Democratic Transformation of Education in South Africa

27–28 September 2000 Stellenbosch Lodge Country Hotel Stellenbosch Table of Contents

Introduction 5 Prof. Johann Steyn, Chairperson, Department of Education Policy Studies, University of Stellenbosch

Opening Remarks 7 Dr Michael Lange, Resident Representative, Konrad Adenauer Foundation, Johannesburg

Education in an Age of Rising Transnationality 11 Prof. Wolfgang Mitter, German Institute for International Educational Research (DIPF), Frankfurt am Main, Germany

Balancing Quality and Equality in Educational Transformation 21 Prof. Johann Steyn, Department of Education Policy Studies, University of Stellenbosch

Education for Democracy: Revisiting Rortyan Pragmatism 29 Dr Yusef Waghid, Senior Lecturer, Department of Education Policy Studies, University of Stellenbosch

The Values Underlying Quality and Equality in Educational Transformation 37 Dr Jeanette de Klerk, Department of Education Policy Studies, University of Stellenbosch

Quality Education and Equal Opportunities in Education: A Current Discussion in Germany 45 Dr Hans Döbert, German Institute for International Educational Research (DIPF), Berlin

Rhetoric and Language Issues in Education in the South African Democracy 51 Prof. Stanley Ridge, University of the Western Cape

Dealing with the Principle of Equality in East Germany from 1945 to 1990 59 Dr Gert Geißler, German Institute for International Educational Research (DIPF), Berlin

Official Policy Related to Quality and Equality in Education: A Documentary Study 63 Dr Willem du Plessis, Department of Education Policy Studies, University of Stellenbosch

Educational Research as Democratic Praxis 71 Mr Lesley le Grange, University of Stellenbosch

3 Table of Contents

Quality Indicators for South African Schools Against the Background of 79 International Practices Dr Heinie Brand, Eversdal Primary School

Assessment: Transforming Policy into Practice 89 Dr Riana Hall & Ms Wilma Rossouw, University of Stellenbosch

A Case for Human Rights Education in an African Context: The Concept and 97 the Practice Mr Tarcisio Nyatsanza, African University, Mutare, Zimbabwe

Implications of Culturally Based Assumptions of Leadership for the Process of 103 Educational Transformation Dr Johan Schreuder, University of Stellenbosch

The Need for the Transformation of Religion in Education: Towards an 109 Understanding of Democratic Values Dr Cornelia Roux, Department of Didactics, University of Stellenbosch

Democratic Values and Content-Specific Language Teaching and Learning: 115 Experiences in the Northern Cape Dr Carol Puhl, Centre for Education Development, University of Stellenbosch & Dr Jeanette de Klerk, Department of Education Policy Studies, University of Stellenbosch

Language and Democracy 127 Dr Elaine Ridge, University of Stellenbosch

Can Devolution of Power Enable Transformation in South African School Systems? 133 Mr Chris Reddy, Faculty of Education, University of Stellenbosch

Shaping and Sizing: Proposed Transformations of the Higher Education Landscape 139 in South Africa Prof. Eli Bitzer, University of Stellenbosch

Programme 153

Participants’ List 157

Seminar Reports 161

Occasional Paper Series 163

4 Introduction

The conference The Democratic Transformation of Education in South Africa was presented by the University of Stellenbosch’s Department of Educational Policy Studies, in collaboration with the Konrad Adenauer Foundation (KAF), and was held at the Stellenbosch Lodge Country Hotel on 27 and 28 September 2000. KAF has supported the department’s efforts in promoting democratic education since 1998.

The theme of the conference and the papers delivered are highly relevant to the establishment of a deep and sustainable democracy, especially in a young democracy such as South Africa. South Africans experience post-colonial and post-apartheid transformation as part of their daily lives. Transformation explicitly linked to democracy should therefore reflect democratic values. What we need in South Africa is not formal democracy, but deep democracy – democracy that would preserve and protect human rights and humane democratic values in a dynamic and responsive way.

With this in mind, South African and German educationists delivered papers at this conference. The various papers covered important aspects of the theme. Some of these papers touched on official policies, others on human rights issue and others still on the need for the democratisation and transformation of education. The aim of the conference was to stimulate educational discourse and to promote the idea of building a democratic culture in education. We are optimistic that this publication will contribute towards harnessing democratisation processes in South Africa.

Prof. Johann Steyn Chairperson Department Education Policy Studies University of Stellenbosch

5 Opening Remarks

Michael Lange

INTRODUCTION subsequently became the first Chancellor of On behalf of the Konrad Adenauer Foundation post-war Germany. (KAF), I would like to extend a very warm KAF has been cooperating with partners welcome to you all . throughout the world for almost 40 years now. This is the third time KAF has cooperated Currently, some 80 representatives oversee with the University of Stellenbosch’s some 200 projects and programmes in more Department of Educational Policy Studies in than 100 countries. In this manner, the founda- organising an event of this nature, and we are tion makes its own unique contribution to poli- delighted at being able to continue our series of cies serving peace and justice in international workshops in the interests of promoting demo- relations. cratic values in South Africa. KAF’s international activities aim at enhancing democracy and development, and promot- 1. BRIEF BACKGROUND ing dialogue across national and cultural For those wondering what kind of organisation boundaries. In this way it is actively assuming KAF is, allow me to sketch a brief background a share of responsibility for shaping interna- to the German political foundations in general, tional relations, while conveying modern and to KAF in particular, as well as to outline German political culture to the rest of the some of the reasoning behind its involvement world. in South Africa. KAF currently has wide-ranging pro- The German political foundations are, we grammes in different parts of Africa , as well as believe, a unique feature of today’s democratic in the different provinces in South Africa. The culture in Germany. The move behind their foundation cooperates not only with centrist creation, which dates back to the 1960s, was political parties and their respective think- the expectation that political or civic education tanks, but also with reputable academic institu- would help develop and consolidate democracy tions, as you will note from today’s event. in post-war Germany. Both in Germany and abroad these founda- 2. EDUCATION AND DEMOCRACY tions seek to further develop and encourage As a result of the work KAF has undertaken, people to engage in political debate, thereby especially in developing countries, it has adopt- strengthening democracy and promoting a plu- ed the promotion of democracy as its most ralistic society. essential mission. We have become convinced KAF is one of six political foundations in that the creation and consolidation of a democ- Germany today, and is closely affiliated to the ratic political framework is one of the essential Christian Democratic Union Party, a centrist conditions on which any development process political party founded after the Second World depends. War. It proudly bears the name of one of its In Germany, political education is one of the founding members, Konrad Adenauer, who focal points of KAF’s work. Every year more

7 Lange than 3000 meetings and conferences reach out and 1996/97 were checked, because from then to some 150 000 people. Through these educa- on, the education system lacked a national tional activities, the foundation aims to explain agent to effect redistribution between provin- the fundamentals of a pluralistic democracy ces. from a Christian Democratic point of view and In 2000 the national norms and standards for to enhance political competence. school funding were introduced to facilitate the redistribution of non-personnel funds between 3. THE TRANSFORMATION OF EDUCATION IN schools. SOUTH AFRICA In 1994 gross inequalities in learner:educator The past five years have seen the formulation ratios were also identified as an important of several policies aimed at transforming edu- obstacle to equity, and plans were made to cation at all levels – from pre-primary to ter- develop national norms for the provision of tiary. Central to most of these policies were educators to schools. The new national guide- attempts to effect redress and equity, with the lines for educator provisioning specified a ultimate goal of providing education for all. learner:educator ratio of 1:40 at primary The appointment of Dr Kader Asmal as the schools, and 1:35 for secondary schools. new Education Minister has been well received The most serious problem encountered was by the South African public and it was refresh- that decisions about educator numbers and ing to hear Dr Asmal admit from the start, that salaries were made at national level, while the education system, especially at school level, implementation took place at provincial level. was facing great difficulties and that stern mea- As a result, these agreements were often unaf- sures were required to rectify the ills of the cur- fordable at provincial level. rent system. The national process of educator provisioning We are all aware of the fact that when the was abandoned, and it was decided that each education landscape was transformed from 19 province would have its own target learner:edu- racially based education departments to nine cator ratio, but a nationally negotiated post-pro- provincial education departments, large visioning model would guide its application to inequalities were found between provinces. individual schools. The attempt at equitable Redress was initially driven by redistributing distribution of educators has, however, not been funds between provincial education depart- ruined since provincial education departments ments and by equalising learner/educator ratios became responsible for the process. The latest across provinces. statistics released by the Department of The first form of redress introduced by the Education suggest that provinces have moved Department of Education concerned the redis- closer to each other in terms of learner:educator tribution of funds from wealthier provincial ratios. education departments to poorer provincial An area of greatest concern is unequal per education departments. This was facilitated by learner spending on teacher salaries. This the Function Committee System through which reflects the fact that poorer learners are still the National Minister could play a direct role in subject to less qualified teachers than their provincial budgetary allocations. more affluent peers, even though learner:educa- As a result, provinces such as the Eastern tion ratios are approaching equity. Cape and the Northern Province increased The remaining equity instrument in public spending by 49.4% and 36.9% respectively schools is the National Norms and Standards between 1995/96 and 1996/97. In contrast, for Public School Funding, which aims at dis- there were relatively small increases in Gauteng tributing the bulk of recurrent non-personnel and the Western Cape, which bore the brunt of expenditure to poorer schools. However, per- redistribution. Changes in the budget process in sonnel expenditure in public schools constitut- 1997/98 meant that transfers of funds to ed 93.6% of provincial education budgets in provinces were made directly from the National 1999/2000, and 92.3% in 2000/01. This leaves Revenue Fund to the provincial revenue funds, less than eight per cent of education budgets and provinces became responsible for allocat- available for non-personnel spending. If we ing education funding. The drastic increases deduct capital expenditure from this amount, that poorer provinces experienced in 1995/96 then provincial education departments have an

8 Lange average of only 6.7% to spend on recurrent any other equity plans, the speed with which non-personnel expenditure. Poorer provinces equity goals are attained will ultimately depend generally have even less money available. In on the success of a more productive schooling the absence of any real growth over the medi- system. The one variable that has a direct rela- um term, learners in poor provinces will not see tion to learner output, namely teacher quality, considerable improvements in the quality of has not been significantly addressed in current education in public schools. Gauteng will con- equity plans. Large per capita differences on tinue to spend 100% more than the Eastern what provinces spend on their educators Cape and about 150% more than the Northern remain. Province on non-personnel expenditure per At the same time there are budgetary predica- learner in 2000/01. ments. Although the education budget, with a Provinces such as the Western Cape, share of more than 20%, has been the largest Northern Cape and Gauteng will continue to budgetary expenditure during the past few spend far more on teacher salaries per learner years, 90% of the money goes to teacher’s than poorer provinces. In the current financial salaries, leaving little for infrastructure, teach- year, Western Cape and Gauteng spend ing materials and other physical resources. between 35% and 40% more than KwaZulu- We hope that the new administration will Natal on personnel. Matric results are not nec- eventually make headway in achieving these essarily the most valid indicators of the level of objectives, bearing in mind how badly South teacher quality because there are critical socio- African pupils perform in international compe- economic factors that impede the progress of titions. poor learners. Nonetheless, the 1999 matric results suggest that the Western Cape(78.8%), 4. GERMAN EXPERIENCE Northern Cape (64.3%) and to a lesser extent I believe that Germany, with all its historical Gauteng (57%) have an advantage over other experiences and with all its subsequently estab- provinces by virtue of their resource base of lished institutions, not least KAF , has some- well qualified teachers. Mpumalanga and the thing to offer, especially in terms of adult edu- Northern Province, on the other hand, had cation. matric pass rates of 48.3% and 37.5% respec- As far as democratic education is concerned, tively in 1999, and yet their education depart- the situation in the former German Democratic ments are budgeting to spend even less on edu- Republic – today’s eastern part of united cators. The absence of national mechanisms to Germany – may be compared to that which the effect greater equity between provinces means “previously disadvantaged” people of South that these spending patterns are likely to contin- Africa found themselves in after the unification ue for a long time. The reduction of “equity” to of South Africa into the “rainbow nation”. a provincial level now means that an entirely Some German experience might therefore be new approach has to be found to deal with the useful in the context of the transformation inequities of the past. process of South Africa’s education system. Persistent inequality in public schools can be Comparing models of democratic or civic understood through unequal spending on edu- education implemented in united Germany after cators across provinces and the varying size of unification with the ones currently tested in redistributive bases of recurrent non-personnel South Africa might bring about further exper- costs within provinces. Provinces are invariably tise in view of the dire straits that the South caught between the need to balance demand for African education system apparently finds itself larger allocations to recurrent non-personnel in. expenditure and at the same time trying to South Africa has – only a few years ago – set improve the qualifications of its teacher corps. out on a most difficult path towards democracy Stable and declining education budgets mean and prosperity for all its people. This has led, that growth in the redistributive base of and will for some time to come lead, all of us provinces is now directly dependent on effi- through difficult territory. ciency savings in public schools. The impact of There are indications that the implementation efficiency savings will take time to permeate of democracy and the rule of law, together with the public school system, and in the absence of the transformation of the South African state

9 Lange and society, cannot be continuously implement- tions for a peaceful democratic society have ed without causing frustrations and disappoint- been laid. ment to many who, since the election victory of Building and maintaining a strong and endur- the governing parties in the recent second ing democracy on those foundations will fur- democratic elections in South Africa, yearn for thermore depend on a continuing commitment delivery of the very promise of democracy. by all segments of South Africa’s diverse popu- At the same time, we should remain aware of lation to reconciliation and far-reaching eco- the fact that the success or failure of the process nomic and social transformation. of democratisation is bound to influence the KAF is willing to play a role in that process. stability and security of the new South Africa. This year’s workshop series on the democratic transformation of education has allowed us, CONCLUSION as a German political foundation, to contribute South Africa is today considered by many in a meaningful way to the development of a observers to be a legally consolidated democra- democratic culture in South Africa. cy, in which development towards a constitu- This symposium is designed to stimulate tional, pluralistic state, ruled by the new law of debate on the ongoing democratic transforma- the land, appears to be irreversible. tion of education in this country, and I can only But by transforming white minority rule to hope that you find this conference enjoyable, black majority government, only the founda- interesting and worthwhile.

10 Education in an Age of Rising Transnationality

Wolfgang Mitter

1. EMERGENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE attention to the conflict between nation build- MODERN NATION STATE: RETROSPECT ing and ethnicity, which has been inherent in All over the world formal education is the most “nation states” and has gained paramount responsibility of the state, mainly in the form actuality in our days. Stress, however, must be of national education systems. In historical laid on the worldwide dimension of the process terms this responsibility is rooted in the of nation building and, consequently, on the alliance between the modern state and the ide- emergence of the modern nation state. In this ology of nationalism. It was born at the end of context we become aware of the contribution the 18th century as one of the essential corol- of liberation movements against their colonial laries of the American War of Independence rulers in Latin America, Asia, Africa and the and the French Revolution. In Europe the Pacific region as well as of successful efforts to nation state was destined to occupy the politi- get rid of “hidden” colonialism, as demonstrat- cal map throughout the 19th century and to ed by China, Thailand or Iran. Japan had antici- reach its culmination with the end of World pated this step before Western imperialism War I. There it could rely on the attainments of could exercise its powers in the same way. the modern state which had emerged one cen- Though to various degrees, the Latin American tury before as the manifestation of absolutism. countries and, as a result of the Meiji Restora- In their efforts to build a well-organised politi- tion, Japan established the first national educa- cal system, kings and princes had established tion systems outside the European and North efficient administrations and armies, controlled American regions, not without thoroughly the economies and introduced compulsory studying foreign experiences. school attendance, starting with four years and Nowadays national education policy and the gradually proceeding. The subsequent nation establishment or expansion of national school state, in its turn allied with the principles of lib- systems are on the agenda everywhere. The eral economy and constitutional legitimacy, political powers with their legislative, execu- continued this development including the sta- tive and judicial bodies have laid the founda- bilisation of national education systems. In this tions for the organisation of schools and the view the aforementioned alliance has laid the introduction of compulsory curricula. ground for the victorious advance of the mod- Moreover they set the norms for educating ern nation state. the young generation to loyal citizenship and As is the case with overviews, this general make great efforts to eliminate emerging oppo- design does not indulge in country-based pecu- sition against these norms. The implementation liarities and does not take regard of the of all these activities at the macro-level of edu- diachronic character of the development as a cation policy is affected by provisions made at whole. In particular, it does not identify federal the micro-level of the grassroots in the form of structures as particular configurations of the supervision. Furthermore, it is supported by the modern nation state, nor does it pay special appointment of loyal and committed teachers.

11 Mitter

Teacher education plays a significant role to national loyalty to ideologisation resulting from ensure this strategy, while there are multifari- the concrete modern nation state’s claim to ous cases where governments are engaged in demarcate its interests against the “rest of the coping with activities of “non-loyal” or even world”. Realising this intention, policymakers, resistant teachers. All these policies directly supported by intellectuals of different status comprise the sector of “state” or “public” and quality, tend to emphasise, or even schools. Private schools are also affected, inso- exaggerate, certain features of their nations’ far as school legislation, as a rule, includes mentalities and to devise myths of “national frame provisions for this sector too. history” according to their own goals and When speaking of the national form and strategies. This phenomenon, characteristic of character of education systems, we associate all modern nation states, even includes with it not only all their structural features in stabilised democratic systems with solid consti- order to identify similarities and diversities in tutional foundations, functioning governing the regional or global dimensions. We also structures and widespread commitment to think of mentalities of young people as out- democratic ways of life. As, for instance, Erwin comes of the concerted actions at both system Epstein observes, that the: levels. These mentalities are related both to citi- “state’s interest in teaching children to be zenship and to attitudes to education and learn- loyal is so compelling that it cannot allow ing per sé. In this context let me remind you of schools merely to teach objective know- Martin McLean’s accurate attempts at isolating ledge. Consequently, schools mix myths specific knowledge cultures inside Europe1 that with facts to ensure that children gain a are easy to extend to the global dimension, as favourable view of the national culture. can be revealed by comparison of present-day However, democratic states also claim as a Francophone and Anglophone republics in hallmark their children be freer both to Africa. It is always the national context that has express themselves and to choose what determined the direction until today, irrespec- knowledge professed by others to accept. tive of its specific colonial legacy and the Unfortunately, the democratic aim of ensur- recent cross-national trends to be resumed later. ing unfettered access to knowledge is Ideally speaking, it is democracy as a politi- undermined by the universal need of nations cal system as well as a way of life that sets the to gain political legitimacy and social and optimum framework for the harmonisation economic stability.”4 between national loyalty and human citizen- Consequently, education for democratic citi- ship. In John Dewey’s work this interdepen- zenship and national loyalty ends up in rather a dence seems to be most clearly interpreted. In restricted form, especially when linked with his fundamental study Democracy and those nationalistic drives that have been a per- Education (1916), he stated that the “devotion manent concomitant of emergence, develop- of democracy to education is a familiar fact”. ment, triumph and decay of modern nation To explain this statement he identifies “volun- states. In their extreme manifestations, such dri- tary disposition and interest” among the citi- ves have ended up in unrest, violence, war or zens as the important feature of political coher- even genocide. ence within the commonwealth that extends beyond the rules of the political system in its 2. TRANSNATIONALITY: SHIFT OF PARADIGM capacity as a social subsystem. “Voluntary dis- It is true that national education systems domi- position and interest”, he argues, “can only be nate the worldwide scene in their capacity as created by education”. The “deeper explana- providers of formal education. This paradigm, tion”, however, he finds in the essential quality however, is no longer undisputed, since educa- of democracy as a “mode of associated living, tion seems to be involved in processes which of conjoint and communicated experience”.2 are circumscribed by the “decline of the nation Education “to personal initiative and adaptabili- state” and the emergence of “transnational ty” appears in Dewey’s conclusion as a neces- spaces”. The reasons for this recent shift have sary prerequisite for the validity of democracy.3 been ascertained in the worldwide drive What, however, remains neglected in towards “transnational mobility”, to quote the Dewey’s considerations, is the exposition of German sociologist Ulrich Beck, one of the

12 Mitter prominent representatives of the international comparisons! That is its pride – but also by “globalisation debate”. According to their rights its sorrows. Let us not be afraid of analyses, transnational mobility is evident in these sorrows! Instead, we will conceive the the following manifestations: increasing perme- task that this age sets us to be as great as ability of borders for goods and people, migra- possible ...”6 tions caused by economic disparities and socio- Beck’s and his like-minded colleagues’ analy- political inequity, declining competencies of ses and predictions end in stating a shift of par- national governments and authorities, forma- adigm, as regards the concept of the political tion of inter- or supranational structures, and system in its transition from the modern nation disintegration of national ties and identities as state to transnational units as their constitutive part of changes in people’s value structures. elements. The involvement of education Ulrich Beck relates the emergence of transna- becomes evident even if the shift remains tionality to the decay of the traditional concept incomplete. May it suffice at this point to think consisting in the identity of space, state and of the consequences to be expected from the political community, entailing the disintegra- decay of the modern nation state’s monopoly to tion of the state as a territorial unit. He argues shape and control curricula with their cogni- that nation, democracy and the welfare state tive and affective components. cannot remain unaffected by this process, although he adds that the current global scene is 3. THE PATH TO TRANSNATIONALITY: AN dominated by “protectionist reflex actions”:5 IRRESISTIBLE AND UBIQUITOUS TREND? “The first ones want the nation, the second There is no reasonable doubt that the present- ones the democracy, the third ones the wel- day ideas concerning the decline of the modern fare state, the fourth ones the nature. But nation state and its replacement by transnation- everything that is desirable – nation, ality are distinguished by a great degree of democracy, the social conscience and the plausibility. They play an essential role within environmental protection – depends upon the overarching theories dealing with the the territorial concept of the state and is pluridimensional trend of globalisation. Does jeopardised as a consequence of its threat.” this assumption include the irresistible charac- In his reasoning, Beck continues that the ele- ter of this trend, as Beck and his colleagues ments that have constituted the coherence of argue? Moreover, is this trend discernible the modern nation state are decoupled. In this everywhere, all over the world and in all sec- context he refers to Nietzsche who had herald- tions of the global society? Consequently, is the ed the “age of comparisons” (Zeitalter der predicted decline of the modern nation state a Vergleichung) predicting in a visionary way constitutive element of globalisation? These are that: the questions that seem to be legitimate in the “The less men are bound by their tradition, present discourse. In this context I do not want the greater the internal stirring of motives; to engage in a long-term prediction, for the the greater, accordingly, the external unrest, more the future of human coexistence opens, the whirling flow of men, the polyphony of the stronger the plausibility of the shift shows strivings. Who today still feels a serious up. Yet, contenting ourselves with a middle- obligation to bind himself and his descen- term view, we notice its ambivalent aspects. dants to one place? Who feels that anything It is true that, compared with the post-World is seriously binding? Just as all artistic War I periods, the decades following World styles of arts are imitated one next to the War II have been characterised by transnational other, so too are all stages and kinds of cooperation, although over-shadowed by the morality, customs, cultures. Cold War. The United Nations (UN) survived Such an age gets its meaning because in it all its critical situations. Interaction in educa- the various world views, customs, cultures tion has been visibly stimulated by the United are compared and experienced next to one Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural another, which was not possible earlier, Organisation (Unesco). The numerous pro- when there was always a localised rule for grammes and projects of this world organisa- each culture, just as all artistic styles were tion are as noteworthy as its reports on essential bound to place and time ... This is the age of themes. In particular, we are reminded of the

