is also strongly reflected in the new 15 different strategies that are used to Taskforce. national Science Statement of Learning. undertake professional learning. Besides managing large national projects, he has Such a fact should surprise no one, also been responsible for a variety of international since the importance of inquiry has Using a meta-analysis approach Tinoca, projects including a Mauritius teacher education resonated through Australian science Lee, Fletcher and Barufaldi (2004) project. Other countries with which he has had education circles for the past 40 years. suggest that the professional learning professional involvement include Thailand, China, strategies outlined by Loucks-Horsley Malaysia, Singapore, Nigeria, the Seychelles, The curriculum resources of the 1970s Burma, the USA, the Maldives, the Philippines, like Web of Life and ASEP were et al. (1998) impact on science student Botswana, Canada and the UK. developed from an inquiry pedagogical learning to different degrees. On the perspective. basis of an analysis of 37 professional learning studies, there was evidence of With the rhetoric of these policy different effects on student learning of documents and our sense of science

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 31 science. The results of this research are summarised in Table 1. High impact strategies on student learning were those associated Professional Curriculum with Curriculum Replacement and Development Resources Curriculum Development, while medium impact approaches involved Professional Curriculum Implementation and Learning Partnerships. A range of strategies appeared to have a limited impact on student science learning including projects associated with Partnerships Participative Inquiry with scientists.

Table 1 Impact of professional learning on student learning Figure 1 The role of professional development, curriculum resources and participative inquiry in professional learning Curriculum Replacement the Australian Science Teachers’ High Impact Collaborative Association, the Australian Academy Curriculum of Science and Edith Cowan University Development Australian Secondary Science Program with the support of the state and Curriculum territory education departments. Medium Impact Implementation (CASSP) The CASSP project is an example of Partnerships One attempt to gather better both Curriculum Replacement and information and respond to the Curriculum Development as outlined Workshops, challenge of converting rhetoric into by the framework of professional seminars reality was the pilot study, Collaborative learning constructed by Loucks-Horsley Partnership with Australian Secondary Science Program et al. (1998). Low Impact scientists (CASSP). CASSP was developed through considerable national discussion Purpose and design of Case discussion among researchers and stakeholders Inquiry over a number of years. It is based on a CASSP project simple model. The purpose of the pilot project was No impact Action research The unique feature of CASSP was to to: Source: Tinoca (2004) facilitate professional learning by the • demonstrate that national implementation of an integrated set of Perhaps the most surprising result was collaborative procedures curriculum, professional development that the Action research strategies and processes could be used and participative inquiry resources (see had no impact on student learning. effectively to develop resources Figure 1). These resources provided In Australia, considerable funds and implement them through the a concrete basis for illustrating the have recently been invested in this structures and processes in place in methods by which a teacher could approach through programs like each of the States and Territories; teach science in an inquiry-based the Quality Teacher Program. The • evaluate the effectiveness of the manner, engaging students in relevant important implication is that we need CASSP model in changing and and engaging experiences of science to investigate more fully the impact improving teaching and learning in and developing scientific literacy. The of these approaches before allocating science. Australian government funded the substantial funds. extensive national pilot study. The To meet this purpose, it was decided project was managed by Curriculum to develop an Energy and Change unit Corporation in collaboration with with three modules of Light, Electricity

Research Conference 2006 32 and Energy with a flexibility of structure Evaluation and results • 50% of teachers said that their and content that enabled teachers to students copied less notes from the choose from these modules. It was At the beginning of each of the three board; and professional development sessions also decided that the focus of the pilot • 33% of teachers spent less time on a questionnaire was completed by project would be: teacher explanation. the participating teachers. A simple • student-centred approaches to questionnaire was also completed The decrease in teacher-directed learning; by students at the end of the unit. In activities was offset by an increased use • inquiry and investigative approaches; Western Australia, four teachers agreed of student-centred strategies initiated and to allow a researcher to observe their by the teachers. These included: lessons throughout the trial. • formative and authentic approaches • small group work and discussions to assessment. Data from the first questionnaire (63% of teachers); The pilot program was designed for suggested that the initial response to • cooperative learning groups (53%); the project by the majority of teachers implementation over a time scale of • open-ended questions and wait was positive. As in all innovations, one school term with a whole-of- time (51%); department approach to professional there are inevitable concerns but • conceptual explanation after activity development. Each State identified the these seemed to be balanced by and experience (57%); schools within that State that should the perceived potential benefits. be considered for involvement in the Approximately one-fifth of the • investigations (53%); project. The project took place in term teachers appeared to hold traditional • more exposure to fewer concepts three of 2002 with 28 schools from views about science teaching. These (55%) and six States involving 122 teachers and views included didactic approaches • greater use of formative (39%) and approximately 3,000 students. to teaching, significant amounts of diagnostic assessment (61%). memorisation of facts and explanations, There were three face-to-face and a concentration on summative The response of the teachers was professional development sessions forms of assessment. very positive with 90 per cent wanting during the course of the project. The to see the project continue. A large initial professional development activity The driving forces for change were majority (88%) wanted curriculum took place over two days towards identified as the initial professional resources developed for other topics. the end of term two in each State, development sessions and the student From discussions with teachers, it was with the exception of Tasmania which resource. A number of teachers, obvious that the project was demanding has a three-term year and therefore however, felt that the student resource both in terms of time needed to undertook the initial PD activity in the required more theoretical or factual develop student understanding and the middle of term two. The aim of these information. The teacher resource was added stress of classroom management sessions was to acquaint the teachers considered less useful with a quarter in unfamiliar student-centred activities. with the teaching practices that were of teachers not using the book at the the focus of the pilot and with the initial stages of the project. Most teachers expressed a preference resources and the skills necessary to for the traditional print form for student The project generated much discussion resources and were less inclined to implement these changes in teaching and collegial interaction among teachers practice. use electronic forms of delivery. This at an informal level, however, the was mainly due to the fact that many The second PD session occurred mid- suggested formal participative inquiry schools did not have adequate computer term with an emphasis on assessment sessions did not occur in many schools hardware or facilities to handle electronic and developing skills for assessing because of the pressures of time. delivery of curriculum materials. student work in terms of conceptual Where formal participative inquiry development. The full day of activities discussion occurred, they were very Data from the student survey indicate also provided an opportunity for useful in supporting teachers to resolve that one-third of students reacted teachers to examine common concerns difficulties. very positively to the science they and devise strategies for meeting these experienced during the trial while half Data from the questionnaires indicated the students were ambiguous in their concerns. A final half-day debriefing there was a change from teacher- session was held in the last week of responses and the final sixth of the directed teaching to more student- students were negative. In the national term three. centred learning:

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 33 review of science teaching and learning, the project’s focus: student-centred discussion and be able to generate only about 20 per cent of secondary approaches to learning, inquiry and summary statements that are students reported that their science was investigative approaches, formative and meaningful to students. Such a skill relevant or useful to them. The results of authentic approaches to assessment. is challenging but critical for making the trial would suggest the trial students’ inquiry approaches effective. The data showed that change occurred interest in science was greater than the in teachers’ pedagogy when they While feedback suggests the project students surveyed in the national survey. were supported with an integrated was viewed as being successful in typical For the four case study teachers, program professional development and classes, the perceived success was observations suggest the teachers exemplar curriculum resources and diminished in some classes of identified and their students gained from the used a collegial team problem solving high-achieving students because of the project. The teachers felt they had approach. Despite the limited time for preference for memorising information the opportunity to reflect on their the trial, the results indicated the value for exams. The dilemma between classroom practice and refine their of the approach. Due to the limited learning for memorisation and learning teaching skills to varying degrees. Again time one would, however, question the for understanding needs to be thought these feelings were borne out by the sustainability of these changes and their through carefully especially in terms classroom observations. transferability to other units. of how a change in attitude can be achieved in classes for the high- The results and experiences of this achieving student. study highlight a number of issues. The question of covering content The resources Collaboration versus developing All teachers in the project used the All six States successfully participated in understanding student resource that was supplied the implementation of the project. The in hard copy to every participating States, through consensus, determined There was an issue concerning, in student. Some teachers followed it the specific priorities of the professional simple terms, the perceived need to without variation while most adapted development program and the nature of memorise content in some classes it and in some cases added to it. Some the curriculum resources. At each stage considered to be composed of teachers indicated that they seldom of development of the pilot materials, identified high-achievers. Many high- used the teacher resource book, which all the States and Territories were achieving students felt comfortable was also provided in hard copy to provided with draft materials and with with memorising clearly delineated participating teachers. It would appear the opportunity to provide feedback. science content because under current that the website was used least of all Changes were made as a result of assessment regimes this could result the resources. The website was mainly feedback. In the early part of the project in high grades from examinations. The used to access the assessment items this feedback resulted in a new approach less structured inquiry and investigative that were only provided electronically. to the development of the curriculum approach did not necessarily generate The evidence would suggest that the resources. This new approach caused bodies of information that could be student resource was a powerful driver a delay in the implementation of the memorised. Consequently, some of of teacher change. It enabled teachers program but schools and States were these students did not believe they to implement and experience changed able to accommodate the delay. The were learning, because they equated practices that were the focus of the program was successfully implemented learning with memorisation of content. professional development program. in all States. No teachers in any of the Besides the differing views on the States indicated that the resources were nature of science and science teaching The feedback from teachers indicated inappropriate or not compatible with that such an attitude reflects, one that 90 per cent of teachers wanted what was happening within their State. also needs to consider the level of the student resource in print form while skills required for student-centred 76 per cent also wanted the teacher Effectiveness of the conceptual learning. To synthesise the resource in print form. The dilemma ideas that arise from student activity facing those who make decisions about CASSP model through questioning is a challenge. the format of student and teacher The results from the study showed A teacher needs to bring together curriculum resources concerns the that the trial had a significant impact the understandings that emerge from question of how long the reliance on on teacher behaviour with respect to inquiry through summarising class print form will continue. Many schools

Research Conference 2006 34 indicated that they did not have adequate Goodrum, D., Hackling, M., & Trotter, computer hardware or facilities to H. (2003). Collaborative Australian handle electronic delivery of curriculum Secondary Science Program: Pilot Study. resources. This technological lag will Perth: Edith Cowan University. change over time but it may take 5 or Loucks-Horsley, S., Hewson, P. W., even 10 years before digital curriculum Love, N., & Stiles, K. E. (1998). resources will be commonly accepted. Designing professional development for teachers of science and mathematics. Leadership San Francisco: Corwin Press Inc. Heads of departments have, in most Tinoca, L., Lee, E., Fletcher, C., & schools, a significant influence over what Barufaldi, J. (2004) From professional happens in the school. The experiences development for science teachers to of this project reinforced that important student learning in science. Paper principle. One of the disappointing presented at National Association aspects of the project was that few for Research in Science Teaching. schools undertook formal participative Vancouver. inquiry sessions. One of the suggested reasons was the time pressure that Tinoca, L. (2004) From professional teachers were experiencing. The development for science teachers project was an extra demand on to student learning in science. PhD teachers who were under stress Dissertation, University of Texas at because of the numerous demands and Austin. expectations made of them. Another contributing factor was the role of the head of department. Valuable formal participative inquiry discussion occurred in one of the case study schools, as a result of leadership at the school.

Future directions As a result of this study and other research, there is a new major project being planned. The proposed secondary science project is called Science by Doing. The planning is occurring during 2006 and is being managed by the Australian Academy of Science with funding by the Federal Government. With hope and a great deal of cooperation and insight, perhaps, the rhetoric may eventually become reality.

References Goodrum, D., Hackling, M., & Rennie, L. (2001). The status and quality of teaching and learning of science in Australian schools: A research report. Canberra: Department of Education, Training and Youth affairs.

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 35 Addressing the looming crisis in suitably qualified science teachers in Australian secondary schools

Abstract their best, and influence their future study and career choices. Ensuring a With the academic preparation and scientifically literate society is therefore future supply of science teachers an reliant upon ensuring that school issue of national interest, there is a science teachers are themselves both need for more detailed information on motivated and suitably qualified to the working lives of practising science teach science well. teachers. In response, we conducted a nationwide survey of science teachers In 2004–05, the Centre for the Study Kerri-Lee Harris and teaching in 2004–05. The resulting of Higher Education undertook a study report, Who’s Teaching Science?, of Australia’s secondary school science The University of Melbourne highlights the current and growing teachers (Harris, Jensz, & Baldwin, shortage of science teachers with 2005). We sought information on the Kerri-Lee Harris is a higher education researcher the disciplinary background needed demographics, tertiary preparation, at the Centre for the Study of Higher Education teaching responsibilities, attitudes and (CSHE) at the University of Melbourne. Dr to teach the physical sciences. Heads Harris is the principal author of Who’s Teaching of science departments defined the career plans of the nation’s teachers. Science?, and has recently completed a related, level of discipline-specific preparation From heads of science departments national study of mathematics teaching for ACDS. they believed was necessary to teach in schools, we sought information on Currently co-director of a national project on staffing issues and the views of heads assessment in the biological sciences, Kerri-Lee is science well. The results of this study also directing an evaluation study of the Science provide valuable insights for universities on what constitutes suitable preparation and Technology Awareness Raising (STAR) Peer and education authorities involved in for teaching science. Titled Who’s Tutoring Programme, which is run from Murdoch teacher education and accreditation, Teaching Science? and commissioned University in Perth. Kerri-Lee joined the CSHE in by the Australian Council of Deans 2004, having previously held an academic position and governments involved in workforce in the biological sciences at the University of planning. of Science (ACDS), the resulting Melbourne. report sparked considerable interest. We hear much about students’ flagging The data presented in the report interest in science. The proportion disaggregated ‘science’ into the core of Year 12 students studying physics, disciplines of biology, chemistry, physics chemistry and advanced mathematics and earth sciences. Such data was not subjects has declined in recent years previously available at a national level. (DEST, 2003; Barrington 2006). A ‘flow- The results highlight the current and on’ effect has been described, reflected growing shortage of teachers suitably in the decline in enrolments in science equipped to teach the physical sciences, and mathematics at university, raising particularly at senior school level. concern among business, research and educational organisations (ETC, 2006). The study involved a nationwide These concerns are focusing attention questionnaire-based survey of upon science teaching in schools secondary schools. A sample of 629 – the curricula, resources, standards, schools was selected for the survey, teaching practices, and upon teachers representing all states and territories, themselves. school sectors and geographical locations. Each school received two Science teachers play a key role in different questionnaires: one for the engaging students in science learning. head of science teaching, and multiple Enthusiastic, knowledgeable and skilled copies of a second questionnaire for teachers motivate students’ interest in teachers of science subjects. Responses science, encourage them to achieve

1We have recently completed a similar study of mathematics teachers, in which all Australian secondary schools were surveyed and a total of 3545 responses received. The findings from that study are soon to be released.

Research Conference 2006 36 were received from 266 heads of described problems filling short-term A second major concern of teachers, science and from 1207 teachers1. vacancies, such as those created when and a source of obvious frustration, teachers take extended family or long- was poor student behaviour and lack of This paper draws upon the data service leave. While a staffing shortfall student interest in science. This was of presented in Who’s Teaching Science?, of three to six months is manageable particular concern among teachers from and highlights the reasons for the in some businesses, this is not the case government schools, rivalling workload ACDS’s call for urgent action on for schools. Such a ‘gap’ in students’ as the most commonly cited challenge workforce planning and high quality schooling is likely to have significant and they faced. teacher preparation (Harris, Jensz, lasting consequences. & Baldwin, 2005, p. viii). The nature of the current teacher shortage is Three factors indicate that the demand Physics expertise described, and the factors that suggest for teachers with strong backgrounds in concentrated among the situation will soon worsen are the physical sciences is set to increase – presented. The requirements of heads the large proportion of teachers nearing older teachers regarding discipline-specific tertiary retirement age; the disillusionment Younger, early career teachers were study is compared to the actual and uncertain career plans described less likely than their more experienced qualifications of practising teachers. by many younger teachers; and the peers to have studied physics at Finally, a case is made for science fact that early career teachers are university – a trend set to exacerbate teacher recruitment strategies that predominantly biologists, with limited the current shortage of physics teachers focus on current university science background in physics. as older teachers of physics retire. Half students. As science teachers need the science teachers under 35 years of both a strong grounding in their An aging teaching age had studied no physics at university. discipline and an enthusiasm for science The same was true for teachers with learning, where better to find candidate workforce less than five years’ teaching experience. science teachers? The age profile of science teachers shows a large ‘bulge’ above 45 years of Science teachers age. Nearly 30 per cent of the science The current and need a strong, growing shortage of teachers surveyed were at least 50 years of age, and another 14 per cent discipline-specific science teachers were between 45 and 50 years of science background Most schools reported difficulties age. There is a pronounced difference The diversity of educational pathways recruiting suitably qualified science in the age profile of male and female leading to a career in secondary school teachers. There is no shortage, teachers. Male respondents were older, science teaching (Lawrence & Palmer, however, of teachers with strong dominating the 45+ years of age group 2003) is reflected in the diversity backgrounds in the life sciences. The and under-represented in the ‘under 30 of disciplinary backgrounds among problem schools face is with the years’ age group. science teachers. Some of the teachers availability of teachers with knowledge surveyed had studied no tertiary of the physical sciences. Forty per Uncertainty among science at all, while others held majors cent of schools experienced difficulty young teachers in multiple science disciplines. adequately staffing physics classes, and one-third reported similar problems for Nearly half the teachers surveyed were In the absence of prescribed standards chemistry. These shortages also affected not sure that they would be still be for the minimum level of science staffing of junior and middle school teaching be in 2009. While this group background for secondary school science, and heads reported lower included older teachers planning to science teachers, we asked teachers levels of satisfaction with the quality retire, many were younger, early career and heads to provide insight into of their schools’ teaching at these year teachers. Teachers cited the pressures current practice and perceptions in levels than at senior school level. of a high workload and long hours as schools. Teachers were asked to a negative aspect of their working life. describe both their pattern of tertiary Shortages were reported for all This was particularly an issue among science study and their current teaching states and territories, and by both female teachers. responsibilities. Heads of science metropolitan schools and those in more departments were asked for their views remote regions. Many heads of science

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 37 regarding the minimum level of science Senior school science levels of disillusionment among current study necessary to prepare teachers for science teachers that should be of school science teaching. teaching – biology, grave concern to schools and education chemistry and physics authorities. Junior and middle The 649 teachers who taught senior A range of complementary strategies school science teaching school science were typically male and will be needed to address these older than colleagues who taught only challenges. Half the teachers surveyed taught junior junior-middle school. In particular, many 2 • Identified disincentives need to be school science , typically in combination senior school chemistry teachers were removed or managed, in order to with later-year science classes. Three approaching retirement age. in five teachers taught middle school attract more people to science science and, as for teachers of junior Senior school teachers displayed the teaching. school, usually in combination with most ‘specialised’ patterns of teaching. • Additional measures are needed to other year levels. Half taught senior Forty per cent taught only senior level support practising science teachers, school science. Their disciplinary science subjects, and most taught both to enable them to do their backgrounds were predominantly only one science discipline at senior jobs well, and to encourage them to in biology and, to a lesser extent, level. Biology teachers were the most remain in the teaching profession. ‘restricted’ in discipline range. chemistry. Only a minority of junior– • Aspiring science teachers need middle school teachers had studied Biology teachers were also the most tertiary preparation that provides physics beyond first year at university. highly trained in their specific discipline them with the disciplinary Ten per cent of all respondents taught – 86 per cent held a major in biology, knowledge appropriate to the science at junior school level only. and 28 per cent had studied the teaching that they will do. This group was typically early-career subject beyond third year. In contrast, • More young people need to be teachers. They also made up the group teachers of physics were likely to be encouraged to pursue a career of respondents with the lowest levels far less qualified. While 57 per cent teaching science in secondary of tertiary science preparation – 22 held a physics major, one in four had schools. per cent had studied no science at not studied physics beyond first year I do not suggest that these concerns university. at university. This is of considerable concern, as most heads stated that are new. Governments, universities and Half the heads of science expressed the senior school teachers need to hold a science organisations have developed view that some first year science study discipline-specific science major, and the a range of policies and strategies along at university was adequate preparation overwhelming majority believed that these lines, and many are ongoing. for teaching science at junior school study beyond first year university was However, the looming shortage of level. One in ten, however, favoured essential. teachers in the enabling sciences calls a major (study to at least third year for renewed efforts and, arguably, level) in at least one science discipline. innovative approaches. Overall, heads were less satisfied with Attracting and retaining The need to attract ‘stronger cohorts the qualifications of teachers of junior suitably qualified of strong students’ (Lawrence & Palmer, school than they were of other year science teachers 2003, p. xviii) to secondary science levels. teacher education programs has been The results of the Who’s Teaching Heads expected teachers of middle stressed in earlier studies. The findings Science? study support assertions and school to have studied science subjects of our study suggest that recruitment predictions made elsewhere: that to at least second year at university, strategies would do well to target Australia needs to be attracting more and some required a science major. current university students studying people to science teaching, and needs While most middle school teachers in the sciences. University students to ensure that these teachers have held either a minor or major in at least typically choose to study science both the disciplinary knowledge and one science discipline, 12 per cent did because they have a passion it. This communication skills necessary to teach not and 6 per cent had studied no passion can feed back into schools if science well. The study also identified science at university. more university science students are

2Junior school: Years 7 and 8. Middle school: Year 9 and 10. Senior school: Years 11 and 12.

Research Conference 2006 38 encouraged to consider careers in Department of Education, Science and science education. Indeed, a majority of Training (DEST) (2003). Australia’s the teachers surveyed cited their own Teachers: Australia’s Future. Advancing enthusiasm for science as a motivation Innovation, Science, Technology and for becoming science teachers. Mathematics. DEST, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra. In concluding this brief paper, I contribute to the following suggestion Education and Training Committee – universities reviewing teacher (ETC), Parliament of Victoria education programs should seek to (2006). Inquiry into the Promotion of create pathways between science Mathematics and Science Education. and education that are attractive to March 2006. all science students, not only to those Harris, K-L., Jensz, F. & Baldwin, G. students with an identified interest in (2005). Who’s Teaching Science? teaching. For example, the creation and Meeting the demand for qualified promotion of science communication science teachers in Australian secondary subjects would be one approach. schools. Report prepared for Australian Science communication is already an Council of Deans of Science. January area that has appeal among science 2005. students. If the curricula of such subjects were built around communication Lawrence, G. A., & Palmer, D. H. for different audiences, and if ‘school (2003). Clever Teachers, Clever Sciences: students’ was identified as one such Preparing teachers for the challenge audience, university students who had of teaching science, mathematics and not previously considered teaching technology in 21st century Australia. might well be both encouraged and, DEST, Commonwealth of Australia, in part, prepared to become science Canberra. teachers.

Acknowledgments The report upon which this paper is based: Harris, K-L., Jensz, F. & Baldwin, G. (2005) Who’s Teaching Science? Meeting the demand for qualified science teachers in Australian secondary schools. Report prepared for Australian Council of Deans of Science. January 2005. The full report is available at: http:// www.acds.edu.au/

References Barrington, F. (2006). Participation in Year 12 Mathematics across Australia 1995–2004. May 2006. Report prepared for International Centre of Excellence for Education in Mathematics and Australian Mathematical Sciences Institute.

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 39 Boosting science learning – what will it take?

