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Home , Conga, Conga line, Giovanni Hidalgo, Quinto (drum)

A History of the By Nolan Warden

Despite its wide- spread use, the conga drum may be one of the most misunder- stood percussion in- struments. It is all-too-often disre- garded as an “acces- sory,” not worthy of serious consideration. Even though the past decade has brought increased interest in “world” percussion, information about the history of re- mains hard to find. Before approaching that history, though, we must consider a few fundamentals. Besides, we haven’t even called this drum by its correct name yet! Photo © CIDMUC, . From book/CD entitled From Afrocuban Music to Salsa by Dr. Olavo Alén Rodriguez (PIRANHA Records, BCD-POIR1258, 1998).

PERCUSSIVE NOTES 8 FEBRUARY 2005 THE BASICS considered to be responsible for the musi- refers to the lead part in rumba. Conga In the United States, we hear these cal development of these , the refers to the middle or medium-sized drums referred to as conga drums or sim- word tumbadora is used out of respect for drum, and tumbadora refers to the larger ply congas. However, in , where that setting as opposed to conga, which is drum. Some manufacturers now produce these drums were developed, the word a more commercial term. Today, it’s not requintos (extra small) and/or super- conga is usually only applied to a drum really necessary for English-speaking tumbas (largest). It should not be in- and rhythm played during Carnaval percussionists to call these drums ferred, however, that drums with these (similar to Brazilian Carnaval or Mardi tumbadoras. However, since they are names were ever used together in a tradi- Gras in the U.S.). predominantly called tumbadoras by the tional ensemble. A more accurate term, used in a tradi- culture that created them, this article will tional sense and by most Spanish-speak- refer to them as such. Pronunciation ers, is tumbadora. This term is not It’s also difficult to pin an exact mean- Something else to consider is the pro- traditionally applied to the drums played ing on either of these words, but they are nunciation of these words. Whether you in Carnaval, but for those played in most both generally accepted as being of choose to say conga or tumbadora, it’s traditional and commercial Cuban music. Bantu provenance. The most known best if you pronounce it correctly! Most How these names historically came to be scholar of Afro-Cuban music, Dr English speakers pronounce conga like confused (and essentially interchange- Fernando Ortiz (1881–1969)1, considered “cahnga,” but it is more accurate to pro- able) is a difficult question. Unfortu- the Bantu word nkónga, which means nounce it with Spanish vowel sounds nately, since this confusion began near “navel” or “umbilical,” as a possible root (CONE-gah). Pronunciations such as the beginning of the twentieth century, of the word conga. This seems plausible “koonga” or “kuhnga” creep into certain and since useful scholarly study of Afro- considering the nature of the dances for percussion circles, but these are not Cuban music didn’t appear until about the rhythm la conga, which flow through based on any traditional pronunciation. 30 years later, it is difficult to speak with the streets during Carnaval. They are likely just attempts to make the authority about the history of the two Others maintain that conga is simply a word sound more exotic. words. Presenting all the hypotheses linguistic feminization of the word Tumbadora is also best pronounced would make for tedious reading. For in- Congo, referring to the geographic ori- with Spanish vowels and an accent on depth information on the subject, refer to gins of the drums. As for tumbadora, a the “o” (tumb—like the mummy’s tomb; the works of Fernando Ortiz and Olavo simple Spanish explanation is that it is a—long “a”; dora—like the name Dora Alén Rodríguez. However, I’ll present a the drum “que tumba.” Colloquially, this but with a slightly rolled “r”). somewhat simplified version of this is- means the drum that throws down or So, now that we’re starting to speak sue. lays it down. However, the word tumba is the same language, let’s explore where In the early to mid-1900s, when people also found in Bantu languages. Depend- these drums came from. from the U.S. could still freely travel to ing on the dialect in Africa, it may refer Cuba, Cuban rhythms were picked up to a type of drum, dance, or initiation ORIGINS and popularized by the U.S. media. This ceremony. It also can refer to a party, an The tumbadora is truly a hybrid in- led to many U.S. pop-culture explosions herbalist, or simply be an onomatopoeia.2 strument, the result of many African and