13 Mitter comprehensive reports Learning to be (1972) tremendously over the past decade. It is the and Learning: The Treasure Within (1996).7 electronics industry which directly intervenes in Furthermore, the initiatives at regional levels,8 education, both at its macro-level and its micro- undertaken by Unesco’s regional agencies have level, making “customary” contents and teach- contributed to coordinating global and regional ing methods obsolete. In principle, governments approaches to integrating national interests. In and schools welcome such intervention as an recent years these policies have been reinforced incentive to modernising education and school- by cooperation between Unesco and the big ing and preventing them from “staying behind”. regional institutions and organisations, such as They behave and act accordingly, as long as the European Union (EU), the Council of they are explicitly involved as authorising and Europe and the Organisation of Security and controlling bodies. Yet, that this trend is Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), let alone the ambivalent, should be exemplified by the fol- joint projects between Unesco and Organisation lowing quotation from an article written by an for Economic Cooperation and Development Australian team of educational researchers:10 (OECD). “Markets are not premised on the assump- Taking regionalisation of national policies tion of fairness or equality. While their pro- into special consideration, the state of the arts is ponents make the claim that there is general remarkable in many ways too. This assumption benefit from competitive self-interest, they can be substantiated by observation of integra- also argue that those who play according to tive processes in Latin America, South East the rules and are the best at the game Asia, Africa and Europe. The EU signalises the deserve the general rewards. Ultimately, comparatively highest degree of integration, markets operate, according to the logic of primarily in the economic area. As regards edu- profit, only in certain sets of interests and cation, the Treaty of Maastricht (1992) has stip- let the ‘weak’ go to the wall. They work to ulated for the first time the overall steering produce a selfish, individualistic culture in competency of the Union for educational poli- which the main moral imperative is gratifi- tics. Previous initiatives in the sectors of voca- cation, not the collective good. Of course, tional and higher education had pointed this critical policy analysts have been making way before. The integrative trend becomes this point for some time, although obviously manifest, above all, in the member states’ not to much avail. Nonetheless, the point endeavours to harmonise qualification and stands and is supported. However, we are examination assessment.9 In this context one concerned that post-modern markets in edu- should not ignore the fact either that the mul- cation will both generate and obscure forms tiethnic Russian Federation has survived the of injustice that are significantly different collapse of the Soviet Union and the secession from those noted above. We suspect certain of territorial units which had been constituent of these injustices will be even more diffi- parts of the Tsarist Empire, let alone the Soviet cult to address precisely because the global Union itself. The Chechene tragedy has been, markets which generate them stand outside fortunately until now, the only exception to this the state and therefore outside our normal general change. channels of redress. In many senses this is a The trends towards political regionalisation devil we do not know. Or do we know it in can be considered as part of the globalising another form? Do the operations of interna- processes, the more as it seems that they are tional money markets give us a hint? In the reinforced by efforts aimed at cross-regional post-modern financial ‘jungle’ the market is cooperation, in particular promoted by UN and a predator. It looks around for a vulnerable the other world organisations. Besides, the pro- currency and strikes it, unmercifully like a ponents of transnationality at the “governmen- cobra.” tal” level (international and national) are chal- Educators are explicitly reminded of this, lenged by their competitors in the economic admittedly provocative and even exaggerated, sub-system. May it suffice in this connection to comment, when, for instance, becoming aware point to the activities of the “global players” of the helplessness of national governments to and, in particular, of the multinational firms and protect schools from “unauthorised” invasion joint ventures whose number has increased of the Internet into the classroom. Let alone the

14 Mitter economic aspect, this massive mode of inter- ers, thus catapulting one of the poorest vention turns out to be especially felt in the countries in the world into the information fields of political and moral education, ulti- age in an unusual way. In Kosovo the first mately when the “invader”, frequently speaking KFOR troops have arrived. Later the same from abroad, propagates intolerance, violence, day a Turkish tailor relates the formation of criminality or racism. On the other hand it a drug self-help group in his neighbour’s should not be ignored that frontier-crossing house and his daughter’s decision to go to competitors may also act as agents of transna- school veiled from tomorrow onwards. In tionality, counteracting to narrow-minded the letter-box there is a circular letter from nationalism inherent in national curricula or the Society for Threatened Peoples entitled propagated by chauvinist teachers. ‘Support courageous women in Kurdistan, Furthermore, the streams of migrant workers Tibet, Ethiopia and Bosnia’.” have long been extended and reinforced by Beyond this vivid snapshot, sketched by two those of refugees and people seeking political German ethnologists, it seems to be worthwhile asylum even in remote countries. In this context adding the author’s own comment that reminds it should be also remarked that cross-national us of Nietzsche’s visionary prediction: and cross-cultural mobility is promoted by “While we thought only a decade ago that tourism that is often underestimated and even we might allocate views of life as well as depreciated as a component of transnationality. economic and political systems to concrete Harsh judgements, often articulated with gener- places, this assumption has become ques- alising tendencies are, however, not justified. tionable ... While, however, the economic Against the crowds of unconcerned or even and political consequences of worldwide “blind” tourists, one must not neglect those networking are discussed in the public in travellers who want to widen their knowledge differentiated and controversial ways, the and experience by contacting near and remote impacts on culture and everyday occur- countries and people. Among them we meet rences remain strangely unexposed ...” young people, equipped with rucksacks, who In other words, the impact of economic, social utilise their holidays or interrupt their formal and political globalisation on many people’s learning and training. Others connect their minds and lives have not yet been reflected by “expeditions” with temporary jobs. the social sciences. Let me add that education is All these manifestations, which exemplify entirely involved in this mental gap. the reality of mobility, are increasingly rein- This is one side of the coin. When looking at forced by the influence of its virtual counter- the other side, we become aware that the trend parts, as conveyed by the modern media. This towards transnationality on the whole is not so observation shall be elucidated by the following transparent as to make us disregard certain quotation from an article dealing with the retarding factors, nor is it so ubiquitous, as is “dynamics of cultural globalisation”:11 put forth in theoretical debates on globalisation “Thursday morning at Prenzlauer Berg, and “second modernity”.12 Berlin: Having breakfast with Darjeeling • Regional unions are continually confronted tea from the Chinese Province of Yunnan with policies of their member states to retain and biologically dynamically grown cereals national sovereignty to the maximum extent from Uckermark [a district in the German possible. Education in the EU exemplifies Land Brandenburg, the author] we are this observation. It is true that, as has been glancing over the Sueddeutsche Zeitung remarked, there are trends towards harmonis- [south German newspaper]: At the ‘Swiss ing qualification structures in vocational and Music Alpine Festival’ in the Japanese town higher education, and exchange programmes of Norikura, the Korean yodeller Kim Chul have been considerably extended, for stu- Hong has won the first place. Siemens and dents of different age and school types. On Fujitsu have announced their joint-venture the other hand the Treaty of Maastricht plans. Then BBC World Service reported (1992) has emphasised the principle of “sub- upon the new initiative of the Grameen sidiarity” whose legitimacy is given by inten- Bank in Bangladesh. It makes mobile tele- tions of the contracting member states to pro- phones available to its 2.1 millions borrow- tect local, ethnic and national traditions and

15 Mitter

interests, while at the same time it is used as practice, while at the same time they are a defensive means against transnational inte- active in parties or associations propagating gration. Furthermore, it might be naive to national or ethnic concerns in defence against overlook open or subcutaneous desires for transnational concepts. Accordingly, this stopping integration at the borders of the EU, question as a whole must be raised to which screening it as a new “supra-state” from the extent transnational attitudes, represented “rest of the world”. Using (or abusing) the among politicians, journalists and intellectu- World Trade agreements for aggressive pro- als in general, are shared by the majority of tection of national economic interests points the population. In this context reference to to a similar direction. Raymond Aron’s thoughts on the “hetero- • The second restrictive comment is rooted in geneity of civilisations” is worth remember- deficiencies, as regards the definition of the ing. It was addressed in 1962 and is easy to concept of nation with its range and content. transfer to actual national set-ups, the more It is true that the original concept which was so as his book in question is entitled Paix et born in Europe, has been adopted all over the guerre entre les nations.13 Moreover, this world in the form of constitutional and legal issue can be extended to intra-personal ten- provisions as well as mentally expressed in sions. Let me quote from a finding included “national” ideologies. Does this really mean in an inquiry undertaken a few years ago by that nationalism is related to the same range, an international team in Croatia, among content and understanding everywhere? Are Croatian youths:14 there any clear-cut criteria to classify national “Although the examinees showed signifi- self-awareness emerging, let us say, in a cant predisposition for interculturalism, small country which has recently gained the reader should be warned about the independence for the first time in its history possibility that they might have accepted after the victorious outcome of a liberation these values only on the basis of cogni- process, or in a huge country with a cen- tive identification. In practice this does turies-old – or, as the case of China indicates, not necessarily mean that the respondents millennia-old – history and tradition? Ques- would, in concrete circumstances, tioning such – supposed or alleged – incon- respond and act in accordance with their gruity does not mean, of course, making evaluations.” qualifying distinctions concerning acknow- It should be added that the authors’ conclu- ledgement of sovereignty and respect. sion has turned out to be far from restriction Making this comment, however, we remain to abstract reflections, but has been frequent- fully conscious of its ambiguity under certain ly confirmed by people’s behaviour in the political circumstances, when contrasting everyday reality of the various wars in post- claims clash, as the actual cases of Bosnia Yugoslavia during the 1990s. and Kosovo intimate. Furthermore, these cases stimulate the question of authorisation: 4. THE MODERN NATION STATE: SYMPTOMS OF Who is entitled to define the quality of a CONTINUING VITALITY “nation” differing from an “ethnic group”, Beyond these retarding factors the trend toward the people concerned or an external power transnationality seems to be hampered by sub- such as an inter- or supranational institution? stantial and long-range countercurrents. These • Like globalisation, transnationality is con- intimate that in some world regions the modern fronted with the dilemma of simultaneous- nation state has not only been retained, but ness and universal validity. The fact that even regained vitality. The following two young people like McDonald’s food, should symptoms are presented to stress this assump- not be thoughtlessly taken for transnational tion: attitude and commitment. The fanatisised sol- • In the Third World, the nation state is still diers and partisans in former Yugoslavia are held in high esteem. National ideologies are unlikely to have been incited by their chau- formed in order to sustain the ties between vinism to detest McDonald’s products. In the the liberation from colonial rule and the “nor- wider view we become aware of people’s malcy” of independence. Since, as a rule, the engagement in market-bound thinking and young modern nation states are built upon a

16 Mitter

multiethnic composition of their populations, continually endangered, strategy towards re- nationalism serves the purpose of nation conciliation among hitherto totally separated building, national coherence, the formation of ethnic (racial) groups. It is true that the two people’s political and cultural identities and, cases are specified by different referential finally, the nation’s defence against particu- frameworks: in South Africa, reconciliation larism, segregation or even secession. The inside one country; in the former Czecho- establishment of the modern nation state is, slovakia, separation between two liberated in principle, independent of what degree of countries. This difference, however, should not coherence is laid down in constitution and question the legitimacy of this, admittedly governance, be it centralist or federalist. uneven, comparison per sé. South Africa distinctly demonstrates the lat- In view of globalisation, the current vitality ter type under the roof of one nation, where- of the modern nation state in various countries by the debates about Nelson Mandela’s con- and regions may be interpreted as a manifesta- cept of a “rainbow nation” seem to mirror tion of “running fights”. It seems yet that there facets only, rather than fundamental varia- are good reasons to contest the global validity tions.15 In this context it should be added that of such assumptions, as far as middle-term pre- without any restriction South Africa can be dictions permit. Education provides proofs for legitimately called a young nation state, underlining this counter-argument. because its predecessor, in terms of territory and population, was void of both democratic CONCLUSION legitimacy and national coherence. This The path of humankind into the foreseeable statement does not disregard the open-end future is likely to be characterised by further chances of Mandela’s visionary concept advance of the predicted decline of the nation between success and failure. state in the worldwide dimension. This devel- • The transformation processes in Central, opment will be complemented by the steady Eastern and South East Europe as well as in increase of transnational mobility and transna- Central Asia reveal similarities to those in the tional spaces. Education systems are already Third World, insofar as nationalism is greatly involved in both tiers of this trend as a whole: relevant – as a criterion of liberation, in this the macro-level by international agreements case from hegemonial Soviet imperialism, as and resolutions, the micro-level by the emer- well as of coherence, i.e. as a means to recon- gence of multinational and multicultural cile national polity and multiethnic reality. schools, classrooms and training centres. Non- As regards the vitality of nationalism, it hard- governmental organisations, such as research ly makes any difference whether the existing foundations and associations of university rec- nation states are the outcome of revival, such tors or presidents, contribute to reinforcing this as the Baltic republics, or recent emergence, trend. School structures and curricula are nec- such as Bosnia, Moldova, Belarus or Kyr- essarily challenged to adjust to what has been gyzstan. already identified as a shift of paradigm – from Both symptoms signal discrepancies concern- the nation states to transnational networks with ing the act of liberation and transformation, flexible steering competencies. The aforemen- namely by peaceful shift of power, such as in tioned “intervention” of the global market con- Slovakia or South Africa, or by violence, such siderably adds further incentives to this global as in the majority of the successor states of the development. Its strength distinctly comes to former Yugoslavia. Education is greatly light, when one looks back to the wide range of involved in these processes. For instance, histo- responsibilities national governments exercised ry textbooks are significant indicators of “patri- in maintaining and controlling their education otic education”; analyses of Serbian and systems only a few decades ago, be it in the Croatian textbooks, which were used in schools form of centralised, federal or, indirectly, local up to the recent shifts to democratic structures governance. This is one side of the coin. (and are likely to be still available), have The other side is presented by our observation brought to light passages that reveal feelings of that – for the time being and the foreseeable intransigence.16 On the other hand, the South future – the decline of the nation state is neither African case demonstrates the opposite, though ubiquitous nor uniform in terms of range and

17 Mitter intensity. In a good number of countries, inter- diminish at all the school’s task to adjust its nal conflicts endangering the formation of curricula of sciences and history. national identity, complicate the problematique It seems that John Dewey’s reflections on the even more. Consequently, the progress of interdependence of school and democracy, transnationality has to cope with retarding ele- related to the United States of his period, is still ments as well as with open opposition, in partic- relevant, insofar as it is entirely applicable not ular in “young” or “revived” nation states. In only to other national set-ups, but also to the this context it is worth quoting Razeen Sally’s transnational and even global dimension. The conclusion from a comment on the recent G8 focus is laid on the acceptance of democracy as Summit Meeting in Okinawa (July 2000)17 and a form of political order and the desirable way to accept it as food for thought: of life. Answering the question of how the con- “Literary reflection on ‘global governance’ crete political order is shaped according to its is no substitute for good governing. It historical and sociopolitical framework remains would not do any harm, if the policymakers irrelevant, as long as the superordinate quality in Okinawa remembered the spirit of liber- of democracy as a human way of life remains alism of the 19th century: one can conceive ensured. globalisation as a chance for freedom and welfare and reap one’s fruits through better SUMMARY governing – at national level.” All over the world, education systems have Anyway, the widespread perseverance of the been established as “national institutions”. nation state is mirrored by the macro- and Their foundations were laid by absolutist micro-levels of national education systems. I princes in Europe in the course of the 17th and have tried to point to the lights and shadows 18th centuries. Their expansion can be per- accompanying this phenomenon. In this respect ceived as a worldwide process continuing education is loaded with the paramount chal- through the past three centuries, reflecting a lenge to make youths accept the integrative and constitutive component of the rising modern humanising prospects of transnationality as nation state. In this overall context it is less rel- well as resist its dehumanising concomitants, evant to make a distinction between centralised thus contributing to identity formation. and federalised state structures. The “national” On the other hand, educators must not dimension has comprehended the macro-level neglect or even deny the remaining claims to of educational policies, ideological pro- national loyalty. Disregarding this, admittedly grammes and curricular provisions as well as complex, responsibility as a contribution to the micro-level of the everyday practice at the identity formation includes the danger of grassroots of individual schools. The predicted strengthening disintegrating attitudes that tend decline of the nation state and the emergence of to expose youths to slipping into extremist “transnational regions” result in new challenges right-wing attitudes and actions and to losing to education and schooling on the whole. their identities. However, the range of this transitional process, The chances of success depend, of course, widespread though it is, must not obscure the upon the commitment of both transnational and view on countercurrent trends revealing the sur- national agencies to the basic values of human vival or even revival of nationalism and, conse- rights, tolerance and democracy and upon the quently, to diversified educational policies and existence of corresponding constitutional and practices. legal provisions. The tensions between “transnational” open- Moreover, educators aspiring to balance their ness and “national” perseverance can be exem- responses to both challenges in their education- plified by recent trends in “education for citi- al practice and theory are asked to do so on the zenship” or “education for democracy” on the basis of reconciling viability and vision. This one hand, and in “patriotic education” on the aim must be regarded as a comprehensive task other. Needless to add that this issue must not including science teaching in view of the cur- be limited to specific school subjects such as rent ecological and health crisis and the fact social studies or history. On the contrary, it that it cannot be solved within “national” must be regarded as a cross-disciplinary task frameworks. Of course, this demand must not including science teaching in view of the cur-

18 Mitter rent ecological and health crisis and the fact presupposes the acceptance of democracy as a that it cannot be solved within “national” form of political order and the desirable way of frameworks of education. Fulfilling this task life.

ENDNOTES 1) McLean, Martin. Britain and a Single 9) Cf. McLean, Martin. Bildung und Market Europe. London: Kogan Page Erziehung in Europa an der Schwelle zum 1990. - ditto: Educational Traditions 21.Jahrhundert (Education in Europe) on Compared. London: David Fulton 1995, the Threshold of the 21st Century. In: pp. 98-105. Bildung und Erziehung, 52(1999), pp.461- 2) Dewey, John. The Middle Works 1899- 476. 1924, Vol.1 (1899-1901). Carbondale/ 10) Kenway, J. with Ch. Bigum and L.Fitz- Edwardville: Southern Illinois University clarence. Marketing Education in the Post- Press 1976, p.93. modern Age. In: Journal of Educational 3) Ibid., p.94. Policy, 8(1993)2, p. 120. 4) Epstein, Erwin H. Filtering democracy 11) Breidenbach, Joana and Ina Zukriegl. Im though schools: The ignored paradox of Prisma des Lokalen. Die Dynamik der kul- compulsory education. In: Kodron, turellen Globalisierung (In the Prism of the Christoph/von Kopp, Botho/Lauterbach, Local. The Dynamic of Cultural Globalisa- Uwe/Schaefer, Ulrich/Schmidt, Gerlind tion). In: Transit, 17 (Summer 1999), p.12. (eds.): Comparative Education. Challenges 12) Cf. Beck, Ulrich. Was ist Globalisierung? - Intermediation - Practice. Essays in hon- (What is Globalisation?). Frankfurt am M our of Wolfgang Mitter on his 70th birth- ain: Suhrkamp 1997 (2nd ed.), p.25. day. Köln/Weimar/Wien 1997, p. 43. 13) Aron, Raymond. Paix et guerre entre les 5) Beck, Ulrich. Die “Warum-nicht- nations (Peace and war among the Gesellschaft” (The why-not society). In: nations). Paris 1962. Die Zeit, no.48, 25 November 1999, p.13. 14) Domovic, Vlatka, Zlata Godler and Djurdja 6) Nietzsche, Friedrich. Human, all too Juresa Persoglio. High School Students’ Human. Menschliches, Allzumenschliches. Intercultural Dispositions: An Empirical A Book for Free Spirits. Translated by Research. In: Katunaric, Vjeran (ed.): Marion Faber, with Stephan Lehmann. Multicultural Reality and Perspectives in Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press Croatia. Zagreb: Intercultura 1997, p.163. 1996, p.29. 15) Cf. Niedrig, Heike. Sprache - Macht - 7) Faure, Edgar et.al.. Learning to be. The Kultur. Multilinguale Erziehung im Post- World of Education Today and Tomorrow. Apartheid-Südafrika (Language - Power - Paris: Unesco 1972. - Delors, Jacques et al. Culture. Multilingual Education in Post- Learning: The Treasure Within. Report to Apartheid-South Africa). Münster/New Unesco of the International Commission on York/München/Berlin: Waxmann 2000. Education for the Twenty-first Century. 16) Cf. Höpken, Wolfgang: Kriegserinnerung Paris: Unesco 1996. und nationale Identität(en), Vergangen- 8) In the context of this paper the notion of heitspolitik in Jugoslawien und den “region” is used according to the Unesco Nachfolgestaaten (War remembrance and concept of “world regions”. It should be national identity(ies). Political retrospect in added that the notion as such is ambiguous. Yugoslavia and its successor states). In: In the discussion in Europe about integra- Transit, (1998)15, p.94. tion, it is used to define international or 17) Sally, Razeen (School of Economics, frontier-crossing territorial units and to London). Staaten sind gefordert (States are propose regionalisation as an alternative to challenged). In: Die Zeit, no.30 (20 July the dominance of the modern nation state. 2000), p.22.

19 Balancing Quality and Equality in Educational Transformation

Johann Steyn

INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE the world and virtually everyone would declare PROBLEM themselves currently in favour of democracy, In the recent past many academic articles, press because it is a sound system and it is fashion- articles, letters to the press, official reports, etc., able to be a democrat. Even totalitarian states have been published in South Africa relating to and military regimes have been known to call quality education, equality in education, or to themselves democracies. Victor Hugo once both. Some articles, letters or reports touched said “nothing is as powerful as an idea whose on aspects such as unequal education, others on time has come” (quoted by Van Niekerk, 1999: the fears and perceptions regarding the lowering 111) and it is clear to everyone that the era of of standards, but it is not my intention to elabo- democracy has arrived. It seems obvious that rate on any of these articles, letters or reports. I democracy should be blooming all over the would, however, at this stage state it clearly that world, but what seems to be so obvious is in the debate surrounding quality education and fact not so obvious in the real world! The mis- equality in education is, understandably, a use of democracy is a worldwide problem: major concern in South Africa, especially with- • Hitler used democracy to end democracy. in the context of the educational transformation • In many African countries the ruling party to a democratic lifestyle. The whole issue is finds it difficult to behave itself, interfering complex and may even be characterised as a inter alia with the courts and the press dilemma (Steyn, 2000). (O’Connell, 1999). The dominance of the My aim is not merely to explore the meaning majority and the repression of the minority of certain key concepts (e.g. quality, equality) should never be called democracy. or even to investigate the relationship between • Many Western countries are only formal these concepts. The sole purpose of this paper democracies: powerfully administered, but is to address a specific question: is it possible still allowing forms of dominance in all to find a balance between quality and equality spheres of life (Green, 1999:21,27). in education, or to reconcile these concepts, • Even in sophisticated communities “anti- given the historical legacy and cultural diversi- democratic thought patterns” are common ty in our country? (Zecha, 1999: 83) and in his famous book Quality and equality are the key words in this The open society and its enemies, Popper discussion, but before we reflect and focus on illustrates how our “natural” reaction is to these concepts, we should touch on the present silence our enemies or opponents and thus South African context. As democracy and prevent a truly democratic communication transformation provide the backdrop to our pattern (Popper, 1995: 465). reflection on quality and equality, it is therefore From the examples mentioned it is clear that essential first to investigate the constitutive democracy is a fragile system, and can only meanings of these concepts. survive where democratic values are deeply Democracy is a very popular word all over entrenched (O’Connell, 1999). What we need

21 Steyn is not only formal democracy, but deep democ- vious Boer Republics, to British imperial rule, racy (Green, 1999). Deep democracy would and after 1948 the education system was trans- mean to preserve and protect human rights and formed into a statutory segregated system. humane democratic values in a dynamic and Since 1994 educational transformation has been responsive way. Furthermore it should equip linked to our new democratic dispensation.) people to respect, to understand and to value, What do we mean by transformation? for example, a diversity of cultures and a diver- Although different writers and commentators sity of opinions. We should value democracy have different views on transformation, in my first and foremost as a way of life, and school view, educational transformation, is a form of education should be the breeding ground to radical change. In the South African context it nurture these values. refers to: What is the reason for the failure of the • the removal of inequalities and the move democratic ideal in young democracies? In my towards equal education opinion it is because democracy is often • the shift away from a monocultural educa- defined and interpreted in a simplified, artifi- tional system cial, superficial and one-sided way. • the shift from content-based education to out- What then are the two sides (cornerstones) of comes-based education democracy? Philosophers are in agreement that • the democratisation of education and freedom and equality are cornerstones in any • the improvement of the quality of education. democracy. A distinctive feature of freedom is Transformation is being considered as a feasi- emphasising typical liberal democratic values ble way to bring meaningful and positive such as human rights, including personal free- change in the education system. Transformation dom (freedom of speech, conscience, etc.). One is an ongoing process and not a goal in itself. In of the typical liberal freedoms in education is the light of this background, we will now focus the freedom to compete and achieve, and by on the concepts of quality and equality. doing so to strive for quality. On the other hand, equality is more closely linked to the 1. A PHILOSOPHICAL REFLECTION ON QUALITY community emphasising equal opportunities, AND EQUALITY equity and communality. Democracy is not Broadly speaking, it is possible to distinguish possible within the context of great inequalities two main approaches regarding the case quality and disparities. Unjustifiable inequality will contra equality. According to the first approach always be damaging not only to democracy, but there is an unbridgeable gap between quality to quality education as well. Although both and equality. The other way of thinking – and quality and equality are closely linked to that is the approach that I would rather support democracy, there may be an underlying conflict – is that quality and equality are not separate between these two concepts. entities, but two sides of the same coin called South Africans experience post-colonial and democratic education. I will return to these dif- post-apartheid transformation as part of their ferent views later in this paper. daily lives. Transformation is explicitly linked Quality is a buzzword not only in commerce to democracy and education should be trans- and industry, but it has also became part of our formed to reflect democratic values. This is the educational vocabulary. In an educational con- message in nearly all recent official policy doc- text, quality has been interpreted differently. uments on education (the South African We may, for example, distinguish between Schools Act of 1996; the Higher Education Act quality as: of 1997, etc.). Although policy transformation • excellence is necessary, it is not sufficient to ensure real • perfection educational transformation. • fitness for purpose (By the way, South African history had its • value for money and fair share of significant educational transforma- • transformation. tions. In 1815, transformation in government In the latter meaning, quality of education occurred from Dutch colonial rule to British should be firstly linked to the improvement and domination; in 1902 the education system was development of processes of change. In other transformed from Boer domination, in the pre- words, to enhancing transformation processes.