Abstract However, by examining evidence together in this forum, including In this session Russell Tytler and David pooling our experience of successful Symington will present some data they practices in school science, we believe have gathered from three sources: that we will be able to identify some scientists working in some of Australia’s promising leads and suggest how we Research Priority Areas, science could build on what we do know to graduates working in positions outside boost science learning. The speakers their discipline specialisation, and at this conference will be bringing Russell Tytler students studying sciences at Year 11. research evidence they and colleagues The presenters will explain why they Deakin University have generated to cast some light on chose to interview these quite different this issue of learning and engagement. groups of people and give some We will also present, for consideration Russell Tytler, Professor of Science Education at indication of why they believe the data Deakin University, Melbourne has been involved by the group, data we have gathered over many years with Victorian curriculum is relevant to the question driving the that we believe suggests some exciting development and professional development conference: Boosting science learning possibilities. This was research done in projects. He was principal researcher for the – what will it take? There will then be an attempt to rethink science teacher highly successful School Innovation in Science group discussion drawing on the views initiative, which developed a framework for education. describing effective science teaching and learning, and experiences of the group members and a strategy for supporting school and teacher and the data to suggest ways to boost Our data came from three sources. change. His research interests also include student science engagement and learning. learning, student reasoning and investigating in science, and public understanding of science. There is growing concern in Australia, The world of science and in post-industrial countries First, we gathered information about generally, about a perceived crisis in what is happening in the world of science education. This relates to lack science. We ran focus groups involving of engagement of school students mainly scientists working in areas with science and claims of diminished identified as Australia’s Research learning outcomes; a decreasing Priorities, such as ‘frontier technologies’ proportion of students taking post- and ‘protecting our borders from compulsory science; low levels of infectious diseases and pests’ and participation in tertiary courses in ‘climate change’. One clear and physics and chemistry and higher compelling point emerging from these mathematics; a shortage of graduates focus groups was the importance of David Symington and research students in key areas; and public perspectives and understandings a shortage of science teachers. The to the advancement of science and Deakin University question for us, then, is how do we technology. It is really important that boost student engagement, learning and educators know how passionately David Symington spent 14 years as a teacher in participation in science? Victorian schools followed by several decades people working at the frontiers of engaged in the education of teachers and in The starting point for any discussion on science and technology feel about this. research in science education. Adjunct Professor Symington later worked for 8 years at the this topic is to recognise that there will A second thing we learned from Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research be no simple answer to this question. these groups was the extent to which Organisation (CSIRO) in several positions, where Nor will it be possible to sheet home a common set of competencies he learned a good deal about the path from the responsibility for addressing the problem required of people working in these laboratory bench to the marketplace. Presently, he is engaged with Russell Tytler and others in a to any one group, teachers, educational science fields could be established. number of research and development activities at administrators, government, university Further, these are capabilities that can Deakin University. lecturers, or students. It is going to easily be stimulated by appropriate require action by all of these groups science education at all levels of acting on many fronts to make progress. education. They include being able to It may well require a rethinking of the communicate effectively with multiple nature and purpose of science education audiences, having well-developed in a post-industrial world. analytical thinking and problem-solving

Research Conference 2006 40 skills, and being able to work in teams data will be shared to stimulate our Possible questions to be across disciplinary boundaries. We need thinking. Interestingly, and encouragingly, to explore the implications of this for we found that this group of people discussed in the forum the curriculum and for teaching. stressed the importance of many of include: the same capabilities identified by the Although we didn’t intend to engage • How can we ensure that scientists in the focus groups. these people in discussion of school school science programs reflect science, they brought it up. Many had contemporary science? experience of school science through The world of school • How do we ensure that citizens their children, or through working with students thinking about are able to engage with, and schools on science-related projects. So further studies are interested in engaging with, what did they say about school science? social and ethical issues around A number of the focus groups noted a Our third source of data was students applications of science? disjunction between traditional images doing science studies in Year 11. We • What image of potential careers do of science, particularly represented explored what would encourage our science programs present? Is in science education, and the way them to enrol in a science degree this an issue we should think about? contemporary science operates, and at university. From them, we gained What should be done? the abilities required of those working insight into how they regard science in the field. They argued for a science particularly in relation to career options. • Given the issues and perspectives education less focused on knowledge For example, the feature of a science raised at this conference, how might structures, and more on skills, thinking, degree course most likely to encourage we boost student engagement and preparing for lifelong learning and more students to enrol is that, at the learning in science? engagement with science. completion of the course, they would • What are the key points at which have a chance to pursue a variety of we need to exert pressure for The world of work for career possibilities and get a job where change? they will be working with people. • What examples can we find in many science graduates The features least likely to encourage current practice that might give us We conducted interviews with student entry are that the degree leads directions for ways forward? science graduates not working in their you to become a science researcher, specialist fields – some are employed work in a laboratory, or become a in science-based enterprises, others are science teacher. not. Why would we want to do that? The data challenge us on a number Most commentators and politicians of fronts. First, there is the image of are worried about the lack of people science generated at school. Then, moving into the more traditional there is the information students have science positions. This is certainly about science careers. The data also a cause of major concern, but the have implications for the way school problem is wider than this. We believe and university systems market science that in the present science-based degrees. Finally, of major concern, in world there is also a need for more an era when a significant shortage of science-educated people in decision- appropriately qualified science teachers making positions in government and is looming is the lack of appeal of industry. At present about 40 per cent science teaching. Within the forum we of science graduates are employed in will have the opportunity to discuss positions that are not specific to their some of these issues. discipline specialisation. Accordingly, we wanted to find out what insights people in such positions could bring to our considerations of science education. As it turned out, they had much to say that we believe to be of relevance to our discussions. Some of these

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 41 How can professional standards improve the quality of teaching and learning science?

Introduction After extensive national consultation, the recent Review of Teaching and Teacher Education (DEST 2003) announced an ‘agenda for action’ in its report, Australia’s Teachers: Australia’s Future. One of its central themes was a call to ‘revitalise the teaching Lawrence Ingvarson Anne Semple profession’. The report recommended that: Australian Council for Educational Research Education consultant • National standards for different Lawrence Ingvarson began his career as a science Anne Semple was a teacher of science for career stages should continue to be and mathematics teacher in WA, then taught over 30 years prior to becoming a Science developed by the profession. in the UK, before undertaking further studies at Project Officer at the Victorian Curriculum the University of London and lecturing at the and Assessment Authority (then the Board • A national, credible, transparent and University of Stirling in Scotland. Prior to taking of Studies), a Research associate at Monash consistent approach to assessing up his current position at ACER early in 2001, he University and a Research fellow at ACER teaching standards (should) was an Associate Professor at Monash University (Teaching and learning research program and be developed by the teaching in Melbourne. Assessment and reporting research program). She has extensive experience in the development of profession with support from Dr Ingvarson is internationally recognised for curriculum and teacher and students materials government. his research on professional development in (print and online) and has conducted many • Teacher career progression and the teaching profession. He has worked closely professional learning programs and sessions on a with teacher and principal associations in the variety of themes. She is a past president of the salary advancement (should) reflect development of professional standards as a Australian Science Teachers Association and has a objectively assessed performance as means of strengthening the important role they strong and ongoing commitment to the teaching a teaching professional. play in relation to professional development and profession. Currently, Anne is an independent the provision of recognition to teachers who education consultant. • Recognition, including remuneration, attain high standards of practice. With members for accomplished teachers who of these associations, he has pioneered the development of new standards-based methods perform at advanced professional for the assessment of teacher and school standards and work levels (should) leader performance and laid the foundations be increased significantly. for a national, voluntary system for advanced professional certification in the teaching In making these recommendations, profession. Recently, he has been a member of this Review was consistent with many Ministerial Advisory Committees for the Victorian reports over the past 30 years related Institute of Teaching, the TAFE Development Centre and the National Institute for Quality to the teaching profession. Examples Teaching and School Leadership. include the Karmel Report in the early 1970s; the NBEET reports on teacher quality and award restructuring in the late 1980s; A Class Act, the report of the Senate Inquiry into the Status of Teaching (1998); the National Statement from the Teaching Profession on Teacher Standards, Quality and Professionalism (2003); and the report The Status and Quality of Teaching and Learning of Science in Australian Schools (Goodrum, Hackling & Rennie, 2000). These reports recognised that teacher quality is critical to school and student success. A common theme, therefore, was the importance of strengthening the capacity of the profession to

Research Conference 2006 42 develop and apply its own standards preliminary work at ACER, conducted and identifies some of the key issues because this was regarded as the in collaboration with the Australian that the association has to resolve if it is foundation for attracting, developing Science Teachers’ Association, to to continue to move forward. and retaining effective teachers. develop a standards-guided professional The challenges facing the association learning system that would lead to For example, to improve the status were considerable. In the early 1990s, professional certification for highly of teaching, the 1998 Senate Inquiry little was known or understood in accomplished teachers of science. called for a national system for Australia about how a professional professional standards and certification teachers’ association could go about for teachers based on the achievement Background developing a voluntary system of of enhanced knowledge and skills to The Australian Science Teachers’ professional certification that was retain the best teachers at the front Association (ASTA) has long held a underpinned by an infrastructure for line of student learning. The Goodrum vision for improving the teaching of professional learning. Surely it was up to report recommended that incentives science in Australian schools. Twelve employing authorities to set standards be provided to attract larger numbers or so years ago ASTA recognised of teaching practice and to provide of quality students into science teaching the need for articulating clearly what professional development activities? and to retain experienced teachers in teachers of science should know and be There is no doubt about the need for the classroom. able to do as they gain experience and employing authorities to ensure that However, the evidence is clear that advance in their career. It recognised suitably qualified teachers are employed shortages of mathematics and science the imperative for the association, as in their schools and carry out the duties teachers continue. Higher earnings the peak body representing teachers expected of them. Similarly, medical are required not only at the start, but of science across Australia, to develop authorities have to ensure that suitably throughout career paths to retain highly and demonstrate its capacity to give qualified practitioners are employed in qualified and effective teachers. One- professional recognition to teachers hospitals and other medical facilities. off recruitment schemes with golden of science who achieve against these Where the teaching profession differs handshakes and various incentives standards. from the medical profession and and bonuses are unlikely to have ASTA believed that such a system others is that it lacks a process of sustained effects (Webster, Wooden, would provide the public and certification that recognises advanced & Marks, 2004). Any serious attempts employing authorities with the or accomplished practice based on to improve the quality of teaching and assurance of quality. ASTA believed meeting high and rigorous standards set learning in science will need to improve that engaging in this process would at by the profession. both relative salaries and incentives the same time provide opportunities to reach high professional standards for deep, significant and ongoing Developing a if these perennial problems are to be professional learning guided by professional overcome. standards of practice that were directly The success of such reforms, however, connected to the specialised work of certification system will depend fundamentally on research teachers of science. ASTA believed The first step ASTA took was to inform that informs the development of valid that improving the quality of teaching itself of international experiences methods for evaluating the capacity science would improve the quality of in the establishment of professional of teachers to provide their students student learning. How could ASTA teaching standards and issues linking with high-quality opportunities to achieve its vision and were its beliefs professional standards to recognising learn science. Without the capacity justified? highly accomplished practice through to evaluate teaching, it is difficult to This paper describes ASTA’s progress a process of certification. In 1994, the place more value on good teaching. An towards developing a system of Council commissioned such a study important research challenge is to learn certification, beginning with the (Ingvarson, 1995) . how to reform pay systems for teachers development of standards of practice. in ways that attract and retain effective After examining several models It describes the opportunities for of professional certification or teachers, without the negative effects of professional learning that the process previous approaches such as merit pay. credentialing, the one that ASTA afforded and the effect on teachers favoured was that of the National In this vein, the purpose of this who participated in the process. It Board for Professional Teaching paper is to provide a brief review of summarises the status of development

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 43 Standards (NBPTS) of the USA for the ARC/SPIRT grants were also obtained accomplished teachers of science following reasons: by Monash and three other professional differed from those of novice teachers associations to develop professional and also differed fundamentally from • ASTA shared belief in the five core standards in the fields of English and the knowledge and skills of teachers of propositions that provided the Mathematics. other subject areas. The standards had philosophical context for the work to reflect this. of the NBPTS2; ASTA’s research project incorporated • ASTA was impressed by the NBPTS three components that reflected The standards also had to be standards of what accomplished the elements of a credible national achievable, measurable and context- teachers of science should know voluntary system of professional free if they were to be the basis of and be able to do, and by the certification: a high stakes national certification system, in addition to being valuable innovative approach to developing 1. the development and validation of reference points for individual or group performance assessments for standards for highly accomplished professional learning. teachers that were firmly grounded teachers of science; in the context of the work of 2. development of performance The process of validating the standards teachers of science; tasks that would provide vehicles involved extensive consultation with • ASTA could see the potential for teachers to show how their ASTA members through its state and for professional learning during teaching met the standards; and territory associations. Professional the process of completing such and public comment and critique 3. research on the reliability and performance assessments; were sought from a wide range of validity of these tasks for wider use stakeholders, including the Federation of • The National Board is an in a national certification system. independent organisation whose Australian Scientific and Technological governing body consisted largely of Development and validation of Societies, the Australian Academy of classroom teachers; and standards of practice for highly Science, state and territory departments accomplished teachers of science of education, the independent and • The NBPTS (then) had about seven Catholic sectors, and unions. Following years of experience in research In 1999, ASTA established a National review and revision, the standards were and development in this area with Science Standards Committee (NSSC) published in February 2002 (National a budget far beyond what ASTA with responsibility to develop the Science Standards Committee, 2002). could raise if it were to begin from ASTA standards. Expressions of interest scratch. were called for and highly respected The 11 professional standards for highly teachers of science and educators were accomplished teachers of science are Components of a selected from all levels and all sectors grouped in three categories: across Australia. A series of intensive 1. Professional knowledge: Highly certification system meetings of the 15 members of the accomplished teachers of science NSSC was held in 2000 and 2001 to As ASTA’s financial resources have an extensive knowledge of draft the standards. All members of depended largely on a per capita science, science education and the Committee agreed that developing levy on state and territory association students (3). members, Council agreed that it should the standards was an extraordinarily 2. Professional practice: Highly seek additional funding and partnerships rewarding process of professional accomplished teachers of science to further the process of developing engagement, reflection on practice, and work with their students to achieve its own certification system that would professional learning. high quality learning outcomes in better suit the Australian context. It As teaching is such complex work, science (6). was not until 1999 that ASTA and the Committee was faced with the 3. Professional attributes: Highly Monash University won a grant from challenge of teasing out and articulating accomplished teachers of science the Australian Research Council of the the elements of that work without are reflective, committed to Department of Training and Youth developing a mere checklist that improvement and are active Affairs Strategic Partnerships with would lose sight of teaching’s holistic members of their professional Industry, Research and Training Scheme nature. The Committee recognised community (2). (ARC/SPIRT) to enable it to do so. that the knowledge and skills of highly

2Five core propositions of the NBPTS [ http://www.nbpts.org/about/coreprops.cfm ]

Research Conference 2006 44 Each of the 11 standards consists for assessing performance against time- consuming experience. However, of a short statement that distils the the ASTA professional standards the benefits for me as a professional essence of the standard, followed by an were far greater. The chance to see Portfolio Evaluation Teams (PETs) elaboration that paints a word picture myself teach and reflect upon my were established in Victoria, Western of the practice of a highly accomplished practice, although daunting, enabled Australia, New South Wales and South teacher of science in relation to me to look closely at the things that I Australia. As part of the research the standard. The full set of ASTA did well, as well as look at the things project, each teacher was asked to standards is over 20 pages long and can I could improve on. This had obvious trial and evaluate one of the five be found on the ASTA website. benefits for my class. I was able to entry tasks that would constitute a sit back and watch my own lesson complete portfolio. Due to competing from a distance and see if my teaching Development demands for their time and other methods really did support my beliefs. meditating factors, the attrition rate of performance I was able to view the Science lesson of members of PETs was high. This from the student’s perspective rather assessments based on highlighted the need for a high level of than simply from my own. the standards national, structured collaboration and a supportive infrastructure, particularly at A certification system not only involves school level, to facilitate such a process. Phase 2: 2001 – Developing the the development of professional ASTA portfolio tasks standards but also the development of Nine individual PET members were tasks that provide authentic evidence of able to complete and submit their ASTA Council had established an performance of teaching practice that entry and the evaluation questionnaire. Assessment Reference Group (ARG) can be assessed against the standards. Group responses were received from to provide advice about developing This stage of the ASTA/Monash project two Portfolio Evaluation Teams. All assessment tasks. It consisted of commenced in 2000 and consisted of agreed strongly that: members of PETs and the NSSC two phases. and educators who had undertaken • overall the portfolio tasks were assessment training and benchmarking authentic for the Australian context with the NBPTS in the USA. Phase 1: 2000 – Trialling of – the tasks were asking for evidence NBPTS portfolio entries of what should normally be part of The findings of the PETs and advice the work of a teacher of science in from the ARG informed the writing The NBPTS had commissioned Australia of the ASTA portfolio entries. Writers considerable research and engaged included well-respected teachers of many leading figures in educational • the tasks would discriminate science, teachers who had trialled measurement in developing methods between novice and highly NBPTS portfolio entries and those who for gathering and assessing evidence accomplished practice had undertaken assessment training. As about teacher performance. Based on • teachers would be able to use their with the development of the standards, ASTA’s earlier ‘in principle’ acceptance own styles and strategies of teaching the process offered opportunities for of the NBPTS model, and rather than to meet the needs of their students significant professional learning. reinventing the wheel, teachers were • the tasks were clear and fair and invited to trial the five NBPTS ‘entries’ designed appropriately for them Five portfolio entries were modelled on or tasks that comprised a complete to be able provide evidence for the NBPTS framework. portfolio, and to evaluate them in terms assessment against the standards3. 1. Teaching a major idea of science over of: Apart from evaluating the portfolio time: teachers provide evidence of • how appropriate the NBPTS tasks, teachers were invited to reflect how they design a teaching and portfolio tasks were for providing on their experience. The following is learning program or unit of work evidence of accomplished practice a representative sample of teachers’ centred on a major scientific idea in the Australian context, and views. that enables students to develop • how appropriate the NBPTS associated skills. Putting together a portfolio entry portfolio tasks would be as a means 2. Assessing students’ work: teachers (video) certainly was a challenging and provide evidence of how they use

3Semple, A. (2001). ASTA evaluation of NBPTS portfolio entries: Report of Portfolio Evaluation Teams (unpublished), ASTA.

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 45 assessment to evaluate students’ having standards of practice did not (i.e. were they authentic, assessable progress and further students’ mean standardisation of practice. Each and feasible?); and learning in science. portfolio task is structured so that it • the effects that completing a 3. Probing students’ understanding: provides evidence relevant to several portfolio entry had on their teachers provide evidence of how standards and retains the wholeness professional practice and they engage students in probing of teaching. And, the portfolio entries, professional interactions with their prior understanding of a major as a set, provide several independent colleagues. scientific concept and how they pieces of evidence about each of the A brief description of the support modify their teaching in response. standards, increasing the reliability of the assessment. program follows. 4. Active engagement in investigation and inquiry: teachers provide Despite teachers initial concerns that Setting up an infrastructure for evidence of how they engage they were able to submit everything students in discussion that involves that they thought relevant, there was professional learning the interpretation of data collected general agreement that the structured Research findings of the NBPTS and during an investigation of an format with guideline questions helped the experience of members of the important scientific concept. them to represent their teaching in the Australian PETs (2000) indicated 5. Leadership and collaboration in best possible light. There was: strongly that teachers wanted, and school and professional communities: ‘relief that there were boundaries! benefited from, collaborative and teachers provide evidence that The imposed word limit meant ongoing support and interaction their contribution extends beyond you had to remain quite focused through the process of preparing the classroom to the school and and really home in on the key portfolio entries. In collaboration with the wider professional community. ideas. Having set standards meant the Australian Council for Educational They show how interactions with that everyone else would face the Research (ACER), a six-session same constraints.’ students’ families/caregivers and the professional learning program, Relating local and professional communities professional standards to practice, was have contributed to their students’ Research on the designed based on the ASTA standards learning in science. reliability and validity and what research at the time revealed about best practice in professional Portfolio entries 1 and 2 each required of the assessment tasks development (Hawley & Valli, 1999; detailed critical analysis of and reflection National Academy of Science, 1995). on student work samples; each of (portfolio entries) entries 3 and 4 required detailed The next phase of the research project Funding to assist teachers through critical analysis of and reflection on an required larger numbers of teachers the trialling process was obtained unedited 20-minute video recording of to complete portfolio entries so that from education departments class interactions. The Portfolio 5 entry their measurement properties could in South Australia, Victoria and required verified evidence of active be evaluated, such as their ability to New South Wales, the Catholic leadership and a written reflection on be assessed reliably by trained peer Education Commission in Victoria the effects of such professional activity assessors. The next phase also required and by individual schools through the on their students’ learning in science. the development of a support structure Association of Independent Schools in South Australia. Some independent Portfolio entries, based on the NBPTS to help teachers to prepare their entries. schools in Victoria covered the cost of framework, were designed to make it their teachers’ participation. Member clear what kind of evidence teachers In total, 45 teachers completed one of associations of ASTA collaborated had to provide and how the evidence the ASTA developed portfolio entries in the delivery of the program and would be assessed, but to leave open in 2001 and 2002. After they had university credit was arranged for how teachers fulfilled the requirements. completed the entry, teachers were teachers who wished it. One teacher This format reduced the chance of invited to assess: took advantage of this opportunity. ambiguity in interpreting expectations • whether the draft tasks were (and therefore were legally defensible), Gathering the evidence to complete appropriate for assessing practice yet took account of the different their portfolio entry over a period of against the ASTA draft standards contexts in which teachers work. It was up to eight months engaged teachers important for teachers to realise that in authentic problems of teaching and

Research Conference 2006 46 student learning. Facilitated learning, perfect, I gained many ideas for Professional learning program sharing practice and discussion with improvement. I am more confident peers supported teachers through about sharing my practice with Finding and managing time to the process of viewing, analysing and others. There is value in having participate in the program and a formal structure on which to reflecting on their work that involved complete a portfolio task in a busy compare practice with others. This teaching schedule, and the degree of tracking the progress of students’ opportunity to reflect on teaching learning in a variety of contexts. support offered at the school level and consider ways of improving were problematic for some teachers. Participants were asked to complete practice should be available to ‘It’s difficult finding time for two questionnaires, one to evaluate others. I certainly found it to be a worthwhile exercise. It gives sessions and to do work the nature and process of completing teachers something to aspire in between … because it’s 4 the portfolio entries and the other to to and work towards achieving worthwhile doing it – it’s fantastic, evaluate the professional development specific standards. There is a I’m glad I went. The cost of the program that supported them in the tangible purpose to improving program makes it difficult to take process. practice and the possibility of part. If the budget is slashed, PD is developing a reward system for the first to go.’ achieving those standards.’ Findings However, teachers valued the Another teacher commented: opportunity to discuss their work. Portfolio tasks ‘The process allowed me to reflect ‘… getting together with others; upon the manner in which my In summary, all participating teachers the focus on teaching; it’s able to activities outside the classroom be used in the classroom – it’s agreed or strongly agreed that each of impact on successful study of relevant and therefore more the five portfolio tasks was authentic, science by all students in my effective. It’s highlighted the ways assessable and feasible. About a third of school. This has allowed me to students learn and made me the teachers who completed an entry refine aspects of my management look deeper into the learning requiring videotape of their lessons and reinforced my commitment to environment and how they learn. found some difficulties in arranging for this aspect of my role.’ (Entry 5) It’s been an incredibly invaluable videotaping and using video cameras. experience for me – access to Some teachers referred to the value of people, hear how they function, Despite initial concerns, teachers valued having professional standards to guide the experience of seeing themselves curriculum and so on … it’s them in their teaching and in their benefited me early in my career.’ and others in action. professional learning. In all, about 80 teachers have taken ‘Seeing yourself (and hearing) on ‘I now have a set of standards video shows certain flaws and, part in these programs of professional which I can adhere to throughout learning strongly linked to their work. although you may think you cover my teaching …’ something well, the video will/ Approximately 40 entries, distributed may show something different. I ‘For the first time in many years across the five components of a thought I cover asking every one I have had a structured way of portfolio, were submitted by primary in the class well – but not at all! analysing and reflecting on my and secondary teachers of science. The video also shows members science teaching. I have successfully Generally, participants agreed that completed AST 1 assessment of the class and their levels of they had been challenged, that their participation, especially when you and the application/selection professional knowledge had expanded are not asking them information process for promotion. However, – but the video is still on them.’ my classroom teaching in the and deepened, their practice improved specialised area of science has not – even revitalised in some instances The opportunity to analyse and been specifically analysed. I believe – and in the majority of cases, their reflect on their practice provided that long-term, this process will professional interactions had benefited. powerful learning opportunities for all significantly benefit my teaching respondents. of science and my input into Though evidence of the direct and discussion of effective teaching at measurable effect of these changes ‘When I finally finished the entry, school.’ on student learning has yet to be I looked back on my endeavours established, many teachers reported with pride. While it was far from on improvement in their students’

4Semple, A. (2001). Developing standards-based performance assessments for teachers of science. (unpublished) ASTA/ACER.