of “Latin” styles, one of which was la All of these explanations are possible Cuban influences. Although many conga. Even today, a watered-down ver- but, since such theories are largely based sources only speak about the Bantu (aka sion of the la conga rhythm isn’t hard to on conjecture, it is impossible to say for Congolese) origins of the tumbadoras, find at public gatherings throughout the sure. that is an oversimplification of a more U.S. You might have even participated in complex phenomenon. To get a better a “” at the last wedding you Sizes view, we must consider some precursory went to! To complicate matters further, the ge- cultural and historical events. neric term tumbadora can be dropped in After slavery in Cuba was completely favor of a more specific name based on abolished in 1886, a large number of size or application in an ensemble. For blacks began to move from the planta- example, tumbadoras used in rumba can tions and countryside to urban areas, es- be specifically referred to as salidor and pecially to areas around Havana and A generic version of la conga. golpes, depending on the part they Matanzas. Jobs were scarce, though, with play. This is somewhat similar to the way such a huge influx of workers. Lacking This and other pop-culture use mistak- can mean many different financial means, they began to live on the enly led to the word conga being used to things depending on its size and applica- outskirts of town and group together in refer to all Cuban drums of similar con- tion (e.g., concert snare, piccolo snare, what became known as solares (slums).3 struction. The word tumbadora, which is field drum, etc.). This became the essential backdrop for considered more accurate among Cubans The words , conga, and tumbadora the development of the tumbadoras and and aficionados, comes from the folkloric are now used as a practicality among a percussive music known as rumba. style called rumba (not to be confused performers and retailers to indicate size. And, since the majority of Cuban slaves with ballroom rhumba). Since rumba is Quinto, the smaller drum, traditionally were from Bantu-speaking nations in the

PERCUSSIVE NOTES 9 FEBRUARY 2005 Makuta drums may have been reserved The construction of bembé drums var- for use only in closed, secret ceremonies, ied, but many types were almost identi- while the Yuka drums could be heard cal to tumbadoras. In fact, the and used by anyone in the solares. Al- construction that Ortiz considered the though Yuka drumming greatly influ- most common for bembé drums is ex- enced rumba, it is interesting to consider actly like early tumbadoras except that the Makuta drums (especially the slightly smaller. This fact is often over- larger, low-pitched ones) have a greater looked when considering the physical resemblance to tumbadoras. tumbadora’s origins.

Lucumí Rumba The drums of the Bantu people prob- The development of rumba is insepa- ably had the strongest influence on the rable from that of the tumbadoras. It was tumbadoras, but they were not alone. the first music to make use of drums spe- The second largest group of Afro-Cu- cifically called tumbadoras and, eventu- bans, whose drums also had an impact ally, led to their use as a popular and on the development of the tumbadoras, serious instrument. Rumba is still popu- The area historically known as the Congo. was the Lucumí. lar today and is played by groups such The word Lucumí (loo-koo-mee) is as Los Muñequitos de Matanzas, Grupo area known as the Congo, it was natural used in Cuba to refer to the descendents AfroCuba, y Guaguanco, for their cultures to permeate the solares of the Yoruba people of Nigeria. The and many others, including groups in the of Cuba. Yoruba batá drums, and the Santería cer- U.S. emonies where they are played, are com- It is also interesting to note that before Bantu monly considered the most recognized Some sources speak of Bantu ngoma symbol of Afro-Cuban drums as being the cultural forebears of culture. Batá drums tumbadoras. However, this is not precise. have a strict liturgy First, we must consider that the area his- to this day and torically called “the Congo” is not just were historically one country or group of people. In fact, it played in closed, historically refers to a large area of cen- secret ceremo- tral Africa that includes many Bantu-de- nies. However, rived languages and ethnic groups. there was (and Therefore, when Cuban slaves originat- still is) a less sa- ing from different areas of the Congo cred Lucumí said ngoma, they could have been speak- drum called ing of completely different drums. bembé, which Even today, the word ngoma in Africa likely influ- refers to many different