22 Steyn

Before offering a tenable explanation of qual- In other words, do we mean equality of oppor- ity, a few questions should be asked: tunity or equality of outcome? The latter is a • Is the aim of quality education to raise the more radical approach and, to my mind, not at standards of the high achievers even further all compatible with quality education in a in preparing them to compete globally? democracy. On the other hand, the equality of • Is the aim of quality education to raise the opportunity approach is in fact more liberal and standards of the low achievers and the masses? may be viewed as compatible with quality edu- • Does quality education involve universal cation. The question still remains: is it possible standards, local standards or individual stan- to bridge the gap between quality and equality dards? in democratic education? • Do we have the individual learner in mind or At this stage it is clear that there seems to be the learning community in general? a tension, due to the fact that the quality/equali- • Is quality education aimed at raising the level ty issue is considered from different frames of of achievement of under-achievers equally to reference or two different paradigms – what I those of the achievers? would like to call the liberal democratic para- The answers to these questions presuppose a digm and the social democratic paradigm. Both certain point of departure which could lead to a these paradigms are rooted deeply in South better understanding of the critical question: are African history. The distinctive feature of liber- these two concepts reconcilable within a al democracy is freedom and the distinctive fea- democracy? ture of social democracy is equality (Steyn et It is not easy to give a definite answer to all al., 1999:6-12). It is an open question which of these questions or to give a clear definition of liberal education or social democracy can best quality. To some people, quality means raising serve the interests of South African education. the standards, which means “increasing the Hard debates in this respect are still on our amount of material students are supposed to be agenda. My own feeling is that South African capable of reciting on command” (Zecha, 1999: education needs both to survive as a stable and 107-108). To my mind the following working sustainable democracy. definition of quality is quite acceptable and Part and parcel of the liberal democratic para- useful: digm is the emphasising of the typical democ- “Quality education should bring about posi- ratic values that we may call human rights, tive changes; outcomes that fit with the although these rights are endorsed by social goals valued by those participating in the democrats as well.These well-known values or educational process” (Van Zyl, 1992). rights may include the freedom to work, the Quality education should provide for opportu- freedom of speech, the freedom to own proper- nities to enable learners to develop their (full?) ty and, of course, the freedom of competition, potential and at the same time it should make the freedom to strive for quality. sense to all the relevant stakeholders. It envis- Social democracy aims basically for equality ages institutions that can provide for the “best” in education, the strengthening of communal development of each learner. Quality is there- values, equal access to educational institutions fore not merely about achieving levels or stan- and equal educational opportunities. dards, but rather a matter of empowering learn- Clearly there can be a strong case for liberal ers. All good education is per definition quality democracy (the case for quality in education) education. and the case for social democracy (the case for Within the South African context, equality is equality in education), as I will explain later. an even more contentious concept than quality. Democratic education, in a young democracy Again it is inevitable that we should examine such as South Africa, should be able to accom- the concept by asking the question: what do we modate both quality and equality in a meaning- mean by equal education? Do we mean: ful way as part of our educational transforma- • an equal amount of education for everyone tion process to build a culture of democracy. • education to bring everyone to the same standard or 2. PRESENT PERCEPTIONS AND • an education which permits everyone their MISCONCEPTIONS ON QUALITY AND EQUALITY given potential? (Potter, 1995:322). At this stage I think it is necessary to touch on

23 Steyn perceptions (and, of course, misconceptions) government was merely propagating quality, regarding quality and equality in education. excellence and elitism in education while it These perceptions may indeed in some cases be ignored the problem of equality. The other misconceptions, and I do not necessarily agree perception is that the present government is with all the popular views on quality or equali- undermining excellence and that it is only inter- ty, but I think in the context of the debate on ested in addressing inequalities. Both percep- balancing quality and equality, these views are tions are somewhat naïve, misleading and a relevant and should be raised. oversimplification of the true situation. I would It goes without saying that ordinary South even view them as misconceptions. In this Africans experience our educational history of regard I can refer to discussion documents or colonialism and apartheid as a history of gross official documents such as: inequalities. The vast majority of the South • the De Lange Report (1981) African school population had in the past no • the Curriculum model for South Africa access to quality education and still has (despite (1991) laws and policy statements) no access to this • the Educational Renewal Strategy (1992) kind of education. Given the long history of • the NEPI Report (1993) inequality between white and black education, • the South African Schools Act (1996) and there is the perception that the abolition of all • the Higher Education Act (1997). distinctions is the only acceptable solution. In all these documents both quality and equality According to this perspective it is only through are emphasised. Whether this is merely lip ser- state control and state intervention that equality vice and official rhetoric, remains to be seen. In can be promoted, assured and become a reality. any case, policy documents and laws can only Against this backdrop we should understand the articulate possibilities which allow for the pro- slogan: “Equality before quality”. motion of quality and equality. On the other hand, there are strong feelings There is also the perception that the quest for and concerns by many other South Africans on quality education is only a strategy “to slam the present state of quality education. There is a doors” in the faces of black learners (Harts- general perception that South African education horne, 1992: 7) or in Christie’s words, the pur- is on a slippery slope of declining standards due suit of quality education “... has become a catch to: cry limiting the influence of black students on • insufficient state funding the existing practices of historically privileged • the system of massification schools” (Christie, 1993:11). Quality is viewed • the lack of a teaching culture and work ethic as an attempt to maintain standards in white among teachers and elitist institutions. I will return to this percep- • the lack of a learning culture among learners. tion later. To illustrate this point we may refer to the poor The question still remains: Can we balance Matriculation results of the past couple of quality and equality in educational transforma- years; our poor performance in the so-called tion? Before we attempt to give a provisional TIMS-project (Third Mathematical and Science answer to this question it is necessary to reflect Study) where South African learners have done on, and consider, the relative importance of the worst of all out of the 41 developed and quality and equality respectively. developing countries that took part in this project (Sunday Times, 24 November 1996). We 3. THE CASE FOR QUALITY EDUCATION WITHIN may also refer to the mushrooming of private THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT schools to illustrate the perception that educa- My views on the importance of quality educational standards in public education are drop- tion may be summarised as follows: ping. The flight of black and white (Afrikaner!) • It goes without saying that quality education learners from middle class backgrounds to pri- is a primary function of any sound democrat- vate schools is evidence of an attempt by par- ic government. It is unthinkable that any gov- ents to provide their children with a head start ernment, and for that matter stakeholders of quality education (Financial Mail, 14 such as teachers, parents etc., should not January 2000). value quality education as a high priority, There may be the perception that the previous because it is not only in the best interests of

24 Steyn

learners, but also of the country and nation as parities create alienation in a democratic a whole. society and democratic values and relations • The lack of quality education in South Africa can hardly be fostered in such a climate. remains a major concern to all responsible • Given our history of unequal education and citizens, as mentioned earlier when referring the backlog that developed as a result of pre- to some general perceptions regarding the vious policies and due to such factors as quality of our education. The term “collapse” colonialism, imperialism and racism, the of our education system is even used in striving for equal education should be consid- responsible circles. We should clearly ered a matter of urgency. improve on the quality of South African edu- • Right from the start of our new dispensation, cational performance if we wish to survive in equal education was one of the top priorities a competitive world. (By the way, it does not of the government and it remains part of the rest only with the government to tackle this ongoing educational debate. Equality in edu- problem.) cation is seen as part of the reconstruction of • Earlier I referred to the comments by our divided society and as part of the process Hartshorne and Christie that the quest for of establishing a just society. The principle of quality is only an attempt to defend elitist equal opportunities for education – irrespec- institutions. I think their perceptions and sen- tive of colour, creed, etc. – has been clearly timents are wrong. Responsible educators spelled out as a matter of high priority. and educationists (and there are many of Without equal opportunities, the overwhelm- them) are serious about the improvement of ing majority of learners in South Africa will quality education for all learners, irrespective remain poor and powerless. of colour or creed. There is a general feeling • There is another reason why the drive for that our education system should provide, equal educational opportunities should be and not neglect, quality education for all. supported. As a result of the rapid develop- Any hope of becoming a stable and sustain- ments in the field of information technology, able democracy depends on our ability to there is a tendency for the gap to widen improve on our educational performance in between the “haves” and the “have-nots”, in general. That means developing the (full?) terms of the possession of knowledge and the potential of each and every learner. ability to gain new knowledge. If the quest • Although I have argued in the previous point for equal opportunities and equal access to for individual development as an indicator institutions and knowledge power are not for quality, preparation for participation in accelerated, this gap is going to widen even the global playing field is an unquestionable further, and the possibility of any reconcilia- priority as well. It is clear that quality education between quality and equality will tion depends on internationally accepted fac- become extremely difficult. tors such as available resources, the quality of teachers, the relevance of learning material 5. ARE THESE CONCEPTS RECONCILABLE IN A and a sound learning environment (Harts- DEMOCRACY? horne, 1992). Thus far we critically reflected on key concepts such as democracy, transformation, quality and 4. THE CASE FOR EQUALITY IN EDUCATION equality. We drew attention to some popular WITHIN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT perceptions on quality and equality, before con- As in the argument for quality education, I sidering the relative importance of these con- would also like to articulate the case for equal cepts in our education. education point for point: Now we should return to the key question: is • Equality is a cornerstone of democracy and it possible to find a balance between these con- as such should be regarded as a top priority. cepts? Rephrasing the question: can quality and “In a truly democratic society there are no equality co-exist in a young democracy like unimportant people. Because of their human- South Africa? Three responses will be given to ity, all people as human beings have equal this question: dignity”(Du Plessis in Steyn et al., 1999:55). • The NO-argument usually views these con- Class distinctions and all kinds of gross dis- cepts as two opposites that can never meet.

25 Steyn

There is “... a gaping chasm yawning interrelated and not two hostile entities per se. between two cliffs marked Quality and Also, it is essential to investigate the possible Equality”(Riley, 1994: 1X). There is the reconciliation between quality and equality opinion that quality and equality are mutually within the South African context. But it would exclusive concepts. The argument is noted as not be an easy or obvious route given the inher- follows. If you are free to perform, achieve ent tension between the two, for example: and compete, you are free to raise your per- • the extreme elitist and populist viewpoints formance to a certain level or standard. Let us • the different paradigms (liberal democracy call that standard (for argument’s sake) quali- and social democracy) underpinning these ty. If people are free in this sense, they are two concepts not equal in performance. Equal outcomes • our historical legacy and are not possible where freedom is at stake. • the different interpretations of quality and The freedom to achieve and the freedom to equality. attain a certain standard, or a certain quality, Quality education and equal education (equal is not reconcilable with equality. In this sense opportunities, equal access) should complement excellence (high quality) and equality can be each other in a democratic system. Finding the considered as mutually exclusive. The elitist “fine balance” seems to be the crucial issue. At view on quality is not in accordance with the this stage I would like to tackle the problem populist view on equality. From the other end this way: equal education (equal opportunities, of the spectrum it is argued that the vast equal access, etc.) initiates (“kick starts”) the majority of the South African school popula- process of educational transformation, while tion still have no access to quality education quality education promotes educational trans- and therefore it is premature to even think formation to such an extent that it should lead about a reconciliation between these con- to a stable and sustainable democracy. It is not cepts. The quality/equality problem is consid- a matter of “equality before quality”, but rather ered from opposing frames of reference (par- two simultaneous processes on the road to adigms) and no reconciliation is possible. transform our education to a “true”(or should • The YES-argument emphasises the fact that we rather say “deep” democracy) and not a we should actually destroy the democratic pseudo or sham democracy. aim unless a solution is found to reconcile quality and equality in education. This recon- CONCLUSION ciliation is a precondition for a stable and In the introduction I mentioned the hypothetical sustainable democracy. Quality and equality possibility to reconcile quality and equality in a are already part of all major educational democracy. My final conclusion is that it is debates in South Africa and part of our edu- possible on the precondition that we view cational transformation is the search for the equality as the initiator and quality as the pro- balance between these two. They are two moter of democratic values in education. But sides of the same coin, namely democratic even then the path is not without stumbling education. It is inconceivable that we cannot blocks. A serious stumbling block, for example, accommodate both quality and equality in a is how to narrow the gap between the achiev- meaningful way as part of the process of ers, on the one hand, and the under-achievers building a culture of democratic education. and low-achievers, on the other. The fast run- Even official policy documents favour the ning athlete should persist with running fast. accommodation of both in our education sys- However, the athlete who cannot keep up tem. There should surely be overwhelming should not drop out of the race, but should – support for the YES point of view. through quality training – improve his/her per- • I call the third response, the COMPLEMEN- formance in order to narrow the gap between TARY-argument. The problem with the first himself/herself and the fastest runner. two arguments is that they tend to give sim- In essence: within a democracy and within plified answers to a complicated issue. There the context of transforming education in South is no easy “yes” or “no” answer to this ques- Africa, quality and equality should complement tion. And that is my final answer. each other, although the whole process is not Yes, the two concepts are interconnected and without serious problems.

26 Steyn

ENDNOTES

CHRISTIE P. 1993. Equality in curriculum in RILEY KA. 1994. Quality and equality. post-apartheid South Africa. Journal of Promoting opportunities. London: Cassell. Education. 18(1) 5-18. STEYN JC (ED.), WS DU PLESSIS AND J DE FINANCIAL MAIL. 14 January 2000. KLERK 1999. Education for democracy. GREEN JM. 1999. Deep democracy. Lanham, Durbanville: Wachwa. Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. STEYN JC. 2000. Quality education and equality HARTSHORNE K. 1992. Educational standards in in education: a dilemma for democratic South a future education system. Pretoria: HSRC Africa? South African Journal of Education. conference. 20(1) 46-49. O’CONNELL B. 1999. Education and democracy VAN NIEKERK AA. 1999. Gesigspunte oor in South Africa: concerns and challenges. demokrasie in ’n transformerende Suid- Stellenbosch: Conference on nurturing demo- Afrika. Tydskrif vir Geesteswetenskappe. cratic values through education. 39(2) 111-117. POPPER KP.1995. The open society and its ene- VAN ZYL C. 1992. What is quality education? mies. London: Routledge. Pretoria: HSRC conference. POTTER J. 1995. Does Walzer’s theory of com- ZECHA G (ED.) 1999. Critical rationalism and plex equality illuminate current issues in educational discourse. Amsterdam: Rodopi. South African education? Perspectives in Education. 16 (1) 319-329.

27 Education for Democracy: Revisiting Rortyan Pragmatism

Yusef Waghid

ABSTRACT and trust, increasing equality as well as toler- In this paper I reflect on some of the democrat- ance and responsiveness. In a different way, I ic moments which were opened up by educa- shall show how Rortyan pragmatism can tional discourse with reference to workshops engender an education for democracy. held at an institution of higher learning in col- Certainly, over the past years Rorty’s work laboration with educators in the Western Cape has met with largely unfriendly response from region. I contend that educational discourse fellow philosophers, to the extent that Richard such as the six “Democratic Transformation of Bernstein (1990: 34) was led to declare that Education 1999–2000” workshops held at the “the antagonism, hostility and polemical University of Stellenbosch over the past two attacks that Rorty has generated during the past years is constituted by Rortyan pragmatism, decade have increased dramatically”. However, which holds much promise for a developing like many of his sympathisers such as René democracy. Arcilla (1990: 35) who perceives Rorty’s writ- Delving into Rorty’s (1999) understanding of ing as providing new hope for education in the the role of education in a democratic society light of the “crisis of modernity”, and Carol and with specific reference to democratic edu- Nicholson (1989: 200) who emphasises the cation workshops, I argue that pragmatism importance of Rorty’s work for “educating stu- guides educational discourse, which can deep- dents into a sense of community”, I want to use en democracy in institutions such as schools Rortyan pragmatism as a philosophical support and universities. The unique philosophic perfor my arguments that favour education for spective that undergirds Rorty’s understanding democracy. of education, and the way in which his philosophy is a philosophy of education, can prepare 1. “DEMOCRATIC TRANSFORMATION OF one for participation in a democratic way of EDUCATION 1999–2000” WORKSHOPS life. THROUGH PRAGMATIST EYES During the years 1999 and 2000, academics INTRODUCTION from the Department of Education Policy My account of democratic education work- Studies at the University of Stellenbosch pre- shops held at the University of Stellenbosch sented a series of workshops aimed at enhanc- during 1999 and 2000 will be divided into two ing democratic educational practices in institu- parts: the first emphasises the importance of tions, particularly Western Cape schools. The pragmatism for educational discourse; and the project, funded by the German-based Konrad second takes its point of departure from the Adenauer Foundation, involved academics, account of pragmatism offered by Richard educators and education managers from Rorty in his recent book Philosophy and Social Western Cape institutions, senior post-graduate Hope, and its implications for democracy and undergraduate students. Almost 500 people which can lead to greater social cooperation attended these workshops over a two-year peri-

29 Waghid od. The major themes at these “Democratic The culmination of this line of thought – that Transformation of Education 1999–2000” people have to “reshape themselves” relevant to workshops included: emerging historical situations – comes with • Balancing quality and equality in educational pragmatism’s concern with venturing into nov- transformation elty, openness to the unfamiliar, the unimagina- • The values underlying quality and equality in tive, the new, that which Rorty (1999: 34 & educational transformation 120) describes as the demand for hope – “the • Children’s rights and education: a broad per- ability to believe that the future will be unspeci- spective fiably different from, and unspecifiably freer • Democratic education through decentralised than, the past”. In his words: governance “To say that one should replace knowledge • Implementation of decentralised school gov- by hope is to say much the same thing: that ernance and one should stop worrying about whether • Participatory school management. what one believes is well grounded and start The names of these themes indicate that the worrying about whether one has been imag- workshops were aimed at socialising partici- inative enough to think up interesting alter- pants with knowledge of educational discourse natives to one’s present beliefs” (1999: 34). and democracy, as well as engaging them as This is exactly how I as a facilitator of some of “full participating members of a free communi- the workshop themes wanted participants to ty of inquiry” (Rorty, 1999: 11). Participants conceive of pragmatism: a deeper understand- had to be initiated into an inherited tradition of ing of education out of which could emerge human activities, aspirations, sentiments, unfamiliar possibilities for future democratic images, opinions, beliefs, modes of understand- action in educational institutions. ing, customs and practices, that is, “states of To see this last point I shall refer to a discus- mind” (Oakeshott, 1998: 284-287) about educa- sion which occurred between participants dur- tion for democracy. To be initiated into an ing a workshop session on “Democratic educa- inherited tradition of knowledge, what tion through decentralised governance”. It was Oakeshott (1998: 287) refers to as a “world of argued that decentralised governance at school meanings and understandings”, is for partici- level demands that a “reasonable consensus” pants to have engaged with knowledge about should to be achieved among educators, par- education for democracy. This implies that one ents, learners and school managers. Signifi- not only does certain things but also under- cantly, participants concurred that agreement in stands and learns to understand what one is meetings should not be based solely on majori- doing. And, when literate participants engaged ty decision making, but rather through “reason- with knowledge about education for democra- able consensus” based on rational deliberation cy, they were encouraged to question and chal- and critical justification of points of view. This lenge the prevailing meanings and understand- is different from the kind of decision-making ings about education as “self-creating individu- procedures which currently dominate meetings als” and critical inquirers (Rorty, 1999: 118). in the public sphere and which, participants at This latter thought of human engagement these workshops agreed to, “might with luck, through both socialisation and critical inquiry/ be unimaginably better” (Rorty, 1999: 30). In “individuation” (Rorty, 1999: 118) is at the other words, pragmatism wants to replace core of Rorty’s treatise on pragmatism; a habit understandings of the world and us, which are of action or inquiry aimed at improvement and less useful and which, in Wittgenstein’s words, utility. It states that the point of socialisation is “hold us captive” (such as majority decision to encourage people to inquire critically, which making, which might not always be informed will help them realise that they can: and reasonable) by understandings based on “reshape themselves – that they can rework “reasonable consensus”, which are more useful the self-image foisted on them by their past, and that allows more space for growth, stimula- the self-image that makes them competent tion and hope. citizens, into a new self-image, one that This is very much faithful to the thoughts of they themselves helped to create” (Rorty, Rortyan pragmatism as the priority of the need 1999: 118). to create new ways of doing things (“better

30 Waghid habits of action”) over the desire for stability, nevertheless be perceptibly different is to security, routine, order and a state of mind remind oneself that growth is indeed the seeking to get in touch with a reality outside only end that democratic higher education itself (Rorty, 1999: 88). For pragmatism, new can serve and also to remind oneself that the ways of doing things involve the extent to direction of growth is unpredictable” (1999: which we intelligently participate and indepen- 125). dently think, rather than passively respond. We The link between pragmatism and education for are reasonably doing things when our activities democracy is clearly visible in such a Rortyan are guided by the outcome of intelligent reflec- understanding of hope. To further elucidate the tion, when we do not let ourselves be passively link between pragmatism and the development pushed this way or that by external factors of education for democracy, I once again refer bombarding us, but can take what comes to us, to Rorty’s (1999) Philosophy and Social Hope. reconstruct it through intelligent inquiry, and Rorty’s version of pragmatism is devoted to direct our activity by creativity and imagina- ensuring that education is/becomes democratic. tion. In this way, we can begin to live education Viewed with pragmatist eyes, Rorty believes for democracy from “inside”. that an education for democracy should be con- I now want to turn my attention to the point stituted by social cooperation and trust (1999: that these workshops also made it possible to xiii), “increasing tolerance and increasing realise that pragmatist philosophy is a neces- equality” (1999: 16) and “increasing respon- sary condition for the development of education siveness to the needs of a larger and larger vari- for democracy. In other words, for people to ety of people and things” (1999: 81). I shall critically inquire and to think the unimaginable now deal with these constitutive meanings of together with the hope that they can bring into an education for democracy in detail, with spe- being understandings that will assist us to cope cific reference to democratic moments in our with educational situations/problems intelli- workshop discourse. gently and effectively, bring into play the notion of education for democracy. 2. SOCIAL COOPERATION AND TRUST What is education for democracy in a People with different ethnic and cultural back- Rortyan sense and how did these workshops grounds as well as differences in aspirations, point out that pragmatism is a necessary condi- values, dispositions, and points of view who tion for such an aim of education? By far the attended the workshops were organised in majority of participants who attended the work- groups whereby they were encouraged to con- shops felt that the real point of engaging in sult with one another and to share their under- such social activities was the hope that their standings of knowledge constructs and diverse creative capacities would come to the surface patterns of meaning vis-à-vis education. and that they would depart from the workshops Rorty does much to support claims for the with new forms of human freedom to solve possibility of social cooperation and trust. His educational problems and to react to unpre- Contingency, Irony and Solidarity is largely dictable situations at their schools. They knew devoted to showing how people can come to what was being hoped for could not be dictated acknowledge universally the “real shared prob- to by prescribed guidelines, proven recipes and lem” of alleviating human suffering while pre- final blueprints. As one participant remarked: serving a place for diversity in conceptions of a “It’s not good enough merely to negotiate by good life, in this instance, education for democ- living up to pre-existing criteria. We should racy (Rorty, 1989: 83). However, in Objectivi- also be prepared to take risks”. In a different ty, Relativism and Truth he emphasises that if way, our practices should also embolden hope, we come together in a collaborative effort to by seeking new ways of solving educational deal effectively with conceptions of a good life problems and reacting with courage to unpre- (education for democracy) we must be able to dictable situations. Rorty (1999: 125) posits talk about them in a similar way through shar- that to hope that our social activities can make ing and consultation (Rorty, 1991:103). The a difference is to hope that people “will remain point of consultation and sharing was to reformist and democratic”. In his words: encourage the widest possible social coopera- “To hope that it (educational discourse) will tion and trust among different critical inquirers