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 47 attitude and interest in learning science, more effective policies and career prepared for the Department of that they generally had a clearer pathways for attracting, developing and Education, Training and Youth Affairs. understanding of their learning and that retaining effective science teachers. For Canberra: DETYA. they were better able to judge their these policies to work, we will have Hawley, W., & Valli, L. (1999). The progress5. to find credible methods not only for essentials of effective professional defining what we think good science development: A new consensus. In L. teachers should know and be able to ASTA’s vision: What Darling-Hammond & G. Sykes (Eds.), do, but also for gathering evidence Teaching as the learning profession. has been achieved? about performance and assessing Handbook of policy and practice. San whether that evidence indicates that The work reported here has been Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. guided by a vision in which teacher the standards have been met. We need organisations like the Australian Science to get better at evaluating teaching if Ingvarson, L. & Kleinhenz, E. (2006). Teachers’ Association would play a we are find acceptable methods for Standards for advanced teaching: A stronger role in developing profession- giving recognition to teachers who review of national and international wide standards for highly accomplished reach high standards of practice. developments. Report prepared for Teaching Australia: The Australian practice and providing certification to In other words, this paper makes clear Institute for Teaching and School teachers who reached those standards. that the teaching profession is beginning Leadership. A full set of standards points to to build its own infrastructure for how evidence about capability and defining high quality teaching standards, lngvarson, L. C. (1995). Professional performance will be gathered, and how promoting development toward those credentials: Standards for primary and decisions will be made about whether standards and providing recognition secondary science teaching in Australia. the standards have been met. to those who meet them. The ASTA Canberra, Australian Science Teachers This paper has summarised preliminary initiative, and others like it, such as that Association. of the AAMT, is demonstrating that the research at ACER, conducted in National Academy of Sciences (1995). teaching profession has the capacity to collaboration with ASTA, to develop Standards for professional development build a standards-guided professional new methods for gathering evidence for teachers of science, in National learning system that will strengthen the about teaching performance that might Science Education Standards, 1995, quality of science teaching and learning be used in a system for providing National Academy of Sciences, in our schools. These initiatives are very recognition to highly accomplished Washington DC. science teachers. much in the interest of governments and other employing authorities and National Science Standards Committee The work reported here indicates therefore to be encouraged through (2002). National Professional Standards that ASTA has made considerable better remuneration and career for Highly Accomplished Teachers of progress towards developing a paths that better reflect what a highly Science, Canberra, Australian Science professional certification system. It has accomplished science teacher is worth, Teachers Association. also described how the process of not only to their school, but to our Senate Employment, Education and working towards standards for highly society and our economy. accomplished science teaching and Training Committee (1998). A Class assembling evidence in relation to Act: Inquiry into the Status of the those standards provides significant References Teaching Profession. Canberra: Senate Employment, Education and Training professional learning opportunities for Department of Education Science Committee. teachers of science. The shared process and Training. (2003). Australia’s of describing, analysing and reflecting teachers: Australia’s future. Canberra: Webster, E., Wooden, M., & Marks, G. on how one’s teaching compares with Department of Education, Science and (2004). Reforming the labour market for professional standards engages teachers Training. Australian teachers. Melbourne Institute in effective processes of professional of Applied Economics and Social Goodrum, D., Hackling, M., & Rennie, learning. Research Working Paper No 28/04, L. (2000). The status and quality of The University of Melbourne. Improving the quality of science learning teaching and learning of science in in our schools will undoubtedly require Australian schools: Research report

5Report of the National Professional Development Program (2001). ACER (unpublished).

Research Conference 2006 48 No wonder kids are confused: the relevance of science education to science

Abstract we have not been successful in creating the bridge between science and science My experiences in science have left me education. In this paper, I will make wondering if we know what we want a number of assertions that are a to achieve when educating students consequence of my journey in science in science. An important question for and science education. However, to science educators is: how authentic begin I will start with a story about the is the science presented in science experiences of some teacher colleagues classrooms? To answer this, science of mine – Rebecca and Vojtech. Deborah Corrigan educators need a clear idea of what is they believe to be the purpose of Monash University science and then how they can portray Year 9 Big Picture that in their classrooms. This paper Science Unit Deborah Corrigan is a Senior Lecturer in Science represents my journey in thinking about Education and Associate Dean (Teaching) at Rebecca and Vojtech have developed and researching of these ideas. It is my Monash University, Australia. After working as a a unit of science called ‘Big Picture Chemistry and Biology teacher for 10 years, Dr belief that, if we are to engage students Science’. The idea for this was taken Corrigan has worked at Monash University for in science, then science education has from a collaborative workshop run by 15 years in Chemistry and Science Education, to be far more authentic than it has particularly in teacher preparation. Her research science educators at Monash University been in the past. In this sense, the title interests include industry and technology links and their partner schools in an ASISTM with chemistry curricula, which has included an is apt – it is no wonder students are (Australian School Innovation in active involvement in many vocational educational confused as I believe that, as educators, Science, Mathematics and Technology) programs for students and teachers. However, we have not been successful in creating her main research interests remain improving project.1 The focus of this unit was the bridge between science and science the quality of chemistry and science education the ethical issues in Science, Medicine so that it is relevant to students, and improving education. the professional practice of teachers and other and Technology and who makes the industry professionals. decisions. Introduction An initial prompt was provided for My experiences in science have left me students through the viewing of a wondering if we know what we want television program – Grey’s Anatomy2, to achieve when educating students in which an ethical decision was posed in science. An important question for about which one of two accident science educators is how authentic victims should be saved. Students is the science presented in science were then asked to form groups classrooms. To answer this, science to research answers to a series of educators need a clear idea of what questions based on assigned roles of it is they believe to be the purpose of a doctor, a pharmaceutical research science and then how they can portray scientist, the government, a relative, and that in their classrooms. This paper a member of a ‘Right to Life’ group. represents my journey in thinking about Examples of questions that were posed and researching these ideas. It is my included: Russell Tytler, Professor of belief that, if we are to engage students Science Education, Deakin University, in science, then science education has Melbourne has been involved over to be far more authentic than it has many years with Victorian curriculum been in the past. In this sense, the title development and professional is apt – it is no wonder students are development projects. He was principal confused as I believe that, as educators, researcher for the highly successful

1Australian School Innovation in Science, Mathematics and Technology Project is a DEST funded project. Details can be found at http://www.asistm.edu.au/ 2Grey’s Anatomy (Episode 6 in Season 2) ‘Into You Like a Train’ in which several seriously injured patients, including Bonnie and Tom, a pair of passengers who have been impaled on a pole, are brought to hospital following a train crash.

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 49 School Innovation in Science initiative, Where does science fit into society? what we teach in science, we as which developed a framework for How much ‘say’ does science have teachers make a decision about describing effective science teaching and in issues that arise in society? How what is science content and what learning, and a strategy for supporting much credence is given to science is application. You could therefore when it comes to various aspects of teach a unit that is all content school and teacher change. His research society? How much of an influence without necessarily considering the interests also include student learning, does science have on the daily applications of the science within student reasoning and investigating in lives of people in our society? How society. Do the students view science science, and public understanding of relevant is science to the students’ as all content? How familiar are science. daily lives? Have we given students students with the fact that science the tools to make responsible has content and a role in society? Who has the final say on a medical decisions in the future? Have It is obvious that for students to procedure?; What laws might govern students made a link between the appreciate science’s role in society the type of research a scientist can decision making and the presence they need to be familiar with some do?; and Can scientists research of science? We’ve amalgamated scientific content. Thus, we ask the whatever they wish? All roles also had science with ethics, legalities and question: Is teaching science’s role in a requirement to find real-life examples politics, but is there science in all of society teaching science? or recent examples from the media. these areas? Have we emphasised that there is a link between decision This story highlights a number of Rebecca and Vojtech had clear making and science? Should we have important issues that we face as science purposes for this project. They wanted made it more explicit? How do we educators: what is science, and what to explore how their own knowledge get them [the students] to establish is the difference between science and teaching practice might develop, links between science and what and science education? As science and what promoted such development they’re actually doing? educators, we need to re-examine our over the course of the project. They Not only have Rebecca and Vojtech own notions of science as we need to also wanted to see if and how students’ been concerned about their teaching think about how our ideas of science learning might be challenged, reshaped and the learning going on their influence what happens in the science and/or enhanced through such an classrooms, they have also raised some classroom. Rebecca and Vojtech have approach. Decision making was an issues related with their curriculum begun this process as indicated above. important focus of the project at two planning: They felt they were taking a huge risk in different levels; first at the level of proposing such a unit of work. They did Can you run a science curriculum at deciding on the work itself (the topic); not know if their students would like Year 9 that is solely based on our this unit or consider it science, let alone and second, the work the students will Big Picture Science? Why wouldn’t do (and their decision about how to do we make this part of the science whether their parents would approve the task). curriculum? We are thinking more and parent/teacher interviews were looming. This unit was very different to Student responses were gathered as and more that this is something that should be just like any other topic. anything they had done previously and the project progressed and it became During this unit there has been no they did not know what the outcomes obvious that the students felt quite emphasis on content. The content would be. As indicated in their strongly that the topic had some has been left up to the students to comments above, they did not know meaning for them and was relevant to explore. If your curriculum was like what science students would learn and them. They also saw that the content this for an entire year, would the if what they learned was legitimate link between science and society be they were covering was clearly science, science. but the decision making that occurred more observable for the students? in science, they believed, went far This experience has led Rebecca and I chose this story from our ASISTM beyond the boundaries of science. Vojtech to rethink their own notions of research project as I think it provides science and science education: a good example of the journey that After 4 weeks on the project (one hour I have been travelling for a number a week while ‘normal’ science classes We feel that it is science simply of years, as a student of science, a continued for the other two lessons because decisions are made in teacher of science, as a parent, and science and a large aspect to this a week), Rebecca and Vojtech raised as a researcher in science education. assignment was decision making. a number of questions about their In writing this paper I realise I have experience from doing this project. We view science as having two aspects: content and application. not thought much about science in In terms of what is science and terms of my role as a member of

Research Conference 2006 50 the community, or at least not in the Meaningful contexts • the approach through relevance explicit way I would think of science in where attention is drawn to the any off the other roles mentioned. Research from my PhD (Corrigan, relevance of science to everyday life 1999) indicated that when technology and its social role; and industrial tasks were introduced • the vocational approach where A journey of science into chemistry curricula (VCE Chemistry attention is given to the professional as a specific example) with the purpose experiences and social roles science plays in a of introducing contexts that were From a constructivist viewpoint, my person’s career path; relevant and meaningful to students and experiences have influenced my part of their real world, their success • the transdisciplinary approach concept of science and why we should was limited for a variety of reasons. where science is considered across learn science. Science should help us Chemistry teachers’ own experiences of discipline areas rather than as a make sense of what is around us. If this technology arose from a largely science- discrete discipline on its own; is what science is about, what does it dominated curriculum (Fensham, 1988). • the historical approach which mean for what we teach in science? My The shift in curriculum emphases recognises the historical activity experiences (and I will not detail them (Roberts, 1982) in this instance meant associated with research; all here, only highlight a few) have led they were now asked to teach from me to frame a number of assertions. • the philosophical approach a technology-dominated curriculum. These include: which recognises that science Consequently, teachers were being should be presented as a • The context matters and it needs to asked to teach using contexts that more or less coherent body of be meaningful; were largely unfamiliar to them. Their knowledge, organised logically • Purposeful learning and the response to this situation was to focus around theoretical principles and applications and use of knowledge on the task itself rather than providing validated through observation and in different ways matters; an opportunity for students to experimentation; experience the work of a chemist. • Purposeful teaching matters; • the sociological approach which • Doing science matters; and, In addition, this research highlighted recognises science (and technology) how problematic it can be to introduce as social institutions, internally • Science is making sense of what’s contexts that are meaningful and indeed organised to produce knowledge around you, using your knowledge, what makes contexts meaningful. For a and know-how, externally linked to skills and abilities to create meaning. context to have meaning implies that and embedded in society at large; I believe that we, as science teachers, there is a sharing of understanding, and can do so much more for our students between all involved, of the context. If • the problematic approach where as they learn science. Some of the the contexts used to create meaning attention is given to the problems research that I, and others, have done are not familiar, such as the chemical of our time, e.g. overpopulation, and which highlights some findings that industry for many chemistry teachers, present science in an interrelated support this belief follows. Science then teachers in developing their own way to the rest of society. educators need to provide a bridge limited understanding of such contexts, between science and science education often act as filters to help create if students are to appreciate what meaning for their students. In some Purposeful learning and science can offer in a number of roles instances, teachers provided students the application and use such as a scientific worker, a consumer with structural frames, such as through of knowledge and as a responsible citizen. It is my an issues-based or a community-based belief that science educators have not approach (Ziman, 1994), and provided Science educators need to have a understood this responsibility very well mechanisms for developing contexts clear purpose of what they hope their and are confused by what science is that were meaningful for students across students will learn. In order to do and how science education is linked settings such as school, home and this, they also need to have a clear to it. It is therefore not surprising that industry. Ziman, proposed a multiplicity personal idea of what they believe students are confused. of approaches that can be adopted that to be knowledge worth learning and may help to extend and complement the nature of science itself. There the exploration of the domain of valid has been much research into this science. Such approaches include: and I will not detail this here. Grandy

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 51 and Duschl (2005) suggest that the shown with a capital S, that is familiar it. This interpretation may include nature of science has shifted to the to scientists as it is the product (and encoding, but requires deconstruction present model-based explanations process) of scientific research, as and reconstruction of the Science where science is seen as a cognitive, opposed to science that requires information into a science-related social and epistemic practice. That some interpretation of Science if a story. Rennie proposes the use of is, science is about the thought and layperson or student is able to access the word ‘story’ here as according to skill processes involved in acquiring knowledge and skills of different types that are embedded in our society. Science as process (Scientific inquiry – note science as an adjective which The knowledge types here should turns it into something that’s not exclusively science) not be limited to traditional academic experimental method or conceptual knowledge (knowing being able to investigate science) but should also include, for asking questions example, vocational-based knowledge using evidence to (attempt to) explain things around us (knowledge to be able to do) as Peter communication of results, ideas (within and outside team) and the language of Fensham and myself have detailed science compared with communication of scientific ideas in popular culture previously (Corrigan & Fensham, working in a team 2002). Or knowledge should include the nature of the evidence, e.g. respect for data and work knowledge represented in some Human qualities (Private vs public understanding) curriculum with an STS emphasis which passion ‘emphasize the basic facts, skills and honesty concepts of traditional science, but do integrity so by integrating the science content fairness into social and technological contexts curiosity meaningful for students’ (Aikenhead, sharing 1994, p. 59). ethical Other research I have been doing openness to change (including change in behaviours) (Corrigan & Gunstone, 2006) has Cognitive explored the values within science Challenge current theories and practices (includes other knowledge claims, e.g. and science education (and maths and science and religion) mathematics education). In exploring Not constant, changing, developing values, we used Halstead’s (1996) Theories description of values: Intellectual rigour (logic, creation, elegance); How do we know? The principles, fundamentals, Science makes mistakes; there are no absolutes (e.g. controversial issues such convictions, ideals, standards, or as genetic cloning); can be interpreted in a variety of ways life stances which act as general guides or as points of reference in Societal decision-making or the evaluation Value of contributing to society of beliefs or actions and which Science has and will impact on society (including its problematic nature) are closely connected to personal Where does it exist in real life? integrity and personal identity. (p. 5) Science is wide ranging/universal/applies in numerous contexts In this research we have been Science’s ability to (assist in) solve(ing) problems working from the premise that there School Science are inherent values embedded in Learning tools, e.g. research skills a person’s ability to distinguish and How students learn science, e.g. kinaesthetic discriminate between knowledge The skills we want including science literacy claims. The knowledge claims in * Groupings and labels for these generated by author. science are clouded by the need to bridge the world of science and the world of school science. Rennie Figure 1 Teachers responses to the question (2006) distinguishes between Science, ‘If you were working with other scientists, what would you value?’

Research Conference 2006 52 Milne (1998) ‘once ideas are presented very broad and vague perceptions by not capture the large field of vocational selectively in science we are no longer teachers of what values are. science, which is more competency- telling the facts. We are instead telling based and sometimes about mastery. a story’ (p. 176). So science education Doing science matters Coles (2002), Gaskell (2002) and must be telling a science story, but how Corrigan (2002) have outlined how close to the original Science are these My PhD research (Corrigan, 1999) the practice of science in these stories? found that secondary school chemistry contexts can take many forms. For teachers have well-developed notions example, a lithographer requires quite The model of the nature of science of the nature of scientific knowledge, a sophisticated chemistry knowledge, but as proposed by Grandy and Duschl realistic perspective of the role science this knowledge is only known in order (2005) appears to fit more closely plays in society, the authority of science to master techniques of etching. with teachers’ views gathered from a in society and scientific research being science professional development activity purposeful. However, their notions on exploring their ideas of ‘Big Ideas in the way scientists work, the reward Purposeful teaching Science’ where they were asked: ‘If you system that operates for scientists One of the most difficult things to do were working with other scientists, what and the communal nature of scientific as a teacher is to have a clear purpose would you value?’ While the expectation work remained relatively naïve. This for why you are doing something and was that teachers would come up with has implications for the teaching of plan ways to provide evidence that more obvious values such as logical chemistry as the societal aspects of you know this has been achieved. thinking and experimental evidence, the chemistry will be represented largely by It is something I try to model in my list they produced was somewhat richer the authority role science has in society own teaching and a constant plea than anticipated, as indicated by the in developing content knowledge that I make to pre-service teachers summary of their responses generated at that has purpose. It will not include and experienced teachers alike. Over the professional development sessions, the activity of scientists in creating an the last couple of years, I have been and reproduced in Figure 1 (left). acceptable body of knowledge, or the focusing more on two things – tracking The list in Figure 1 demonstrates that procedure of obtaining recognition the learning of my students and myself, these teachers consider a wide range of in science through research and the particularly through learning logs values to be associated with the science publication of research – the practice of (Korthagen, 2001) and re-examining they teach. Expected values such as chemistry was absent! both my own (and also as a teacher educator, my students’) development the cognitive dimensions were present, The practice of science is not bound of pedagogical content knowledge or but also present were values associated by regimes such as in the Scientific PCK. Shulman (1986) conceived that with science as a process that can also Method, which I believe only exists PCK acknowledged the importance be used in ways that are not clearly in school science and not in Science. of the transformation of subject identified as scientific. For example, There is research around the work matter knowledge into subject matter being able to ask questions is seen as of scientists (Latour & Woolgar, knowledge for teaching. PCK is the important in the scientific process, but 1976) and what can be recreated, knowledge of how to relate specific is also central in many other pursuits. modelled and considered in the content in a way that all students can Science was clearly seen as a human science classroom. Osborne (2000) learn it. There is an increasing number endeavour, with human qualities has talked about the role of argument of research studies in this area in featuring in the list, and a human in the science classroom, Hart et al. science (for example, Loughran et al, endeavour that is embedded in society. (2002) have talked about the role of 2006) and, while many of these studies The category of school science that practical work to name a few. The explore traditional science content emerged from the teacher responses shift in more recent times to scientific such as Forces, The Particle Model and was also an important one as it implies investigations is responding to a need Cells, I believe PCK has the potential to that school science by its very nature to engage students in more authentic explore science knowledge of different must be different from science and approaches to the way scientist’s work types and in multiple contexts. For have different values associated with it. and communicate their ideas. Hence example, what, if any, is the PCK that a the role of discourse and argumentation The list in Figure 1 is an example that master lithographer uses to pass on his become crucial in developing more there is acceptance, among teachers skills and knowledge to an apprentice. authentic work practices within the at least, of values in science education, These are areas yet to be explored. science field. But these approaches do but it appears that there remains However, the benefit of PCK is that

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 53 the teacher must critically examine an effort to help students use science Corrigan, D. J., 1999. Industry and what, why and how they are teaching to make sense of their world. And Technology Links with Chemistry something and provide evidence of we need to be explicit about this Curricula. Unpublished PhD Thesis, what learning has been achieved if they to students so that they can take an Monash University, Melbourne. are to develop their PCK further. active role in making meaning of this Corrigan, D. J. & Fensham, P. J., 2002. science in their world (and not only The Roles of Chemistry in Vocational the teachers’ world). Science should Rebecca and Vojtech’s Education in J. Gilbert, O. DeJOng, R. explain the natural world and if you Justi, D. Treagust & J.VanDriel (Eds.), Story – making sense of take the students’ natural world, then Chemical Education: Towards research- the explanations that follow look our world using science based practice. Dordrecht: Kluwer vastly different from what is often Publishing. Rebecca and Vojtech’s story has raised represented in science education texts. a number of questions. For example, Corrigan, D. J. and Gunstone, R. F., (in I think these are important things to the question ‘Is teaching science’s role press). Consideration of values taught think about if we are to really engage in society teaching science?’ might be in the school science curriculum in students in science. No wonder kids answered by explaining that I believe Corrigan, D. J., Dillon, J. & Gunstone, are confused about science – science they have it the wrong way around. R. F. (Eds.), The Re-emergence of Values educators are confused about science Since science is a creation of society, in Science Education. Sense Publishers, and its relation to science education. embedding it in a social construct Dordrecht, The Netherlands. should be science. However, I believe that the power in Rebecca and Acknowledgments Fensham, P. J., 1988. Approaches to the Vojtech’s story is more about raising teaching of STS in science education. questions and taking a value position I would like to thank Rebecca Cooper International Journal of Science of one’s own on a range of things and Vojtech Markus for their wonderful Education, 10(4), 346-356. teaching expertise and insights into that are important in teaching and Gaskell, J., 2002. Integrating Academic learning science than actually answering their classrooms as colleagues in science teacher research. and Vocational Science and these questions – context, purposeful Mathematics in Secondary School: learning and the application and use The Experience of British Columbia. of knowledge, doing science, and References An invited keynote at the 10th purposeful teaching that can help lead Aikenhead, G., 1994. What is STS Symposium of the International to using science to help make sense of science teaching? In J. Solomon, & Organisation of Science and your world. Values are a fundamental G. Aikenhead (Eds.) STS Education Technology Education, Foz do Igacu, part of science (and many other areas) International Perspectives on Reform, Brazil, July. and should be a fundamental part of Teachers College Press, New York, science education. Unfortunately, they Grandy, R. & Duschl, R. (2005). 47–59. are often left out of science education. Reconsidering the character and role I think what Rebecca and Vojtech Coles, M., 2002. Establishing high of inquiry in a school science: Analysis are doing is putting them back in and status and high volume vocational of a conference. Paper presented consequently, the science education science: the UK experience. An invited at the International History and in this instance is far more authentic keynote at the 10th Symposium of the Philosophy of Science and Science science than what they or their International Organisation of Science Teaching Group meeting in Leeds, students have experienced previously. and Technology Education, Foz do England July 15–18, 2005. Igacu, Brazil, July. I think Rebecca and Vojtech’s story Halstead, J. H. (1996). Values and values begins to achieve what I have Corrigan, D. J., 2002. The Curriculum education in schools. In J. M. Halstead represented above as the current for Academic and Vocational & M. J. Taylor (Eds.), Values in thinking about science and science Education in Science. An invited education and education in values (pp. education. They are re-examining the keynote at the 10th Symposium of the 3–14). The Falmer Press, London, UK. contexts they use, the learning and use International Organisation of Science Hart, C., Mulhall, P., Berry, A., Loughran, of knowledge, getting their students and Technology Education, Foz do J. and Gunstone, R., 2002. What is the doing science, re-examining their Igacu, Brazil, July. purpose of this experiment? Or can own teaching and their purposes in students learn something from doing

Research Conference 2006 54 experiments? Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37(7), pp 655–675. Korthagen, F., 2001. Linking practice and theory: The pedagogy of realistic teacher education. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Education Research Association, Seattle, April. Latour, B. & Woolgar, S. 1979. Laboratory Life: The social construction of scientific facts. Sage, London, UK. Loughran, J. J., Berry, A., & Mulhall, P. 2006. Understanding and Developing Science Teachers Pedagogical Content Knowledge. Sense Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. Milne, C. (1998). Philosophically correct science stories? Examining the implications of heroic science stories for school science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 35, 175–187. Osborne, J., 2000. The role of argument in science education. In K. Boersma, M. Goedhart, O. DeJong & H.Eijkelhof (Eds.), Research and the Quality of Science Education, Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp 367–380. Rennie, L., 2006. (in press). Values in Science Portrayed. In Out-Of- School Contexts in D. J. Corrigan, J. Dillon, J. & R. F. Gunstone. (Eds.), The Re-emergence of Values in Science Education. Sense Publishers, The Netherlands. Roberts, D. A., 1982. Developing the concept of curriculum emphases in science education, Science Education, 66(2), 243–260. Shulman, L. S. 1986. Those who understand: knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. Ziman, J., 1994. The rationale of STS education is in the approach. In J. Solomon & G. Aikenhead (Eds.). STS Education International Perspectives on Reform, Teachers College Press, New York, 21–31.