types of drums. enced the When slaves from the Congo arrived in tumbadoras. Cuba, they likely found that ngoma was a Although common word among their many dia- similar to batá lects, though not necessarily referring to music, and re- exactly the same drums. Ortiz stated ligious in na- that, “In Cuba, generally, all drums of ture, the bembé Congo lineage are recognized with the ceremonies generic Bantu word ngoma.” So, if ngoma were not neces- is not a precise term for the Bantu drums sarily closed to influencing the tumbadoras, what is? the uninitiated. The specific drums most associated They took on with the Bantu people in Cuba are the more of a festive Makuta (mah-kú-tah) and the Yuka (yú- atmosphere and, cah). To this day, both are still occasion- like the Yuka festivi- ally called ngoma. Makuta ensembles ties, could have played for religious ceremonies, whereas been frequented by the Yuka drums were secular. This is an anyone in the Sketch of relatively modern Makuta drums by Fernando Ortiz. important point since it means that solares. Sucesores de Fernando Ortiz

PERCUSSIVE NOTES 10 FEBRUARY 2005 sors, the Yuka, Makuta, and bembé batá drums using lug-tuning as early as drums, the membranes of early congas 1915. Therefore, it’s not a stretch to imag- and tumbadoras (usually mule or cow- ine that tumbadoras had the same type hide) were attached to the body of the of hardware applied much earlier than drum by tacks. In order to raise the pitch, the ’50s. What is certain, though, is that a player would hold a flame near the this development significantly changed to evaporate the retained the range of available pitches for these moisture. drums, allowing pitches much higher Lug-tuned drums became widespread than previously possible. during the mid-1950s, as materials be- Interestingly, drum makers in the came more accessible and as performers United States have had quite a hand in became less patient with the time re- using new technologies to construct quired to tune with a flame. Carlos tumbadoras. The first instance was the “Patato” Valdez has claimed that he in- creation of drums made of fiberglass. Ac- troduced lug-tuning to the tumbadoras.5 cording to credible accounts, the first This is a grand claim and, despite person to make a fiberglass tumbadora Patato’s importance in the history of was Sal Guerrero, a bandleader and auto- tumbadoras, it is highly unlikely. body repairman living in San Francisco.8 Yuka drums being played. probably got closer to Guerrero, actually of Mexican heritage, CIDMUC, Havana4 the truth when he stated in an interview created the drums for use in his band, that this development took place in Cuba not only making the drum shells stron- the word rumba became standardized, by a person named Vergara.6 The issue is ger, but also able to project their sound other words such as tumba, tambo, and not put to rest, though, since Candido over a high-volume big band. It is macumba were used to refer to these mu- Camero has stated that Vergara may not thought that Armando Peraza was the sical gatherings. It is possible, although have been the first. He believes that the advisor for this process and the first to impossible to verify, that the name first lug-tuned tumbadoras were created play these drums, which were created in tumbadora was simply applied to the in the city of Santiago de Cuba (Vergara 1949. drums that were played during a tumba. was located in Havana).7 Another innovator who is also some- Ortiz did not pursue this issue much, times credited with making the first fi- CONSTRUCTION AND but his work does show a set of creolized berglass tumbadoras (usually by MODERNIZATION The first, and most important, change in Afro-Cuban drum con- struction that led to the develop- ment of the tumbadora was the use of stave construction, similar to the way barrels are made. This change, according to Ortiz, was an adapta- tion to distinguish these drums from their African counterparts. During Spanish colonial rule in Cuba (and during the U.S. military occupation of Cuba from 1898 to 1902) African drums were often banned. However, since these drums were no longer carved from a single piece of wood, they were not considered completely African. This change was an act of survival that allowed blacks to continue playing these drums with less persecution. The drums main- tained, however, their African shape, sound, and tuning method. The lug-tuning mechanisms of today’s tumbadoras are a relatively mod- Sketch of bembé drums by Fernando Ortiz ern development. Like their predeces- Sucesores de Fernando Ortiz