31 Waghid on matters related to quality, equality, rights, asked not to think of themselves as homoge- centralised and decentralised governance, neous, but as equal. In other words, during dis- accountability, development and transforma- cussions and deliberations within and outside of tion. For instance, on the issue of governance the groups, participants were not considered as one group believed that centralised control is superior to one another such as to prevent mar- necessary for effective schooling to occur, ginalisation and exclusion from critical inquiry. whereas another group accentuated its concern Although many participants may not have pre- for decentralised governance as a way to ferred or perhaps did not have a chance to artic- democratise schooling. Yet, participants of the ulate their individual subjectivities, group dis- two groups with contending views were pre- cussion created sufficient space for individuals pared to listen to one another with the aim to to have made their rejoinders. In this way, achieve agreement among themselves about increasing equality during the workshops and what constitutes or does not constitute effective within diverse social spaces made the education schooling. for democracy agenda unavoidable. Rorty (1999: xxv) makes the claim that the (Perhaps, insufficient time was allocated for goal of social cooperation and trust “is to workshops that would have allowed more achieve agreement among human beings about opportunities for other diverse voices to have what to do, to bring about consensus on the ends been heard.) to be achieved …”. And, if the groups’ consul- The level of human engagement that was tation and sharing did not achieve a sense of made possible during these workshops also cul- social cooperation and trust, their critical tivated in people the capacity for tolerance and inquiry would have been tantamount to “word- mutual respect for “reasonable” differences of play” (1999: xxv). In fact, in Philosophy and the opinion. Here I wish to paraphrase the remark Mirror of Nature, Rorty (1979: 372) distin- made by one participant in a private conversa- guishes mere conversation or “wordplay” from tion during a lunch break: critical inquiry. For him, conversation has its “I do not necessarily agree with one of your own end because people can agree to talk and facilitator’s reference to the past system of benefit from exchanging views, even if that ben- apartheid education as having been con- efit is not in the sense of having made progress cerned mostly with quality at the expense of toward some shared understanding of a particu- equality, but if it weren’t because this forum lar subject matter. Critical inquiry aims at con- allows us space for exchanging views aimed sensus through rational argumentation with at reaching consensus, I would have been in agreement as a goal, rather than a prerequisite. a position to claim that people still consider Hence, as a corollary of the social coopera- a past discriminatory type of education as tion and trust that occurred among many partic- better.” ipants during the workshops, one can plausibly To my mind, this corroborates the increasing claim that participants during the workshops levels of intellectual and social tolerance that were devoted to the project of education for prevailed, considering that the statement might democracy. And, the fact that there were many have been interpreted as lending itself to the different people who repudiated the idea of fact that segregationist, discriminatory educa- absolute uniformity in understanding, made the tion was necessarily of a good quality. In this democratic education workshops even more regard it is worth noting Gutman’s (1998: 31) compelling. Pragmatism does not involve the defence of achieving an education for democra- learning and following of rigid (absolute) rules, cy through pragmatism and increasing toler- regulations, or principles passed down. Rather ance: it opens the way for human engagement, which “A necessary (but, of course, not sufficient) presupposes an initiation into an experimental, condition of living well in a society where curious and open community; one that can har- people differ in their moral convictions is ness an education for democracy. effective teaching of the liberal virtue of toleration. A more distinctly democratic 3. INCREASING TOLERANCE AND INCREASING virtue that a good society must also teach EQUALITY effectively is mutual respect for reasonable During these workshops participants were differences of moral opinion. Mutual

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respect demands more than the attitude of scholarly creativity and research; it also live and let live; it requires willingness and includes community participation in the ability to accord due intellectual and moral functions of the university” (Byrne, regard to reasonable points of view that we 1999:75). cannot deem ourselves as correct. In the Considering that the work of the Department of political realm, toleration is a precondition Education Policy Studies in collaboration with for peaceful competition and pragmatic the Konrad Adenauer Foundation through these compromise; mutual respect is a precondi- workshops has been contextualised, I contend tion for democratic deliberation (education- that our education for democracy project al discourse) and moral compromise” focused on being more responsible to the [Emphasis added]. emerging educational changes and challenges in society, particularly schools. In fact, time 4. RESPONSIVENESS devoted to university service through the demo- Central to the idea of an education for democra- cratic education workshops, also included the cy through pragmatist eyes it “is best to think development of flexible course material, prob- of moral progress as a matter of increasing sen- lem resolution and data analyses – all pragmat- sitivity, increasing responsiveness to the needs ic activities constituting the notion of education of a larger and larger variety of people and for democracy. In turn, school communities things” (Rorty, 1999: 81). Just as Rortyan prag- (educators, managers and learners) developed matism sees education for democracy (also organised ways of improving their educational articulated by Rorty as hope) as “the increasing levels, or gaining knowledge, and of applying ability (of people) to respond to the concerns of that new knowledge for the benefit of their con- ... more inclusive groups of people” (Rorty, stituencies. An evaluation of the responses of 1999: 81), so did organisers of these workshops participants to workshop themes also vindicates see an education for democracy as a matter of their optimism that their acquired knowledge expanding and applying university research about education for democracy gave new into the community. In other words, education impulses of hope that stimulated their creative for democracy means that universities should drive within their institutions. A secondary not be disengaged from the real problems in school principal in a rural area in a letter to me society, but rather, should open up possibilities, lamented about his “new ways of being human” through research, for greater social relevance. in relation to his staff and school governing In this way, theory is not sacrificed for practice; body after he attended the workshops. Other rather, theory embodies practice, and the opera- respondents wanted more “regular engage- tion of responsiveness cannot be isolated from ment” between ourselves and their institutions the context in which people find themselves. In in order to do collective research on topics of a different way, our understanding of pragmatic great interest for the South African nation, as engagement links strongly with Byrne’s (1999) well as reflecting, reinterpreting and reinforcing notion of “The Engaged Institution”. For Byrne the “good” in educational communities. In (1999), engagement on the part of universities essence, these democratic education workshops is more than outreach or uni-directional exten- were, in the words of Rorty (1999: 119), “a sion of the universities’ research to the people promising experiment engaged in by a particu- or organisations they serve. Engagement lar herd ... (who) put their faith in the utopian includes the mutual development of goals and hope characteristic of a democratic communi- the two-way sharing of expertise with elements ty”. of society. “Engagement involves transfers in two CONCLUSION directions: a partnership of exchange Every participant who attended the democratic between the university and its constituents education workshops had in mind the hope that ... (which) includes working together and he/she would gain new insights and ways of sharing expertise to solve problems. doing things with the aim to make his/her situa- Engagement is both outreach and ‘in-reach’ tion better. Likewise, participants were also into the university. Engagement is a way aware of the educational challenges that lie universities enhance society, by providing ahead in the light of emerging policy changes

33 Waghid in South African education. The fact that they ness through university service provision. I agreed to participate in these workshops with have argued that an education for democracy the aim to acquire new ways of doing things is through pragmatist philosophy is not only pos- sufficient evidence to suggest that the demands sible but also desirable, as we as academics at and challenges posed by a new education dis- higher education institutions attempt to attune pensation are too daunting to be tackled with- our practices to the dictates of transformation. out being imaginative enough to think up new This means that our practices have to be consis- and interesting alternatives. For this reason I tent with establishing an environment where can safely claim that participants knew that the people gain access to information, and where current educational scenario needs people who they develop the willingness to want to engage. can lead, who can produce new knowledge, In such a transformative environment, people who can see new problems and imagine new (like our workshop participants) are account- ways of approaching old problems. In my con- able to think for themselves and try to interpret versations with several of the participants I before being told, that is, by becoming aware of inferred that for most of them, an education for their own understandings and one another’s democracy should prepare people to go beyond understandings – a matter of participants learn- the present and be able to respond to a future ing from one another, evoking their potentiali- which cannot be imagined. In short, education ties and, in turn, imagining new ways of doing for democracy should deepen a desire for per- things; of deepening educational transforma- manent change or transformation. tion. In this regard I can unequivocally say that I have learnt quite a lot, in the course of the academics from the Department of Education past two years, about how pragmatism and an Policy Studies in collaboration with the Konrad education for democracy can live in comity Adenauer Foundation have ventured into such a with one another, in particular creating spaces pragmatic mode, intent on enabling an educa- for social cooperation and trust, increasing tion for democracy and making a difference equality and tolerance, as well as responsive- within an education community.

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REFERENCES

ARCILLA, R. 1990. Edification, conversation OAKESHOTT, M. (1998) Education: the engage- and narrative: Rortyan motifs for philosophy ment and its frustration. Philosophy of of education. Educational Theory, 40(1): 35- Education: Major Themes in the Analytic 41. Tradition, Volume I Philosophy and BERNSTEIN, R. 1990. Rorty’s liberal utopia. Education. Hirst, P. & White, P. (eds.). Social Research 57(1): 34-35. London and New York: Routledge, BYRNE, J. 1999. Taking charge of change: a 284-310. leadership challenge for public higher educa- RORTY, R. 1979. Philosophy and the Mirror of tion. Higher Education Management, 11(1): Nature. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University 69-79. Press. GUTMAN, A. 1998. Undemocratic education. RORTY, R. 1989. Contingency, Irony and Philosophy of Education: Major Themes in Solidarity. Cambridge: Cambridge University the Analytic Tradition, Volume III Society Press. and Education. Hirst, P. & White, P. (eds.). RORTY, R. 1991. Objectivity, Relativism and London and New York: Routledge, 28-43. Truth. Cambridge: Cambridge University NICHOLSON, C. 1989. Postmodernism, feminism Press. and education: the need for solidarity. RORTY, R. 1999. Philosophy and Social Hope. Educational Theory, 39(3): 200-206. Suffolk: Bury St Edmonds.

35 The Values Underlying Quality and Equality in Educational Transformation

Jeanette de Klerk

INTRODUCTION Athens a few centuries before Christ. The “Education is not merely a boon conferred democratic ideal is therefore nearly as old as by democracy, but a condition of its sur- Western civilisation. There are many different vival and of its becoming that which it viewpoints on the essence of democracy. Zecha undertakes to be. Democracy is that form of (1998) describes a democratic society as: social organisation which most depends on “a socio-political form of living for people personal character and moral autonomy … in a certain community who enact, Democratic education is therefore a pecu- acknowledge and control on a majority liarly ambitious education” (Perry, 1954: basis via general elections, representative 431-432). government and legislation rules or laws At this workshop, we will look at this “pecu- that are conceived to direct a socially liarly ambitious education” and particularly at peaceful, economically prosperous and just the importance of instilling values in schools in life with equal opportunities for each mem- order to prepare learners for living productively ber of that community.” and constructively in a democratic society. The concepts of quality and equality are both Many important questions can be asked: included in this definition of democracy. Which values are of major importance in the The democratic ideal can be described as: education for a democratic society? Are these “that of an open and dynamic society: values in line with the Constitution? Are there open, in that there is no antecedent social limits to these values or are they to be max- blueprint which is itself to be taken as a imised at all cost? Are any of these values in dogma immune to critical evaluation in the conflict with one another? Can schools carry public forum; dynamic, in that its funda- the whole burden of moral and character edu- mental institutions are not designed to cation in a democratic society and if not, what arrest change but to order and channel it by other institutions are also involved in this exposing it to public scrutiny and resting it moral challenge? ultimately upon the choices of its members” In order to address these questions, I will try (Scheffler, 1987:123). to clarify several key notions of democracy and There are different ways of defining democracy values. The importance of quality and equality and also many misconceptions of democracy. in a democratic school will be discussed as Joseph Leighton (Steyn et al, 1999:10) warns well as the values underpinning quality and against a false perception of democracy: equality. The limits of values as well as the “It is that democracy consists in the aboli- other institutions also involved in instilling tion of all distinctions: that its main aim is democratic values will also receive attention. to level all to the same standard, to make us all as two peas in a pod. This means 1. CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATIONS inevitably levelling down in place of level- The origins of democracy can be traced back to ling up. It means the rule of the dead level

37 De Klerk

of mediocre uniformity. It means – the and human beings are not born with specific tyranny of the crowd mind”. values, but with the potential to assign value. Another misconception is that democracy is Values serve as guidelines for behaviour and as only about rights, without any consideration criteria for the evaluation of people, events and being given to responsibility and accountabili- objects. Values give meaning and direction to a ty. The Bill of Rights may give the impression person’s life and the values of individuals are in of an overemphasis on individual freedom and turn influenced by the values of their culture. rights, because it fails also to emphasise the Zecha (1990) emphasises the particularity of individual’s responsibility and obligation to values: “Values are something real in regard to respect the rights of other people. In the limita- a particular person within a particular society tion of rights (South African Constitution, under certain circumstances.” According to 1996:18) the rights of others are not even men- Bloom (1987:201), “a value is only a value if it tioned. This distorted view of democracy may is life-preserving and life-enhancing”. lead to an egoistic, narcissistic view in which Moral education is essential for the success me and my rights are all that is important. of a democratic society because democracy The cornerstones of a democratic society places heavy demands on the moral fibre of the seem to be: people. It is the people who are responsible for • Equality: The right to a fair and equal chance ensuring a free and just society and they must in life. “Equality includes the full and equal be committed to the moral foundations of enjoyment of all rights and freedoms” (South democracy. Jefferson believed that loyalty to African Constitution, 1996:7). There may be democratic virtues ought to be instilled at an no discrimination against anyone on the early age. Furthermore, teaching is moral activ- grounds of race, gender, sex, pregnancy, mar- ity and morality is part and parcel of education. ital status, ethnic or social origin, colour, sex- Zecha (1995:11) argues that moral values for ual orientation, age, disability, religion, con- education can be rationally justified: science, belief, culture, language and birth. “…all members of society prefer freedom to Equality is not similarity, uniformity or slavery and oppression, equal dignity to dis- sameness. Equal opportunities do not imply crimination and exploitation, justice to the same opportunities, because people differ. injustice and poverty. Exercising and enjoy- • Freedom: This includes the freedom of reli- ing the freedom of speech, of movement, of gion, belief and opinion, freedom of expres- social gathering or of political activities sion and association, freedom of movement require the citizens to trust each other. Trust and residence, freedom of speech and of presupposes communication, communica- making choices, the freedom to affiliate with tion is impossible without understanding the social, cultural and moral norms of the and mutual understanding requires listen- group of your choice, freedom of delibera- ing, while listening demands respect for tion, i.e. people can publicly debate differ- others which in turn can be realised only ence. with self-appreciation and unselfishness.” • Responsible participation by all members of They are means necessary or sufficient for the democratic society to build an affluent reaching the goal of a good life in a democracy. society where people can prosper and devel- To rationally justify a moral value in education, op their abilities. one can highlight the means-end relationship • Respect for authority and the rules set by the between the value that serves as a mean and the majority of the democratic society. desired goal. How can we define values? In the book Education for Democracy (Steyn “Values represent the emotional rules by et al, 1999) the authors name the following val- which a nation governs itself. Values sum- ues that are of importance in the education of a marise the accumulated folk wisdom by democratic society: Freedom, equality, commu- which a society organises and disciplines nication, respect for others, sensitivity for oth- itself. Moral virtue is a most essential ele- ers, empathy, adaptability, openness, honesty, ment of a just society” (Haggerty R., 1995: team work, unselfishness, loyalty, self-realisa- 70). tion, critical thinking, responsibility, self-disci- Values can only be found on a personal level pline, recognition of human dignity, individual-

38 De Klerk ity, self-respect, firmness, independence, co- more and more complex, so too must our input operation, tolerance, integrity, trust, considera- into and efforts for the moral education of our tion and kindness. They believe that “a demo- learners increase. Changing our schools also cracy can only flourish if certain democratic implies changing our teacher training pro- values and certain virtues are cultivated” (1997: grammes. Only then will we be involved in 92). substantial, long-term changes in education. This may sound logical and unproblematic. There are two different kinds of democracy Unfortunately, however, it is not so easily deeply rooted in South Africa: liberal and achieved. social democracy. Liberal democracy rooted in In his Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle liberalism evolved mainly from individualism, observed that “virtues are ruined by excess and while social democracy evolved from social- deficiency but preserved by the mean, like too ism. Liberal democracy is characterised by per- much or too little eating or drinking ruins sonal freedom, decentralisation and individual health, while the proportionate amount pro- competition, whereas social democracy is char- duces, increases and preserves it”. We have to acterised basically by equality, communality be aware of the limits of moral values and care- and centralisation. The emphasis in liberal fully examine the “amount” of value we create, democracy is on the individual, whereas the in other words: the actions with which we pro- group or society as a whole is emphasised in duce or fail to produce things conducive to a social democracy (Steyn, 1999:5-7). One may good life. The limits of values must not be safely conclude that liberal democracy will tend overlooked otherwise they might harm our per- strongly to defend quality education, based on sonal and public life. The only exceptions are the right and freedom of individuals to compete love and justice (Zecha, 1990:12). and achieve, whereas social democracy will Popper (1962/1:265) speaks about the para- accentuate equality in education. dox of freedom and the paradox of democracy: There tend to be two broad categories of “… too much freedom is liable to change responses in the quality-equality debate, into nothing else but too much slavery, in depending on one’s perspective. One group are the individual as well as in the state. Out of those who prioritise quality. They value quality what I believe is the greatest possible with conviction because they have experienced excess of freedom springs what is the hard- quality and their interests have been advanced est and most savage form of slavery.” by a quality education. They also value equality He argues in the same way about an excess of because they know it is just, therefore they tolerance: want equality to be sinergised with quality. The “Unlimited tolerance must lead to the disap- other group are mostly the underprivileged pearance of tolerance. If we extend unlimit- majority who feel that their opportunities and ed tolerance even to those who are intoler- aspirations have been thwarted. Equality is ant, if we are not prepared to defend a toler- therefore a higher priority for them than quali- ant society against the onslaught of the ty. intolerant, then the tolerant will be destroyed, and tolerance with them” Are quality and equality two comparable (Popper 1962/1:265). concepts? Are they not on two totally differ- These words have far reaching implications for ent continuums? Perhaps quality can be democratic schools. viewed as a vertical axis measuring quality Morality is fully part of the fabric of school- from low or poor quality to excellent quality. ing and one of the fundamental tasks of teach- Equality is more a state of being. ers is to instill values and thus to build charac- Unfortunately equality is often associated ter. On the one hand, schools ought to reflect with mediocre quality and not with excel- the democratic values of society. Schools there- lence. Why is this so? fore have to be purged of practices that contra- dict the democratic values of society. On the Quality and equality can be viewed as two other hand, moral education is essential for the important core values in education in a democ- survival of democracy. As the rights and ratic society, each with a cluster of supporting responsibilities of democratic living become values.

39 De Klerk

2. VALUES UNDERLYING QUALITY such as analysis, critical thinking, innovation Quality is the texture of something. A school, and communication. It has to do with enhanc- for instance, must be measured against certain ing the learner and also empowering him/her criteria. The values undergirding quality are, so that he/she may be able to make a mean- among others, excellence, diligence, punctuali- ingful contribution to the process of transfor- ty, self-control, independence, critical thinking, mation. creativity and discipline. The exceptional approach – where quality is According to the World Competitiveness emphasised – is important for South Africa if it Yearbook (1997), compared with 46 other wishes to compete in the global market. Even if countries, the South African education system it sounds like intellectual elitism, pockets of ranks 45th, and regarding the qualifications of excellence in a mass education system are South African citizens for participating in a needed. modern competitive economy, the country The fitness-for-purpose approach – where ranks 46th. quality is judged in terms of the extent to which There is considerable overlap between the schools meet their stated purpose – should also concepts of quality and standards, but they are play a role. The fitness-for-purpose of different not the same. Standards are specified and usual- schools will vary and differ from one another. ly measurable outcome indicators used for The fitness-for-purpose approach brings us to comparative purposes. Harvey (1996:205-212) the debate on the real purpose of schools, distinguishes five different approaches to quali- which impacts also on the values being empha- ty namely: sised. There is a growing feeling that schools in • The exceptional approach which emphasises South Africa are not preparing learners ade- the maintenance of academic standards. quately for the world of work, that they lack Emphasis on assessment of knowledge and even basic skills of literacy and numeracy and some “higher level” skills. It presumes an that they are also not prepared for handling the implicit, normative “gold-standard” for unpredictable future in a struggling democracy. learning and advocates elitism or merit, even One of the main purposes of education is to within a mass education system. prepare people for the world of work, to be able • The perfection or consistency approach to earn a living. Without a certain amount of emphasises consistency in external quality knowledge, understanding and skills, learners monitoring of academic and competence have a very small chance to become indepen- standards. Their aim of producing a defect- dent, proactive and productive citizens who can free output is, however, not consistent with meaningfully participate in a democratic soci- the nature of learners, because learners are ety. But vocational preparation is not the only not perfect. purpose of schools. • The fitness-for-purpose approach relates “A concern for the economically useful can standards to specific purpose-related objec- jeopardise those activities which, however tives. The approach tends towards explicit educationally valuable, have no obvious specification of skills and abilities and occupational relevance” (Pring, 19:110). requires clear evidence by which to identify The value for money approach as measurement threshold standards. of quality is being emphasised more and more • The value-for-money approach places by business leaders and parents. This tendency emphasis on a “good deal” for the customer is mirrored by the shift in language through or client, usually government, employer, which education is described and evaluated. learner or parent. This approach prioritises The language of specific outcomes implies that efficiency and accountability to “clients”and teaching becomes the relation between input “customers”. At the heart of the value-for- invested and output expected in measuring money approach in education is the notion of quality. accountability. The efficiency movement unfortunately often • The transformative approach emphasises rests on the idea that both individual worth and quality as a process of change and therefore the worth of education can be reduced to eco- accentuates academic knowledge accompa- nomic terms. It often masks an economistic, nied by a broader set of transformative skills technicist conception of education with no

40 De Klerk regard to criteria of equity or social and indi- in-service training of administrators and teach- vidual development. Thus: ers, as well as the curriculum offered to learn- “The current imposition of business and ers. market principles of efficiency upon Equality of opportunity has to do with: schools and universities results in pre- • equal access to educational institutions with dictable distortions of the principles of non-discriminatory entrance requirements social justice and equality” (Welch, A.R., • equal per capita expenditure on education 1998:18). • equal access to knowledge But this measure of quality cannot be ignored, • equal career opportunities especially in South Africa where the reality is • equal access to quality education. gross unemployment and consequent poverty The concept of equity should be placed along- and crime. The unemployment rate in South side equality in a discussion such as this Africa of 25.2% is the fourth highest in the because equity conveys a stronger feeling of world, after Algeria, Réunion and Macedonia. fairness and justice and implies treating people This compares unfavourably with other devel- differently because of their uniqueness as oping countries where the average unemploy- human beings. ment rate is under seven per cent (Die Burger, The cluster of values undergirding equality 27 May 2000). is: respect for others, openness, empathy, Breytenbach (1998:113) found that a higher recognition of human dignity, gentleness, coop- per capita income in a country tends to be posi- eration, tolerance, partnership, sharing, kind- tively associated with democracy and lower per ness and peaceful coexistence. capita incomes are negatively associated with Democracy implies a strong commitment to democracy. Breytenbach confirmed the hypo- gender and racial equality. Despite the fact that thesis that the higher the per capita income of a non-sexism is one of the principles of education country, the better the conditions are for demo- in South Africa, the democratic ideals of gender cratic endurance and sustainability. If we equity and justice have unfortunately not been ignore the fitness-for-purpose and the value- manifested in the teaching profession. for-money approaches for quality and only con- Because of the strong emphasis on the elimi- centrate on equality in education, we will in the nation of racial discrimination, discrimination long run not be able to compete internationally against women – which is perhaps even more and because of the resulting financial instabili- deeply rooted than racial discrimination – has ty, our democratic values will be at great risk. not received serious attention in South African Furthermore, the state’s financial capacity to schools until recently. The subtle but powerful provide both equal access to education and edu- message of the hidden curriculum in schools is cation of good quality will be undermined in that of gender inequality. low income countries. The question about equality and difference is The transformative approach is also impor- most relevant in this regard. Although they are tant in the light of the fragmentation and dis- different, males and females are fundamentally crimination of the past. Learners in this young equal human beings. Equality and difference democracy need to be enabled and empowered are thus not mutually exclusive. Both genders to think rationally and critically for themselves are harmed by sexual stereotyping and gender to be able to challenge and change undemocrat- discrimination. ic practices. Despite the fact that teachers profess to treat boys and girls equally, studies (Lemmer, 1993: 3. VALUES UNDERLYING EQUALITY 15-17) have revealed a different reality: Equality is more a state of mind that one choos- • Teachers tend to address boys more often in es because one believes in the equal dignity of the classroom. Approximately two-thirds of people. Equality implies equal opportunities for classtime is spent talking to boys. everyone, it does not necessarily imply equal • Boys are allowed two-thirds of pupil-talk. outcomes. The need for equality of opportunity They have more interaction with teachers and is a perspective that educators must bring to therefore receive more individualised tuition. bear on the learning environment and must • Teachers tend to take male learners more seri- therefore be a central part of the pre-service and ously than females. They comment and nod