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 55 Re-thinking science education through re-thinking schooling

Abstract new ways of teaching and learning in science. An innovative opportunity was The Australian Science and generated that continues to be pivotal Mathematics School was designed in the generation of new ideas and new explicitly to support a renaissance thinking. in the teaching of science and to improve the engagement of students The ASMS was never to be more of in the disciplines of science through the same: highly engaging authentic learning Policymakers and educators in Jim Davies opportunities. The school has adopted the western world, are gradually an action research approach as a realizing that traditional schooling Australian Science and Mathematics School means of re-thinking the elements of has run its course and that trying schooling and of its science programs. to improve it by a policy of ‘more Jim Davies is currently Principal of the Australian Its working premise is that quality of the same’, is senseless. Yoram Science and Mathematics School, a public Harpaz (2000) school established in partnership with Flinders science education is embedded in University in South Australia. Associate Professor quality schooling. Science is learned Students, educators and leaders are Davies has previously held leadership positions through an innovative interdisciplinary all learners at the centre of re-thinking within the education system in South Australia curriculum with a pedagogy aligned to schooling at the ASMS. Their working including District Superintendent, Principal and Superintendent leading the introduction of local the inquiry methodologies associated premise is that quality science education school management throughout the public with deep engagement in scientific is embedded in quality schooling and education system in South Australia. endeavour. The architecturally designed they are all striving for what can be Prior to his career in educational leadership and school has transformed the traditional, better, different, creative and innovative. administration, Jim taught agricultural science, stereotypical roles of teachers and Deep thinking and communicating science and health education and was the learners. A strategic partnership with program leader at Urrbrae Agricultural High about core beliefs concerning learning Flinders University has been pivotal School, a special focus school in Adelaide. His and schooling generated six big ideas in promoting leading edge, emergent current professional interests are in the areas as ‘perspectives for the future’ for the of educational innovation, science education, sciences in the curriculum and providing ASMS. What would the ASMS do re-configuration of the professional work professional learning opportunities for of teachers, new designs for schooling and and be? The Australian Science and staff. The school is now in its fourth alternative modes of learning. Mathematics School would: year of operation and this paper reflects Jim’s work is not confined to the Australian • Respond to the current and future Science and Mathematics School. He is currently on key elements that define the school chair of the South Australian Department of and its science education programs as interests and needs of its students Education’s ‘Science & Mathematics Futures innovative and transformative. to establish critical and transparent Innovations Committee’, a board member of The models of excellence in science and Investigator Science & Technology Centre. He is mathematics education also chair of the Veterans’ Children’s Education Introduction Board for SA and NT. • Provide a learning environment The genesis and development of the of leading edge and enterprise- Australian Science and Mathematics oriented science, mathematics and School (ASMS) was an innovative technology opportunity, and an opportunity to be innovative. • Provide a learning culture for its students that derives from the Almost always, new schools are learning culture of its staff, which in established and built because of the turn derives from their interaction pragmatic need to service the general with university and industry education requirements of a new scientists and educators population of students and almost • Prepare young people to be always around a comprehensive creative, critical, informed and neighbourhood schooling model. motivated contributors responding There was no such driver for the to professional, personal and social establishment of the ASMS, its origins issues being driven by the need to explore

Research Conference 2006 56 • Increase participation and success of senior secondary students in WIDER WIDER science, mathematics and related EDUCATION SCHOOL technologies and transforms COMMUNITY ACT COMMUNITY students’ attitudes to science and mathematics as career paths Curriculum • Be an agency for change and – interdisciplinary enhancement of science and mathematics education for the OBSERVE state of South Australia and then PLAN Process for nationally and internationally. Professional STUDENTS learning learning TEACHERS – pedagogy STUDY LEADERS ASMS Cycle of Re-Thinking Professional REFLECT The development of the ASMS has Learning space partnerships been driven by an adaptation of models commonly associated with terms such as ‘learning organisations’ and ‘action research’ (Argyris & Schon, RESPOND MODIFY 1996; Senge, 1990; Dibella, 2003). The WIDER UNIVERSITY PARTNER ASMS Cycle of Re-Thinking (Figure 1) SCIENCE COMMUNITY is a representation of the interaction of pivotal factors that are explicitly identified as core to the achievement Figure 1 ASMS Cycle of Re-Thinking of the outcomes associated with the starting ‘big ideas’. curriculum designed to facilitate learning university and workplace studies. connections across the traditional Students and staff are weaving scientific The ASMS views itself as a disciplines and to give confidence that understanding and logic into cultural, development and research school a depth of discipline knowledge and social, historical, legal and ethical that engages in a continuous cycle of understanding will be gained. perspectives, generating meaningful and planning, acting, studying outcomes of connected understandings about the action and reflecting collaboratively in The constructs that provide pathways world for students. order to develop new knowledge and into higher education are such that levels of understanding. This in turn Year 12 students remain locked in The development of a science informs planning for subsequent action. the state-wide syllabuses describing education program that engages the traditional disciplines of physics, students with opportunities for learning Re-thinking the science chemistry and biology. at the leading edge of enterprise- oriented science has been a significant Learning is structured in Central Studies, curriculum priority. Predictably, students’ future around some key themes such as endeavour and their occupations The ASMS is attempting to better ‘Towards Nanotechnology’, ‘Earth and will be aligned with these sciences understand how to liberate science Cosmos’ or ‘Sustainable Futures’. These and technologies. Re-shaping science teaching from rigid preoccupations themes liberate science from being seen curriculum for the inclusion of leading- about what needs to be learned, as a set of narrow technicalities. The edge science is a significant vehicle in what sequence and when. It interdisciplinary studies are shaped by for extending the levels of student has responded by developing an a curriculum framework (see Figure 2) engagement in learning science. interdisciplinary curriculum and a designed to facilitate deep engagement Traditional teaching and learning in pedagogical approach for its Year with essential scientific knowledge, skills schools does not speak to students 10 and 11 students that enables and attitudes across the key science about the science and technology of student-directed learning which is disciplines and connect with projects satellite navigation, biomimetics, laser responsive to students’ interests. It is a of major significance that may involve tweezers, intelligent polymers, quantum

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 57 by students throughout the school day. Open, multi-purpose ‘studios’, where INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM students’ primary activities are focused METACOGNITION on scientific inquiry, have replaced DISCIPLINARY PILLARS conventional school laboratories where experimental replication has been the ENGAGEMENT INDIVIDUAL PATHWAYS & MOTIVATION UNIVERSITY MODULES predominant point of engagement for INQUIRY PROJECTS students. Social space merges with TEACHER DIRECTED WORKPLACE STUDIES physical learning space which, in turn, DEEPER LEARNING merges with e-learning space. FERTILE QUESTION AUTHENTIC EXPERIENCE The fundamental idea of the ASMS is to PROJECT OF SIGNIFICANT LEARNING be a collaborative learning community where the teacher’s predominant role, ESSENTIAL SCIENTIFIC & MATHEMATICAL defined as learning coach, mentor and KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS & ATTITUDES ‘guide on the side’, is enhanced by this architecture. The developed concept Figure 2 ASMS Central Study Framework of a collaborative learning community facilitates the aggregation of critical computers, artificial photosynthesis or and educators. The curriculum is ever intellect that, in some ways, emulates other emergent technologies that will evolving as new content and new that which is typically attributed to dramatically change our lives in the near pedagogical approaches to the teaching scientific research projects. future. A significant focus for curriculum of this content emerge. An emergent development has been the search for curriculum, reflective of emergent Re-thinking processes the foundational science that shapes science, is under development. the ‘disciplinary pillar’ at the centre of for learning each Central Study. Opportunities for Re-thinking learning This architecture facilitates learning learning and deep understanding of the that draws on and transfers the power emergent sciences emanate from the space of adolescent social interaction into disciplinary pillar. The design of the ASMS building moves the learning activities. This fosters Through the development of away from architectural-pedagogical high levels of collaboration between ‘University Modules’, the ASMS has paradigms that reinforce teacher- students and among teachers and also developed an enrichment and centred pedagogical practice and define students. The talking, doing, watching extension curriculum that engages the traditional power relationship and thinking that fosters and generates students with snapshots of leading-edge between teacher and student. It is youthful exuberance and powerful science. University academics tend to designed for highly collaborative and learning in social constructs is applied take the lead in ‘University Modules’ interactive, student-directed approaches and adapted to shape rigorous learning with teachers working alongside. The that transfer the power of adolescent in the school. modules allow students to delve deeper social interaction into the learning Through adaptations of Harpaz’s into a scientific aspect connected to environment. It allows for students to ‘Community of Thinking’ model, one of the Central Studies, with some work independently, interacting in small teachers at the ASMS are planning elements finding their way into the groups or engaged in direct instruction learning activities and developing the core of the Central Studies, supporting in groups ranging in size from two to artefacts to support learning with the further re-generation of curriculum. two hundred. following predominant approaches: The innovative curriculum at the ASMS Flexibility and adaptability in the • Talking: Open-mindedness and has been generated from extensive use of space, by both teachers and the ability to adapt to change consultation processes and redefines students, supports a wide variety of is supported by simulations, the traditional concept of curriculum teaching and learning activities and teamwork, experimentation, ideas in senior secondary education. The styles. Teachers’ work spaces are generation, problem solving, inquiry curriculum achieves a validity and open areas. These merge with ‘learning projects, discussion, analysis and depth endorsed by practising scientists commons’ and facilitate ready access argument in interactive settings.

Research Conference 2006 58 • Doing: Students are actively engaged Re-thinking professional The foundation beliefs on which in experimentation and investigation the ASMS is staking its future are assisting them to make connections partnerships and really important for all in the school between their learning and the processes for community. These are being continually real-life application of the learning. professional learning worked through and explicitly They are supported in practising articulated. A shared sense and and applying their learning and The ASMS is a place where students, awareness is emerging of what it is that developing models for replication. teachers, university scientists, parents drives and supports the behaviours, They are challenged to get things and community members mutually actions and ethics of the school. You done, to implement solutions and to connect, contextualise and engage in can see people working in sync with discover what really works. the learning. The provision of a learning each other. There is an awareness of • Watching: Students are provided culture for its students that derives what is happening elsewhere in the with the opportunity, time and from the learning culture of its staff has school and why. The foundations are in space to observe and reflect on been a pervasive and enduring intent. place that allow for a relentless focus experiences. They are engaged in The development of a strong on learning, in particular in innovative observing, listening, researching partnership with Flinders University has science. Students are increasingly and reviewing with an emphasis on been an integral component supporting articulate about their learning, the understanding ideas and situations the re-thinking. Opportunities for degree of rigour in the curriculum, their from different perspectives. Students teachers of science to focus on level of engagement with the learning are challenged to see and develop developments in scientific knowledge activities, the quality of the relationships different solutions to challenging, and methods have come through in the school community, their learning ‘fertile’ questions where objectivity co-construction of science education outcomes and myriad other indicators and astute judgement is important. programs by teachers and research of importance to their lives. Their benchmarks are the most important of • Thinking: Students are engaged scientists. Teachers and scientists all and attentiveness to these voices will in significant inquiry projects have worked side by side on the drive future innovative practice. where they are formulating development of curriculum and conceptualisations of situations in laboratory activities, on reading and Reflection is a constant within the order to generate theories, models analysing current scientific writings ASMS Cycle of Re-Thinking. What our and conclusions that add to their and through participation in science students feel, say and do is of primary understanding of the situation. research conferences. interest and importance. Student opinion Skills of critical analysis and creative about their schooling has been collected thinking are highly valued and Reflecting on the through the use of the ACER: School supported through the provision of Life Questionnaire (see Table 1). explicit thinking time. re-thinking The students’ opinions about their The teaching practice at the ASMS An innovative, inviting and engaging schooling experiences provide general is variously summarised as being school culture has been created. It support for the directions taken in the collaborative, inquiry-based, and is heard in the voices in the school’s re-thinking within the development of student-centred, constructivist learning. buildings; the teacher’s voice which is the ASMS. The high levels of agreement It is applied in a comprehensive, confirming, encouraging, acknowledging expressed by students in relation to their interdisciplinary curriculum framework and challenging; the student’s voice feelings about their social integration and is clearly focused on supporting which is excited, confident, inquisitive, at the school are consistent with the students to think independently sharing and launching into other significant focus on collaborative learning and critically and to gain a deep places. It is generated through exciting and the sense of a positive community understanding of concepts, in particular curriculum and interdisciplinary teaching culture that prevails in the school. around science. where the focus is on connected, student-driven learning and not the The intention to move away from confines of traditional subjects. A architectural-pedagogical paradigms that commonplace activity in the ASMS is reinforce teacher-centred pedagogical telling and listening about learning, and practice and define the traditional especially learning about learning. power relationship between teacher and student is supported by the students’

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 59 Table 1 Student Opinion: ACER: School Life Questionnaire (2005 ASMS cohort) References Percentage Agreement Argyris, C. & Schon, D. A. (1996), Organisational Learning II: Theory, Year 10 Year 11 Year 12 All Method and Practice, Addison-Wesley, 2004 2005 2004 2005 2004 2005 2004 2005 Reading: MA. Australian Council of Educational General 71 78 80 69 67 69 73 72 Research (2005). Reforming the satisfaction teaching of science and mathematics through the collaboration of Flinders Teacher items 87 85 83 78 85 83 85 82 University staff in the Australian Science and Mathematics School: New science Relevance items 86 76 84 74 75 76 82 76 foundations project. Melbourne: ACER. Australian Government (2004). Success items 81 74 86 78 68 75 79 76 Australian science: Building our future. DEMOS (2004). ‘About Learning: Report of the Learning Working Status items 69 70 73 72 71 70 71 71 Group’ www.demos.co.uk Social Dibella, A. J. (2003). Managing 88 88 88 86 91 88 89 87 integration items organisations as learning portfolios, The Systems Thinker, Vol. 14, No. 6. Negative 18 23 19 21 32 29 23 25 affect items Harpaz, Y. (2000). Teaching and learning in a community of thinking. Jerusalem: Branco Weiss Institute. affirmation of their level of satisfaction Certificate of Education school exit with teachers and the teaching that measures, this cohort achieved well Senge, P. (1990), The fifth discipline, they receive. With this context in mind, above the means for all students in Doubleday, New York, NY it is also useful to note the increase in South Australia. Thirty-two per cent of ‘negative affect’ alongside the decreasing the ASMS students were in the 90th agreement in ‘general satisfaction’ as percentile and 52 per cent achieved students move into their final year of results that put them in the top 20 per schooling and are faced with state- cent of students in the state. determined syllabuses and high stakes Such outcomes are welcome data as the examinations where students have ASMS moves forward in its quest to re- significantly less opportunity to negotiate think schooling for students in the senior and direct their learning. secondary years. However, the leaders The learning outcomes of the first and staff of the ASMS along with their cohort of students to complete their University colleagues recognise there are final three years of schooling at the still many factors to re-think including the ASMS are also reaffirming. These tracking of graduates from the ASMS to students came to the ASMS from a see if careers in science and mathematics diversity of backgrounds, from over 40 are pursued; the challenge of providing different feeder schools, from all areas interdisciplinary and personalised learning of South Australia, from a range of while state-based examinations still socioeconomic backgrounds and from assess on a discipline specific basis; and a range of cultural backgrounds. Their attracting appropriately qualified staff interest in science, not their ability in ready to work in innovative ways. The science, was used as a criterion for re-thinking continues. enrolment. Using South Australian

Research Conference 2006 60 Science achievement in Australia: Evidence from national and international surveys

Abstract Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), conducted What can we say about science with Year 4 and Year 8 students achievement in Australian schools? and managed by the International Does it really need a boost? Is science Association for the Evaluation of education in Australia engaging and Educational Achievement (IEA); and the motivating, or is the curriculum OECD Programme for International irrelevant and students disinterested? Student Assessment (PISA), conducted Are there particular issues for with 15-year-old students. Further Sue Thomson Indigenous students? Within the evidence from the Longitudinal Surveys National Testing Program, Australia Australian Council for Educational Research of Australian Youth (LSAY) program participates in two major international will be examined to ascertain students’ studies with a partial focus on science: participation in sciences at the post- Sue Thomson is a Principal Research Fellow at the Trends in International Mathematics ACER. Dr Thomson is the National Research compulsory level, and from the TIMSS Coordinator for Australia in the Trends in and Science Study (TIMSS), conducted Science Video Study to describe International Mathematics and Science Study with Year 4 and Year 8 students the practices in Australian science (TIMSS), which measures trends in mathematics and managed by the International classrooms. The presentation utilises and science achievement for students in grades Association for the Evaluation of 4 and 8, and as the National Project Manager data from these studies and examines for Australia for the OECD Programme for Educational Achievement (IEA); and the what we know about science teaching International Student Assessment (PISA), which OECD Programme for International in Australia, what students know and examines reading, mathematical and scientific Student Assessment (PISA), conducted literacy of 15-year-old students. understand about science, whether they with 15-year-old students. In addition, are interested in science, and whether Sue has worked on the Longitudinal Surveys of the Longitudinal Surveys of Australian they continue to study the sciences. Australian Youth programme, and has managed Youth (LSAY) program provides us the Australian component of Schools around the World, an international project examining with evidence about the outcomes assessment in science and mathematics, and of education, and the TIMSS Science What do we know Project Good Start, which examined children’s Video Study provides us with a about science teaching numeracy in the transition from preschool to the comparative view of the Australian first year of school. in Australia? science classroom and describes its practices. The presentation utilises There are two sources of evidence data from these studies and examines about science teaching in Australia. what we know about science teaching Firstly, we have data from the teachers in Australia, what students know and of the TIMSS students – not a random understand about science, whether they sample of teachers but the teachers of are interested in science, and whether a sample of students whose class was they continue to study the sciences. chosen randomly. Secondly, we have the TIMSS Video Study, which was a Introduction highly intensive examination of Year 8 science teaching in five countries. In The theme of this conference is Australia, 87 schools participated and ‘Boosting science learning’. Before the teacher of the science class was we can look at whether science filmed for one complete Year 8 science learning needs a boost, however, we lesson. should look at the evidence about The TIMSS survey focused on factors achievement, about whether students such as teachers’ backgrounds, readiness find science engaging and motivating, to teach, participation in professional and whether there are particular development, and teachers’ perceptions issues for particular sub-groups of the about factors limiting instruction. A population. This paper examines the key element in what students have evidence from Australia’s participation learned is the amount of time given to in two major international studies that teaching science. At Year 4, students have a partial focus on science: the

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 61 in Australia spent about 5 per cent of to draw evidence-based conclusions TIMSS their instructional time learning science, in order to understand and help make which is the third lowest proportion of decisions about the natural world The 2002 TIMSS assessment continues all countries participating in TIMSS at and the changes made to it through Australia’s participation in international this level and significantly less than the human activity’. PISA was developed studies in science, extending back international average. The proportion to monitor educational outcomes and, to the First International Science of instructional time varied from 16 because of its cyclical nature, is able Study in 1970. The present study per cent for the Philippines to 3 and to monitor trends in performance is the third combined mathematics 4 per cent in the Netherlands and over time. PISA allows us to make and science study in which Australia Norway. Australian students in Year 8 comparisons of achievement in scientific has participated since 1994, and spent, on average, 13 per cent of their literacy across OECD (and other) provides the opportunity to build instructional time on learning science, countries. The focus of each cycle of a comprehensive picture of trends which was similar to the international PISA rotates through the three major in, and patterns of, achievement in average and the instructional time spent domains – reading literacy (2000), science at Year 4 and Year 8. TIMSS in ‘like’ countries such as the USA, mathematical literacy (2003) and uses the curriculum as the major England and New Zealand. scientific literacy, which has been the organising concept in considering how major domain examined in the recent educational opportunities are provided Data from the TIMSS video study data collection for PISA 2006. In each to students and how students use these suggests that Year 8 science lessons of the years 2000 and 2003, scientific opportunities, and science is assessed in focus in some way on high content literacy was examined as a minor each cycle of the study. There are three standards and expectations for learning. domain, and when the data analysis content domains defined at Year 4: Of course the definition of high content for PISA 2006 is complete we will Life Science, Physical Science and Earth standards varies from country to achieve a complete picture of scientific Science, and five domains defined at country. In addition, the data suggested literacy in the final year of compulsory Year 8: Life Science, Chemistry, Physics, that a common content-focused schooling. Earth Science and Environmental pedagogical approach was used in all of Science. As well as reporting overall the higher-achieving studies examined. From the PISA assessments to date we science scores and scores in each of the are able to group Australian students A number of other teacher defined domains, TIMSS also developed with countries such as the Netherlands, characteristics from the TIMSS teacher four international benchmarks, ranging New Zealand, the Czech Republic, questionnaires will be discussed along from an advanced benchmark to a low Hong Kong, China and Canada. These with their relationship with levels of benchmark. countries scored, on average, at a achievement in science. Also examined significantly lower level than Finland, At Year 4, Australian students scored will be the blueprint ‘ideals for science Japan and Korea but significantly higher significantly higher than the international education in Australia’ as described in than the OECD average and higher average, statistically similar to that the TIMSS science video study, and than a group of countries including of students in countries such as the their relationship with what was actually France, Germany and the USA. The Russian Federation, the Netherlands, observed in the classrooms. average achievement level of Australian New Zealand, Belgium and Italy. This students remained the same since group scored at a significantly lower What science do PISA 2000, and, as in PISA 2000, there level than the high-performing countries students know and were no gender differences in scientific – Singapore, Chinese Taipei, Japan, literacy in Australia. Hong Kong China, England, the USA understand? and Latvia. The average achievement level of Australia’s level of achievement at Year PISA Indigenous Australian students in scientific literacy was significantly 4 is the same as it was in TIMSS 2002. The OECD considered science to be lower than that of non-Indigenous Of the countries that participated in so pervasive in modern life that it is students and significantly lower than both TIMSS 1994 and TIMSS 2002, important for the future citizens of a the international average. These results almost half had an average score in country to be scientifically ‘literate’. were very similar to the results in PISA 2002 that was significantly higher than The OECD defined scientific literacy 2000. Australia’s, compared to only one as ‘the capacity to use scientific country in 1994. knowledge, to identify questions and

Research Conference 2006 62 The achievement of Indigenous three-quarters of our Year 4 students this level. More than 60 per cent of students at Year 4 was about three- attained that standard. Indigenous female students and 40 quarters of a standard deviation lower per cent of male Indigenous students A very similar picture can be painted than that of non-Indigenous students, did not achieve higher than the lowest for Year 8 students. Nine per cent and was significantly lower than the benchmark. of students attained the advanced international average. This indicates a international benchmark, a similar relative worsening of the position of proportion to TIMSS 1994. The low Are students interested Indigenous students from TIMSS 1994. benchmark is described at Year 8 and confident in At Year 8, Australia’s score was again level as ‘students recognise some significantly higher than the international basic facts from the life and physical science? average. This score was statistically sciences’. Only 5 per cent of students Evidence about students’ attitudes to similar to the scores of students in were unable to attain this benchmark, science is currently gathered from the the Netherlands, the USA, Sweden, compared to 11 per cent in 1994. TIMSS studies. There are questions in Slovenia and New Zealand, but The intermediate benchmark states PISA but they are set in the context statistically lower than that of students that ‘students can recognise and of mathematics for the recent cycle. in Singapore, Chinese Taipei, Korea, communicate basic scientific knowledge Students at both year levels were Hong Kong, Estonia, Japan, England and across a range of topics’. Around one- asked to report on their levels of self- Hungary. Australian students’ scores quarter of Year 8 students did not confidence in science and whether in science significantly increased from reach this benchmark; however, this they enjoy learning science, and Year 8 TIMSS 1994, as did those of several was an improvement from the 31 per students were asked the level at which other ‘like’ countries. cent who failed to reach it in the TIMSS they value science and whether in the 1994 assessment. The achievement of Indigenous future they envisaged a job involving students at Year 8 has significantly In TIMSS 1994, there were gender science. improved since TIMSS 1994 – in differences for Australian students at comparison, the performance of non- Year 4 (males performed significantly Self-confidence Indigenous students remained better than females) but none at Year Australian students generally reported statistically the same. 8 level. Internationally, all significant quite high levels of self-confidence, with gender differences at Year 4 and Year Examining the percentage of students 66 per cent of Year 4 students and 8 were in favour of males. In TIMSS who attain the benchmarks in science 49 per cent of Year 8 students at the 2002, however, gender differences is also informative. In Year 4 science, high level of the self-confidence index. internationally were not consistently 9 per cent of Australian students In Australia and internationally there in favour of males. In a number of reached the advanced international is a positive relationship between self- countries, there were large gender benchmark, a significant decline from confidence and achievement; however, differences at both year levels in favour the 13 per cent who attained this level curiously most of the highest scoring of females. In Australia, however, the in TIMSS 1994. Ninety-two per cent countries had relatively low percentages gender equality seen in TIMSS 1994 of Australian students achieved the of students with high levels of self- had disappeared – males scored around ‘low’ international benchmark, which confidence. one-fifth of a standard deviation (about is similar to the proportion in TIMSS 20 score points) higher than females. At Year 4 there were no gender 1994; however, this low benchmark differences in self-confidence in science; only states that children ‘have some At Year 4, few gender differences however, at Year 8 a significantly elementary knowledge of the earth, life, were evident in the attainment of higher proportion of males reported and physical sciences’. As a developed benchmarks. At Year 8, twice the a high level, and a significantly higher country, we should think about what proportion of male than female proportion of females, reporting a low an acceptable measure of scientific students achieved the international level of self-confidence. knowledge should be. The intermediate benchmark, and slightly fewer males benchmark is that ‘students can apply than females failed to achieve the Although at least two-thirds of all basic knowledge and understanding low benchmark. Only 3 per cent of Indigenous students report having to practical situations in the sciences’. male Indigenous students attained the either a medium to high level of self- If this is a minimum standard, only advanced international benchmark; no confidence in learning mathematics, female Indigenous student attained there are still a large proportion