PERCUSSIVE NOTES 11 FEBRUARY 2005 percussionists on the East Coast) is Frank ment, around the beginning of the twen- ized the sound of Cuban music and be- Mesa. Mesa created a popular line of tieth century, tumbadoras were not well came hits at home and in the States. drums called Eco-tone. Starting in the known or accepted by mainstream Cu- In New York City, a popular big-band early ’50s, and becoming most popular in ban society. They were in a class of in- called Machito and His Afro-Cubans was the ’60s, Eco-tones were endorsed by struments and music considered inferior the first to introduce a tumbadora on many stars including Candido, Miguelito due to their inherent connection to the stage consistently. This occurred by 1943 Valdés, and the percussionists for Jimi solares. Luckily, this began to change with Carlos Vidal, among others, playing Hendrix. Eco-tones and other brands, with the help of some brave musicians, tumbadora. Actual conga drums had such as Gon Bops and Valje, were well the growth of the music industry, and the been seen and heard in the U.S. before, established during the ’50s and early open ears and minds of music listeners. but they had mostly been a novelty act. ’60s, but business and political realities The first bandleader to perform rela- were beginning to change. 1930s to 1940s tively authentic Cuban music in the U.S. When Cuba’s revolution of 1959 even- In the late 1930s and early ’40s, was Don Azpiazú in 1930. Throughout tually led to a full U.S. embargo of the tumbadoras began to find a place in that decade, his band traveled the coun- country, the markets changed dramati- popular Cuban music. The person usu- try, becoming famous with hits such as cally for drum makers. The popularity of ally credited with fully incorporating “La Conga.”10 This song was probably tumbadoras was growing while the sup- them into popular music is Arseñio the first time the rhythm la conga had ply of drums from Cuba halted com- Rodríguez. A famous musician, com- been played on U.S. soil, but it is unclear pletely. This would appear to be a poser, and bandleader, Rodríguez was whether or not it incorporated actual positive development for the U.S. com- proud of his African heritage. In 1940, conga drums. panies mentioned above, but the in- when he began to standardize the instru- Later, (of I Love Lucy fame) creased demand couldn’t be met through mentation of the conjunto ensemble, he claimed that he was the first to introduce their production methods. had his brother, Israel Rodríguez, play the conga in the U.S. It is not clear, Martin Cohen, founder of Latin Per- tumbadora. Another popular group of though, if he was speaking about the cussion, Inc. (LP) began to meet this de- the time, Arcaño y Sus Maravillas, asked dance, the drum, or both. Either way, it is mand. Citing the embargo with Cuba as Israel to sit in with their band and teach difficult to seriously consider this claim one of the conditions leading to his busi- their percussionist how to play since Arnaz’s authenticity is question- ness success, Cohen was the first drum tumbadora.9 These ensembles revolution- able, to say the least. His commercial ap- maker to provide a mass-produced yet plication and exploitation of the relatively authentic tumbadora. This Carnaval-style conga drum in Broadway heavy competition was the beginning of musicals, and later television, is the rea- the end for the smaller companies, but son he is not respected by true culture- the increased supply and lower prices al- bearers. lowed new markets to be formed (e.g., In any case, bandleader Machito school bands). (Frank Grillo) is credited with being the Remo addressed the temperamental first U.S. artist to use a true tumbadora, nature of animal-skin heads in 1995. The in the sense that it was not connected company’s first attempt at a synthetic with the rhythm la conga. Machito’s mu- tumbadora head was a significant event, sical director and brother-in-law, Mario albeit not appreciated by all players. Cer- Bauza, also had a large impact on the tainly, with an instrument so steeped in most famous pairing of Afro-Cuban tradition, technological advances are not rhythms with . always received kindly. Many people In 1947, contacted thought the synthetic Mondo head was Bauza to find someone to play what doomed to failure since it did not sound Dizzy then called “tom-toms.” Bauza di- exactly like real skins. However, freedom rected him to a new arrival in town, from the elements was an enticing ad- . Chano was a famous per- vantage for many players. cussionist and composer from Havana Synthetic heads did not fail. Instead, who had come to New York after realiz- they were improved upon and adopted ing that his compositions were popular by other manufacturers, including Evans. among groups such as Machito’s Afro- Today’s synthetic heads sound drasti- Cubans. cally better than the first models, and The fusion of danceable Cuban their acceptance seems to be growing. rhythms and non-danceable American Desi Arnaz has some splainin’ to do about that jazz created tension at first. Some of POPULARIZATION technique! Dizzy’s players complained about the For a long time during their develop- BMI Archives situation, saying that jazz wasn’t the