41 De Klerk

more often in response to boys’ questions and 4. INSTILLING VALUES comments. They ask boys more often than The concept liberal democracy can be strongly girls to answer questions and ask more high- linked with quality and that of social democra- er-order questions to boys than girls. cy with equality. These two concepts are in a • Teachers give boys specific feedback, con- relationship of tension with one another. In structive criticism and remediation. Because South Africa’s current transition phase, we are boys “dominate the classroom airwaves”, experiencing a large degree of that tension. they receive more attention than girls. Both the previous and the present govern- • Boys are eight times more likely to shout out ments in a way paid lip-service to both quality questions or answers and not be reprimanded and equality. The gifted child project of the by teachers, while teachers are more likely to 1970s is a typical example of the emphasis on reprimand girls for the same behaviour. quality whereas the inclusive movement is • There are also various forms of gender dis- geared towards equality. Every teacher and lec- crimination in text books, e.g. stereotyping, turer standing in front of a classroom experi- the invisibility of women in history books ences this tension daily and they have to grap- and the fragmentation of the contribution of ple with the problem of balancing these two women. sometimes seemingly opposing values, quality • Boys receive more praise than girls as far as and equality. their academic work is concerned and their The reality in some South African schools failures are often attributed to a lack of effort reflects a disturbing absence of both quality and rather than a lack of skill. equality. The erosion of a culture of teaching The consequence of the preferential treatment and learning is reflected in various news of boys during their formative years is that boys reports: have a healthier conception of their own gener- “Gun-toting pupils, rampant gangsterism, al and intellectual abilities than equally intelli- rape on schoolgrounds and intimidation are gent girls have. Boys are therefore schooled to all part of an ordinary day’s work for teach- see themselves as having a superior perfor- ers in South Africa’s township schools … mance. For pupils the situation is just as bad, if not Gender stereotyping and a patriarchal struc- worse – teenage pregnancies, demotivation, ture can be found in many “democratic” and violence by fellow pupils and teachers schools. The atmosphere in the school, the sub- who have given up … [M]any children ject matter and the way it is taught does not want to learn, but they have to cope with enhance the female student’s capacity for free what is called the PHD syndrome – ‘pull choice, nor her ability to speak with a voice of her or him down’. It means that if you do her own and thus to participate in a democratic well at school you are resented in your com- society. munity” (Sunday Times, 31January 1999). Equality should never be regarded as Both quality and equality are important and demanding similarity, uniformity or sameness. ought to be stressed in this period of transfor- People differ culturally and historically as well mation in South Africa. Both are indispensable as concerning their interests, ability and talents. for the enhancement of society, for the progress Owing to this, equal opportunities do not imply of our country, for harmonious coexistence and the same opportunities. Two thousand five hun- for making our country a “winning nation”. dred years ago, Aristotle noted that, “the great- Without quality we cannot be competitive in est inequality of the present age is the equal the international context and without equality treatment of unequals”. there will be suspicion, unrest and disharmony. We want learners who can think critically for What are the dangers if the values underly- themselves and who have developed assertive ing quality (such as competition, excellence individuality and their own talents, but who can etc.) are overemphasised in a school? balance their self-interest with what Tocque- What are the dangers if the values underly- ville called the “habits of the heart”, the respon- ing equality (such as tolerance, empathy etc.) sibilities of democratic citizenship. are overemphasised in a school? At this moment in our history it seems as if equality is being most strongly emphasised in

42 De Klerk our schools. This is clearly illustrated by the six responsible for instilling values. Home is the values that were recently identified to be taught moral nursery of values, but parents as primary in schools, namely: equity, tolerance, multilin- educators of their children are often too busy or gualism, openness, accountability and social exhausted to instil values. Unfortunately, they honour (Cape Argus, 9 May 2000:1). Only are sometimes negative role models for their accountability and perhaps social honour have children. links with quality, whereas the motivation for Schools do not only need parents as partners the other values is mainly the goal of equality. in character education, but the values imposed The quality of value education depends on by the media also have to be in line with those the quality of the teacher’s example. Learners of the school and the home. Unfortunately, the will not learn democratic values if teachers do values affirmed by the media are materialistic not live and model it. How often does it happen values focused mainly on the short-term self- in classrooms that teachers profess and truly gratification of a narcissistic consumer. Values believe in values such as cooperation and such as integrity, diligence, resiliency, excel- appreciation of differences but in their day to lence, responsibility, fidelity and honesty are day lives in the classroom, they fall back on often “kitchified” and belittled by the media as fierce competition? Or they value academic old-fashioned values with no relevance in a fast excellence but because of teacher burnout and changing post-modern world. The values most exhaustion, settle for mediocre work? Or theo- children learn through the media today are as retically they fully agree with the merit of a nourishing for their humanity as popcorn and democratic, interactive, bottom-up leadership diet coke are for their bodies. style, but the reality is that of a hierarchical, The question of moral conduct in a democra- autocratic, top-down leadership style. Teachers cy must not only be asked in schools but also in have to develop a sensitivity about the tie-up the different realms of institutional conduct. between their professed values and the hidden “Are political policies and arrangements values underlying their actual behaviour. genuinely open to rational scrutiny and pub- “Preferred values” and “operative values” have lic control? Do the courts and agencies of to be in line with one another to strengthen one government operate fairly? What standards another. of service and integrity are prevalent in public offices? Do journalism and the mass The above section did not answer the ques- media expose facts and alternatives, or tion about the different ways in which demo- appeal to fads and emotionalism?” cratic values can be instilled in schools. (Scheffler, 1987:125). Think about the numerous ways in which Moral education thus presents a challenge not this can take place, intentionally and unin- only to the schools, but also to the other institu- tentionally. tions of society.

5. PARTNERS IN INSTILLING VALUES CONCLUSION “The values that make up the core belief Gairdner (1992:20) wrote: “No nation in system, or the ‘founding myth’ of a free history has survived for long without a basic society are communicated to all citizens in consensus on values”. And Phiper (1996:16) hundreds of ways: by families, teachers, commented about the American society that priests, fellow workers, friends, wise neigh- “we are a pluralistic culture struggling to find bours, and so on. They are laid down in tra- common beliefs, and unfortunately, our most ditions, customs, books, poems, songs, central belief system is about the importance of habits, manners, sayings, the law, and ideal- money”. In South Africa there is an urgent need ly they are reflected in the many social and for consensus about core values. Quality and and political institutions of the nation” equality in deliberate and healthy combination, (Gairdner,W.D., 1992:20). ought to be included in those shared core It is clear that teachers are not the only people values.

43 De Klerk

REFERENCES

HARVEY L. 1996. Quality monitoring and stu- democratic ideal, In Value theory and educa- dent learning in quality assurance in South tion. Carbone, P.F. ed., Florida: Robert African Higher education: national and Krieger Publishing Companya. international perspectives. Strydom et al eds. ZECHA G. 1998. On values for education in a The University of the Orange Free State: democratic society: Foundations and limits. Bloemfontein. Unpublished lecture 1998, University of PERRY R.B. 1954. Realms of value, In I Scheff- Salzburg, Austria. ler, ed. Philosophy and education, 2nd ed., STEYN J.C., W.S. DU PLESSIS & J.DE KLERK. Boston: Allen& Bacon, 1966. 1999. Education for democracy. Durbanville: SCHEFFLER I. 1987. Moral education and the Wachwa Publishers.

44 Quality Education and Equal Opportunities in Education: A Current Discussion in Germany

Hans Döbert

INTRODUCTION countries face a different structural situation. A major pedagogic controversy is taking place Tasks and aims of the school also involve edu- in the current discussions on education in cational functions, the conveying of values and Germany, concerning the improvement of the so-called cross-curricular competencies (CCC). quality of education, in guaranteeing equal These complex skills are more difficult to opportunities for all children and young people. ascertain within the framework of leadership While the debate on quality has been very posi- measurements. tive thus becoming powerful, “equal opportuni- The current discussion on quality in the edu- ties” as an educational role model have only cation system is being carried out in a more played a subordinate role in recent years. In the polarised fashion in German-speaking coun- discussion on education, its penetration as a tries as a consequence of this educational concept has been described as neo-liberal. understanding and the less distinctive culture of Demand is therefore growing to combine the the testing and measuring. In addition to this, political and educational steps regarding the the German discussion on quality is consider- new offensive on quality with the improvement ably influenced at present by the political aim of equal opportunities. Through the discussion, of education to guarantee equality. As a result questions concerning lesson format (direct of the term “equal opportunity” as an educa- instruction as a new method of teaching) and tional and political ideal having played a main- the competence of the teacher (subject and ly subordinate role in recent years in Germany class leadership competence, diagnostic and – having been neither an explicit subject in didactic competence) have again become the teacher training or school research nor concrete centre of attention. education policy – the constant reference to the political and educational steps regarding eco- 1. DEVELOPMENT, GUARANTEE AND nomic and social inequality is again being MEASUREMENT OF QUALITY taken as a theme within the context of the Questions concerning the development, guar- debate on quality. antee and measurement of quality within the Today, however, equality implies a form of education system are currently determining the equal opportunity. In other words, every pupil political agenda on education in most European should have the chance to receive an education countries. and training suited to his/her interests and tal- The main discussion is: Which role should be ents, independent of the economic situation of attached to different quality development his/her parents. stages and how can a national “quality and Even if most people are in agreement on this evaluation policy” be formed? Whereas, for point, the relationship between the improve- example, pupil performance in subjects is seen ment of the quality of education and guarantee- as the central result of the education process in ing equal opportunities is being fiercely dis- Anglo-Saxon countries, German-speaking cussed at present.

45 Döbert

2. MAJOR PEDAGOGIC CONTROVERSIES schools; apprentices, three years in companies There have always been major pedagogic con- and schools; and students, more than six years troversies in the German education system. in colleges and universities. Examples which can be cited are the discussion The necessary time investment is accompa- concerning the length of common primary nied by a considerable financial cost: in 1996 in school time, the question regarding the intro- Germany, DM170 000 million of public funds duction of comprehensive school as a new form were spent on education, of that DM87 000 of secondary education in the 1970s, or dealing million on schools. with the democratic principle of equality in The returns for young people on this consid- East Germany from 1945 to 1990. The current erable time and economic outlay, continue to be controversy concerns the improvement of the highly unevenly divided. If these returns are quality of education, about the sense and use of measured, for example, on the chance of national and international school performance achieving a higher educational qualification, it comparisons and guarantee of equal opportuni- turns out that educational opportunities are still ties. to a large degree influenced by social, regional Weiß (1999:9) only recently pointed out that and ethnic origin. substantial differences in the provision of In view of the socially unequal opportunities, resources in schools manifests itself in their current analyses (cf. Klemm,1998) confirm that performance level. American follow-up surveys in 1995, 19% of children from working class to SIMSS, the forerunner to TIMSS, show that backgrounds reached the upper forms of gram- performance-wise, the United States (US) mar and comprehensive schools as well as tech- would have achieved the second best result, had nical colleges – i.e. upper schools – whereas the only school districts with high provision of figure for children from civil service families funds and low child poverty been included in was 61%. A study carried out in 1997 at the survey. Regions with low allocation of Hamburg schools contributed to an explana- finance and high child poverty, on the other tion: It was proved that a child whose father hand, found themselves on the level of develop- had no school leaving qualifications had to per- ing countries as far as performance was conform considerably better at school to achieve a cerned. A regulation of the school system from primary school recommendation to a grammar a market oriented point of view as in the US school than a child whose father had A-levels. would therefore, also in Germany, lead to a A glance at the regional distribution of growth of social inequality – according to one opportunities in 1996 also reveals remarkable of the most important arguments for the guar- inequalities: In Bavaria with 20% and the antee of equal opportunities in the current dis- Saarland with 22%, the proportion of those cussion on education. Several factors (cf. achieving the general certificate of higher edu- Klemm, 1998) are supposed to prove that cation was extremely low in comparison to the unequal opportunities are in fact a problem in other federal states, whereas Brandenburg the German education system. (34%) and Saxony (32%) were extremely high. The national average was 28%. 3. UNEQUAL OPPORTUNITIES Least surprising are probably the findings in At the end of the 1990s in Germany, almost 17 the area of inequalities within the ethnic million children, students and young adults groups: The chance of being able to successful- attended educational establishments: kinder- ly participate in education and training are gartens, schools, colleges and universities. unrecognisably worse for the children of work- There they encountered 1.3 million full time ing migrants than for German children of equal advisers and teachers. If the large fields of gen- age. In 1994, seven per cent of German chil- eral and vocational further education and the dren left school with no qualifications, whereas trainers and trainees in companies are included, the figure for young foreigners was 17%. The it can be ascertained that at the end of the acquisition of the general certificate for higher 1990s, every fourth citizen in Germany was education presented the following picture: In either being supervised in educational institu- 1994, seven per cent of young foreigners, but tions, was learning or teaching. Thus, on aver- 31% of young Germans, acquired the general age, pupils spend 11 years in general education certificate of higher education. The obvious

46 Döbert inequality in educational opportunities which differences. However, very clear variance dif- exists between the classes, regions and ethnic ferences between schools of the same type have groups, becomes the starting point of unequal been brought to light. Under the same frame- opportunities in life. Those who leave the edu- work of conditions, schools perform different- cation system with no or very poor school leav- ly. Also, the differences cannot be purely ing certificate results, face a permanent struggle explained by the fact that pupils have varying in life. The consequences of their discrimina- starting preconditions (cf. Fend, 1998). The tion in the participation of education will be felt same framework of conditions therefore leads by both them and society in the economic as to unequal educational performance and quali- well as cultural areas. ty. The decisive point is far more a bundle of factors: clarity of demands and financial sup- 4. DEFINING QUALITY port related to pupil performance, the agree- On the one hand, the current debate on quality ment of teachers on fundamental educational in Germany is embedded in two general trends intentions and concepts, clear rules and regula- which are part of the criticism aimed at the tions for every day school life, competent public service as a whole. “Society” questions school management, etc. (cf. Fend, 1996; the quality of services which it finances and OECD, 1989; Mitter, 1991; Steffens/Bargel, whether the funds provided are being used 1992). effectively (purposefully) and efficiently (in an Much space is taken up in the discussion by acceptable relationship between means and pur- strategies on the examination of quality. The pose). following strategies are currently applied in Secondly, an increasing number of concepts Germany: described as “neo-liberal” are now penetrating • Centralised final examinations are held in the debate on education. This is reflected in the Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, Mecklenburg- increasing use of such terms as education mar- Western Pomerania, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt ket, privatisation, co-financing by beneficiaries, and Thuringia. deregulation, institutional competition, educa- • In the majority of the federal states, identical tion as a service, to name just some. testing in any given subjects for all pupils in On the other hand, the term quality is charac- the same year (e.g. in mathematics, natural terised by two general features: it is to a very sciences, German and English) is being insti- large degree general and secondly, has very tuted for the first time. positive associations. In this sense it is “power- • Different ranking procedures are gaining in ful”. Who ever had anything against quality? significance, to which international compara- Additionally, with the current debate on qual- tive surveys such as TIMSS and PISA ity, a change in the basic orientation in school belong. With the current PISA survey, many research and school policy is beginning to social and cultural context variables are emerge. Until the recently, school was seen as a simultaneously recorded, something which is “black box” in the eyes of the majority of the lacking in the TIMSS study. public. Scholarly output was described using • In Germany, external evaluation is only few and very general units of measurement applied within the framework of research (e.g. number of graduates). projects. The new discussion on quality, however, sig- • Inspection models are only found in Bremen. nals something of a “change in paradigm” to a process and output orientation on the one hand, 5. TEACHER-CENTRED TEACHING VERSUS DIRECT and to a stronger evaluation of qualitative INSTRUCTION description and analysis on the other. In this Triggered by international comparative studies, respect, we are concerned with quality, which the lesson has again become the centre of atten- includes training and education, process and tion. The most commonly used type of lesson is product, input and its preconditions in the same the most widespread, traditional form, namely way as output and its effects. teacher-centred teaching. Empirical surveys on the performance ability In teacher-centred teaching, the teacher of different types of schools in the late 1970s imparts a certain amount of material (syllabus) have produced little evidence of school type to all pupils at the same time. This lesson is

47 Döbert centred around the teacher and syllabus orient- and further teacher training, is the acquisition ed; the pupils are passive and partly uncompre- of different forms of competence in a theoreti- hending. cal, yet at the same time, practical and easily According to German and international sur- applicable form. Such forms of competence veys, however, another type of lesson – that of include above all: direct instruction – guarantees the greatest aver- • Subject competence. This means the individ- age and individual pupil learning success, when ual teacher must have a thorough understand- the matter in question is to build up correct ing of what is being taught. It implies both a knowledge and essential skills in a systematic scientific understanding of the content, as manner. well as a curricular understanding (i.e. the Although direct instruction is teacher con- scientifically serious, but adapted to develop- trolled, it is centred around the pupil. The ment transformation of the material to differ- teacher takes full responsibility whereby ent age groups and ability levels). despite different learning preconditions, pupils • Class leadership competence. There can be acquire in an active form the most important no successful lesson without a maximisation syllabus contents with an in-depth understand- of the active learning time of preferably all ing of the matter. This presupposes that the pupils in the classroom. For this, class leader- teacher knows and is aware of the learning and ship techniques are necessary, which the performance differences of his/her pupils, diag- teacher has to master and be able to apply as noses these in a competent manner and takes difficult classroom situations arise. them into account in his/her pedagogic behav- • Diagnostic competence. This means the regu- iour. lar observation of the learning and perfor- The difficulty of varying lesson discussions, mance development of individual pupils to relatively long periods of silent work (with enable early recognition of problems and dif- active support of individual pupils) and varied ficulties. This is the precondition for individ- exercises, characterises direct instruction. It ual pedagogic help. requires the teacher to be thoroughly prepared, • Didactic competence. This involves every involves great pedagogic effort during the les- teacher having a certain repertoire of varying son (active teacher and active pupils) as well as teaching methods at his/her disposal. a thorough analysis of each lesson. The most important precondition for an CONCLUSION improvement in the quality of lessons within The current discussion on the improvement of the current debate, is once again teacher com- quality in education is ambivalent. Present petence. According to this, teachers are sup- developments promise, on the one hand, more posed to dispose of certain personality and creative scope for internal school reform and behavioural features that are of great signifi- teacher professionalism, as well as a de-bureau- cance in the execution of the teaching profes- cratisation of the state administration of schools sion. For instance, knowing how to handle chil- without weakening the state. On the other hand, dren and young people, furthering them and it includes the danger of the expansion of the taking pleasure in their progress, and being market economy into schools, which inevitably socially competent – thereby enabling teachers leads to a loss of equal opportunities. Yet with- to react appropriately to different pupils in dif- out this debate, school development and school ferent situations. A certain degree of tolerance policy would hardly have any impetus or is required so that frustration can be controlled, prospects in Germany today. especially in terms of those children who have Discussions on the quality of education behavioural problems or who perform poorly. inevitably lead to debates about de-bureaucrati- Such children should not elicit anger and a pe- sation, models, school curricula and school dagogically dysfunctional manner of behaviour, concepts being held to account, as well as rather, the teacher should be able to cope with school supervision and, of course, teaching and difficult situations in a productive way. leadership roles. In this manner, the entire con- This requires profound and professional cept of school development is taken as a theme teacher training. The discussion makes it and prompts public attention. Even the realistic emphatically clear that what matters in initial fear of the endangering of equal opportunities

48 Döbert has at least the consequence that, after a long eign children, but also in the case of children break, the debate on equal opportunities has with different talents. been taken up again – and not only in the case This too is an important result of the current of socially disadvantaged, handicapped or for- debate on education in Germany.

REFERENCES

BÖTTCHER, WOLFGANG. 1999. Für eine Allianz zu einer “guten Schule”. In Schulqualität und der Qualität. In Die Deutsche Schule 91, 1, S. Schulvielfalt. Wiesbaden: HIBS, S. 85-91. 20-37. OECD. 1989. Schools and Quality. An FEND, HELMUT. 1998. Qualität im Bildungs- International Report. Paris. wesen. Schulforschung zu Systembeding- PREUSS-LAUSITZ, ULF. 1997. Soziale Ungleich- ungen, Schulprofilen und Lehrerleistung. heit, Integration und Schulentwicklung. In Weinheim u.a.: Juventa. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik, 43, 4,, S. 583-596. FEND, HELMUT. 1996. Schulkultur und STEFFENS, ULRICH/BARGEL, TINO. 1992. Schulqualität. In Die Institutionalisierung Erkundungen zur Qualität von Schule. von Lehren und Lernen. Weinheim: Beltz, S. Neuwied: Luchterhand. 85-97. WEINERT, FRANZ, E. 1999. Qualität und KLEMM, KLAUS. 1998. Lohnt sich Schule? Leistung in der Schule - brauchen wir eine Hoher Aufwand und ungleiche neue Lernkultur? In Forum E, 10. März, S. 8- Verteilungseffekte. In Schulverwaltung. 13. Ausgabe Schleswig-Holstein, Hamburg und WEIß, MANFRED. 1999. Steuerung über Bremen, 1, 9, S. 143-144. Finanzen. Unveröffentlichtes Manuskript. MITTER, WOLFGANG. 1991. Europäische Wege Frankfurt.