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 63 of Indigenous students (both male that of the international and non- Australian students in a global context. and female) who indicate low self- Indigenous national averages. This section of the paper looks at confidence in undertaking science study. whether this translates into enrolments No relationship was found between Of the female Indigenous students, in science-related areas at the level self-confidence in learning science and one-third report low self-confidence of schooling when studying science science achievement for either male or in learning science. For the male is not compulsory. These data are female Indigenous students. However, Indigenous students, this figure is closer derived from the Longitudinal Surveys of the higher a male Indigenous student to one-quarter. Australian Youth (LSAY), which tracks valued science, the more likely it was students from the middle years of that they achieved at a level that was secondary school until they are in their Enjoyment of science similar to the non-Indigenous national mid-twenties, and from its predecessor, average for science achievement. The degree to which students enjoy the Youth in Transition Survey (YIT). learning science has some association Unfortunately, for the female Indigenous with science achievement, and it students, none of the examined attitude Of the Year 12 students who almost certainly has an association variables (self-confidence, enjoyment participated in the 2001 data collection with engagement in science leading and value in learning mathematics or for the 1998 cohort of LSAY, 55 to continued studies in the area. Most science) appeared to improve female per cent were studying one of the (87%) Year 4 students agreed that mathematics and science achievement sciences. Almost four in ten students they like science to some extent, falling to a level similar to the non-Indigenous were studying at least one subject in to about two-thirds (67%) of Year 8 national average. the biological sciences area and about students. Australia was one of a small one-quarter were studying at least one number of countries that showed a Educational aspirations subject in the physical sciences area. significant increase, at both year levels, Australian students had somewhat Enrolments in chemistry and physics in the proportion of students who lower educational aspirations on have declined in the period 1993–2001, agreed ‘a lot’ that they enjoyed learning average than their international from about 23 per cent to 18 per cent science. classmates. Internationally, 54 per in chemistry and from to 17 per cent cent of Year 8 students reported in physics. Enrolments in biology also Valuing science that they expected to complete decreased, from 32 per cent in 1993 to In Australia, the level of students’ university, compared to just 40 per 25 per cent in 20 per cent in 2001. valuing of science is lower than the cent of Australian students. Those So who is it that studies the sciences international average – only 36 per who expected to finish university had at this level? The data suggest two cent of Year 8 students placed a high substantially higher science achievement answers to this question, depending value on learning science; however, the levels than those who did not. on whether it is biological sciences or correlation between valuing science Almost one-third of female Indigenous physical sciences. Females were much and achievement (0.26) is higher than and one-quarter of male Indigenous more likely than males to be enrolled the international average. There were students wish to complete TAFE; in biological sciences, males much more significant gender differences evident, however, the number of Indigenous likely than females to be enrolled in with 40 per cent of males and only 33 students who wish to continue the physical sciences. There seems to per cent of females placing a high value with tertiary studies and complete a be a tendency for those in the highest on learning science. Only 18 per cent bachelor’s degree is around half of the achievement levels, and for those from of students were confident that they proportion of non-Indigenous students higher socioeconomic backgrounds, to would like a job involving science, while with similar aspirations. enrol in the physical sciences rather a further 24 per cent were lukewarm than in the biological sciences. The about the idea. Do students study profile of those enrolled in the physical Those Indigenous male students who sciences is high achiever, male, parents indicate a high valuing of science science when it’s not from high socioeconomic background, performed at a level similar to the non- compulsory? high levels of parental occupation Indigenous national average. However, and education, and with a language TIMSS and PISA have provided us those Indigenous female students who background other than English. Further with evidence about the achievements, report a similar high valuing of science analysis found that students who had attitudes and self-confidence of still achieved scores significantly below studied in the physical sciences area

Research Conference 2006 64 were much more likely to go onto higher education (about 80% did so), while of those who had studied ‘other sciences’, around one-quarter did not participate in any further education or training, about 40 per cent went into higher education and the remaining third into some form of vocational education and training.

References Thomson, S., Cresswell, J., & De Bortoli, L. (2004). Facing the future: A Focus on mathematical literacy among Australian 15-year-old students in PISA 2003. Camberwell: ACER. Thomson, S., & Fleming, N. (2004). Summing it up: Mathematics achievement in Australian schools in TIMSS 2002. (TIMSS Australia Monograph no. 6). Melbourne: ACER. Thomson, S., & Fleming, N. (2004). Examining the evidence: Science achievement in Australian schools in TIMSS 2002 (TIMSS Australia Monograph no. 7). Sue Thomson and Nicole Fleming. Melbourne: ACER. Hollingsworth, H., Lokan, J., McCrae, B. (2006). Teaching Science in Australia: Results from the TIMSS 1999 video study. Melbourne: ACER.

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 65 Creating powerful teacher education opportunities: The need for risk, relevance, resource, recognition, readiness and reflection

Abstract has pursued ambitious courses of action. For example, the Curriculum for Two projects described in this paper Excellence (Scottish Executive, 2004) illustrate what a successful teacher is seeking to promote a ‘less crowded education model can look like, what and better connected’ curriculum that its aims were, what happened in terms offers more ‘choice and enjoyment’. of teacher professional development, Science for 3–18-year-olds became the and what pupils accomplished as a first subject nominated for review. In result. The paper also describes policies, 1999, the HMI reviewed assessment Susan Rodrigues organisational features, resources, and arrangements, because evidence relationships that informed the projects. University of Dundee suggested that assessment for primary In effect, both projects involved a and the first two years of secondary community of teachers, educators and schooling was fragmented (Hutchinson Susan Rodrigues is a Reader in Science Education scientists working to develop resource at the University of Dundee. Prior to that, Dr & Hayward, 2005). The Assessment Rodrigues was the Director of the Institute for materials involving various technologies is for Learning project is trying to Science Education in Scotland. She has taught for classroom use. Data was collected develop informed policy by involving science and physical education in high schools in through teacher surveys, online teachers, schools, local authorities England and New Zealand. She has conducted dialogue, interviews, pupil work, teacher research in the areas of teacher professional and teacher educators (Hutchinson & development, the role of context on learning ‘show and tell’ and limited classroom Hayward, 2005). In 2001, the £800 science and the role of computer-based observation. The data suggests that million National Agreement ‘A Teaching technologies on the way children learn. pedagogic change warrants the Profession for the 21st Century’ presence (in some fraction) of the six (‘McCrone’) agreement resulted in the elements of relevance, recognition, following: teacher salary increases; a reflection, resource, risk and readiness. ‘chartered’ teacher route to financially The extent to which these factors reward classroom expertise; proposals were present influenced the pace of for cohesive teacher education pedagogic change. The extent to which programs, including guaranteeing all teachers made judgements about these probationer teachers a post in their first facets determined the scope of the year, and a list of teacher competence pedagogic change. statements. The agreement provides contractual understanding for Introduction professional development and requires teachers to maintain a professional A relevant science education is at the development record that takes into heart of an innovative, knowledge account their individual needs as well as society (National Academy of school, local and national priorities. Engineering, 2005) if it is to produce sufficient numbers of qualified scientists In tandem with planned reforms, and produce a scientifically aware public some modifications were driven by (Science Strategy for Scotland, 2001). circumstance. For example: In Scotland, The Public Attitudes • The lack of availability of teacher to Science and Engineering Scottish managers has probably created Comparison Report (Scottish Executive, ‘faculties’ in schools. 2001) showed that 65 per cent of • There were concerns regarding the Scots have no formal qualification in gap in cognitive demand between any science subject. Not surprisingly, in ‘Standard Grade’ and ‘Highers’. Scotland, the last few years have seen Some schools opted for the significant calls to address this situation, Higher Still program with Standard and possibly as a consequence, Scotland Grades being replaced by Access,

Research Conference 2006 66 Intermediate 1, Intermediate 2, not take into account the culture of school teachers and took place over leading to Highers and Advanced classroom practice and the pivotal role 10 months. The primary school project Highers. of the teacher in bringing about change second phase involved 3 Scottish • Primary school teachers were in their classrooms. The influence of councils, 15 schools (17 teachers), 5 encouraged to include more and science teachers on what and how scientists, 2 secondary science teachers more technology, and to be more to teach is often considered to have meeting over 5 months. Supply cover accountable for the quality of the most significant impact on student costs were met by the project, and science provision. achievement, attitude and motivation. ICT resources were provided. The Teachers’ personal beliefs affect the community met once a month face-to- The literature on the use of technology degree of pedagogic change, especially face and maintained online contact in in science classrooms in terms of the when ICT is being advocated (Becker, between monthly meetings through a potential of dataloggers, CD ROMS, 2000). virtual learning environment (VLE). simulations, multimedia authoring, modelling, computer- assisted learning, The secondary school project first integrated learning systems and the A tale of two projects phase involved four teachers initially. internet (Newton, 2000; Orion, Given these viewpoints and the The secondary school second phase Dubowski & Dodick, 2000; Rodrigues, opportunities that were arising as involved teachers who were paid an 2002; Pallant & Tinker, 2004; Watson, a consequence of various Scottish honorarium and randomly divided into 2001; Rogers, &Newton, 2001; education reforms in pedagogy, three groups, with each group managed Nachmias, Mioduser, & Shemla, 2000) curriculum and assessment, funding by a project officer. They determined was growing. However, Cuban (2001) was sought for two teacher education when to meet. But all the teachers had in the USA and Smeets and Mooij projects that shared the same access to the VLE. (2001) in Europe were signalling that fundamental model of professional Data was collected through teacher though resource levels in schools development, but involved different surveys, online dialogue, interviews, had increased, informed use had school-level cohorts. This paper pupil work, teacher ‘show and tell’ not. This concern was registered in compares and contrasts the successes, and limited classroom observation Scotland (Stark, Simpson, Gray, & challenges and strategies for the and externally commissioned project Payne, 2000), with Williams, Coles, continuing professional development evaluations Wilson, Richardson and Tuson (2000) projects. Both projects were designed reporting that mathematics and science to encourage teachers to adapt their Overall impact teachers displayed more negative practice to the changing conditions attitudes and lower use of information they face, and to purposely deepen Dr Joanna Le Metais evaluating the communication technologies. It was their expertise. One project was secondary school project and Professor argued that even with financial support aimed at primary school teachers, Sally Brown evaluating the primary to purchase equipment or provide and the other project was aimed at school project identified general areas professional development for teachers, secondary school science teachers. of growth. These areas included most teachers continue to use the The use of information communication substantive curriculum development, technology to reinforce existing practice technologies to promote interest in developments in teacher confidence (Cuban 2001; Smeets & Mooij, 2001). science and help learners develop a levels and the noticeable impact of Many failures to introduce innovation better science understanding was the classroom strategies on pupils’ learning successfully have been shown to stem vehicle used to encourage teachers to and engagement. from the fact that the introduced develop their understanding of teaching The project data suggests that teachers innovation was not related to school and learning. who reflected on their practice and practices (Fullan & Hargreaves, Both projects involved a community were ready and willing to take a risk 1992). It is also possible that limited of teachers, educators and scientists with a facet of their teaching and opportunity for reflecting on practice working to develop resource materials learning environment, when they have may result in teachers having limited involving various technologies to be their practice recognised and are occasions to communicate what used in their classes. The primary provided with adequate resources and they are doing in their own schools, school project first phase involved relevant support, are likely to produce much less with colleagues in other 4 Scottish councils, 10 schools (16 more sophisticated classroom practice communities. Consequently, as Olson teachers), 9 scientists, and 2 secondary that reflects expertise that has been (2000) suggests these constraints do

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 67 consciously developed. In essence the during primary project ‘show and tell’ teachers asked to be kept informed of project model involved: meetings) came to be recognised as future opportunities to engage in this expert teachers within the group. type of professional development. Facilitator/ This recognition encouraged them to Teachers Programme become more innovative. Some of the References demonstrating providing more hesitant primary school teachers who eventually took risks and modified Becker, H. J. (2000). Findings from the Readiness Resources classroom practice found their action teaching, learning and computing Risk Recognition was recognised and commended by survey: is Larry Cuban right? peers, pupils, parents and grandparents. Educational Policy Analysis Archives, Reflection Relevance This recognition encouraged them to 8(51) http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v8n51/ However, the intricate relationship continue to change their practice. (March 2004). between the six facets determined the The notion of readiness applies Buckley, B. C. (2000). Interactive extent of pedagogic change. The extent to teachers and schools. School multimedia and model-based learning to which teachers made (contingent leadership was crucial in determining in biology. International Journal of or deliberate) judgements about these the relationship between reflection Science Education 22(9), 895–935. facets determined the scope of the and readiness. Teachers working in pedagogic change. Cuban, L. (2001). Oversold and environments where change was not underused: Computers in schools Resource in both projects included encouraged struggled to introduce new 1980-2000. Cambridge MA; Harvard time, equipment and the support practices. Likewise, teachers who had University Press. community. Both projects were not reflected on their practice were not well resourced in terms of time and ready for change. Fullan, M. & Hargreaves, A. (Ed.) (1992). equipment, but unequally resourced Understanding teacher development. The relevance of the project in terms New York: Teachers College Press. in terms of community support. This of the reality of classroom practice was aspect of resource affected the nature significant in determining pedagogic Hutchinson, C. & Hayward, L. (2005). of pedagogic change. For example, change. But the degree of relevance The journey so far: Assessment is for didactic project officers who continued was influenced by reflection and Learning in Scotland. The Curriculum to ‘instruct’ and who failed to recognise resource. Stimulating interaction with Journal, 16, 2, 225–248. the teachers’ expertise managed peers, who recognised the challenges Nachmias, R, Mioduser, D. & Shemla, the secondary school teachers who of the classroom, and the nature of produced ‘usual’ teacher materials and A. (2000). Internet usage by students engagement with scientists who were in an Israeli high school. Journal of took few risks. These project officers able to communicate science well assumed that the teachers’ existing Educational Computing Research, 22, 1, encouraged teachers to review their 55–73. skills and accomplishments were of no practice. consequence and that the teachers National Academy of Engineering would benefit from being instructed by Uninterrupted time, good working (2005). Educating the Engineer of the project officers on which strategies conditions and a supportive community 2020: Adapting Engineering Education to use. In contrast, the secondary reflect the basic premise that the to the New Century. Executive school teachers who produced work of teachers has a life beyond the Summary. Committee on the Engineer dynamic teacher materials that involved individual, and that this will make a of 2020, Phase II, Committee on challenging or innovative classroom difference to the teaching profession. Engineering Education, National strategies were managed by project Many of the primary school teachers, Academy of Engineering. officers who were more open minded have gone on to have their practice Newton, L. R. (2000) Data-logging and attempted to model risk taking and recognised more formally (through in practical science: Research and learning with and from others. HMIE statements, invitations to present reality. International Journal of Science The relationship between recognition at conferences, invitations to manage Education, 22(12), 247–1259. and risk was signalled forcefully in the local council Continuing professional Orion, N., Dubowski, Y. & Dodick, J. primary school project. Teachers who development (CPD) for other teachers (2000). The educational potential of took the initial risk (tried something and national newspaper coverage, or multimedia authoring as a part of the with their classes and reported it they have been short-listed for national teacher competitions). Most of the Earth science curriculum – A case

Research Conference 2006 68 study. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37(10), 1121–1153. Pallant, A. & Tinker, R. F. (2004). Reasoning with atomic-scale molecular dynamic models, Journal of Science Education and Technology, 13(1), 51–66. Rodrigues, S. (Ed.) (2002). Opportunistic challenges: Teaching and learning using ICT. Nova Academic Press, New York, USA. Rogers, L. & Newton, L. (2001). Integrated Learning Systems – an ‘open’ approach, International Journal of Science Education, 23(4), 405–422. Scottish Executive (2001). The Public Attitudes to Science and Engineering; Scottish Comparison Report. www. scotland.gov.uk/library3/misc/ pussurvey.pdf [retrieved Feb 9th 2005]. Scottish Executive (2004). A Curriculum for Excellence. The curriculum review group. www.scotland.gov.uk/library5/ education/cerv.pdf [retrieved Feb 9th 2005]. Smeets, E. & Mooij, T. (2001). Pupils centred learning, ICT and teacher behaviour: observations in educational practice, British Journal of Educational Technology, 32(4), 403–417. Stark, R., Simpson, M., Gray, D. & Payne, F. (2000). The impact of information and communication technology initiatives. Interchange 63 Scottish Executive Education Department. http://www.scotland.gov. uk/hmls/publications.asp. Watson, B. (2001). Key factors affecting conceptual gains from CAL materials, British Journal of Educational Technology, 32(5), 587–593. Williams, D., Coles, L., Wilson, K., Richardson, A. & Tuson, J. (2000). Teachers and ICT: current use and future needs, British Journal of Educational Technology, 31(4), 307— 320.

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 69 Student interest in science: The problem, possible solutions, and constraints

In this paper I want to draw on relevant In 2005, the Deans of Science research to address the theme of this commissioned a study that found that year’s conference in three ways: quite large percentages of teachers had not completed a major three-year 1. The nature of the problem sequence of undergraduate studies in 2. Possible solutions the science subject area for which they 3. Constraints on these possible were responsible. This study did not solutions address the issue of the inadequacies of even a three-year major in science for a Peter J. Fensham Part 1: The nature of teaching career – raised 15 years earlier Monash University/QUT in the National Review of Science the problem Teacher Education. Peter Fensham A.M. is Emeritus Professor of The quantitative decline in enrolments Science Education at Monash University where he in the senior secondary sciences and Being a science student established a leading international research group in university, science, particularly higher in the teaching and learning of science. In 1999, Independent studies of students’ achieving students, has been well he was given the Distinguished Researcher Award experience of science in secondary publicised in Australia and, across the of the North American Association for Science school have been reported by Lindahl Teaching. He is a member of the Science Expert OECD and beyond. Group for the OECD’s PISA project. Currently he in Sweden, Simon and Osborne in is an Adjunct Professor at QUT and Queensland I shall therefore focus on research that England and Lyons in Australia (see Science Education Ambassador for the Minister of adds qualitative detail to the issues Lyons, 2006). These studies present Education in Queensland. associated with lack of interest in remarkably concordant descriptions of science among students. school science as: The place of science within the • Transmission of knowledge from curriculum of schooling the teacher or the textbook to the students (our opinions are not Since 1950, the opportunities not involved); to choose science study in senior schooling have markedly increased. • About content that is irrelevant and boring to our lives; and In a parallel but inverse manner, the • Difficult to learn in comparison with unification of the university sector in other subjects 1989 has given students many more opportunities, in both the new and The Australian study only involved high older universities, to choose courses achieving students, but most of these other than science, and without the concluded that further science studies prerequisite constraints the science- should be avoided unless they were related faculties still demand. needed for some career purpose. Intrinsic interest, in contrast to other subjects, Employment opportunities was low. A recent study at Macquarie University The extent of this sense of irrelevance indicates that there are good in Japan emerged from a nationwide employment prospects, but that science survey of students in Years 6–9 in graduates lack skills that Science and 2002. All subjects suffered from a Technology (S&T) positions require steady decline in interest, but only in the new Knowledge Society. science and mathematics remained in Declining enrolments in the sciences decline, when the intrinsic worth was are associated with the perception that considered (Ogura, 2003). science study is too difficult compared Large scale reviews of students in to other subjects, as well as an Australia by Goodrum, Hackling and ignorance of these career prospects. Rennie (2001) and by TIMSS (ACER/ IEA, 2003) found, respectively, that well

Research Conference 2006 70 over half of secondary students did not Students’ interests • Most do not agree that school agree that the science at school: was science has made them more critical relevant to my present or future, or helps Focal questions and skeptical and more appreciative me make decisions about my health, and Beginning in the 1980s, Svein Sjoberg, of nature. that 62 and 65 % of females and males in the Science and Scientists (SAS) The ten most popular topics for boys in Year 4 like science, but by Year 8 only project explored the reaction of 13- and girls are listed in Table 4.1 and the 26 and 33 % did so. year-olds in a number of countries to ten least popular ones in Table 4.2 of different ways of focusing the learning the English Report. Part 2: Possible of the same science content. A purposeful and relevant focal question solutions heightened students’ interest in science Curricular responses Guaranteed employment at higher than learning. For example, learning about: In a his recent book, Science Education usual salaries would probably attract Sound < How musical instruments for Everyday Life, Glen Aikenhead more students to stay with the enabling make sounds < How animals (2005) has provided positive research sciences in Years 11 and 12, and to communicate with sounds evidence concerning a number of undertake science-based university innovative science curricula that Focal questions were introduced in the studies, especially if science was can he describes as Humanistic initial form of VCE Chemistry in 1991, promoted like sport by the Australian Science Education. Humanistic but their intended use was thwarted by media. Science Education has a number of the examiners’ total disregard of them. characteristics that contrasted with If Physics and/or Chemistry were made those of Traditional Science Education, compulsory for all students to Year 12, Questions and topics by including the persons of the learners more students may find them to their and of science. liking, and continue with them, although The Relevance of Science Education the experience of countries like Japan (ROSE) project (Svein Sjøberg, Oslo) Common features in these positively rather belies this. grew out of the SAS project. To date, received approaches to science the ROSE project has data from 15–16- education are: These conditions, outside or inside year-olds in more than 30 countries schooling, are so unlikely, that I focus (Australia still collecting). Students have • Science as a Story involving persons, on what can be changed, with sufficient responded to long lists of science topics situations, action will and commitment, namely, how they might like to learn, interspersed • Real-world situations of S&T that science is presented in schooling. with items about their personal and students can engage with societal aspects of relevance to S&T. • Focal questions that attract interest What research do we have Students in industrialised countries • Contexts as the source and power about students’ interests in have shown great similarity of interest of concepts in science science and science education? in ways that contrast with those of • Clearly presented science – related Inspired teachers students in developing countries. The issues of personal and social former are more interested in topics significance Before discussing this research, I that rarely occur in school science, • Personally engaging, open problems want to acknowledge the existence whereas the latter favour more for investigation. of inspiring teachers of science and traditional topics. Since Australian of supportive school environments. students are more like the former, I will Further evidence of positive student Together they can produce positive use the report from England (Jenkins & responses to science education interest in science their students, Pell, 2006) to illustrate the findings. with these features comes from the whatever the curriculum. However, we OECD’s Programme for International would not be meeting on this theme, if • Most students agree that S&T are Student Achievement (PISA). In the the extension of such inspiration across important for society. Science domain of this project, most whole systems were a simple matter. • A lower level of agreement the if not all of these features have been science benefits outweigh possible incorporated into its assessment harmful effects. instrument for 15-year-olds in more • Most students do not like science than 30 countries in 2000 and 2003 for compared with other subjects. the scientific literacies (clearly defined as