PERCUSSIVE NOTES 12 FEBRUARY 2005 tumbadoras. He also considers himself to folkloric album called Yambu. Although be the first person to use three some tumbadora players had been tumbadoras simultaneously. This estab- bandleaders before (e.g., Miguelito lished an increased level of professional- Valdés and Chano Pozo), Santamaria was ism for these instruments by imple- the first to achieve long-lasting success as menting a higher degree of coordination. such. Some of his later songs, such as “Afro-Blue,” have become standards, 1950s to the Present and his recording of Herbie Hancock’s Tumbadoras, and Latin music in gen- “Watermelon Man” was a tremendous eral, gained widespread popularity dur- hit. Santamaria also led the way in cross- ing the 1950s. In the U.S., a mambo ing tumbadoras into other popular styles “craze” swept the nation and reached its of music, such as R&B. This crossover zenith with the arrival of the cha-cha- was just one of many successful appear- cha.11 Meanwhile, an important musical ances of tumbadoras in U.S. music cul- development of the tumbadoras was tak- ture. ing place in Cuba. It is interesting that tumbadoras, while In 1952, the folkloric rumba group their heritage was relatively unknown, called Guaguanco Matancero recorded a were adopted so thoroughly in other cul- hit called “Los Muñequitos.”12 This was tures. In the early ’50s, New York “beat- significant not only to the musical devel- nik” poets hip to bebop would opment of the tumbadoras, but also to stereotypically pick up a bongó or the increasing popular support for folk- tumbadora to accompany their works, loric Afro-Cuban music. Finally, after but the integration goes further. Rock years of being applied in other musical music began to apply tumbadoras fre- styles, the tumbadoras were gaining suc- quently during the ’60s, providing a cess with the musical style that created wider national recognition of the drums. them. This newfound support for folk- Tumbadoras were used by multiple loric Afro-Cuban music also made its bands at Woodstock (most notably way to the U.S., helping to establish Santana) and were commonly seen in many percussionists. television performances. However, popu- Chano Pozo One such percussionist, Ramón lar musical styles weren’t the only ones BMI Archives “Mongo” Santamaria, made his debut as adding the sounds of tumbadoras. a bandleader in 1958 with an Afro-Cuban Orchestral and band music has also place for such “jungle drums.” But the new sound of “Cubop,” later known as “,” was a hit with audiences. “Manteca,” one of Pozo’s most famous compositions, made popular by Gillespie, is now a standard among Cu- ban musicians and jazz musicians alike. Pozo is legendary among hand percus- sionists today. He was a powerful per- former whose rough-around-the-edges lifestyle led to his tragic death in 1948. It is important to note that, during this time period, most performers were using only one tumbadora at a time. This was the standard, since folkloric music also called for one man per drum. The musi- cian usually credited with being the first to use more than one drum is (usually just called by his first name). Candido arrived in the States in 1946, playing percussion for a dance team. At that time he was playing bongó and quinto at the same time, and later, in Mongo Santamaria 1952, he began to regularly use two BMI Archives

PERCUSSIVE NOTES 13 FEBRUARY 2005 made use of tumbadoras. Ever since the of music has led many percussion de- ticle has begun to address that problem 1920s in Cuba, classically trained com- partments to add tumbadoras to their by giving the reader a deeper under- posers have been adding Afro-Cuban curriculum. standing and appreciation of these cul- percussion to their orchestral pieces. North America was not the only place turally fascinating, yet serious Outside of Cuba, authentic rhythms and to accept and apply tumbadoras to its instruments. instruments were picked up slowly in own music. In fact, the place that has in- the realm of classical music, but recently tegrated tumbadoras into its music with ENDNOTES have had more impact. A significant ex- the most zeal could be said to be Africa. 