49 Rhetoric and Language Issues in Education in the South African Democracy

Stanley Ridge

“Philosophy, as we use the word, is a fight the status of rhetoric. They make the rhetoric against the fascination, which forms of valuably used to capture attention for new pos- expression exert upon us.” – Ludwig sibilities in the real world into rhetorical asser- Wittgenstein tion of high ideals as a substitute for historical engagement. Thereby, the inconveniences of INTRODUCTION historical process are avoided. (See Ridge None of us is likely to be surprised at the prior- 1998, 1999, for fuller exploration of this ity given to rhetoric in South Africa. First of theme). all, the country suffered over 40 years of I wish to comment on four tendencies, rhetorical assault under apartheid. Great dam- unhelpful to the flowering of a democracy – age was done – perhaps because the powerful and particularly to education in a democracy – words (separate development, self-determina- which rhetorical assertion demonstrably tion, homeland, total onslaught – to name a encourages. few) bore at best an oblique relationship to reality and were used with increasing cynicism. 1. RHETORIC AND REALITY: NGUGI AND Rhetorical assertion conveniently substituted VERWOERD for reality. We thus have a model firmly estab- The first tendency is take rhetoric at face value. lished in our national repertoire, and it is not a This is to ignore the political or historical particularly helpful one. Secondly, we have process to which the rhetoric refers. In his been through a kind of revolution. An essential well-known book, Decolonising the mind, the feature of revolution is that there has to be a Kenyan writer, Ngugi wa Thiong’o makes a major change in publicly articulated values. passionate plea for respecting the African lan- This has largely been achieved. The people guages as media of African identity and the have broadly been persuaded, and the rhetoric major means of extending literacy unencum- which persuaded them has been given institu- bered by a colonial heritage. His ideas are pro- tional form. We have a dramatically different gressive. However, anyone knowing the work constitution. Legislation and institutions in of Dr Verwoerd, the architect of grand accord with the constitution provide a structure apartheid, will know that he used the identical supportive of real change. And the people are formulations in support of a thoroughly repres- being educated, through the rhetoric of public sive, late-colonial order. What separates Ngugi life, in the potential meaning of what has hap- and Verwoerd is not their rhetoric on this issue, pened. Actual change is not, however, achieved but the purposes which the persuasive ideas by legislation or by wider public understand- serve. ing, though these things may help. Actual The same danger applies to a great deal of change is the product of a complex historical rhetoric about language in South Africa. It is process which is often frustrating in its obliqui- largely used for phatic communion, creating ty and slowness. Problems of delivery change the impression of a binary divide between

51 Ridge, S. those who are for us and those who are against shall discuss two instances from the same us, the enlightened and the irredeemable. report: Shared rhetorical formulations – enlightened or irredeemable – obscure the great range of polit- • “Ensuring that white South Africans learn an ical agendas evidenced in practice. This com- African language is the best way to overcome fortable blanketing of strange bedfellows might racism.” How is this learning going to be be called rhetorical accommodation. We would “ensured” democratically? Making the study of do well, particularly in education, to heed the an African language compulsory for white warning of that cold-eyed 17th century observ- learners (and presumably for the “black” major- er, Thomas Hobbes (1985: 106): “Words are ity of Afrikaans mother tongue speakers) is fair wise mens counters, they do but reckon by enough as a matter of policy in general terms, them: but they are the mony of fooles”. Or, as subject to a number of practical constraints. But Job found out, “words without knowledge” ensuring learning is quite another matter. You obscure the truth in “empty talk” (Job, 35.16; can take a horse to water, but if it has a rooted 38.2). prejudice against the water you can’t make it drink. Besides, assuming that the language is 2. PLATONISM AND PRACTICE: learnt, how is gaining a knowledge of the gram- MULTILINGUALISM AND A MULTILINGUAL mar and idiom of an African language and SOCIETY something of the culture within which it is The second tendency is idealist. This means used, in itself going to combat racism? The that important, but contingent, factors are treat- hard fact is that some of the most hard-line of ed as absolutes. In 1850, Flaubert was satirising white racists are fluent in an African language this tendency in his Dictionary of received and knowledgeable about the culture of its ideas, or phrases to be tossed into conversation mother tongue speakers. And, unless we sub- to create the impression that you are a profound scribe to the myth – so assiduously cultivated thinker. One of these flatulent ideas to be by several eminent figures at the Human Rights mouthed with an air of profundity was: “Our Commission’s conference on racism – that country’s ills are due to our ignorance of lan- there are no black racists to speak of, we must guages.” He would have loved the headline in assume that the same applies to black racists, the Argus of 25 September 2000: “Language – mutatis mutandis. Language by itself will not the final hurdle” (Lund, 2000). The subheading necessarily do anything to break the pattern of continues in the same vein: “Cross-cultural prejudice, and may in fact confirm it. However, relations in South Africa will warm up substan- given other changes and a willingness to reach tially between fellow South Africans who’s out to one another, knowledge of the languages [sic] only real barrier is a linguistic one.” All current in one’s area can handsomely advance the other hurdles have been crossed. All the the process. other barriers of poverty and education and cul- The sentence I have spent so much time on is ture and oppressive history are not really sub- part of the newspaper article. It derives, at a stantial. fairly short remove, from the report, Values, The danger with formulations like this is not education and democracy which was submitted so much the importance given to language as to the Minister of Education in May (James et the lack of importance given to anything else. al., 2000). Much of that report is eminently sen- This falsifies the position of language and sible and helpful, but the naivety about lan- diverts attention from pressing issues which guage and its agency is manifest in two key must be addressed, along with language issues, statements. The first is: “In order to be a good if some of the promise mentioned is to be South African citizen one needs to be at least realised. bilingual, but preferably trilingual” (James et The example I have chosen is from a newspa- al., 2000: 19). So a monolingual South African per headline, notoriously the least reliable part is a bad citizen to be transformed in socio-ethi- of any press report. Yet this time the sub-editor cal status by acquiring the rudiments of another is not at fault. The national debate itself is to South African language! The second statement blame. Language is repeatedly given agency in relates to making Afrikaans- and English- it, and other issues are repeatedly occluded. I speaking South Africans “acquire at least one

52 Ridge, S.

African language as a subject” (my emphases) the right linguistic equipment, all social barriers throughout the school years. “Such a step,” we will fall, all political life will become transpar- are told, “would add considerably to reconcilia- ent, and the sky will be the limit on employ- tion processes and the promotion of a common ment prospects – for everyone. It is a utopian South African citizenship” (James et al., 2000: picture to gladden the heart of any language 20). Language acquisition is one thing and is teacher. However, Minister Ngubane is the vic- almost entirely in the control of the acquirer. tim of the Platonist idealism of the discourse he Being obliged to take a language as a subject is (his advisers?) initiated nearly six years ago quite another. And how this in itself would with the establishment of Langtag, the Lan- “add considerably to reconciliation processes” guage Plan Task Group, in December 1995. is wrapped in mystery. One of the instructions Dr Ngubane gave Langtag (1996) was that: • “We see our multilingualism as a resource “All South Africans should have access to with the potential to empower all South all spheres of South African society by Africans to participate fully in our country’s developing and maintaining a level of spo- social, political and economic life.” Thus said ken and written language which is appropri- Minister Ben Ngubane in the second quotation ate for a range of contexts in the official I shall discuss from the article in the Argus of language(s) of their choice.” 25 September 2000. Ngubane’s words sound As I have said elsewhere (Ridge, 1998), this well enough, but they make no sense. Multi- politically correct discursive medley hides con- lingualism is an individual’s command over ceptual muddles with serious implications. The more than two languages. If there is a high following are most prominent: level of multilingualism in a country, the coun- • “All South Africans should have access to all try has many individuals with such a command. spheres of South African society” goes far One can safely say, then, that multilingualism beyond the modest democratic vision of all is a potential resource to those people and those South Africans having full access to shared around them. However, multilingualism is not political and economic life. It opens “all to be confused with a multilingual situation: spheres of ... society” to all. The farm worker one in which a number of languages are at play. from Delmas must feel at home at a South Africa is a multilingual society. There Houghton tea party. The Constantia socialite are, inevitably, problems associated with such a must slip effortlessly into a Khayelitsha she- social condition, just as there are advantages. been. We are far from having solved the problem of • This aim of total access is to be achieved adequate access to the political process for all through an official language perfectly mas- South Africans, as many are effectively exclud- tered. Even if it were practicable for any ed by the practice of using English only or South African to master his or her own lan- mainly. Such problems must not be glossed guage in its full social range, it hardly needs over by speaking of the multilingual situation to be said that this would not afford access to as a resource. At the same time, one should all spheres of society mediated through that emphasise the advantages which it embodies. language. Even less would it afford access to For example, various languages and cultures spheres of society mediated through other offer different angles on a common reality and languages, whether or not they are official. can make for a humanly richer common soci- The quite unrealistic aggrandisement of the ety. However, neither multilingualism nor a role of language in isolation from other social multilingual society is going to achieve this factors is troubling, and places a totally automatically. Multilingual political and educa- impossible burden on the language teacher. tional leaders and ordinary citizens have to tes- tify to the resulting larger view in practice if it 3. CORRECTNESS AND CLARITY: OBE is to be an informing social resource. Moshe Dayan has gone down in history as a Minister Ngubane gives this multilingualism/ swashbuckling Israeli commander with an eye- multilingual society agency “to empower all patch. His words to Cyrus Vance in 1977 did South Africans to participate fully in our coun- that reputation no harm. “Whenever you accept try’s social, political and economic life”. Given our views,” he told Vance, “we shall be in full

53 Ridge, S. agreement with you.” That leads us into the couched in such arcane language that only third tendency to be discussed in this paper: initiates can decode it? Point 7 reads: political correctness as the enemy of clarity. Demonstrate an understanding of the world The focus here is a crucial document for South as a set of related systems by recognising African education: the statement of Critical that problem solving contexts do not exist in Outcomes. Although Curriculum 2005 is cur- isolation. There are three main problems with rently undergoing a facelift, the Critical this. The word “demonstrate” is the first Outcomes are apparently to be left to sag. problem. It is widely and legitimately used in Outcomes-based education (OBE) policy OBE to describe the practical manifestation statements are frequently marred by shoddy of high-level outcomes in terms of their rela- formulation. This is often caused by a desire to tion or lack of relation to real life. The other make all the right noises and to do so by rhetor- OBE outcomes (with the possible exception ical assertion. In some circumstances comment- of 4) are inherently valuable in real-life con- ing on formulation would be pedantic. One has texts. However, Outcome 7 is described as if only to examine the Critical Outcomes docu- it is a discrete skill to be demonstrated mere- ment put out by the South African Qualifica- ly by recognising something. This is the use tions Authority to see the real dangers that poor of the word in positivist syllabuses where it formulation represents in this case. The Critical has an essentially technicist meaning: per- Outcomes document is a compulsory guide for forming a discrete skill for evaluation. teachers and planners in all schools and other Outcome 7 does not seem to belong in OBE educational institutions across the country. Its at all. The second difficulty is with the notion purpose is practical. Yet it is profoundly con- of the world as a set of related systems. It is fusing. problematic, both because it offers a totalis- • OBE is explicitly concerned with critical ing account of the world as bounded by exist- thinking as an outcome. What kind of critical ing human knowledge and systematisation, thinking can be intended when the list of out- and because it assumes that all systems are comes involves basic category errors? related. What is probably intended is some Critical Outcome 1 reads: Identify and solve kind of ecological sensitivity: An alertness to problems and make decisions using critical the complex interdependencies which are and creative thinking. Fair enough. But increasingly being discovered as a feature of Outcome 4 is, in fact, a subsidiary element of the natural and human worlds. They, howev- the same point and not a new point in its own er, would not be discovered if scientists and right. How can learners identify and solve thinkers were closed to the possibility of new problems and make decisions using critical systems and to aspects which fall outside pat- and creative thinking unless they collect, terns and relationships currently recognised. analyse, organise and critically evaluate The third difficulty is that the demonstration information? The latter is, in fact, a means to is to be by recognising that problem solving achieving Outcome 1: Problem solving using contexts do not exist in isolation. What are critical and creative thinking will involve col- problem solving contexts? Distinctive kinds lecting, analysing, organising and critically of contexts or merely the contexts in which evaluating information. Another category people happen to solve problems? What can problem arises with Outcome 6: Use science it mean for problem solving contexts not to and technology effectively and critically, exist in isolation? By considering anything in showing responsibility towards the environ- context we are deliberately not considering it ment and the health of others. This is a spe- in isolation. Does it mean that problem solv- cific instance of Outcome 1. How could one ing contexts exist in relation to other problem use science effectively and critically unless solving contexts – or to contexts which are as a means of solving problems? not problem solving? And if we have the • OBE is concerned, in Critical Outcome 3, answer to that, are we any the wiser? that learners communicate effectively ... What Nonsense is nonsense. The probable intention kind of effective communication can be of this outcome is: Demonstrate a sense of intended when one of the short list of seven the interrelatedness of systems in nature and outcomes does not make sense – or is the human world by solving problems in

54 Ridge, S.

clear recognition of the contexts affected. need a more nuanced vocabulary for under- That would make sense of the latter part of standing its functions – and the functions of the Outcome 6: using science and technology in other South African languages. Let me say also ways which show responsibility towards the that evading this issue is a sure way of losing environment and the health of others. the initiative in fostering a new language order • Finally, it is important to consider what is in South Africa. English is currently the domi- omitted from the list of Critical Outcomes, nant language of the most publicly visible parts probably inadvertently, through the short- of the common society. Refusing to look close- term interests of assertive rhetoric being priv- ly and appreciatively at its role as one of South ileged above the intellectual rigour one has Africa’s languages and as a resource to be glad the right to demand of a founding philosophi- of, is a way of ensuring by default both that cal document. Four of the eight Areas of English will not only be dominant but dominat- Learning specified for OBE are scanted or ing, and that it will become a disempowering ignored in the outcomes listed. The human remnant of its former self. Breyten Breytenbach and social sciences, the economic and man- (1996) has the nightmare image of us all being agement sciences, and numeracy and mathe- smothered in what he calls “a fanagalo matics seem to have little or no place in the English”. Critical Outcomes, and arts and culture slip The position of English brings together a right off the page. Ironically, the authors major cluster of affective issues. Liberal guilt at neglect a basic rhetorical rule: when one the role of English in globalisation at the specifies mandatory items, what is not speci- expense of other languages is expressed in fied is not mandatory. Such errors carry a Phillipson’s (1992) emotive term, “linguistic cost. It is hard to believe that numeracy imperialism.” In South Africa this vocabulary should not be accorded the same status as seems more often to be used by campaigners communication in the Critical Outcomes, and for other languages as a stick to beat the mother that some sensitivity to our multicultural real- tongue English-speaker with (Breytenbach, ities and the opportunities they afford is not 1996; Du Toit, J B, 1996). Against this there is considered important enough to mention. a strong desire for English, either as a language of liberation or as a language of economic 4. AFFECT AND EFFECT: THE POSITION OF opportunity among the majority of black South ENGLISH Africans (Ridge in press). This desire has been The fourth and final tendency is to avoid giving so passionate that it has led at times to a appropriate attention to the position of English demand for “English only” at school: a situa- – or any other language – in the South African tion with lamentable results in the absence of democracy and so in South African education. properly equipped teachers (Plüddemann, There are exceptional language provisions in 1997). A strong tug in yet another direction the constitution. There is a fully articulated comes from Afrikaans language activists, who Language in Education Policy. Also, a compre- tend to view English with more or less guarded hensive Language Policy and Plan for the coun- hostility, sometimes in a rather knee-jerk fash- try has elicited passionate debate. Yet the ion, as the supposed cause of Afrikaans being assertive, high-moral-ground rhetoric of equali- treated shabbily in the new order (e.g. Henning, ty constantly blocks even the beginnings of 2000). Business and government have tended to debate on the real-life roles of the languages go the English-only route in a situation of limit- and what practical steps are necessary to use ed financial and human resources, but that is our advantages while supplying our deficien- increasingly being challenged on constitutional cies. I shall concentrate on English because it is grounds (Du Toit, Z B, 2000). The constitution the most complex case, but much of what is provides for equal status in government and said applies to the other official languages as administration for all the official languages, well. and for equitable use of the languages. Equit- Let me say, from the start, that the role of able, a word chosen with great care by the con- English is not self-evident, either as just one of stitution makers, is read as equal in the minds eleven languages, “reduced to equality”, or as of those conditioned by the earlier, pre-democ- the most important language of the society. We ratic order in which equal use of Afrikaans and

55 Ridge, S.

English was the policy. There is also a recur- • If there is to be genuine access to English, rent tendency to confuse equality of legal status there must not be emotive and political ambi- (which can be decreed) with equality of socio- guity about learning the language. The affec- logical status – a status accorded implicitly by tive factor is potent in promoting or prevent- the user community through its choices and ing language learning, and language activists practices. No discussion of the different func- who encourage aggressive attitudes to other tions and uses of the South African official lan- languages, rather than strongly positive atti- guages gets very far without emotive, identity- tudes to the languages they support, are likely related equality issues arising – and usually to contribute to language decline rather than stopping the show. I wish to argue that level- additive multilingualism. This means that any ling the playing fields is one thing, and level- counterbalancing of the position of English ling the entire terrain of the country quite must be at the level of quiet action and pro- another. motion, not noisy, rhetorical put-downs. If Where does this leave education? It does there is ambiguity it tends to prevent proper have a Language in Education Policy and other attention being given to anything. In such cir- elements in place (Plüddemann, 1999). How- cumstances, the situation described by Mary ever, too many implementational aspects are Norton (1958) in her children’s novel, The being left in limbo because of the emotive Borrowers, will come true: “If you’re born in issues outlined above. India, you’re bilingual. And if you’re bilin- • It is clear that there is a great deal of contro- gual, you can’t read. Not so well.” Teachers versy surrounding the issue of mother tongue and planners and learners have to be able to or English as medium of instruction for L1 go about their business without feeling a con- speakers of African languages. Some of this stant need to look over their shoulders. They controversy was aired on the occasion of the should not face an either/or choice. Mary Heritage Day celebration of our multilingual Norton presents the tragic picture of children society last weekend (Oosterwyk, 2000). The learning to read by ceasing to be bilingual. educational case for initial mother tongue That is the opposite of the additive multilin- instruction is very strong (Macdonald, 1990). gualism South African policy espouses and There is also evidence of a strikingly more South Africa needs. nuanced view on the language issue among • If there is to be genuine access to English, African parents in a large-scale study – com- teachers will have to be equipped to offer it. pleted recently – commissioned by the Pan This will demand significant training courses, South African Languages Board. Neville and a range of support. However, it is impor- Alexander advocates a return to mother tant to notice that the success of these efforts tongue education as the norm, but in view of is predicated on another development beyond the position of English, he contends: teaching learners how to read and write and “we shall only be able to do this by way of follow instructions and deliver sentences in a transitional model of dual-medium edu- English. The empowerment that is sought cation (African languages and English) depends on teachers and learners and all oth- since people will continue to believe that ers involved, becoming involved in a larger the best, and even the only, way in which process of literacy. The problems that arise their children can become proficient in when that is not done have been seen from a English is if they use it as a language of variety of angles internationally. The Italian teaching and learning (medium of instruc- realist novelist Alberto Moravia comments tion) from as early as possible” sardonically that while the ratio of literates to (Oosterwyk, 2000). illiterates has remained constant, “nowadays This pragmatic conclusion accords with the the illiterates can read and write” (McCarthy, wider African perspective of Kamwangamalu 1979). The United States historian, Daniel (1995). Only in so far as it is plain that there Boorstin (1965), comments on the forces is genuine access to English will the anxiety against literacy in a spindoctored society: about access to the economy, whether or not “We expect to be inspired by mediocre there are grounds for it, abate enough to give appeals for ‘excellence’, to be made literate due scope to the mother tongue. by illiterate appeals for literacy.” And the

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South American Marxist educational thinker, the rhetoric barrier has to be part of a more Paulo Freire, captures his vision of literacy in general rehabilitation of our schooling sys- the title of his book with Donaldo Macedo, tem. This is going to demand mobilising all Literacy: Reading the Word and the World. the resources available. In the transitional ten With minor adjustments, these very different years, there will probably be a need for per- people are saying the same thing. Access to sonal help from English speakers in the com- English (or to any other language) will not munity, well-designed learning material, and mean much if it is not accompanied by this an encouraging sense among teachers of larger literacy. Teachers will have to learn being part of a collegial enterprise – instead how to affirm the mother tongue (probably of being fed to the wolves. With luck, these already a medium for wider interpretation) things will become a permanent feature of the alongside English and in continuity with it, landscape. The teacher will have to be free to fostering enjoyment and the ability to read use pupils as resources more readily. In such the word and the world through both. That changing circumstances, it is also important process helps produce democratically that the parents and the community, often empowered citizens. pretty conservative, to understand what is • If there is to be genuine access to English, the happening and give their support. But that is language will have to be developed. The not where this process stops. It is necessary range of English taught will have to include to say at the outset that the inadequacy of features of black South African English as a state funding cannot be allowed to impede systematised variety. The peculiarity of a lin- this rehabilitation. State funding is highly gua franca is that it is no longer the exclusive unlikely to increase, or even to keep pace property of the mother tongue speaker. with the growing population in schools, However, having said this, I have to point out although some changes in World Bank think- that mother tongue English speakers at ing, designed to secure the basis for real between eight and nine per cent of the popu- development, may offer relief. lation constitute one of the larger linguistic groups and have every right in terms of the CONCLUSION constitution to have their variety of their lan- If the measures we have discussed are to be guage honoured and taught. In addition, for implemented and we are to foster a truly literate L1 or L2 speakers of the language, there are generation to turn around the decay and demor- advantages in having a command of interna- alisation in our school system, as well as to tional English. Clearly, standardisation and genuinely strengthen the economy, new kinds range is an area which must be carefully of management in education, able to muster and negotiated if the English which is so desired coordinate regional resources, will be required. by a large part of the population is to be the In this context, the move to English in an addi- English the education system in fact offers. tive multilingual situation may make a major Perhaps the new National Language Body for contribution to bringing various parts of the English will undertake this work. larger community together and building democ- • Finally, extending access to English beyond racy with a common purpose.

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REFERENCES

BOORSTIN, DANIEL J. 1965. The Image. dle. Cape Argus, 25 September 2000: 9. Harmondsworth: Pelican. MACDONALD, CAROL. 1990. Crossing the BREYTENBACH, BREYTEN. 1996. Mondvol: Threshold into Standard Three in Black gedagtes oor Afrikaans en saamstaan. Die Education. The Consolidated Main Report of Burger, 5 October 1996. the Threshold Project. Pretoria: Human DU TOIT, J. B. 1996. Die Taakgroep vir die Sciences Research Council. Bemagtiging van Afrikaansgebruikers op MCCARTHY, MARY. 1979. Alberto Moravia. Televisie (Tabema): Uittreksels uit die voor- The Observer, 14 October 1979. legging aan die SAUK en OUO asook die NGUGI WA THIONG’O. 1986. Decolonising the antwoorde wat die SAUK verskaf het. Mind: the Politics of Language in African Internal Tabema policy document. Literature. London: James Currey. DU TOIT, Z. B. 2000. Vermoorde Rautenbach NORTON, MARY. 1958. The Borrowers. se werkverlies dalk nie verniet. Rapport 24 Harmondsworth: Puffin. September 2000: 11. OOSTERWYK, TREVOR. 2000. But the experts are FREIRE, PAULO AND DONALDO MACEDO. 1987. at odds over the medium of instruction. Cape Literacy: Reading the word and the world. Argus 25 September 2000: 9. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. PHILLIPSON, ROBERT. 1992. Linguistic GUNNING, EUGENE. 2000. Vestiging van veeltal- Imperialism. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. igheid kry knou. Rapport 24 September PLÜDDEMANN, P. 1997. ‘Additive’ and ‘subtrac- 2000:11. tive’: Challenges in education for multilin- HENNING, OLIVIER. 2000. Afskeep van taal ons gualism. Per Linguam 13.1: 17-28. eie skuld. Rapport, 24 September 2000: 17. ______1999. Education with multilin- HOBBES, THOMAS. (1651) 1985. Leviathan. Ed. gualism in South Africa: An overview. C B Macpherson. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics. JAMES, WILMOT ET AL. 2000. Values, Education 25.1&2: 27-48. and Democracy: Report of the Working RIDGE, STANLEY G. M. 1998. Formulating Group on Values in Education. Pretoria: effective policy: Some functions of language Department of Education, 9 May 2000. in achieving or hindering democratic change, KAMWANGAMALU, A. M. 1995. The colonial Per Linguam 14.2, 19-30. legacy and language planning in sub-Saharan ______1999. Discourse constraints on Africa: A case study of Zaire. South African language policy in South Africa. Indian Journal of Linguistics Supplement 20: 73-97. Journal of Applied Linguistics. 25.1&2: 7-25. LANGTAG. 1996. Overview, Recommendations ______In Press. Mixed motives: and Executive Summary from the Final Ideological elements in the support for Report of the Language Plan Task Group English in South Africa. In Tom Ricento (Langtag). Pretoria: Department of Arts, (ed.), Ideology, politics and language poli- Culture, Science and Technology. cies: Focus on English. Philadelphia: John LUND, TROYE. 2000. Language – the final hur- Benjamins.