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 71 competencies) that this project deemed rethinking of the role of science in communicating within and from science, important for life in the 21st Century compulsory schooling in England, the in knowing science as a way of thinking, (OECD, 2001). country most influential on science and in applying science in real-world curricula in Australia in the 1990s. applications. None of these aspects of The units in the test instrument consist science as a human endeavour had of a ‘real-life Science & Technology The three subjects making up 21st been emphasised in their school or situation’ about which a set of questions Century Science began in 2004. reflecting different competencies are undergraduate science studies. 1. Core Science, a mandatory study asked. The real-life situations are reports In theory, these could all be for all students – a terminal study or descriptions (sometimes stories of rectified, but they would require that can be summarized as Science actual situations) somewhere in today’s very comprehensive and continuing for Citizenship world that involve science. The real-life professional development, involving situations do not have to reflect the 2. General Science, an optional partnerships between organisations with school curriculum for science. They study involving biology, chemistry practising scientists and the education are typical of science’s place in 21st and physics for students planning system. The 10-year investment behind century society. In the 2000 testing, specialised study of these sciences in the new National Science Learning Australian students performed relatively Years 12 and 13 Centre in England is a model for the well. While the performances overall 3. Applied Science, another optional scale needed. were not particularly high, they were subject, to arouse students’ interest considerably better than the pessimists in applications of science in modern Academic science had predicted on this very novel test. society. The very substantial reading involved Academic science in Australia has in the S&T situations had been of The rapid progress in enrolments and been reluctant to endorse changes particular concern. In the testing of the the interest of schools in this radical in science curricula with Aikenhead’s Reading domain of PISA, girls in every approach to school science warrant humanistic characteristics. For academic one of the 32 countries outperformed Australia giving serious consideration science, the sciences in schooling boys, often very significantly. In the to it - especially the way it deals with were preparatory and prerequisite Science test, heavily dependent students’ needs and interests among for science-based study at university. on reading, there were no gender the purposes for school science in the Academic science has exercised control differences among the same students compulsory years. to maintain this situation directly, in 26 of the 32 participating countries or indirectly through well socialised (repeated in 2003). Part 3: Constraints to disciples among the teaching force. These remarkable findings can only be solutions Undergraduate studies in the sciences explained, I believe, in terms of the have in turn been primarily introductory level of interest and engagement that With such an apparently rich set of to careers in scientific research, leaving both boys and girls had with these positive options for improving the in- graduates for other careers, such as accounts of S&T-based situations. They school response to the issue of lack school teaching, deficient in aspects certainly encourage the changing the of interest in science, what constraints other than foundational conceptual school science curriculum to emphasise stand in the way of implementing knowledge. science curricula with these attractive these features. Hitherto, there has been little pressure possibilities? I refer to three major for academic science to alter its stance, sources of constraint – science teachers, New curricula but the current falling enrolments and academic science, and systemic failure to attract Science’s share of 21st Century Science is a new set of competing demands. science courses for Years 10 and 11 higher achieving students means the scene has changed. It is a good time for in England that has included many of Science teachers these features. It has also recognised academic science to give support and that science education needs different Informal investigations with science attention to the new roles that school courses at the same level if it is to teachers in Australia, have made me science and undergraduate science meet the diverse needs and interests of aware that, however weak or strong might play. students (Roberts, 1988). Its particular their background in science studies, relevance for Australia since that it many of them are seriously deficient is a direct consequence of the major in having any science stories to tell, in

Research Conference 2006 72 Systemic competing demands is being specified for teaching in a Australian schools. A research report sequence that has checks for learning prepared for the Department of At this very time, two very different at Years 3, 5, 7 and 9. This project Education, Training and Youth curriculum scenarios are being played seems to ignore completely the new Affairs. Canberra: Commonwealth of out. Neither has taken seriously into skills of first scenario, and has chosen Australia. account the crisis in interest that is conceptual scientific knowledge as Jenkins, E. W. & Pell, R. G. (2006). The our theme at this conference. Both, its core content for emphasis. By not Relevance of Science Education Project for different reasons, are unlikely to prescribing phenomena or contexts to (ROSE) in England: a summary of promote humanistic, contextual learning be commonly studied, the Consistency findings. Leeds: Centre for Science and of science – our best understanding Project misses the fundamental Mathematics Education, University of of how to engage more students characteristic of scientific concepts, Leeds. enthusiastically with science. Indeed, namely, that they only exist because it seems likely that in their own way they have phenomenal (contextual) Lyons, T. (2006). Different countries, they may cement in place the view of meaning. It also misses what could be Same science classes: Students’ science that, I am arguing, needs to be a very justifiable and more engaging experiences in their own words, replaced. approach to consistency, namely, that International Journal of Science The first scenario can be found in all young Australians should study Education, 28(6) 591–613. science-based issues (contexts) that Tasmania, Victoria and Queensland OECD (2001). Knowledge and skills for impinge strongly on their lives as they (and in New Zealand). In each case, life: First results from PISA 2000. Paris: move through the compulsory years, decisions have been made to rethink OECD. the whole curriculum so that it reflects such as obesity, water availability, the demands on education for skill energy conservation, biological, Ogura, Y. (2003). Informal science learning, that arise from the changing chemical and nuclear weapons of mass education for promoting children’s nature of work and from the revolution destruction, and safe sex are just four science learning in Japan. Paper in information, the Knowledge Society. of these key issues in Australia, with presented at 2003 International genetic engineering, nano-technologies, Seminar on Improvement of Students’ To make room for a number of these communication technologies also of Science Achievement and attitude new learnings, the customary content significance. through informal Science education. of a subject like science has been paired Dec. 5–6, 2003, Seoul, Korea. down to a smaller set, graced with My final concern about these systemic the title ‘Essentials’ (although without constraints is that should they become Roberts, D. (1988). What counts as clear criteria of essentialness). This is the basis for state-wide or national science education? In P. J. Fensham not to say that science teachers are assessment, they will destroy the (Ed.) Developments and Dilemmas in excluded from contributing to the chance PISA has now shown us about Science Education, 27–54, London: teaching/learning of the new priority making assessment, at last, authentic Falmer. skills, that in each of these new versions to science curricula that are aimed at of the curriculum for schooling, appear increasing student interest in science in terms like Thinking, Communicating, and in the careers that science involves. Rich Tasks, Higher Order Reasoning and Problem Solving. These are like References foreign language terms to science teachers, whose forte has been Aikenhead, G. (2005). Science for transmitting Established Knowledge everyday life: Evidence-based practice. (with just a dash of Science as Doing). New York: Teachers College Press. The second scenario is the ACER/IEA (2004). Examining the National Consistency Project of the evidence: Science achievement in Commonwealth Government to which Australian schools in TIMSS 2002. the states have been coerced to join Camberwell, Victoria: ACER. to be eligible for federal funding. In Goodrum, D., Hackling, M. & Rennie, this project, science is one of five L. (2001). The status and quality of areas in which a core of knowledge teaching and learning of science in

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 73 Primary Connections: A new approach to primary science and to teacher professional learning

Abstract High quality teaching of science and literacy in Australian primary schools Primary Connections is a teacher is a national priority to develop professional learning program citizens who are scientifically literate supported by curriculum resources that and who can contribute to the social, aims to enhance learning outcomes environmental and economic well-being in science and the literacies of of Australia as well as achieve their science. The program is based on an own potential (Australian Academy of innovative model that links science Science, 2006). Student achievement Mark W. Hackling with literacy, uses cooperative learning, in science is therefore being monitored integrates assessment with teaching Edith Cowan University through the national assessments of and learning, and follows an inquiry Year 6 students’ scientific literacy for process using open investigations. The which sample testing was undertaken Mark Hackling is Professor of Science and program was trialled in 56 schools Technology Education at Edith Cowan University. in October 2003 and will be repeated Mark was co-author (with Goodrum and Rennie) throughout Australia in 2005. Research in 2006. Parents also recognise the of the report of the national review of the quality has demonstrated that the program importance of science rating it as the and status of science teaching and learning in improves teachers’ confidence, self- third most important subject for their Australian schools and has provided leadership to efficacy and practice, students’ learning, a number of national science education projects primary school children after English including the national assessments of Year 6 and the status of science within schools. and Mathematics (ASTEC, 1997). students’ scientific literacy and the development The project is an initiative of the of the Science Education Assessment Resources Australian Academy of Science, funded Despite science being recognised as a (SEAR) on-line assessment resource bank. by DEST and supported by all states priority area of learning, the teaching Mark is a Director of the DEST funded Primary of science in primary schools has low Connections professional learning program for and territories and sectors of schooling. primary teachers of science and literacy and is status with the second lowest allocation co-author (with Lokan and Hollingsworth) of the of time in the primary school curriculum soon to be released Australian report on the Introduction averaging 2.7% of teaching time (Angus TIMSS Video study. Australia’s currently buoyant economy et al., 2004). Many primary teachers is largely based on exploiting our lack confidence and competence for nation’s natural resources of coal, teaching science (Appleton, 1995; gas, iron ore, gold and other metals. Palmer, 2001; Yates & Goodrum, All of these resources are finite and 1990) and consequently score poorly it is timely, at this conference, to on self-efficacy scales that measure focus on boosting science learning the extent to which primary teachers as a way of building human capital feel capable of teaching science – the key resource for a knowledge- effectively (Riggs & Enochs, 1990). The based economy – so that we can limited science discipline studies and build a future based on ideas and science curriculum studies in many innovation for those times when the Australian initial teacher education natural resources are less abundant. programs (Lawrance & Palmer, Innovation depends on new thinking, 2003) gives student teachers little and it is curiosity, creativity and scientific opportunity to build the pedagogical literacy that provide the basis for a content knowledge (Gess-Newsome, knowledge-based economy. Opening 1999) required to be confident and minds to the wonders of the natural effective teachers of science. The world, stimulating curiosity and creative 2001 national review of the status and thinking, and starting that journey quality of science teaching and learning towards scientific literacy requires a (Goodrum, Hackling & Rennie, 2001) strong and effective science program in indicated that the teaching of science the primary years of schooling. in primary classrooms is patchy and recommended that primary teachers

Research Conference 2006 74 Phase Focus Teaching and learning model Engage Engage students and elicit prior knowledge Primary Connections recognises that Diagnostic assessment there are a number of science-specific Explore Provide hands-on experience of the phenomenon as well as general literacies required by children to effectively engage with Explain Develop science explanations for experiences and science phenomena, construct science representations of developing understandings understandings and develop science Formative assessment processes, and to represent and communicate ideas and information Elaborate Extend understandings to a new context or make about science (Gee, 2004; Lemke, connections to additional concepts though student planned 1998; Norris & Phillips, 2003; Unsworth, investigations 2001). Primary Connections provides Summative assessment of investigating outcomes opportunities for children to develop the literacies needed to learn science Evaluate Re-represent understandings, reflect on learning journey and to represent their developing and collect evidence about achievement of outcomes science understandings and processes. Summative assessment of conceptual outcomes The Primary Connections teaching and learning model embeds diagnostic, formative and summative assessment Figure 1 The Primary Connections teaching and learning model into the teaching and learning process (Australian Academy of Science, 2005) because research shows that students’ prior knowledge and teachers’ of science be given access to quality Singapore, Hong Kong and Latvia monitoring of students’ learning and professional learning opportunities have made significant improvements the provision of formative feedback supported by rich curriculum resources between 1994 and 2002 (Thomson are powerful factors influencing to address this problem. It also argued & Fleming, 2004). Seven countries achievement (Black & Wiliam, that collaboration between jurisdictions scored significantly higher than Australia 1998; Hattie, 2003). To develop an is essential to produce world-class on the 2002 assessments (Singapore, understanding of the nature of science resources and to reduce wasteful Taiwan, Japan, Hong Kong, England, (Lederman & Lederman, 2004), an duplication of efforts. The Primary USA and Latvia), and most of these understanding of scientific evidence Connections program was developed in are our trading competitors in terms of (Gott & Duggan, 1996) and to become response to these concerns (Australian knowledge-based exports. scientifically literate, students need to Academy of Science, 2006). be engaged in an inquiry-oriented and an investigative approach to learning Recent national assessments of scientific Primary Connections science. The Primary Connections literacy and international assessments of Primary Connections is an initiative of teaching and learning model (Figure 1) science achievement present a sobering the Australian Academy of Science, is therefore scaffolded by an elaborated picture of the health of primary science funded by the Commonwealth 5Es inquiry model (Bybee, 1997). in Australia. Less than 60 per cent of Department of Science Education sampled Year 6 Australian students in and Training, (DEST) and supported Professional learning 2003 attained the national proficiency by all state and territory education standard in six of eight jurisdictions departments, Catholic and independent model (MCEETYA, 2005). The Trends in schools sectors, and by science Primary Connections is a professional International Mathematics and Science and literacy teacher professional learning program comprising a Study (TIMSS) shows that the science associations. Primary Connections is a number of complementary elements: achievement of Australian Year 4 teacher professional learning program professional learning workshops, students has remained stable between supported with curriculum resources exemplary curriculum resources, assessments made in 1994 and 2002 at that aims to enhance learning outcomes opportunity to practise science teaching a level that was above the international in science and the literacies of science. supported with resources, reflections mean; however, countries such as

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 75 school in January 2005 with three Staged follow-up one-day workshops; the first, professional Curriculum half way through Term 1, the second learning resources at the end of Term 1 and the third at workshops the end of Term 2. Teachers taught a supplied curriculum unit in Term 1, a unit the teachers developed themselves Teacher in Term 2, and a supplied unit in professional learning Term 3. Practice Reflection on practice Data were collected by teacher questionnaire, student questionnaire, case studies and by analysis of student Principles of work samples. A full research report learning and (Hackling & Prain, 2005) documents all teaching details of the data collection, analysis and research findings; highlights are presented here. Figure 2 The Primary Connections professional learning model (Hackling & Prain, 2005) Impact on teachers Teachers’ confidence with nine science on practice, and is linked to a set of Impact of Primary and literacy teaching strategies was principles of learning and teaching. Connections assessed on a five-point scale. Mean This model is based on the confidence scores increased significantly Collaboratative Australian Secondary Primary Connections was trialled in (p < .05) from 3.34/5 at the beginning Science Project (CASSP) professional 2005 in 55 schools involving 106 of the program to 4.04/5 at the end learning model that proved successful teachers and more than 3000 students. of Term 2. Teachers’ self-efficacy in effecting teacher change in an earlier Teachers completed an initial five days beliefs were assessed using a 10-item Australian project (Goodrum, Hackling of professional learning at a summer scale based on Riggs and Enochs’ & Trotter, 2003; Sheffield, 2004) elaborated with a set of pedagogical Table 1 Frequency of total self-efficacy scores on each survey (n=89) principles derived from the Science in Schools project (Tytler, 2002). Primary Total Initial End of Mid End End Connections has developed a suite of self-efficacy survey summer Term 1, Term 1, Term 2, comprehensively resourced professional score (= 2004) school 2005 2005 2005 learning modules and has trained a cadre of professional learning facilitators 1–10 0 0 0 0 0 who can deliver Primary Connections professional learning workshops in 11–20 2 0 0 0 0 schools throughout Australia. 21–30 20 10 4 3 1 In addition to this professional learning 31–40 50 49 52 54 49 program for experienced teachers, a workshop was conducted in July 2005 41–50 17 30 33 32 39 for university science educators who Mean total self teach primary science curriculum units efficacy score 35* 38 39 40 41* in initial teacher education so that new for all teachers teachers will develop an understanding of the Primary Connections approach to S.D. 6.8 5.4 4.5 4.6 4.5 science teaching and learning. Note: Total self-efficacy score = sum of 10 self-efficacy item scores for each teacher, (/50), with the most positive response given the value of 5 and the least positive the value of 1 on a five-point agreement scale, i.e. scores have been reversed for negative items.

Research Conference 2006 76 Table 2 Minutes of science taught per week by teachers in 2004, Term 1 2005 Impact on students and in Term 2 2005 Eighty-seven per cent of teachers Per cent of respondents reported that students had responded Minutes of science positively or very positively to the taught per week 2004 Term 1 2005 Term 2 2005 Primary Connections activities and (n=91) (n=91) (n=85) learning approach. Seventy-six per cent of teachers rated the amount of 60 minutes or more 30.8 72.5 62.4 students’ science learning with Primary 30 and 60 minutes 40.7 26.4 27.1 Connections as better than previous and 78 per cent indicated that the Less than 30 minutes 27.5 1.1 10.6 quality of students’ science learning was better than previous. (1990) instrument. Teachers’ mean aspects of their knowledge, confidence To provide a measure of learning total self-efficacy score (/50) increased and practice that had improved as a achievement, the science journals significantly (p < .05) from 35 to result of participating in the program. of three classes of students who 41, and of educational significance, Almost a third of teachers indicated completed the Plants in Action unit at the number of teachers with low to they were now more confident, one of the case study schools were moderate self-efficacy scores (≤30) was corroborating other evidence about analysed. The students represented two reduced from 22 to one by the end of confidence and increased self-efficacy. intact classes of Year 5 students and Term 2. A fifth indicated they had a better the Year 5 students from a combined understanding of the concepts and Teachers also reported the frequency Year 4/5 class. The work samples processes of science, which is indicative with which they used a range of generated in the ‘Engage’ and ‘Evaluate’ of improved pedagogical content teaching and learning strategies. The lessons were rated against levels in the knowledge (PCK). Improving teachers’ strongest increase in strategy use was National Scientific Literacy Progress PCK was an important aim of the recorded for developing literacy skills Map (MCEETYA, 2005). To provide program. needed for learning science, which a more fine-grained analysis, levels of suggests that teachers recognised the The amount of science taught increased achievement were further subdivided importance of these skills and had the dramatically as a result of the trial. The into the sublevels – developing, resources and confidence to teach amount of science taught was greatest consolidating and achieved. Explicit these skills. There was also a strong in Term 1 of the trial when teachers criteria for levels and sublevels were increase in the frequency of use of were working with supplied units; defined and dual coding by consensus diagnostic assessment as a consequence however, even when working from of two experienced coders ensured a of it being scaffolded into ‘Engage’ teacher developed units in Term 2, the high level of coding reliability. lessons, and an increased frequency percentage of teachers teaching less At the beginning of the unit, the modal of hands-on activities. At the end than 30 minutes per week was reduced level of achievement was 2c and at of Term 1, teachers indicated their from 27 per cent to 11 per cent. the end of the unit, it had risen to science teaching had improved through Time on task has always been 3c. Levels were converted to scores increased hands-on practical work, recognised as the fundamental variable to facilitate calculation of means and inquiry and investigations, focusing influencing learning as it determines statistical comparison of ‘Engage’ and on one topic for a whole term, the learning opportunity. Clearly, this ‘Evaluate’ mean scores. The mean 5Es structure, more time on science, program has given students in the trial score had more than doubled over increased confidence and the better schools far more opportunity to learn the course of the unit and at the sequencing and flow between lessons. science. end of the unit 78 per cent of these When asked at the end of Term 2, Year 5 students were working at or ‘Has your science teaching improved as beyond Level 3 in their conceptual a result of participating in the Primary understandings of plant life cycles. Level Connections program?’ 96 out of 97 3 is the national proficiency standard for teachers responded ‘Yes’. When asked Year 6 students’ scientific literacy. to explain how their science teaching had improved, the teachers identified

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 77 Table 3 Changes in levels of achievement between the initial ‘Engage’ lesson and meeting teachers’ needs. The revised the final ‘Evaluation’ lesson for Year 5 students studying the and published units are now being Plants in Action unit at one case study school. implemented in schools throughout Australia. Primary Connections Achievement level Number of students (n=72) professional learning is being provided Engage Evaluate by trained professional learning facilitators using the professional 1a 11 0 learning modules. There are variations 2d 16 3 on the professional learning model across jurisdictions and sectors and the 2c 41 5 efficacy of these different approaches 2a 3 8 will be the subject of further research. 3d 1 15 Acknowledgment 3c 0 22 The Primary Connections project and 3a 0 15 associated research is funded by the Australian Government’s Department 4d 0 4 of Education, Science and Training. Mean score 2.54* 5.51* S.D. 0.855 1.473 References Angus, M., Olney, H., Ainley, J., Note. Levels of achievement were assigned the following scores: 1a = 1; 2d = 2; 2c = 3; 2a = 4; 3d = 5; 3c = 6; 3a = 7; 4d = 8 where d = developing; c = consolidating; a = achieved. Caldwell, B., Burke, G., Selleck, R., * Mean scores are significantly different (p<.05) using the Wilcoxon signed ranks test. & Spinks, J. (2004). The sufficiency of resources for Australian primary schools. Impact on schools teachers, students and schools based Canberra: DEST. on a trial in 2005 which involved an Teachers’ perceptions of the status Appleton, K. (1995). Student teachers’ intensive professional learning program confidence to teach science. Is more of science in their schools were supported with trial curriculum units. elicited in the teacher questionnaires. science knowledge necessary to The program improved teachers’ improve self-confidence? International Teachers were asked to rank science confidence, self-efficacy and practice, in importance relative to nine other Journal of Science Education, 17, 357– students’ learning, and the status of 369. learning areas. The percentage of science within schools. The data suggest teachers indicating science was in that the combination of professional Australian Academy of Science. (2005). the top three subjects doubled from learning and being supported in their Primary Connections: Plants in action. 24 to 50 per cent as a result of the teaching with curriculum resources Canberra: Australian Academy of Primary Connections trial in their schools. enhances teachers’ confidence and Science. The status of a subject in the school self-efficacy through building science curriculum may also have an influence Australian Academy of Science. pedagogical content knowledge. As a (2006). Making a Difference: Primary on the resources and budget allocated consequence of increased confidence to that subject. Previous research (e.g., Connections - Linking Science with and self-efficacy and using the Literacy PProject Brief Stage 3: 2006 Keys, 2003) has often indicated that curriculum resources, the teachers availability of resources and budget are - 2008. Canberra: Australian Academy increased the amount of time they of Science. important factors limiting the quality of taught science and thereby increased science teaching in primary schools. students’ opportunity for learning Australian Science, Technology and science, which resulted in strong Engineering Council (ASTEC). Discussion and science achievement gains. (1997). Foundations for Australia’s future: Science and technology in conclusions Feedback from the 55 trial schools primary schools. Canberra: Australian This paper reports data on the is used to revise the trial curriculum Government Publishing Service. impact of Primary Connections on units so that they are more effective in

Research Conference 2006 78 Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Inside Research Conference on Building impact of an Australian professional the black box: Raising standards Teacher Quality. learning model in secondary science. through classroom assessment. Phi Unpublished PhD thesis, Edith Cowan Keys, P. (2003). Primary and secondary Delta Kappan, 80(2), 139–148. University, Perth, Western Australia. teachers shaping the science Bybee, R. W. (1997). Achieving scientific curriculum: The influence of teacher Thomson, S., & Fleming, N. (2004). literacy: From purposes to practical knowledge. Unpublished PhD thesis, Examining the evidence: Science action. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Queensland University of Technology, achievement in Australian schools in Brisbane, Queensland. TIMSS 2002. Camberwell, Victoria: Gee, J. P. (2004). Language in the Australian Council for Educational science classroom: Academic social Lawrance, G. A. & Palmer, D. H. Research. languages as the heart of school- (2003). Clever teacher, clever based literacy. In E. W. Saul (Ed.), sciences: Preparing teachers for Tytler, R. (2002). School Innovation in Crossing borders in literacy and the challenge of teaching science, Science (SiS): Focussing on teaching. science instruction: Perspectives in mathematics and technology in 21st Investigating, 18(3), 8-11. theory and practice (pp. 13–32). century Australia. Canberra: DEST. Unsworth, L. (2001). Teaching Newark, DE: International Reading Lederman, N. G., & Lederman, J. multiliteracies across the curriculum: Association/National Science Teachers S. (2004). Nature of science and Changing contexts of text and image Association. scientific inquiry. In G. Venville in classroom practice. Buckingham, UK: Gess-Newsome, J. (1999). Pedagogical & V. Dawson (Eds.), The art of Open University Press. content knowledge: An introduction science teaching in Australian schools. Yates, S., & Goodrum, D. (1990). How and orientation. In J. Gess-Newsome Melbourne: Allen and Unwin. confident are primary school teachers & N.G. Lederman (Eds.), Examining Lemke, J. (1998). Multiplying meaning: in teaching science? Research in Science pedagogical knowledge: The construct Visual and verbal semiotics in scientific Education, 20, 300–305. and its implication for science education. text. In J, Martin & R. Veel (Eds.) Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Reading science: Critical and functional Publishers. perspectives on discourses of science. Goodrum, D., Hackling, M., & Rennie, London: Routledge. L. (2001). The status and quality of Ministerial Council on Education, teaching and learning of science in Employment, Training and Youth Australian schools: A research report. Affairs (MCEETYA). (2005). National Canberra: Department of Education, Year 6 science assessment report: 2003. Training and Youth Affairs. Melbourne: Curriculum Corporation. Goodrum, D., Hackling, M. & Trotter, Norris, S. P., & Phillips, L. M. (2003). H. (2003). Collaborative Australian How literacy in its fundamental sense Secondary Science Program: Pilot study. is central to scientific literacy. Science Perth: Edith Cowan University. Education, 87, 224–240. Gott, R., & Duggan, S. (1996). Practical Palmer, D. H. (2001). Factors work: Its role in the understanding contributing to attitude exchange of evidence in science. International amongst preservice elementary Journal of Science Education, 18(7). teachers. Science Education, 86, 122– Hackling, M. W. & Prain, V. (2005). 138. Primary Connections: Stage 2 research Riggs, I., & Enochs, L. (1990). Towards report. Canberra: Australian Academy the development of an elementary of Science. teacher’s science teaching efficacy Hattie, J. (2003). Teachers make a belief instrument. Science Education, difference: What is the research 74, 625–637. evidence? Paper presented at the Sheffield, R. (2004). Facilitating teacher Australian Council for Educational professional learning: Analysing the