1. Sketches by Fernando Ortiz used in this ar- ample of this is a recent work by Osvaldo Cuban music gained tremendous popu- ticle come from Los Instrumentos de la Golijov titled “La Pasion Segun San larity in African countries such as Mali, Música Afrocubana. They are used by per- Marcos.” A choral passion in the tradi- Senegal, Cameroon, and Congo, generat- mission from his daughter, María Fernanda tion of Bach, it amazed audiences by suc- ing styles such as African Rumba and Ortiz, representative of Sucesores de cessfully integrating Afro-Cuban, Soukous. Indeed, some of today’s great- Fernando Ortiz. Venezuelan, and Brazilian instruments est African superstars, such as Youssou 2. Fernando Ortiz, Los Instrumentos de la and rhythms. N’Dour and Baaba Maal, got their start Música Afrocubana. Havana: Publícaciones In the classroom, the push for “multi- by performing Cuban music for African de la Dirección de Cultura del Ministerio de cultural” education has led to the adop- audiences.14 Now, even in popular Afri- Educación, 1952. tion of tumbadoras as a catch-all can styles not based on Cuban music, 3. Olavo Alén Rodriguez, “A History of the instrument. Being widely available and tumbadoras can be found on stage regu- Congas,” The Conga Cookbook. New York: relatively inexpensive for mass-produced larly. Cherry Lane Music, 2002. Article available models, tumbadoras have become almost online: http://www.chucksilverman.com/ standard equipment for school band pro- CONCLUSION congahistory.html. grams in the U.S. Such a presence has Today, tumbadoras are so widely 4. Reproduced from book/CD From Afrocuban even led some schools to develop pro- available that they often replace the Music to Salsa by Dr. Olavo Alén Rodriguez. grams of study that involve tumbadoras drums that birthed them—the bembé, Piranha Records, BCD-PIR1258, 1998. in the curriculum. Makuta, and Yuka. Even outside of Cuba, 5. http://www.patato.com Recognizing the importance and popu- they have found a place in the music and 6. The interview, with Luis Ernesto on larity of hand percussion, Berklee Col- institutions of almost every corner of the SalsaWeb (http://www.salsaweb.com/mu- lege of Music in Boston became the first globe. As such, they have also been taken sic/articles/peraza_cm.htm), gives the degree-granting institution to allow stu- for granted, sitting in the closets of per- name as Valgaras. Through other sources, dents to study tumbadoras as a principal cussion departments and being used as including my own interviews with instrument (in addition to other required catch-all “ethnic” drums. I hope this ar- Candido, I have learned that the name was hand percussion instruments). It is also probably transcribed incorrectly and probably the first music school to incor- should be spelled Vergara or Vergaras, porate tumbadoras into the curriculum at since it was actually two brothers. all. This began in the late 1970s with 7. Candido mentioned this during a telephone Pablo Landrum teaching them on the interview with the author on December 23, side and, in the mid ’80s, with Joe 2003. Galeota teaching a class called “Latin 8. Armando Peraza (see endnote 6). John Percussion.” In the late ’80s, Ed Uribe de- Santos, e-mail to the author, April 12, 2003. veloped the official hand percussion cur- 9. Liner notes, Cuba: I Am Time, CD, Blue riculum that would allow students to Jackel, 1997. major in hand percussion performance. 10. John Storm Roberts, The Latin Tinge: The Other instructors, such as Carmelo Impact of Latin American Music on the United Garcia in 1990, were hired to assist Uribe States. 1979; New York: Oxford UP, 1999. with running this new program. 11. Cha-cha-cha is the full name for the style A year later, Berklee hired Giovanni sometimes only referred to in the U.S. as Hidalgo, a world-famous tumbadora “cha-cha.” player who has revolutionized 12. The popularity of this song later led the tumbadora technique and speed. group to change their name to Los Hidalgo’s presence in the department Muñequitos de Matanzas. The group still helped spread the word about the pro- exists today under that name and is consid- gram, bringing students from around the ered by many to be the ultimate Cuban world.13 Although Berklee remains the rumba group. only U.S. college where one can major in 13. Specific dates regarding Berklee’s hand hand percussion performance, the impor- Giovanni Hidalgo percussion program come from personal tance of preparing students in all styles Photo by Martin Cohen, courtesy of LP/congahead.com communication with Mikael Ringquist (cur-

PERCUSSIVE NOTES 14 FEBRUARY 2005 rent Hand Percussion Program Coordina- tor), Ed Uribe, Joe Galeota, and Dean Anderson (Percussion Department Chair). 14. Sue Steward, ¡Musica! London: Thames & Hudson, 1999.