58 Dealing with the Principle of Equality in East Germany from 1945 to 1990

Gert Geißler

INTRODUCTION which regulated access to education according This paper deals with the issue of educational to social, ethnic (racial), gender, confessional opportunities within the former German and regional circumstances. Democratic Republic’s (GDR’s) education sys- The unity school had the following design: A tem. The author takes the view that the struc- common eight-year elementary school, fol- turing of schools followed the principle of lowed by a four-year secondary school with equality, whereas the principle of political-ide- three types of specialisation, the three-year ological selection violated the right of equal vocational school as well as technical colleges. education opportunities. Rigorous selection Access to university was possible via sec- according to performance was observed, as ondary school as well as technical colleges, well as strict planning of needs related to night schools and special courses at adult usability and practicability, and this under- education centres. mined the civil right of free choice of educa- The traditional vertical structure of the tion. German education system and its principle, whereby only a consequent, as early as possible 1. SCHOOL REFORM IN THE GDR starting higher education was to pave the way German history during the 20th century shows to university, was thereby abolished. The dif- a number of fundamental changes: From the ference in quality of education, shown in dif- empire to the republic, from the republic to the ferent types of schools, was to be discontinued National Socialist dictatorship after 1933, fol- and the new generation was not to be streamed lowed by Germany’s separation since the end and distributed to different forms of schools of World War II, dividing the country into con- according to measures of supposed talent after flicting political settings in East and West Ger- only a few common school years, as had been many, and finally the remodelling of the East the case. German education system upon unification The structural decision for a common eight- with the Federal Republic of Germany since and later ten-year school for all school-age 1990. In this paper, I will explain only the children was bound to the prohibition of new reform measures in the East German state, the privately owned education institutions. German Democratic Republic (GDR). With the prohibition of every private initia- With the school law of May/June 1946, tive in the education system, the governmental school reform promised “all adolescents, girls right of supervision over the school system and boys, city and country children, without became an unlimited governmental school and differentiating the wealth of their parents” and education monopoly. independent from “belief” and “birth”, the The separation of school and church, which “same right to education”. was connected to this, received characteristic The “unity school” negated hitherto existing features in the later years of the GDR. Reli- selection and differentiating mechanisms, gious education was therefore pushed to the

59 Geißler edge of society, being made the sole responsi- sure continued, so that eventually every public bility of religious parishes. It should be noted, criticism of schools was politically suspicious. however, that the state school did not develop Nowhere in the theory and practice of school- into an ideologically neutral non-denomination- ing did education exist without a well-consid- al school for all, but into a politically ideologi- ered claim to power. A political order was con- cal education environment. The school did not stituted, which rejected rights of freedom, also open itself to social democracy, as announced, regarding education. but became a tool of social dictatorship. Educational channels were no doubt opened structurally and by social contributions. 2. RADICAL CHANGE Discrimination and selection of the social elite The break of the traditional school structures, took place according to proven political relia- which was heralded with the school law, took bility, and this mainly after assessing one’s par- place in a radical way. This break remained ents’ political leanings. In particular, the regu- without important transitional forms and with- lations for selection to further education institu- out considerable concessions to the conserva- tions became an essential object of East tive political camp, because after the mostly un- Germany’s social conflict history. They con- satisfying school compromises in earlier times, tributed to the fact that part of the population fast political facts concerning education were to rejected this state, while the other demonstrated be created. loyalty to the newly opened education opportu- From a materialistic point of view, this nities. Financial obstacles to attending a further change was daring. It was bound to quite a education school were dropped step by step – drastic change of teaching personnel, and it got until eventually, scholarships were granted for its drive from “above”, by pushing ahead orders all direct students and support was given to without parliamentary legitimisation. those attending secondary school. However, A self-supporting pedagogic reform move- governmental “admission rules” were institut- ment did not develop. With the rapid structural ed. These rigorously favoured “worker- and decisions its discussion at a political level was farmer-children”, whose status was determined quickly finalised, and questionable pedagogic according to rather diffuse criteria, and severely objections were turned down in illusionary disadvantaged children of other classes. expectation. After having drastically extended access to Especially references to the danger of losing further education institutions up to the 1950s, the level of higher education, as it existed after so that about 20% of those born in one year restricting the new secondary school to not attended secondary school (in earlier Germany more than four, later only two years, remained about five per cent), this was later drastically underestimated until the collapse of the GDR reduced to less than ten per cent. Finally, there interpreted as political obstruction against the were fixed violation quotas, which correlated unity school. Despite this, the elementary with the forecast economic need for university school was given more tasks than it was able to leavers. accomplish – also until the collapse of the East While in the earlier German society, children German state. This happened because the dual- from lower social classes were only marginally ism of folkloristic and scientific education was represented in further education institutions, the to be overcome. While the majority of teachers education policy of the early GDR wanted to still in work looked naturally for connection to create proportional equal opportunities. Child- former standards and ideas, the interest of the ren from different social classes were to rep- rapidly educated teachers was first of all mainly resent the quota of their origin in their further bound by standing up professionally. On the education institution. Children from lower whole, the reform met an unprepared and social classes received previously unheard of unquestioned population, which was focused on advancement opportunities and systematic sup- the conventional education system. port. At universities, special classes were creat- The roots of the East German school system ed for these students, which led to the general lay in the Soviet militaristic occupation era, and certificate of higher education. The intention of here, outlines of a loss of reform abilities recruiting more than half of the secondary appeared already: The education policy pres- school students, and thus of the future ruling

60 Geißler class, from families of workers and farmers, men, who were financially hardly worse off, could not be realised despite sometimes drastic time consuming educational careers were often measures. The interest in education among seen as not worthwhile. these families turned out to be generally poor. In combination with political requirements, On the other hand, families of the old elite and the principle of performance and guaranteeing increasingly also of the new elite, with univer- quality with rigid selection dominated in the sity and technical college attendance, saw their later years of the GDR. The education level of children disadvantaged despite good perfor- the population had clearly been increased – mances. only a small percentage of students left the gen- To improve statistics and guarantee political eral education ten-grade school without a recruits, children of party and state officials as school leaving certificate, almost every leaver well those of officers in the army, police and of this school received an education to become state security service, who were as determined at least a qualified worker afterwards – but in as workers’ children, were promoted ac- the structurally open unity school system, edu- cordingly. In the last decade of the East cation restrictions could also be felt. German state only about every fourth sec- Clearly, interest was focused on promoting ondary school student came from the family of the best, the highly talented. Education – and a production worker, and at the end of the employment – systems were closely combined, 1980s only slightly more than ten per cent of and the education of highly qualified workers, university students belonged to families in which was higher than the forecast need, was which both parents were workers. avoided if possible. For example, the best chances of having Around the same time an expansion took access to secondary school after tenth grade place in the nearby West German state, by among approximately 30 candidates were had which approximately every third student of the by a girl with politically correct parents, want- comparable age-class attended further educa- ing to become a teacher, and a boy with politi- tion institutions, and the representation of cally correct parents wishing to become an offi- worker and farmer children was slightly cer, both with functions in the centralised youth stronger there than in the GDR. organisation, with social commitments and proven good or very good school performance. CONCLUSION Selection took place increasingly according to While the school system in the GDR followed political and ideological selection principles the principle of equality, its political and ideo- besides performance, but less according to logical selection principles meant it violated the social affiliation. proclaimed right to equal education and oppor- The aim of a selection bound to the social tunities. The result was strict selection accord- structure of the population, if possible, became ing to performance and a rigid planning of historically outdated by the change of elite. The needs under the aspect of utilisation and useful- new elite increasingly reproduced itself, while ness, which neglected the civic right of free in other groups of workers, farmers and crafts- choice of education.

61 Official Policy Related to Quality and Equality in Education: A Documentary Study

Willem du Plessis

INTRODUCTION The philosophical mood in the globalised This paper will focus predominantly on equali- world tends to favour achievement, which pro- ty in education. In it, I shall attempt to give an motes the contribution to economic wealth. overview of government’s ideas underlying its The global mood seems to contain a duality of policy regarding the value of equality in educa- demand: that of a capitalist economic nature, tion, how it understands the concept, and how and that of a humanist socialist nature. The for- it could be introduced and realised in pre- mer favours the need for quality improvement, tertiary as well as in post-secondary education. protection of quality and for quality education. Policy makers in South Africa need to con- At present, however, this is coupled with a tend with the reality that South Africa is a growing sentiment of humanist origin, empha- developing country within a global society, and sising the understanding of human need and therefore need to realise two important con- protection – protection of the less gifted, the straints. underperformer, and the disadvantaged in On the one hand, they need to recognise gov- society. Educational systems have to accom- ernmental objectives within the ideological, modate both through a sophisticated education social and economic context and address the system; therefore, quality as well as equality. expectations of their supporters at grassroots level that have to be satisfied. These expecta- 1. DEVELOPMENT OF POLICY – A BRIEF tions currently demand the attainment of equity OVERVIEW for all in the shortest period of time as part of a The social and political context in which our comprehensive transformation of an unjust policy on education has been framed, must be society into a just and democratic one. considered in order to understand its meaning. I On the other hand, policy makers have to wish to distinguish between five historical cope with pressure from the international soci- stages in our policy development. ety within which South Africans have to per- • The roots of this development have to be form and have to compete against powerful studied in its ideological origins. The ideo- contenders, that challenge us to improve our logical framework gave rise to political poli- country’s competitiveness. This challenge is cy as we experience it today. The ideological pressing government to comply with the conception took place predominantly in the demands of the international society. Both the period before 1990 when the African domestic and the international/global factors National Congress (ANC) as the leading demand an increase in quality in all sectors of black consciousness movement had no con- society, including education. South African stitutional power. Without political power, society, with its large diversity in demographic, what was left to the ANC was an ideal and social and economic compilation, requires the dreams of a better future. extinction of backlogs, equal treatment and • With the legalisation of the ANC and the equal opportunities. South African Communist Party in 1990, a

63 Du Plessis

takeover of political power came within the ing. As a principle it figures as the primary grasp of the ANC. As a government-in-wait- source (as basis for reasoning) for further ing the ANC planned its policy on education action, such as the formulation of policy. through its conferences, workshops and its Regarding education, equality as a value Education Desk. The results eventually led to reverts directly to the vision set out in the the publication of the ANC Education Policy, Freedom Charter “to open the doors of learning two months before the general election of and culture to all” (cf. ANC, 1994:2). This 1994. This document was important and was would allow everybody a fair chance for learn- the result of years of research and delibera- ing. tion, including the comprehensive research What does government intend to do about project which was undertaken on a national equality in education? Government’s policy ini- basis, the National Education Policy Investi- tiatives must be viewed against the backdrop of gation (NEPI). This document has served as the political and social events of the past. The the cornerstone for the formulation of policy desire for equality is basically a political initia- on education and educational initiatives since tive (to satisfy a political objective). Apartheid that time. (segregation) as practiced before, was blamed • Since its election in April 1994, the ANC for dividing the population into watertight com- government published several discussion partments. Some refer to “two nations in the documents, white papers and green papers in country”: the advantaged and the disadvan- developing its new structures and legislation taged, those who have and those who do not for educational reform. have. The previous policy of apartheid, as • This led to a number of laws intended to reg- imbedded in laws of segregation, was seen as ulate the provision of education and training degrading to the larger section of the popula- as a continuous lifelong process. tion. Human dignity had to be restored among • We now seem to be in the fifth stage. the disadvantaged. This has to be done on a Currently a number of laws are in place, gov- national level in all sectors of society. erning education in South Africa in terms of Education is seen as a powerful instrument to higher education (1997), the governance of produce the equal society where everybody has schools, national qualifications, further edu- equal human dignity and equal share of the cation and training, and norms and standards wealth of the country. for educators. With legislation in place, the The broad-based support for the ANC as the policy objectives have to be further devel- political tool to achieve these ideals includes oped in practice. This includes an ongoing the expectations that education should play a process of reconsidering policy objectives role in the restoration of human dignity. In and adjustments where necessary. “building a better society”, Mosibudi Mangena (2000:22) regards the education system as suit- 2. POLICY ON EQUALITY able “to eradicate a sense of inferiority and Equality appears to be an extremely important alienation that still afflicts the black majority as ideal of government. It is mentioned in the a result of living in a racist and dehumanising opening clause of the Bill of Rights, to which society for centuries”. In this sense, equality is the Constitution refers as “the cornerstone of applied as principle in the formulation of policy democracy in South Africa”, as one of its three and of action. democratic values. The other two are human It is a phenomenon characteristic of the dignity and freedom, which are also linked to civilised world that – true to the ideals of equality. humanist reasoning – the provision of educa- We have to distinguish between equality as a tion in any country should be guided by equali- value, and equality as a principle. As a value it ty as a value. In South Africa the government represents a predominantly affective awareness has made this value of equality a principle of of preference of something which is regarded to policy development, one of its most basic prin- be of exceptional and precious value (for that ciples. particular person or group). As a value it has an How does government intend to achieve the important influence on preferences regarding ideal? Three different though related actions are norms, and as such it determines decision mak- evident.

64 Du Plessis

2.1 Equitable distribution of resources schools and reformatories which have over The NEPI report stated that educational support the previous century served the education of services must be accessible to all and should be law transgressors. “provided to all” (NECC, 1993:234). It is fur- • Equal treatment of religious groups and their ther clear from NEPI that these educational ser- religious education. vices should be provided on an equitable basis, This policy is judged by some critics to be with a bias toward those who were disadvan- mainly inspired by government’s “socialist” taged under the previous political system. ideals, instead of educational considerations. It Policy has subsequently been based on this has also been accused of neglecting cultural, recommendation. spiritual and religious values. However, government deserves credit for bringing the inter- 2.2 Juridical protection of the disadvantaged ests of specific categories of learners to the The South African Bill of Rights (RSA, 1996b) attention of the public, better than ever before intends to safeguard the principle of equality by in this country. Similarly, the discrimination stipulating in clause 9 that everyone is equal against girls is apparently better addressed than before the law and has the right to protection. ever before. Legislative and other measures were designed to protect or advance persons or categories of 2.3 Eradication of discrimination on the persons, disadvantaged by unfair discrimina- grounds of race tion. The main focus of the policy of equality is “No person [read: teacher, principal, school given to persons from different ethnic origin or school governing body – author] may (race). The other aspects of dealing with equali- unfairly discriminate directly or indirectly ty mentioned above seem currently to be against anyone on one or more listed dwarfed by the insistence on equal quality edu- grounds in terms of subsection (3).” cation for all, irrespective of racial origin. These listed terms are: race, gender, sex, preg- Racism has been targeted by government as an nancy, marital status, ethnic or social orienta- important remnant of the previous apartheid tion, age, disability, religion, conscience, belief, dispensation. It is still causing friction in social culture, language and birth. and economic life. The eradication of racism is This is a complicated aspect. The educational a priority of government’s political programme. importance of the issue has to be understood in Education is regarded as an important means of the total national social context. Education is destroying racism. never an isolated activity; it is always an impor- The perception has been that, under the tant part of the complete social reality. It is apartheid system, all good quality education therefore being subjected to comprehensive was the sole property of schools for whites, in policy making in terms of society as a whole. white residential areas, beyond the reach of Equality in education refers to: non-white students. The abolition of all racist • Equal treatment of different genders. Boys laws and the opening up of residential areas, and girls should be allowed to take the same brought the perceived “good white schools” school subjects. No one should be barred within reach of disadvantaged non-whites. This from any specific field of study, e.g. engi- move has already created a sizeable black mid- neering, food and clothing or business. dle-class which could also be termed an advan- • The equal treatment of the physically chal- taged group on account of economic prosperity. lenged. These students should have opportu- The large majority of the population is, howev- nities equal to all those students who have no er, still as disadvantaged as before. Special physical handicaps. Physical amenities measures have to be put in place to help them should therefore be adjusted to suit the chal- toward educational mobility. lenged. Equality in education cannot be achieved • The mentally handicapped should be equally overnight. Central policy making will have to protected from the so-called injustices of the lay the foundation for transformation to enable past. equal education for all. The South African • The phasing-out of specialised classes for the Schools’ Act (RSA, 1996) upholds the princi- mentally handicapped, and of the industrial ple of equality by protecting all children from

65 Du Plessis undignified treatment, as well as against dis- choice have also been closely associated in crimination in public schools on the grounds of the past with the ethnic structure of eco- culture, language, religion or financial grounds. nomic opportunity and power.” The White Paper on Education and Training, 1995 spells out 23 values and principles which 3. EQUALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION would and are covering education for all, irre- The same ideals regarding equality as the spective of racial origin, in South Africa. The objective hold for the policy on the transforma- principle of equity is underscored by several of tion of higher education. It also illuminates the these principles and values. For example: principle of equality. • No. 2 – The basic right of all people to The Minister of Education’s vision for higher receive basic education. education is: • No. 6 – Equal access to basic education for “a transformed, democratic, non-racial and all. non-sexist system of higher education that • No. 7 – The redress of educational inequali- will promote equity of access and fair ties. chances of success to all who are seeking to • No. 8 – “The state’s resources must be realise their potential through higher educa- deployed according to the principle of equity, tion, while eradicating all forms of unfair so that they are used to provide essentially discrimination and advancing redress of the same quality for learning opportunities to past inequalities…” (RSA, 1997 par. 1.14; all citizens.” pp. 10-11). • No. 13 – Pursuit of the “realisation of democ- In the same White Paper No. 3, the Ministry racy, liberty, equality, justice and peace”. elaborates on the application of the principle of • No. 15 – Education in the arts “must become equity. It implies: increasingly available to all communities on “on the one hand, a critical identification of an equitable basis”. existing inequalities which are the product The danger is that policy makers, in their eager- of policies, structures and practices based ness to redress special injustices of the past, on racial, gender, disability and other forms could go overboard in addressing such injus- of discrimination or disadvantage, and on tices by changing longstanding educational val- the other a programme of transformation ues and concepts. with a view to redress. Such transformation Commonly accepted and acclaimed defini- involves not only abolishing all existing tions from the past are now, in the transforma- forms of unjust differentiation, but also tion process, being questioned on account of measures of empowerment, including finan- their perceived possible ideological origin. cial support to bring about equal opportuni- The endeavour for social equalisation is also ty for individuals and institutions.” prevalent in the introduction to the White Paper A single (centralised) coordinated system of on Education and Training (1995:21, value and higher education will eventually remove principle No. 9) which spells out the reasons inequalities in institutions. Par. 2.21 foresees : why education and training should be dealt “… as the teaching, research and manage- with similarly. In the fourth point of motivation ment profiles become more representative for such an integrated approach, it is stated: of our people, as quality promotion and “An integrated approach implies a view of quality assurance processes take hold, as the learning which rejects a rigid division institutional landscape changes, as centres between ‘academic’ and ‘applied’, ‘theory’ of excellence are recognised and promoted and ‘practice’, ‘knowledge’ and ‘skills’, across the system, the distinction between ‘head’ and ‘hand’. Such divisions have historically advantaged and historically dis- characterised the organisation of curricula advantaged will become less and less rele- and the distribution of educational opportu- vant.” nity in many countries of the world, includ- Equity means that student numbers at institu- ing South Africa. They have grown out of, tions of higher learning should reflect the broad and helped to produce, very old occupation- population. The participation rate in all post- al and class distinctions. In South Africa secondary programmes in 1993 was 70% for such distinctions in curriculum and career white students and 12% for black students

66 Du Plessis

(NCHE Report, 1966:64). This situation should position as best runner locally, but in the be reversed, not only with regard to total num- Olympics he will find the competition from bers, but also on a programme basis, and by international champions too strenuous. Rather level of qualification (White Paper 3, 1997, par. help the champion to win the gold medal, while 2.22). For this purpose, access to universities simultaneously developing the other athletes in and other institutions of higher learning should the club to each reach their attainable levels. be facilitated. The National Qualifications Framework 4. SYNTHESIS should shorten the route to advanced and scarce Approval must be given to the value of equality qualifications, such as medicine, engineering of opportunity in education, and the related and accounting. Previous learning for the equal distribution of resources. In a humanist achievement of higher qualifications should be sense, both domestically and internationally, recognised (RSA, 1995). This could be a posi- equality of opportunity is completely accept- tive approach, but needs to be applied wisely. able and needs to be supported. This will bene- Care should be taken that the adjustment of fit the individual as well as the people at large, “difficult” engineering courses in favour of a to the advantage of national political security desired throughput does not jeopardise the and social stability. maintenance of standards of excellence at uni- Equal opportunities of education could hold versities. The global economy has no respect several advantages. It testifies to a belief in the for mediocre standards. power of education, that school achievement The Ministry has stated its commitment to leads to: achieving equity through: • success in the world of work “ensuring that the composition of the stu- • access to tertiary institutions of education dent body progressively reflects the demo- • economic privilege and progress graphic realities in the broader society. A • advance in the social hierarchy (cf. Heidt, major focus of any expansion and equity p. 6) strategy must be on increasing the participa- Government seemingly wishes to achieve both, tion and success rates of black students in in a synthesis of “equal quality”. There are sev- general, and of African, Coloured and eral reasons why this ideal seems to be unat- female students in particular, especially in tainable. programmes and levels in which they are The first is the economic reality that the state underrepresented” (Department of does not have the financial means to bring Education 1997, par.2.24). about the necessary changes to the public edu- The ANC Educational Policy (1994:34) fore- cation sector (cf RSA, 1995; Collings, 2000:2). sees that “everything possible must be done to An investigation by Collings comes to the con- seek enhanced school quality whilst minimising clusion that education should be seen as “an its impact upon costs”. It is stated that: investment by taxpayers in a process vital to “Good quality basic schooling must be economic growth, job creation and social afforded to all. The first priority in educa- peace”. Government’s “prime education aim tional reconstruction will be improving the has been to strive for what it calls ‘equity and quality of schooling in disadvantaged town- redress’, not efficiency in serving the econo- ships, farms, villages, informal settlements my”. and rural areas” (ANC, 1994:40). The second reason is the threat of political The government seems to be putting more and ideological domination of educational emphasis on the ideal of equity than equality, reform; the ideological “sink-hole” according and in the process neglecting quality. It should to Collings. South Africa has a long history, a be cautious not to destroy quality where it tradition, of counterproductive ideological exists. Centres of quality have to be nurtured intervention in education. for the sake of competitiveness in the interna- What is alarming, are the indications that tional arena. One should not slow down one’s individual and educational interests could once best athlete in order to enable the other athletes again be overshadowed by politically inspired to reach par before the fittest gets further train- ideological motives. The endeavour for equality ing. Such a neglected athlete might retain his in education could be made subject to the ideals

67 Du Plessis of equality in the labour market, in society and conjuncture cannot be forecast four years or in politics. Demands by these three sectors of more in advance. Furthermore, the individual’s societal life could become prescriptive to edu- right of choice regarding his/her future career is cation. also threatened. In fact, equality of education is impossible to Equality of education for all would be politi- achieve in an unequal society. cally correct, but impossible to achieve in our Indicative of the South African context is the lifetime. As long as inequality exists in society evidence of a tension among supporters of the – related also to social infrastructure, such ser- ideal of equality. Some are in favour of vices, e.g. transport, security – it will be futile achievement of equality by means of a revolu- to expect the realisation of equality in educa- tionary process. Others are in favour of an evo- tion. Equality in education as well as quality lutionary natural process of developing a soci- education for all in the sense of the developed ety without discrimination. The attitude of countries, seems to be beyond the reach of our enforcing an egalitarian society is threatening governmental means. School management existing areas of quality in the country, to the boards depend on the intellectual quality of detriment of its people. It results in the outflow their members and that of the communities that of expertise and a loss of quality, both intellec- they serve. Disadvantaged communities need to tual quality and economic quality. It ignores the be developed economically, socially and moral- “ABC of development policy, viz. Attract Brain ly. This will contribute to build capacity, which and Capital” (Rinsche, 2000:9). will allow them effectively to take ownership Politicians moreover tend to design policy of their schools in their communities and to from a particular ideological mind frame. care for these schools. Thinking in this context is restricted – “boxed in” – within the boundaries of ideological pre- CONCLUSION suppositions. The result is: standards are being Characteristic of the South African policy on set for: equality is the insistence on total equality rather • adjustments (redress/transformation) to the than an insistence on equal opportunities (as provision of education seen in the international community), or on • central planning of policy and standards of equal in value, as was promised under the old provision apartheid system’s policy of separate develop- • regulation of education through numerical ment. quotas for intake in educational institutions, Many South Africans believed in the latter, as well as for the throughput and output but after years it proved to have been an illu- • in a more extreme form, eventual punishment sion to create by centralist legislation a dispen- of excellence where it exists outside the sation of education which was separate, equal boundaries of the ideological framework. and just to all. There is a real danger in the regulation of the The second deserve to be supported as an provision of education on a quantitative basis. ideal which is pursued in most progressive The application of numerical quotas and formu- countries and delivers results at least to the las would attempt to regulate not only intake effect that movement is made in the desired numbers but also the output of the education direction. It promotes positive values such as system. human dignity and respect for all. It fosters a Contrary to the intention of policy makers, society in which human dignity is respected this could have a severe negative influence on and upheld as a natural social value. It uplifts economic prosperity. The economic forces of communities and prepares South Africa to con- the free market do not allow themselves to be tribute to a better future. The first may in time politically manipulated. The number of engi- come prove itself to be as illusive an ideal as neers, etc., required by the economy depends the third and even as counterproductive in on the economic conjuncture, and the economic terms of national and individual empowerment.