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 79 Research Conference 2006 80 PanelPanel discussiondiscussion

81 Putting it to the experts: Boosting science learning – what will it take?

Abstract Panel members The final session will bring together issues and ideas emerging from speakers and respondents at the conference sessions, and at participant forums held during the conference, to explore with a high level panel as key hypotheses and possible futures. Russell Tytler The panel will consist of key players representing a variety of perspectives Deakin University on science education. The aim of this Jim Peacock closing session will be to sharply identify Australian Chief Scientist Russell Tytler, Professor of Science Education at the key issues facing science education Deakin University, Melbourne has been involved over many years with Victorian curriculum in Australia, and to explore and debate Jim Peacock was appointed Australian Chief development and professional development productive ways forward. The aim Scientist in March 2006. Dr Peacock is an projects. He was principal researcher for the of this session will be to produce a outstanding scientist with a record of academic highly successful School Innovation in Science draft framework that could inform excellence and is highly respected by the science, initiative, which developed a framework for engineering and technology community. describing effective science teaching and learning, government policy directions. and a strategy for supporting school and teacher Dr Peacock is an award winning molecular change. His research interests also include student biologist and fervent science advocate. He learning, student reasoning and investigating in is recognised internationally as an eminent science, and public understanding of science. researcher in the field of plant molecular biology and its applications in agriculture. In 1994, he was made a Companion of the Order of Australia for outstanding service to science, particularly in the field of molecular biology and to science education. Dr Peacock is a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science, Fellow of The Royal Society of London, the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering, a Foreign Associate of the US National Academy of Sciences and a Foreign Fellow of the Indian National Science Academy. In 2000 he was a co-recipient of the inaugural Prime Minister’s Science Prize, for his co-discovery of the Flowering Switch Gene – a key gene that David Symington determines when plants end their vegetative Deakin University growth phase and begin flowering. This discovery will help boost the productivity of the world’s crops by billions of dollars each year and could David Symington spent 14 years as a teacher in also help increase the nutritional value of crops Victorian schools followed by several decades eaten by billions of the world’s poorest people. engaged in the education of teachers and in research in science education. Adjunct Professor He was also awarded the BHP Bicentennial Symington later worked for 8 years at the Prize for the pursuit of excellence in science Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research and technology and the Australian Academy Organisation (CSIRO) in several positions, where of Science’s Burnett Medal for distinguished he learned a good deal about the path from the contributions in the biological sciences. laboratory bench to the marketplace. Presently, Dr Peacock has gained valuable experience he is engaged with Russell Tytler and others in a working in industry having founded the Gene number of research and development activities at Shears biotechnology company and instituted Deakin University. the GrainGene initiative and the HRZ Wheat Company – linking research with the production of new wheat varieties for Australia. He played a key role in the establishment of cotton as Australia’s first highly successful biotech crop.

Research Conference 2006 82 Dr Peacock is a strong advocate for the for Research in Science Teaching (NARST). He integration of science and global business. He has conducted research in the area of primary drives innovative communication efforts to children’s understanding of science, attitudes to inform the general public as to the outcomes science, informal learning, argumentation and and value of modern science. He has brought the teaching the nature of science. He was a co- excitement of science to a broad cross-section of editor of the influential report Beyond 2000: the community and to Australian school students. Science Education for the Future, winner of the NARST award for best paper published in JRST in 2003 and 2004, and is a co-PI on the National Science Foundation funded Centre for Informal Learning and Schools. A particular agenda for his research is advancing the case for teaching Léonie Rennie science for citizenship. To this end, he has Curtin University of Technology conducted a significant body of work exploring the teaching of ideas, evidence and argument in schools. Léonie Rennie is Professor of Science and Technology Education at the Science and Mathematics Education Centre and Dean, Graduate Studies at Curtin University of Technology, Perth Western Australia. She has a Paul Carnemolla background in science teaching and curriculum, and is particularly interested in how people Australian Science Teachers Association learn, and want to learn, in a variety of settings. She is a co-author of the Report “The Status Paul is the current President of the Australian and Quality of Teaching and Learning science Science Teachers Association (ASTA). He has in Australian Schools” and has participated in over 12 years experience in teaching science in national school-community projects arising from schools across 2 sectors which have included the that report. Currently, she is working on two positions of Head Teacher, Science and Director research projects relating to integrated curriculum of Studies in large comprehensive schools. in science, mathematics and technology, and a Rodger W. Bybee state-wide program to enhance scientific literacy He has contributed to the development and Biological Sciences Curriculum Study implementation of science curriculum changes in the community. Her scholarly publications in NSW including the cross-sectoral Securing include over 150 books and monographs, book (BSCS), Colorado Springs, Colorado, USA their Future project to support the revisions of chapters and refereed journal articles. She has delivered keynote addresses to audiences in the HSC science curriculum in 2000 as well as Rodger W. Bybee is executive director of the Australia, Brazil, South Africa, Sweden, the US syllabus revisions in Science. Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS), a and the Netherlands on her research relating to non-profit organization that develops curriculum From 2001-2006 Paul has held various positions gender, learning and assessment in science and materials, provides professional development, and at the Office of the Board of Studies and has technology, both in school and out. worked primarily as a liaison officer in close and conducts research and evaluation for the science daily contact with schools. In the early part of 2006 education community. he was working for the Catholic Schools Office Prior to joining BSCS, he was executive director on a national project in Values Education and of the National Research Council’s Center has recently returned to schools in the position for Science, Mathematics, and Engineering Director of Studies at St. Catherine’s School, Education (CSMEE), in Washington, D.C. He Waverley NSW. participated in the development of the National Paul had been a member of the Science Teachers Science Education Standards, and in 1993-1995 Association of NSW (STANSW) and the he chaired the content working group of that Australian Science Teachers Association (ASTA) National Research Council project. since 1990 and was President of STANSW from Dr. Bybee has written widely, publishing in both 2004-2005. His experience includes convening education and psychology. He is co-author of conferences as well as delivering addresses and a leading textbook titled Teaching Secondary workshop presentations for teachers of science. Jonathan Osborne School Science: Strategies for Developing As Convenor of the 2003 STANSW Annual Scientific Literacy. His most recent book is Conference, he and his team broke new ground King’s College, London Achieving Scientific Literacy: From Purposes to in hosting a conference held simultaneously in Practices, published in 1997. Over the years, he four universities with video conferencing linking Jonathan Osborne holds the Chair of Science has received awards as a Leader of American each venue. Education at the Department for Educational Education and an Outstanding Educator in and Professional Studies, King’s College London America. In 1998 the National Science Teachers where he has been since 1985. Prior to that Association (NSTA) presented Dr. Bybee with he taught physics in high schools. Professor the NSTA’s Distinguished Service to Science Osborne is currently the head of department Education Award. and the President of the US National Association

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 83 Joy Thompson Michael Frazis Dianne Stuart Tertiary science student and Secondary student and Minerals Council of Australia 2005 Science Olympiad 2006 Science Olympiad Dianne Stuart is an educator with a wide-ranging Joy Thompson was awarded a National Michael is a Year 12 student and Head Prefect background in secondary teaching and educational Undergraduate Scholarship by the Australian at Sydney Grammar School. A graduate of ASI’s administration. National University, Canberra, and is now a first Australian Science Olympiad program, he recently She is currently the Director Education with year Bachelor of Philosophy (Science) student attended the 2006 International Chemistry the Minerals Council of Australia - the minerals there. Originally from Bellingen, NSW, she was Olympiad in Pusan, South Korea where he industry’s peak representational body. home-schooled until Year 6 before attending high achieved a Silver Medal. Michael is interested school in Sydney, first at an elite private school, in Biochemistry and once finished school he In this role she has developed and managed where she was dux of Middle School, and then at would like to study engineering/commerce or the minerals industry’s National Education James Ruse Agricultural High School, where she science/commerce. When not studying, Michael’s Program – a high profile partnership between was dux in 2005. In the NSW HSC, she received curricular activities include rowing, rugby, piano the Australian minerals industry and the school Premier’s Awards in 2004 and 2005, as well as and cadets. education system. topping the state in Cosmology, English Advanced The minerals industry’s school education initiatives and Comparative Literature. She attended at both the national and State level have sought the 2003 Professor Harry Messel International to balance the aspirations and needs of teachers Science School and in 2005 was a member of and students with the imperatives of a major the Australian team at the International Biology industry. Olympiad, where she won a silver medal. After completing her undergraduate degree, Rapidly changing imperatives of both industry Joy plans to continue her studies of biology, and the education sector maintain a challenging including a PhD and ultimately a research career dynamic for Dianne’s work – most recently that combines neuroscience, immunology and within the context of widespread skills shortages genetics. When she is not in the lab, Joy studies and far-reaching Vocational Training and the classics, relaxes with friends and writes poetry. Education reforms.

Research Conference 2006 84 PosterPoster presentationspresentations

85 1 Ruth Targett & 3 Graham Foster 5 Louisa Ivey Kate Anderson Epsom Girls Grammar, New Zealand Earth Science, WA Moriah College, NSW Thinking Skills in Science ‘ESWA is promoting and Action Research We have observed that most supporting the teaching of Earth – Collaboration between questioning in science is using lower Science in Secondary Schools Honours Years 9-10 Science levels of thought and cognition. across Western Australia’ Students and Postgraduate By linking questions to Anderson’s Earth Science Western Australia’s Science Students from UNSW Taxonomy and through the Mission is to raise the profile of construction of a model to develop geoscience in the State’s secondary High school students have designed explanation, we have found a significant and carried out a project related schools to a level matching the strategic shift in the cognitive responses to needs of WA, increase awareness of to a postgraduate Science mentor. questions and we have developed Students were able to access university the wide range of career opportunities higher level questions to target more it provides, and increase the number laboratories and equipment and able science students. were linked to their mentors through of students entering tertiary geoscience WebCT. This has lead to a rise in studies. interest and the number of students ESWA is a consortium representing undertaking senior science subjects in the University of Western Australia, Year 11 and 12 within the school. 4 Rosemary Hafner Curtin University, the Geological Survey Science Teachers’ of NSW of WA, WA Museum, and CSIRO. ESWA has financial and Board support Issues facing practising science from the resource industry, professional 2 Sally Parker & classroom teachers organisations, the Chamber of Minerals Kate Anderson and Energy of Western Australia and The Association is undertaking a survey the Science Teachers Association Moriah College, NSW of its members to identify those issues of Western Australia). ESWA has that practising science classroom engaged an Executive Officer, Earth A New Differentiated  teachers identify as the main challenges Science Secondary Education, to Science Matrix faced in relation to delivering high facilitate and coordinate support for quality, effective teaching and achieving Earth and Environmental Science The poster will focus on the use of the positive learning outcomes for students. Course of Study to be implemented in new Science Matrix designed specifically The poster will provide summary Secondary Schools across WA in 2007. to engage students in Science. This information of the interim findings of new learning matrix uses hands on the survey. Earth and Environmental Science is investigation; presentation of research an exciting new course with broad through a choice of a variety of creative scope for engaging learning experiences product types; considers philosophical including concepts from chemistry, Science issues; promotes the physics, biology and geology. ESWA is development of Science as a continual developing an extensive range of rich process; and personalises the Science learning resources to ensure relevant, experience in order to make it more Western Australian contextualised accessible. The Science Matrix is part learning for students of Earth and of the teacher’s notes that accompany Environmental Science. Many current COSMOS magazine which also includes sustainability issues for WA will be powerful learning tools such as guided examined including the Metropolitan brainstorming activities, the use of water supply shortage, impact of graphic organisers, questioning toolkits agriculture on river systems and soil and question builders. quality, renewable energy generation, the discovery and extraction of earth resources with minimal impact. ESWA

Research Conference 2006 86 is coordinating seminars for teachers 8 Dr Jan Lokan 9 Dr Leah Moore presented by industry and research Formerly ACER, now retired University of Canberra, ACT scientists to enrich teacher’s knowledge and skills in geoscience. Windows on the world of Preservice Teachers Speak: science teaching: More results What it takes to become an from the TIMSS Science  effective science teacher 6 Dr Eileen Kennedy Video Study This research compares the results UNSW Foundation Year, NSW As part of the Third International of two studies, one conducted Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS with Australian preservice science Detecting understanding by – now Trends in Mathematics and teachers and one with their Canadian using models Science Studies) in 1995 and 1999, counterparts. It analyses their video studies of national random responses to questions about ‘What it How do we find out if our students samples of class lessons were carried takes to become an effective science understand what we teach them? How out in several countries as a way of teacher at various stages in their do we probe their understanding? describing national pictures of science candidature’. How do we engage them in informal and mathematics teaching practices conversations? A useful simple strategy at Year 8. Australia was selected to that has been employed at UNSW take part in the 1999 video study and Foundation Year is the use of models. did so with the help of substantial Many of our students come from funding from the US National Science cultures in which student views are not Foundation.1 regularly canvassed. This approach has enlivened and enhanced their social The science achievement results of and intellectual lives. Photographs Australian students in TIMSS and other of these activities and transcripts of comparative studies will be featured conversations during teaching and in Dr Sue Thomson’s paper Science learning sessions will illustrate this achievement in Australia: Evidence from poster. National and International Surveys and brief reference to some of the results about teaching practices will be made. The Poster Display will extend the presentation and discussion of results 7 John Lloyd concerning Year 8 science teaching St Paul’s Catholic College, NSW contexts and practices in the five video study countries and will also include Teaching for a sustainable an analysis of the Australian results Future – Model Solar  in relation to statements of aims for Car Challenge science education in Australia 1ACER and the Australian Commonwealth, State Photographic display of students and Territory governments also contributed designing, building and racing cars over significant funds for the project. the last five years with brief descriptions of the purpose and outcomes of this activity including student reflections on the learning involved.

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 87 10 Paula Taylor 11 Christine Preston 12 Ann Osman Department of Education & Training, VIC University of Sydney, NSW Victorian Curriculum & Assessment Authority, VIC Ongoing Contextualised Action Stick it where it fits! Revitalising Science Curriculum Research in Schools Stick it where it fits! If we want to Bottom Up – Top Down The School Innovation in Teaching boost science learning we have to (SIT) – Science, Mathematics and ensure children are given opportunities How to make science contemporary Technology is a program that enables to engage in age appropriate topics and and make the transition from P to 10 Victorian teachers to incorporate action activities. into senior secondary science seamless. research into their teaching practice. An analysis of primary and junior This poster will show how the The research involves both teachers secondary science text books used traditional disciplines have blended to and students and seeks to inform in NSW reveals that the types of produce newer areas of bio technology, improvement in teacher pedagogical hands on experiments suggested nanotechnology and neuroscience. practice, students’ attitudes to do not always match the age of the science and students’ science learning children and as such are inappropriate. outcomes. The poster highlights the The result is that secondary school elements of the SIT action research children are bored rather than process and the historical origins of stimulated by science experiences. the program. The program grew out Some of the activities promoted for of the School Innovation in Science use at early secondary level would Research Project, a three-year research be better used in primary school and project conducted by Deakin University replaced with higher order activities from 2000 to 2002. Managed by the designed to develop students’ deeper Victorian Department of Education understanding of science. Further & Training and funded through the a lack of communication between Growing Victoria Together initiative, the primary and secondary teachers means project was the pivotal component that children’s prior knowledge and of the Science Innovation in Schools experiences are not being built upon to Strategy (SISS). The success of the enhance their scientific understanding program is evidenced in the more than or interests. Secondary teachers blame 400 Victorian schools where it has been inconsistent approaches to science implemented and by its translation into in primary schools for ignoring prior the Principles of Learning and Teaching. learning of students and starting from scratch.

Research Conference 2006 88 13 Dr Lyn Carter 14 Dr Colleen Spence 15 Dr Ann Cleary & Prof Philip & Sue Wilson Merici College, ACT Clarkson Merici College & Australian Catholic Australian Catholic University, VIC University, Signadou Campus, ACT Trial of a fully integrated Maths and Science course in year 7 Science Education and Findings of a CRIMS project to Merici College, a Catholic girls’ school Mathematics Education in the increase student interest and for Years 7 to 12, is trialling a fully Era of Globalisation: Findings confidence in Maths and Science integrated Maths and Science course from Early Research The outcomes of the ASISTM in Year 7 as part of the CRIMS project funded CRIMS Project (Context Rich (Context Rich Integrated Maths and It is becoming clear that contemporary Science). Four out of eight Year 7 education including science and Integrated Maths & Science) will be presented in this poster. The CRIMS classes are involved in the project. In mathematics education, needs the first semester of the trial, students to be considered in tandem with Project is currently operating in four secondary colleges in Canberra. The are exploring the Working Scientifically globalisation as the dominant logic and Space and beyond. We have reconfiguring the social landscape goals of the project are to increase student interest and confidence in found that the immersion of students in which education is embedded. in engaging Science topics reduces Education and globalisation become maths and science and to promote the use of context-based and open-ended negative feelings in their approach mutually implicative, with globalisation to Mathematics and that they are the macro-level sets of forces shaping investigations through teacher PD, networking and resource sharing. The more prepared to take risks in doing the conditions of education, while mathematical calculations. Direct links education increasingly promotes poster will summarise the experiences of the project to date with regard to have been made between Space and globalisation. This proposition holds Measurement, Scale, Decimals and for both the formal types of education how change occurs in schools and how even small positive changes in Directed numbers. The trial is being at primary, secondary and tertiary evaluated by externally moderated levels, and those increasing informal pedagogy can have a positive effect on student outcomes. Teacher resources focus groups of students and teachers, education and learning opportunities. student surveys and student skills tests This poster cites evidence from several that have been developed will also be available. that are common for all Year 7 classes. papers already published within JRST Results to date will be presented and by Carter (forthcoming; 2005) to a sample of teacher resources will be argue that globalisation is embedded available. within science education, even though it is under-acknowledged and under- theorised in their respective research agenda. It also reports on successive studies investigating the impacts of globalisation in mathematics education (Clarkson, 2005; 2004) which hold implications for science education.

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 89 16 Dr Constance 17 Dr Premandh M 18 Cheryl Peers K Barsky Kurup & Prof Mark Australian Academy of Science, ACT Learning by Redesign, W Hackling The Ohio State University, Ohio, USA LaTrobe University and Primary Connections: Linking Edith Cowan University, WA science with literacy A Successful Model of Intensive This is a national project initiated and Professional Development Impact of high school science managed by the Australian Academy of in Science and Mathematics in students’ beliefs about, Science to develop a science program Education understandings of, and comprising a sophisticated professional learning program supported with rich In the mid-1990s, over 2000 science intentions to act to reduce curriculum resources. The Australian and mathematics teachers in Ohio greenhouse gas emissions and Government has funded Stage 2 (2004 completed intensive six-week summer the greenhouse effect – 2005) and Stage 3 (2006 – 2008) of Discovery Institutes in Physical Science, Greenhouse gases emissions the project ($4.8M). Life Science or Mathematics by contribute to the greenhouse effect Inquiry. This professional development Purpose and climate change. Citizens need was part of a statewide initiative in to be scientifically literate about the To improve learning outcomes in education reform. A survey of these greenhouse gases effect in order to science and literacy by developing teachers showed that their attitudes participate in decision-making and curriculum resources and a professional toward inquiry-based instruction, to take appropriate actions in their learning program that will improve their capacity to adopt inquiry-based own lives for a sustainable, green and teachers’ confidence and competence teaching strategies, and their classroom clear environment. Collectively these for teaching science and literacy use of inquiry-based instructional decisions and actions have similar through developing their science practices experienced strong, positive impact and significance as those taken pedagogical content knowledge. and significant growth during their by industry to reduce carbon emission participation. A longitudinal study Research Component by geo-sequestration. This study will demonstrated that the impact of investigate the relationship between The project is monitored and informed the professional development was what is learned in science and students’ by ongoing evaluation through a sustained over several years. In a beliefs about, understandings of, and thorough research component separate study, assessment data intentions to act to reduce greenhouse conducted by Professors Mark Hackling on nearly 7000 students showed gases emissions and the greenhouse and Vaughan Prain from Edith Cowan that students of Discovery teachers effect. This poster will present findings and La Trobe Universities respectively. consistently outperformed students of the study so far. from a comparable control group on The Stage 2 trial in 2005 involved 56 public release test items from the trial schools and 106 trial teachers National Assessment of Educational Australia-wide. Progress. Furthermore, both girls and Stage 3 will expand the research African American students of Discovery component to monitor trail teachers, teachers demonstrated higher levels whole school implementation and of achievement in both science and the efficacy of professional learning mathematics compared to their peers. facilitators trained to support uptake.

Research Conference 2006 90 19 Dr Wilhelmina Van Rooy School of Education, Macquarie University, NSW

Understanding biology teaching practice: Perspective of an experienced practitioner Case study approach of an experienced biology teacher working with a group of senior NSW HSC students on a unit of work dealing with disease. The research explores how the teacher ‘shapes/moulds’ her knowledge about teaching and that of biology to account for practice. Syntactic knowledge about biology and substantive knowledge are presented.

20 Mr Peter Weddell National Awards for Quality Schooling, ACT

National Awards for Quality Schooling These awards celebrate the achievements of individual teachers, school principals and support staff. This is a pictorial display of 2006 Award winners and their achievements which cover the full range of the curriculum and also focuses on science teaching and learning achievements.