BIBLIOGRAPHY “About LP.” , Inc. 24 April 2003. http://www.lpmusic.com/ The_LP_Family/about.html. Alén Rodríguez, Olavo. “A History of the Congas.” The Conga Cookbook. Chuck Silverman and . New York: Cherry Lane Music, 2002. Online. 24 Apr. 2003. http:// www.chucksilverman.com/ congahistory.html. Alén Rodríguez, Olavo. “Cuba.” The Gar- land Encyclopedia of World Music. Vol. 2. 1998. Alén Rodríguez, Olavo. From Afrocuban Music to Salsa. Berlin: Piranha, 1998. Camero, Candido. Interviewed by David B. Meade. Latin Percussionist. Issue 5, Win- ter 1997. Carpentier, Alejo. Music in Cuba. Trans. Alan West-Durán. Ed. Timothy Brennan. Minneapolis: U. of Minnesota Press, 2001. Cohen, Martin. Interviewed by David Carp. . 1 April, 1997. Available online. http://www.descarga.com/ Gerard, Charley, and . Salsa! The Rhythm of Latin Music. Tempe, AZ: White Cliffs Media Company, 1989. LatinPerc. Email list. http:// groups.yahoo.com/group/latinperc/. Marks, Morton. Liner notes. Afro-Cuba: A Musical Anthology. Rounder Records, 1994. Mayer-Serra, Otto. Musica y Musicos de Latinoamerica. Mexico City: Editorial Atlante, 1947. www.salsaweb.com/music/articles/ “Top Bongo Drummer: Havana musician Orovio, Helio. Diccionario de la Musica peraza_cm.htm. Candido.” Ebony. ix/6, 1954. Cubana. 2nd ed. Havana: Letras Roberts, John Storm. The Latin Tinge: The Cubanas, 1992. Impact of Latin American Music on the Nolan Warden graduated Magna Cum Ortiz, Fernando. Los Instrumentos de la United States. 2nd Ed. New York: Oxford Laude from Música Afrocubana. 1952-1955. Reprint. University Press, 1999. with a double major in Hand Percussion Madrid: Editorial Música Mundana Roots of Rhythm. DVD. New Video Group, Performance and Music Business. Before Maqueda, 2000. 1997. Berklee, Nolan studied orchestral percus- O’Neil, Jack, Al Pryor, and Nina Gomez. Santos, John. Telephone interview. 7 April sion at Indiana University School of Liner notes. Cuba I Am Time. Blue Jackel 2003. Music. He has traveled to Cuba twice to Entertainment, 1997. Tambor de Yuka. Folkcuba, Inc. 24 April study and document folkloric Patato. P.M. Records, Inc. 24 April 2003. 2003. http://www.folkcuba.com/ Afro-Cuban percussion. Currently, he is http://www.patato.com/. ir_tamboryuka_drums1.html. an ethnomusicology graduate student Peraza, Armando. Interviewed by Luis Thomas, Hugh. Cuba: The Pursuit of Free- at Tufts University and teaches and per- Ernesto. SalsaWeb. http:// dom. New York: Harper & Row, 1971. forms in the Boston area. PN

PERCUSSIVE NOTES 15 FEBRUARY 2005