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 91 Research Conference 2006 92 ConferenceConference programprogram

93 Sunday 13 August

6.00 – 7.30 Welcome Reception Centenary Ballroom, Hyatt Hotel Canberra

Monday 14 August

9.00 Conference Welcome Hon Julie Bishop, Minister for Education Science and Training

9.15 Conference Opening Professor Geoff Masters, Chief Executive Officer, ACER

9.30 Keynote Address 1 Federation Ballroom 1 & 2 ‘Towards a science education for all: The role of ideas, evidence and argument’ Professor Jonathan Osborne, King’s College, London Chair Dr John Ainley, ACER 10.30 Morning Tea

11.00 Concurrent Sessions 1 Session A: Federation Session B: Canberra Room Session C: Centenary Session D: Federation Ballroom 1 ‘Inquiry in science Ballroom Ballroom 2 ‘What science do students classrooms – rhetoric or ‘Addressing the looming Forum: want to learn? What do reality?’ crisis in the supply of suitably ‘Boosting science learning – students know about science?’ Professor Denis Goodrum, qualified science teachers’ what will it take?’ Associate Professor Barry University of Canberra, ACT Dr Kerri-Lee Harris Professor Russell Tytler and McCrae, ACER Chair Kerry-Anne Hoad, ACER University of Melbourne, VIC Adjunct Professor David Chair Dr Lawrence Ingvarson, Chair Pamela Macklin, ACER Symington, Deakin University, VIC ACER Chair Marion Meiers, ACER

12.15 Lunch and Poster Displays

1.15 Concurrent Sessions 2 Session E: Federation Session F: Canberra Room Session G: Centenary Session H: Federation Ballroom 1 ‘No wonder kids are Ballroom Ballroom 2 ‘How can professional confused: the relevance of ‘Rethinking science ‘Forum (repeated): standards improve the science education to science’ education through rethinking Boosting science learning quality of teaching and Dr Deborah Corrigan, schooling’ – what will it take?’ learning science?’ Monash University, VIC Associate Professor Jim Davies Professor Russell Tytler and Chair Dr Ken Rowe, ACER Dr Lawrence Ingvarson and Australian Science and Adjunct Professor David Ms Anne Semple, ACER Mathematics School, SA Symington, Deakin University, VIC Chair Pamela Macklin, ACER Chair Marion Meiers, ACER Chair Kerry-Anne Hoad, ACER

2.30 Afternoon Tea

3.00 Keynote Address 2 Federation Ballroom 1 & 2 ‘The community’s contribution to science learning: Making it count’ Professor Léonie Rennie, Curtin University of Technology, WA Chair Dr John Ainley, ACER 4.15 Close of Discussion

7.00 Conference Dinner Federation Ballroom 1 & 2, Hyatt Hotel Canberra Tuesday 15 August

9.15 Keynote Address 3 Federation Ballroom 1 & 2 ‘Boosting science learning through the design of curriculum materials’ Dr Rodger Bybee, Executive Director Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Colorada USA Chair Dr John Ainley, ACER

10.30 Morning Tea

11.00 Concurrent Sessions 3 Session I: Federation Session J: Canberra Room Session K: Centenary Session L: Federation Ballroom 1 ‘Creating Powerful Teacher Ballroom Ballroom 2 ‘Science achievement in Education Opportunities: ‘Research and boosting ‘Primary Connections: A new Australia: Evidence from The need for risk, relevance, science learning: Diagnosis approach to primary science National and International resource, recognition, and potential solutions’ and to teacher professional Surveys’ readiness and reflection’ Adjunct Professor Peter Fensham, learning’ Dr Sue Thomson, ACER Dr Susan Rodrigues Queensland University of Professor Mark Hackling Chair Dr Ken Rowe, ACER University of Dundee, Scotland Technology Edith Cowan University, WA Chair Anne Semple, ACER Chair Marion Meiers, ACER Chair Kerry-Anne Hoad, ACER

12.15 Lunch and Poster Displays

1.15 Panel Discussion Putting it to the experts: ‘Boosting science learning – what will it take?’ Panel Dr Jim Peacock, Australian Chief Scientist; Paul Carnemolla, President ASTA; Prof Leonie Rennie, Curtin University; Prof Jonathan Osborne, King’s College London; Dr Rodger Bybee, BSCS USA; Joy Thompson, tertiary science student and 2005 Science Olympiad; Michael Franzis, secondary student and 2006 Science Olympiad; Dianne Stuart, Minerals Council of Australia Chair Professor Russell Tytler and Adjunct Professor David Symington, Deakin University, VIC

2.30 Closing Address Professor Geoff Masters, Chief Executive Officer, ACER

3.00 Close of Conference Research Conference 2006 96 HyattHyatt ffloorplanloorplan

97 FLYNN DRIVE

THE CLUBHOUSE BANQUET ENTRANCE

THE FEDERATION CANBERRA BALLROOM ROOM S E H G U H C U R B E

CENTENARY BALLROOM

THE LAVENDER THE ROSE SCULLI N BARTON COURTYARD COURTYARD U C S E I Z N E M T R N I MAIN -5 0 5 10 20 ENTRANCE METRES

COMMONWEALTH AVENUE

Level 1 Function Venues Centenary Ballroom Federation Ballroom The Canberra Room

Research Conference 2006 98 ConferenceConference delegatesdelegates

99 Dinner table no. Delegate name Delegate organisation

8 Dr Christopher Acland Trinity Grammar School, NSW Mr David Agostinetto St George College, SA 2 Dr John Ainley ACER, VIC 6 Mr James Aitken The Learning Federation, VIC 9 Dr Carol Aldous Flinders University, SA 22 Ms Marie Allen Campbelltown PAHS, NSW 7 Ms Kate Anderson Moriah College, NSW Mrs Kathleen Anderson Telopea Park School, ACT 3 Ms Penny Anderson Depart of Education, TAS Dr Patricia Angus Bruce CIT, ACT 8 Mrs Lillian Arici Brisbane Girls Grammar School, QLD 16 Ms Jenny Arnold The University of Melbourne, VIC 11 Ms Dagmar Arthur Dept. Educ. & Training, NSW Ms Denise Bailey 20 Ms Sharyn Bana Christ Church Grammar School, WA 23 Mrs Rowena Barnett Presbyterian Ladies College, NSW 14 Mrs Andrea Barr St Patrick’s College, NSW 8 Mrs Belinda Barrie Brisbane Boys’ College, QLD 1 Dr Constance Barsky The Ohio State University, USA Mr John Barton St Joseph’s Primary School, NSW 11 Mrs Gabrielle Bastow Catholic Education Office, WA Mr Donald Bates Dubbo School of Distance Educ., NSW 10 Ms Jane Battrick Dept of Education & Training, VIC 19 Mr Tony Begley St Peter’s College, SA 23 Mr Ian Bentley La Trobe University, VIC 7 Dr Atit Bhargava Scotch College, VIC 17 Miss Joanna Bonner Scotch Oakburn College, TAS 11 Ms Pam Borger Dept. of Educ. & Training, VIC 16 Mrs Jennifer Borowski St Paul’s School, QLD Mr Mike Brennan Newington College, NSW Dr Beth Brook Wynnum North State High School, QLD 15 Ms Erin Brooke Knox Grammar School, NSW 10 Mrs Jan Brooks DECS SA 20 Ms Linde Brush Kingswood College, VIC Ms Ally Bull NZCER, NZ Mr Andrew Burn Miller Technology High School, NSW Mrs Moira Burns Temora High School, NSW 9 Mr Richard Burns CSIRO Education, ACT 1 Dr Rodger Bybee BSCS, USA 17 Mrs Kathy Cairns Caroline Chisholm College, NSW Ms Rosemary Cameron A.B. Paterson College, QLD Mr Brian Campbell Thomas Carr College, VIC Mr Clyde Campbell Eatons Hill State School, QLD 5 Mr Paul Carnemolla Aust Science Teachers Assoc., ACT Mr Ian Carroll Dept. of Education & Training, WA 6 Dr Lyn Carter Australian Catholic University, VIC Ms Lisa Causton Catholic Education Office, WA Ms Eng Chee Dept. of Education & Training, VIC

Research Conference 2006 100 Dinner table no. Delegate name Delegate organisation

Mrs Jan Cheetham St Clare’s College, ACT 23 Mrs Jaya Chowdhury Presbyterian Ladies College, NSW 20 Mr Carl Ciccarelli Santa Maria College, WA 8 Mrs Deborah Clancy St Catherine’s School, NSW Dr Ann Cleary Merici College, ACT 18 Mr John Cluett Albany Junior High School, NZ Mr Vince Connor Catholic Education Office, NSW 19 Mr Laurence Cook Christian Outreach College, Brisbane, QLD 17 Mrs Michelle Cook Caroline Chisholm College, NSW Mr Ty Cooper All Saints Catholic Boys College, NSW Mr Brian Copland Oxley College Ltd, NSW 14 Ms Kara Coughlan The MacRobertson Girls High School, VIC 7 Ms Terri Cornish ACER Press, NSW 2 Dr Debbie Corrigan Monash University, VIC Ms Meg Cowey Dept. of Educ. & Training, WA 8 Mr William Cowlishaw Anglican Church Grammar School, QLD Ms Jenny Cox Charles Sturt University, NSW Ms Judith Cox Wilderness School, SA Dr Sarah Craig Immanuel College, SA 21 Mrs Maria Criaris Our Lady of the Sacred Heart College, SA Mr Grahame Crowfield Arden Anglican School, NSW 18 Mr Bendan Crowley Marymount College, QLD Ms Anne Curtain Dept of Education, Science & Training, ACT Mrs Toni Daly Dubbo School of Distance Educ., NSW 22 Mrs Sharon Davey Gleeson College, SA 16 Mr Mark David-Tooze All Saints Anglican School, QLD 5 Assoc. Prof. Jim Davies Flinders University, SA Mr Matt Davies Dept of Education, Science & Training, ACT 10 Mr Neville Davies Dept of Education & Training, VIC 12 Ms Anna Davis Catholic Education Office, Sydney, NSW 13 Ms Maria Delima Loreto College, SA Ms Susan Dennett Dept. of Education & Training, VIC 15 Ms Rebecca Dennis Holy Spirit College, NSW Mr Fred Deshon University of Western Australia, WA 12 Ms Denise Devitt Depart of Education, TAS 4 Ms Swati Dey Dept. Educ. & Training, ACT 3 Mr Philip Diprose Dept of Education, Science & Training, ACT 21 Mrs Fiona Jane Dove Wycliffe Christian School, NSW 20 Ms Pascale Drever Ravenswood School for Girls, NSW 8 Miss Woolnough Driver Brisbane Girls Grammar School, QLD 14 Mrs Sarah Dudley Sacred Heart College, TAS 17 Ms Judith Dutton Crestwood High School, NSW Mrs Jane Easterbrook Mt St Benedict College, NSW 13 Ms Kathryn Edmondson Loreto Kirribilli, NSW 13 Mr Danny Edwards Loreto College, SA 8 Mrs Teresa Evans Brisbane Grammar School, QLD Ms Julie Evans Cabramatta High School, NSW 13 Ms Anna Farina Siena College, VIC

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 101 Dinner table no. Delegate name Delegate organisation

1 Adj. Prof. Peter Fensham Queensland University of Technology, QLD 3 Mr David Finlay La Trobe University, VIC Mrs Trish Fisher Bronte Public School, NSW 22 Mr Timothy Flaus Bowral High School, NSW 9 Ms Annette Foley University of Ballarat, VIC Mr Stephen Ford Lake Ginninderra College, ACT 16 Mr Graham Foster Epsom Girls Grammar, NZ 7 Mr James Friend Shore Sydney CEGS, NSW 19 Mr Peter Furey Brighton Grammar School, VIC Ms Penny George Melba High School, ACT Mr Alex Georgiadis Saint Stephen’s College, QLD Ms Marisa Glabus Rooty Hill High School, NSW 2 Prof. Denis Goodrum University of Canberra, ACT 14 Mr David Gove Kambala, NSW 18 Mr Robert Graham St Ignatius College - Riverview, NSW 18 Ms Sue Grandison Pembroke School, SA Ms Regina Grant NSW Office of Board of Studies, NSW 2 Prof Mark Hackling Edith Cowan University, WA Mrs Susan Hackney Cerdon College, NSW Ms Julie Haeusler Dept. of Education & Training, NSW 5 Ms Rosemary Hafner Science Teachers’ Association of NSW Mrs Melissa Halpin Dubbo School of Distance Educ., NSW 15 Mr Mark Hamilton Wesley College, VIC 6 Prof. Susan Hamilton University of Queensland, QLD 20 Ms Jillian Harrington McCarthy Catholic College, NSW 20 Mrs Julie Harris Christ Church Grammar School, WA 1 Dr Kerri-Lee Harris The Univ of Melb, VIC 18 Mr Manuel Hatzi Pembroke School, SA Mrs Wendy Hawking Yarra Valley Grammar School, VIC 9 Mr Iain Hay University of Canberra, ACT Mr Troy Hayduk Radford College, ACT Mr Michael Hayes MLC School, NSW 4 Mrs Christina Healy Catholic Education Office Sydney, NSW 9 Ms Marian Heard CSIRO Education, ACT 21 Ms Helen Heugh St Leo’s Catholic College, NSW 5 Mr Niels Hider Aust Science Teachers Assoc., ACT 3 Ms Kerry-Anne Hoad ACER, VIC 15 Mr James Hoadley Wesley College, VIC 19 Dr Allin Hodson Urrbrae Agricultural High School, SA 12 Mrs Giannina Hoffman SSABSA, SA Mrs Alison Horn Donvale Christian College, VIC Mrs Elaine Hornas Bethany College, NSW 13 Mr Paul Houseman Loreto Kirribilli, NSW 21 Mrs Dianne Hunter St Clare’s College, NSW 15 Mr Wayne Hunter Knox Grammar School, NSW 19 Mr Mark Innes Urrbrae Agricultural High School, SA 1 Dr Lawrence Ingvarson ACER, VIC 21 Mr Conrad Ivanov St Clare’s College, NSW

Research Conference 2006 102 Dinner table no. Delegate name Delegate organisation

12 Ms Louisa Ivey Earth Science Western Australia, WA Ms Diane Jackson SCEGGS Darlinghurst, NSW 19 Mr Stuart Jamieson Melbourne Grammar School, VIC Ms Berenice Jidorko Holy Family Primary School, ACT Ms Vivianne Johnson Dept of Education, Science & Training, ACT Mr John Johnstone Sydney Olympic Park Authority, NSW Mr Trevor Jones Marsden State High School, QLD 19 Mr Sam Jordan Prince Alfred College, SA 19 Mr Chris Kaczan Urrbrae Agricultural High School, SA 13 Ms Evangelia Katsikoyannis Killester College, VIC 15 Mr Michael Kay Sydney Boys High School, NSW 6 Dr Eileen Kennedy University of NSW, NSW 11 Mr Gary Kerr Depart of Educ and Training, NSW 13 Mr Michael Key Loreto Kirribilli, NSW 3 Prof. Denise Kilpatrick La Trobe University, VIC 9 Mr Ross Kingsland CSIRO Education, ACT 22 Mr Stephen Kirk Albion Park HS, NSW Ms Carmel Kriz Catholic Schools Office, NSW 11 Ms Ina Kuehlich Dept. of Educ. & Training, VIC Dr Premmedh Kurup La Trobe University, VIC Mr Scott Lambert Dept of Education, Science & Training, ACT Mr Alan Lee Radford College, ACT 15 Mr Mark Lee Knox Grammar School, NSW 12 Mr Gerard Lewis Catholic Education Office, VIC 12 Mr Simon Lindsay Catholic Education Office, VIC 18 Mr John Lloyd St Pauls Catholic College, NSW Ms Lara Lloyd Dept of Education, Science & Training, ACT 2 Dr Jan Lokan (Formerly ACER, now retired) 16 Mr Paul Looyen MacArthur Anglican School, NSW 9 Ms Mary Loveless University of Waikato, NZ 4 Ms Pam Macklin ACER, VIC Dr Stephanie Mander CIT, ACT 9 Dr Jerry Maroulis University of Southern Qld, QLD Dr Ron Martin ACER, VIC 1 Prof. Geoff Masters ACER, VIC 21 Ms Judith McCrea St Leo’s Catholic College, NSW 2 Assoc. Prof. Barry McCrae ACER, VIC Mrs Donna McDonald St Francis Xavier College, ACT 13 Ms Mary McDonnell Killester College, VIC 10 Miss Shona McEnaney Dept of Education & Training, VIC Mr Marty McGoldrick Marist North Shore, NSW 12 Mr Phil McIntosh Catholic Educ Office, Wollongong, NSW 6 Dr David McKay University of the Sunshine Coast, QLD 4 Mrs Marilyn McKee Dept. Educ. & Training, WA 10 Mrs Kerri McLeod Dept of Education & Training, VIC 18 Mr Keith McMullen William Carey Christian School, NSW 4 Mr Tim McMullen CEO Sydney, NSW 5 Ms Marion Meiers ACER, VIC

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 103 Dinner table no. Delegate name Delegate organisation

1 Dr Trish Mercer Dept of Education, Science & Training, ACT 15 Mr Chris Metcalfe Melbourne Girls Grammar School, VIC Mr David Miller Toowoomba Grammar School, QLD 14 Mr Gregory Mills Sacred Heart College, TAS Mr Paul Mills Dept of Education, Science & Training, ACT Dr Leah Moore University of Canberra, ACT Ms Maureen Moore St Joseph’s Catholic College, NSW 15 Mr Ken Muhling Cowra High School, NSW 21 Mrs Anne Murphy St Clare’s College, NSW 18 Mr Chris Murphy Marymount College, QLD 17 Mr Timothy Murray St Andrews College, NSW Ms Deborah Murtagh Mt St Michael’s College, QLD 21 Mrs Tina Neate Our Lady of the Sacred Heart College, SA Mr Brendan Newell Cannon Hill Anglican College, QLD 19 Dr John Nicholson Melbourne Grammar School, VIC 11 Mrs Louise Nielsen Dept of Education & Training, WA Dr Sally Nobbs Wilderness School, SA 14 Mr Patrick Nolan Aquinas College, WA 4 Ms Rosalie Nott Catholic Education Commission, NSW 21 Mrs Rosemary Nunnerley St Clare’s College, NSW 10 Mr Brendan O’Brien Dept of Education & Training, VIC Mrs Jane O’Brien Canberra Girls’ Grammar School, ACT 6 Dr Robert O’Brien ACER, VIC 8 Mr Matthew O’Brien Brisbane Boys’ College, QLD 16 Mrs Sue O’Connell Catherine McAuley, NSW 17 Ms Caroline O’Hare St Andrews College, NSW Ms Eryn O’Mahony St Columba’s College, VIC 1 Prof. Jonathan Osborne King’s College London, UK 4 Ms Ann Osman VCAA, VIC 16 Mrs Kate Padman Methodist Ladies College, WA 20 Mrs Colleen Palmer Browns Plains SHS, QLD 6 Dr Debra Panizzon University of New England, NSW 7 Ms Sally Parker Moriah College, NSW Mr Warren Parkinson Brisbane School of Distance Educ, QLD Mr Rob Paynter Barker College, NSW Mr Craig Pearce ANSTO, NSW Ms Cheryl Peers Australian Academy of Science, ACT 12 Mr Perry Peter SSABSA, SA 22 Ms Kirsty Phillips Hawker College, ACT Ms Robyn Pillans Annesley College, SA 22 Ms Lisa Pluis Hawker College, ACT 19 Mr Donald Plumb Christian Outreach College, Brisbane, QLD 16 Mr Michael Podgorny John Septimus Roe Angl Comm School, WA 1 Prof. Paige Porter The University of WA 23 Ms Stephanie Porter Loreto College, VIC Ms Christine Preston University of Sydney, NSW Mr Steve Punch John Edmondson High School, NSW Mrs Chris Purdie

Research Conference 2006 104 Dinner table no. Delegate name Delegate organisation

Mr Neil Quinn St Mary Star of Sea College, NSW Mrs Mary Rafter Queensland Studies Authority, QLD Mr Peter Razos Trinity Grammar School, VIC 20 Mrs Judith Read Ravenswood School for Girls, NSW 13 Mrs Diane Reed Loreto Kirribilli, NSW Ms Joan Reimann Immanual College, SA 1 Prof. Leonie Rennie Curtin University of Technology, WA Ms Louise Reynolds ACER, VIC Mr Mark Rix Catholic Educ Office, Sydney, NSW 5 Mr Michael Roach Hamilton Secondary College, VIC 16 Mr Daniel Robins Lindisfarne Anglican School, NSW 2 Dr Susan Rodrigues Univ of Dundee, Scotland, UK 20 Dr Holly Rose Christ Church Grammar School, WA Ms Robyn Rosengrave Queensland Studies Authority, QLD Ms Louise Rostron Australian Academy of Science, ACT 14 Mrs Wendy Rowan St Patrick’s College, NSW 3 Dr Ken Rowe ACER, VIC Dr Brad Rundle Trinity Grammar School, VIC Mrs Melanie Rundle Carey Baptist Grammar School, VIC 10 Mr Peter Russo DECS, SA Ms Rachel Ryan Biotechnology Australia, ACT 20 Miss Laura Sacchetta McCarthy Catholic College, NSW 7 Mr Peter Saffin Pearson Education Australia, VIC 5 Mrs Aline Saliba Granville Boys High School, NSW Mrs Judy Sara Aust. Science & Maths School, SA 7 Mr Ralph Saubern ACER, VIC 11 Mr Glen Sawle NSW Dept. of Educ, NSW 10 Mr Bruce Schmidt Dept of Education & Training, Grampians Region, VIC 7 Mr Tim Scouller Shore SCEGS, NSW 8 Mr Craig Seawright St Catherine’s School, NSW 21 Mrs Emma Seccombe Bishop Tyrrell Anglican College, NSW Ms Assimina Semertjis St Columba’s College, VIC 5 Ms Anne Semple ACER, VIC 4 Dr Pauline Sharma Catholic Education Office, VIC Mrs Leonie Shaw Dept. Education & the Arts, QLD 17 Mrs Margaret Shepherd Freeman Catholic College, NSW 5 Mrs Nola Shoring Australian Academy of Science, ACT 14 Mr Ian Simpson Aquinas College, WA Mr Noel Simpson Dept of Education, Science & Training, ACT Mr Ernst Smeets MLC School, NSW Mr Ian Smith Dubbo School of Distance Educ., NSW 6 Mr Vaughan Smith Caulfield Grammar School, VIC Mrs Deborah Snaith Dept Education, NSW Mr John Sodeau Liverpool Girls’ High School, NSW Dr Colleen Spence Merici College, ACT Mr Nicholas Stansbie Ballarat and Clarendon College, VIC 9 Ms Vicki Stavropoulos CSIRO Education, ACT Dr Robert Stevens Dept of Education & Training, NSW

Boosting Science Learning – what will it take? 105 Dinner table no. Delegate name Delegate organisation

10 Ms Karen Strang Dept of Education & Training, VIC 3 Ms Dianne Stuart Minerals Council of Aust., ACT 17 Mrs Joanne Surman St Mary’s College, SA 22 Ms Julie Swain Campbelltown PAHS, NSW Ms Maria Tavarnesi MCEETYA, VIC 2 Adj. Prof. David Symington Deakin University, VIC 18 Mr Andrew Szabo St Ignatius College - Riverview, NSW 7 Ms Ruth Targett Moriah College, NSW Ms Debra Talbot Design Ed Consulting, NSW 17 Mrs Debbie Taylor The Peninsula School, VIC 11 Ms Paula Taylor Dept of Education & Training, VIC 5 Dr Colin Taylor Australian Science Innovations, ACT 6 Ms Margaret Taylor ACER, VIC 22 Mr Peter Teakle St Ignatius’ College, SA 22 Mr Nicholas Thill St Aloysius College, NSW Mrs Elizabeth Thrum Mt St Benedict College, NSW Mr Daniel Tibbits Lake Ginninderra College, ACT Mrs Drina Timm Barker College, NSW Mr Robert Tomaschewski Education Queensland, QLD 2 Dr Sue Thomson ACER, VIC Ms Helen Trevethan Dunedin College of Education, NZ 2 Prof. Russell Tytler Deakin University, VIC 11 Mr Kim Van Den Berghe Dept of Education & Training, VIC 12 Dr Wilhelmina Van Rooy Macquarie University, NSW Ms Suzanne van Strien Radford College, ACT 4 Ms Terri Vander Spoel Education Queensland, QLD 11 Ms Susanne Vaughan Depart of Education and Training, WA Dr Bruce Waldrip University of Southern Queensland, QLD 18 Mrs Bronwyn Walters Tara Anglican School, NSW 10 Mr Mark Ward DECS, SA 16 Mrs Kirsten Wardrop St Laurence’s College, QLD 13 Mr Christopher Warren Kincoppal - Rose Bay School of the Sacred Heart, NSW 3 Mr Peter Weddell National Awards for Quality Schooling, ACT 15 Mr Andrew Weeding Knox Grammar School, NSW 17 Miss Debbie White Caroline Chisholm College, NSW Ms Wendy Whitham Aust Govt Depart of Educ, Science and Train., ACT Mrs Diana Whymark Lyneham High School, ACT Ms Melissa Williams St Mary’s Cathedral College, NSW 14 Ms Sharon Williams The MacRobertson Girls High School, VIC Mrs Anne Wilson Moreton Bay College, QLD 14 Mr Gordon Wilson Camberwell Grammar School, VIC Mr Kim Wilson St Francis Xavier College, ACT Mrs Lynette Wilson Canberra Institute of Technology, ACT Ms Sue Wilson Australian Catholic University, ACT Mrs Robyn Woinarski St Clare’s College, ACT 9 Dr Jim Woolnough University of Canberra, ACT Mr David Wyatt Saint Stephen’s College, QLD 4 Dr Brian Young Dept. Educ. & Training, WA 7 Mr Alexander Young Flickntick Pty Ltd, TAS

Research Conference 2006 106