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REFERENCES

AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (ANC). 1994. A RSA. 1995. Government Gazette Vol. 357 No. Policy framework for education and training. 16312. White Paper on Education and Discussion Document. Braamfontein: Training. Education Department, African National RSA. MINISTRY OF EDUCATION. 1994. Congress. Education and training in a democratic South COLLINGS, J. 2000. Ministers must try harder. Africa. First steps to develop a new system. Education Africa. A special report by the Pretoria and Cape Town. Financial Mail, 28 January, pp. 2-3. RSA. 1995. Government Gazette Vol. 360 No. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. 1996. Green Paper 16439. National Qualification Framework on higher education transformation. Pretoria. Bill. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. 1997. Education RSA. 1995. NATIONAL EDUCATION POLICY BILL White Paper 3. A programme for the trans- [B83B - 95]. formation of higher education. Government RSA. 1996. Government Gazette Vol. 377 No. Gazette Vol. 386 No. 18207. Pretoria: 1867. Act No. 84 of 1996: South African Department of Education. Schools Act, 1996. HEIDT, H. 1988. Zur Paradoxie der bil- RSA. 1996b. The Constitution of the Republic dungswissenschaftlichen Forderung nach of South Africa, Act 108 of 1996. Chancengleichheit. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik RSA. 1997. Government Gazette Vol. 390 No. 34(1), pp 1-17. 1655. Act No. 101 of 1997: Higher Education HIGHER EDUCATION ACT 101 OF 1997. Act, 1997. MANGENA, N. 2000. Rainbow fading in light RSA. 1997b. Government Gazette Vol. 382 No. of reality. Financial Mail, 8 September, 17944. Draft White Paper on Higher p. 22. Education. NATIONAL COMMISSION ON HIGHER EDUCATION RSA. 1998. Further Education and Training (NCHE). 1996. Report. A framework for Bill. transformation. RSA. 2000. Government Notice No. 82. NECC. 1993. National Education Policy National Education Policy Act (27/1996): Investigation. The Framework Report. Cape Norms and Standards for Educators. Town: Oxford Press. Government Gazette Vol. 415 No. 20844. 4 POTGIETER, J.M., VISSER, P.J., VAN DER BANK, February. A.J., MOTHATA, M.S. & SQUELCH, J.M. 1997. RINSCHE, G. 2000. Principles for designing the Understanding the SA Schools Act. Pretoria: constitution and policies of the European Department of Education. Union. Lecture, Stellenbosch, 18 September.

69 Educational Research as Democratic Praxis

Lesley le Grange

ABSTRACT cation’s own sake but also because education is Dominant approaches to educational research recognised as crucial for transforming other rarely examine the philosophical underpin- spheres of social life. Enshrined in the South nings, specifically epistemological and onto- African constitution are important values for logical assumptions, in relation to the research the transformation of education, namely process. Usher (1996:9) argues that the failure democracy, liberty, equality, justice and peace. to examine these assumptions leads to research A question that requires answering in this being understood as a “technology” – as sim- regard, is how these values can be enabled in ply a set of methods, skills and procedures the various sites and discourses of education? applied to a given research problem. I argue My concern in this paper is to raise some that when research is understood in Usher’s issues regarding the relationship(s) between terms as a “technology” it serves only the sta- educational research and democracy. I deem tus quo and does not enable us to interact and this to be important for two reasons. Firstly, as transform society. mentioned earlier, the promotion of democratic In this paper I critically examine different values is particularly important at this point in research approaches in terms of their potential South Africa’s history. Secondly, I believe that to contribute to transformation of societies. I greater possibilities exist for doing research argue that instead of educational research that is openly committed to establishing a more merely contributing to social change, it can be democratic social order. I say this because we a process of change itself. Additionally, I raise are in a post-positivist period in the human challenges for educational research in South sciences, which Lather (1986, 1991, and 1992) Africa and elsewhere, in the context of process- argues is marked by much methodological and es of globalisation and internationalisation epistemological ferment. currently prevalent. Since the mid-1980s in particular, we have seen an explosion of ideas and practices in a INTRODUCTION quest to understand social reality. Ethnography, South Africa is faced with several new chal- phenomenology, hermeneutics, interpretive, lenges since becoming a constitutional democ- feminist, critical, narrative inquiry are some of racy in 1994. Pendlebury (1998:333) argues the terms that have been used as frames of ref- that South Africa’s most urgent and difficult erence for examining social reality. challenge is to transform all spheres of public In addition, in the 1990s there has been a life so as to establish enabling conditions for a proliferation of “post” frameworks such as thriving democracy. Pendlebury (1998:334) post-modernism, post-critical, post-paradigmat- points out that education, which was a primary ic, and so on (Lather cited in Goodman, site of contestation under apartheid, now is a 1992:118). In this paper I specifically wish to primary site of transformation. She argues that explore possibilities for enabling democratic transformation is not only paramount for edu- “ideals” through educational research. Before

71 Le Grange doing so I turn now to a discussion on democ- not fixed but constantly reconstructed through racy. social processes of engagement. I find Waghid’s (2000:5-6) idea of democracy as 1. WHAT IS DEMOCRACY? reflexive discourse useful in this regard, where Democracy is a polysemous term. It is a com- democracy liberates thought and practices to plex area of human understanding that cannot that which offers more choice, freedom and be reduced to a simple, fixed, unambiguous possibilities for emancipatory politics. With definition. As Gough (2000a:2) writes, “we can respect to educational research, however, not no more provide a precise three-line definition all approaches provide enabling frameworks for of [democracy] than of everyday words like achieving in Waghid’s (2000:5-6) terms “more ‘love’ or ‘justice’ – these are terms that will choice, freedom and possibilities for emancipa- always be the subject of exploration, specula- tory politics”. Therefore I turn now to a discus- tion and debate”. Of course, it may be argued sion on knowledge interests and educational that there is also a danger that the term democ- research with the view of briefly exploring racy could be rendered meaningless if it some of the underlying assumptions of domi- becomes so fuzzy to convey anything useful. nant approaches to educational research. Waghid (2000:3) argues that there are two broad conceptions of democracy: democracy as 2. EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND KNOWLEDGE a representative system of political decision INTERESTS making and democracy as a sphere for social Habermas (1972) has argued that different and political life in which people may enjoy knowledge/research traditions are linked with equal opportunities and are engaged in self- particular social interests. He points out that development, self-fulfilment and self-determi- positivistic research employs technical/instru- nation. For him, representative democracy mental reasoning where the ends are predefined means that collective decisions concerning the and are attained by following known rules and community as a whole are made by elected predefined means (e.g. the scientific method). members of the community. On the other hand, Habermas described this kind of knowledge as democracy as a sphere of social and political being informed by a technical interest. On the life is constituted by values such as liberty, other hand, interpretive or hermeneutical equality, and so on. Also, the latter kind of sciences employ practical modes of reasoning democracy is a participatory form of democra- (Habermas, 1972). By this it is meant that cy whereby people directly participate in eco- appropriate decisions are made in the light of nomic, political and social life. the circumstances of the situation and not by My concern in this paper is not with democ- pre-defined means and ends. Positivistic racy as a political system, but rather with how research is associated with prediction and con- democratic values can be (re)constructed within trol and interpretive research with enlighten- social practices such as educational research. I ment, understanding and communication accept that educational research, like all other (Usher, 1996:22). However, neither of these social practices, occurs within particular spatio- research traditions has an interest in research temporal settings that are partly constitutive of that changes the world in the direction of free- the actions and interactions that take place dom, justice and democracy. Habermas (1972) within them. However, agency of the subject therefore has isolated a third type of “knowl- should not be left unrecognised as I believe that edge-constitutive interest” which he links with human beings are able to make choices within critical science, that is, an emancipatory inter- social settings that could contribute to trans- est. This knowledge interest involves the forming the settings themselves. The point I unmasking of ideologies that maintain the sta- wish to make here is that although recent politi- tus quo by denying individuals and groups cal change in South Africa and a post-positivist access to knowledge or awareness about the era in the human sciences do provide greater material conditions that oppress or restrict them opportunities for enabling democratic values (Usher, 1996:22). Importantly, critical science through educational research, human agency is additionally, is concerned with the actions that crucial to changing the status quo. can be taken to change oppressive conditions. The democratic values I refer to above are Critical researchers argue against the limited

72 Le Grange notions of positivist and interpretive approach- poiesis. Carr (1995) neatly captures this distinc- es. This does not necessarily mean that they tion: reject absolutely research conducted within “Poiesis is a kind of making or instrumental these frameworks. However, in terms of action. It has an end in view or an object in assumptions, critical approaches argue that pos- mind prior to any action. It is activity that itivist and interpretive approaches are episte- brings about specific products, and it mologically flawed and politically conserva- requires a kind of technical know-how or tive. Critical research challenges the objectivist expertise (technè). Praxis is also directed at epistemology (knowledge is impersonal and a specific end but its aim is not to produce objective) and realist ontology (reality exists an object but to realise some morally worth- independently of our knowledge of it) of posi- while good.” tivist science. Although critical research shares In other words, with praxis, the end in view can with interpretive research the view that knowl- only be realised through action and can only edge (of reality) is socially constructed, it criti- exist in the action itself. Also Schwandt cises the latter approach for its emphasis on pri- (1997:124) points out that the ends of praxis are marily understanding social reality in lieu of not fixed but are constantly revised as the contributing to transforming it. It is important goods internal to an activity are pursued. In this to note that critical approaches to research context praxis would have in mind democratic accept as “axiomatic” that our social world is values such as equality and liberty, plurality characterised by injustice, exploitation as well and difference, dialogism and solidarity, and as political and economic domination. power (see Waghid 2000 for an explication). As Lather, (1991) so cogently puts it, critical Waghid (2000:10) also points out that praxis research is about, “what it means to do research emphasises the importance of collaborative par- in an unjust world”. For the critical researcher ticipation, equality and individual liberty in the world is unjust by design, i.e., that it is the forms of social relations. These values are not result of human will and intention. Also, that fixed but are reconstructed and re-imagined the social world is oppressive for many groups, within different contexts so that democracy is particularly along the lines of gender, “race”, reflexive. I turn now to a discussion on case class, ethnicity, sexual preference, age and dis- study research in environmental education that ability, and so on. Furthermore, that our social I was involved in, and use it as a basis for world is characterised by inequitable distribu- reflecting on what it may mean to do research tion of resources worldwide. Unlike positivist that embodies democratic “ideals”. research which accepts the status quo or interpretive research which seeks to understand how 4. CASE STUDY individuals or communities experience social The case study I describe was one of six profes- reality, central to critical research is the ideal of sional development case studies forming part of changing our world to one that is more just and Activity Two of the South Africa/Australia equitable. The research process thus becomes a Institutional Links project entitled Educating for process of change itself. The distinctive fea- Socio-Ecological Change: Capacity-building in tures of critical research are: that it is openly Environmental Education. The project was ideological (it is not value neutral), socially funded by the Australian Agency for critical, overtly political, emancipatory in ori- International Development (AUSAID) and entation (aims to liberate the participants administered by IDP Education Australia. The involved in the research). The question now is structure of the project as a whole was quite how do we conduct research that embodies complex, involving a total of eight tertiary insti- democratic values? It is with this in mind that I tutions in two countries – South Africa and turn now to a discussion on research as praxis. Australia. The project was structured into four “activities”: Activity One was concerned with 3. RESEARCH AS PRAXIS curriculum development; Activity Two was Praxis is different to the everyday usage of the concerned with professional development; term “practice”. To gain an understanding of Activity Three was concerned with evaluating the term praxis it is useful to look at how existing environmental education curricula in Aristotle distinguishes between praxis and South Africa and Australia; and Activity Four

73 Le Grange was concerned with the development of a critical discussion. Following this, each partici- methodology text to support post-graduate pant began to develop individual case study research in higher educational settings. The commentaries from the photographs in prepara- overall focus of the project was the professional tion for presentation at a next meeting. Draft development of new and existing staff at South case study commentaries and captioned pho- African higher education institutions. Specific- tographs were presented at a next meeting. ally, Activity Two sought to enhance research These were circulated among at least two other and professional capacity by working collabora- participants who provided critical feedback tively with colleagues in a process of work- orally and in the form of annotations on the place-based participatory research, aimed at the text. Feedback was also provided in a plenary development of authentic case studies of chang- session (for more details on Activity Two case ing environmental education practice (Lotz & studies, see Lotz & Robottom, 1998; Jenkin et Robottom, 1998:20). Collaboration among par- al, 2000; Le Grange, 2000). ticipants started before the funding was received and before the project formally commenced. 5. CRITICAL REFLECTIONS For a period of approximately one-year we In Activity two of the Australian/South African developed the project proposal jointly. I now institutional links programme the value, liberty provide a brief description of Activity Two. was evident in that participants chose to explore issues that were of interest and concern 4.1 Activity Two to them. Also, the issues related closely to their In Activity Two, participants examined devel- particular workplaces. Values of equality and oping case studies of changing practice in envi- participation were closely related in this ronmental education. The developing case stud- instance, since all participants were involved ies were processes of professional development directly and as equitably as possible in all in two distinct ways: firstly as a moment in pro- dimensions of the professional development fessional self-development, as participants process. The dimensions included identifying reflected on the meaning of their own theories the issues to be addressed, collection and analy- and practices. Secondly, that the case studies sis of data, development and dissemination of may be useful for the professional development materials and reports. As noted earlier, the of other teacher educators and for use in teacher process of professional development was col- education programmes. The starting point for laborative. Collaboration in this case did not Activity Two was for participants to identify mean that the individual disappeared, but rather environmental and environmental education that space was provided for individual reflec- issues related to their own professional prac- tion on their professional work and develop- tices. The first step in the process was for each ment. However, peer review and positive cri- participant to take photographs representing tique of each other’s work supported individual issues closely related to their work and work- reflection by participants. As a consequence the places. At a next workshop session, each of the tension between being collaborative and con- participants clarified the focus of their case textual was overcome. The collaborative nature studies through a process of critical engage- of the activity fostered dialogue between partic- ment with other activity participants. The other ipants which was key in the development of the participants provided feedback on the pho- project. Meaningful dialogue, however, tographs, enabling participants to identify the depended on relationships of trust, which were “gaps” or shortcomings in the pictorial records enhanced during the professional development of their individual cases. The photographs process. We found that when relationships of served as the basis for initial individual and col- trust were well established, critical review from laborative reflection on our practices. As partic- and dialogue between peers was more open, ipants we returned to our places of work so that honest and easily accepted. The fact that the we could take additional photographs intended professional development needs were grounded to fill the “gaps” that were identified at the first in real environmental issues located in different meeting. At a next meeting we individually contexts enabled us to respect the diversity of wrote captions for the photographs and shared local contexts including the people working them with other Activity Two participants for within them.

74 Le Grange

To enable these democratic processes within wasting your time. But if you’ve come a professional development project meant that because your liberation is bound up with at times some individuals had to give the pro- mine, then let’s work together’” (Gough, ject direction. At the beginning stages those 1998). researchers who had more experience made sig- Our interest was to ensure that we work in such nificant inputs, for example, on professional a way that we respect what each individual case study research in environmental education. brought to the process including their ways of As the process unfolded, participation became knowing. more equitable. The point I wish to make here We found inspiration in the work of Turnbull is that conditions for equitable participation do (1997) for exploring possibilities of doing col- not necessarily exist before one commences laborative professional work in local spaces such research processes but are rather enabled without disparate knowledges being absorbed through praxiological engagement. into an imperialist archive. Turnbull Reflecting on the project more broadly pro- (1993,1997) argues that all knowledge tradi- vides useful insights on possibilities for tions are spatial in that they link people, places enabling democratic processes in local contexts (sites) and skills. This, according to Turnbull, in view of processes of globalisation and enables us to conceive of all knowledge sys- internationalisation currently prevalent. By tems as sets of local practices so that it globalisation I mean the processes of cultural becomes possible to decentre them and com- unification, which are occurring across the pare them equitably instead of local knowl- planet, particularly in terms of culture and edges being absorbed into an imperial archive. media. It also refers to unification, which is He points out that achievements such as centred on economic activity leading to larger Indonesian rice farming, the building of Gothic and larger political groupings. cathedrals, Polynesian navigation and modern According to Gough (2000b: 335) interna- cartography represent diverse combinations of tionalisation involves the promotion of global social and technical processes rather than being peace, social justice and well being through the “results of any internal epistemological fea- intergovernmental cooperation and transnation- tures to which ‘universal’ validity can be al social movements, agencies and communi- ascribed” (Gough 1999:42). ties. It is important to note that the broader Turnbull argues that disparate knowledge tra- Australia/South Africa institutional links pro- ditions should not only be viewed in terms of ject was conceived in the context of improved representativity but also in terms of performa- relations between Australia and South Africa tivity so that knowledge can be “reframed, following the dismantling of legal apartheid. decentred and the social organisation of trust The Australian government made funds avail- negotiated”. able through AUSAID to support the develop- With this understanding it may be possible ment of South Africa’s democracy. Both for different knowledge traditions to co-exist Australian and South African participants were within transnational spaces rather than one aware of the danger of a new form of colonisa- knowledge system displacing the other. In the tion rearing its head in a project of this kind, project, Educating for Socio-Ecological involving international donor funders (helpers) Change, we attempted to conceive of our work and “developing countries” (the helped). An in such a way so as to enable different knowl- Australian academic who worked with us on edge traditions to co-exist and be performed the project neatly captures this concern. He together. The extent to wish we were successful writes: may, however, require further investigation. “Clearly, our [Australian] participation in Suffice it to say, at this point possibilities do the project is intended to be catalytic in exist for workers from donor countries and some way – we are here to ‘help’ – and I recipient countries to work together without am very uncomfortable with being posi- their traditions or interests being displaced and tioned as a ‘helper’. I try to heed the advice absorbed into an imperialist archive. of Lila Watson, an Australian Aboriginal educator and activist, who is reported as CONCLUSION saying, ‘If you’ve come to help me you’re Positivist approaches have limited possibilities

75 Le Grange for transforming social life. Fixed settings and of us involved in processes of knowledge pro- predetermined goals, often done by outside duction. experts, do little to change social conditions. In this paper I have critically reflected on Instead of viewing research as a recipe for possibilities for enabling democratic values by democratic change it may be more useful to focusing on case study research done in envi- conceive of it as a process that could embody ronmental education. I raise a challenge that democratic values. More importantly, that it is needs to be taken up seriously if we are going a process in which democratic values can be to resist dangers of new forms of colonisation re(constructed) and re(imagined). Research as manifesting in relation to processes of globali- praxis in which the internal goods (democratic sation and internationalisation that are currently values) of the research activity are constantly prevalent. I have argued that we may avoid revised is a meaningful concept in this respect, local knowledges from being absorbed into an and further exploration of its usefulness in vari- imperialist archive by using Turnbull’s notions ous research processes could be beneficial to all of spatiality and performativity.

76 Le Grange

REFERENCES

CARR W. 1995. For education: Towards a criti- LATHER P. 1992. Critical frames in educational cal educational inquiry. Oxford: Open research: Feminist and post-structural per- University. spectives. Theory into Practice, 31(2):87-99. GOODMAN, J. 1992. Theoretical and practical LE GRANGE, L. 2000. A case study of changing considerations for school-based research in a pedagogical practices at a higher education post-positivist era. Qualitative Studies in institution. South African Journal of Higher Education, 5(2):117-133. Education 14(1): 152-159. GOUGH, N. 1998. Decolonising sustainability: PENDLEBURY, S. 1998. Transforming Teacher subverting and appropriating mythologies of Education in South Africa: a space-time per- social change. Southern African Journal of spective. Cambridge Journal of Education, Environmental Education 18: 3-13. 28(3), 333-349. GOUGH, N. 1999. Troubling “freedom”: LOTZ, H & ROBOTTOM, I. 1998. Environment as Silences in post-apartheid environmental text: Insights into some implications for pro- education. Southern African Journal of fessional development in environmental edu- Environmental Education 19: 40-49. cation. Southern African Journal of environ- GOUGH N. 2000a. Studying research method- mental Education 17: 19-28. ologies and methods in education. In Le SCHWANDT, T. 1997. Qualitative inquiry: A Grange L (coordinator), Leadership in dictionary of terms. London: Sage Education Study Guide for Unit 2. Publications. Stellenbosch: University of Stellenbosch. TURNBULL, D. 1993. Local knowledge and GOUGH N. 2000b. Locating curriculum studies comparative scientific traditions. Knowledge in the global village. Journal of Curriculum and Policy 6(3/4): 29-54. Studies, 32(2): 329-342. TURNBULL, D. 1997. Reframing science and HABERMAS J. 1972. Knowledge and Human other local knowledge traditions. Futures Interests. London: Heinemann. 29(6): 551-562. JENKIN, N ET AL. 2000. Educating for socio- USHER, R. 1996. A critique of the neglected ecological change: Case studies of changing epistemological assumptions of educational practice in South African tertiary institutions. research. In Scott D & Usher R (eds.), Cape Town: Ausaid. Understanding educational research, LATHER, P. 1986. Research as praxis. Harvard London: Routledge. Educational Review, 56(3): 257-277. WAGHID, Y. 2000. Reflexivity, democracy and LATHER P. 1991. Feminist Research in praxis: reflecting on a critical moment in Education: Within/Against. Geelong, Deakin classroom pedagogy. Perspectives in University Press. Education, 19(1), in press.

77 Quality Indicators for South African Schools Against the Background of International Practices

Heinie Brand

“There are good people and bad people; in strategies that became the responsibility of the Athens you know this since Plato ... provinces. Objectives were formulated after a Aristoteles. Like you always know about process of consultation and were directed good governments and bad governments, towards making quality education the norm for good lives and bad lives. And the most all public schools. The clear goal was to trans- important topic of the great dialogues and form all schools into learning institutions pro- plays and essays ... is exactly the question viding discernible improvements in the quality of difference: what makes the difference and consistency of their results. The challenge between good and bad, and how can I see for schools was clearly to make changes that the difference?” – Van Bruggen (1999:1) allow them to deliver high quality curriculum and instruction so that all children reach chal- INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND WITH lenging academic standards and a fair opportu- REFERENCE TO THE SOUTH AFRICAN SITUATION nity in the “knowledge economy”. All role- As part of a process of democratisation in players were motivated by a commitment to South Africa, a major transformation has achieve equity, access, redress and quality marked many spheres of governmental, soci- assurance for all children. etal, business and other institutions. South African citizens have almost accepted transfor- 1. QUALITY AS A LEGITIMATE AND WORTHY mation as part of daily life. Since 1994 this GOAL post-apartheid process has been an ongoing In order to focus on quality as a worthy goal, reality and has also included radical education- the following remarks need to be emphasised: al change. The improvement in quality of edu- • Quality education is a legitimate claim for cation must be regarded as an integral part of stakeholders such as communities, parents, educational transformation. teachers and children. The absence of clear Despite the initiation of educational transfor- evidence of quality has moved parents to put mation since 1994, it was only in July 1999 pressure on schools, and has even become a that the national Ministry for Education formu- motivation for finding alternative options. lated a definite concern about the quality of • The change towards quality education cannot education. The National Minister of Education merely be seen as a primary responsibility of declared that education in South Africa was in the state, but rests clearly on the shoulders of a crisis and that many schools were dysfunc- educational managers and, alas, needs to be tional. When the State President enquired addressed within the framework and func- whether the educational system was preparing tioning of individual schools. our children for the 21st century, the Minister • The cry for benchmarking the South African of Education conceded that it was not. educational system and school practices links The Tirisano project was initiated as a matter with the need to be internationally compara- of urgency and had to be realised in practical ble. The inviting global opportunities have

79 Brand

highlighted the urgency for quality improve- judged and is considered to be necessary or ment in order for students to present them- acceptable. selves as worthy applicants in the workforce. Quality assurance refers to the monitoring • According to Steyn (2000:8), quality educa- and evaluation of the performance of the vari- tion is also a primary function of any sound ous levels of a system in achieving the specific democratic government. The country and goals at each level and the overall objectives of nation as a whole could only benefit when the system. It also includes the management of quality is a reality and not an undefined per- previously defined quality that involves activi- ception. ties that are used to provide maximum confidence that acceptable levels of quality are 2. VALUES UNDERLYING QUALITY achieved in all aspects of setting, delivery and The immediate concepts that come to mind are review of standards in the system. values such as discipline, excellence, punctuali- The quality assurance field in education has ty and self-control. De Klerk (2000:18) uses developed as a response to the demands for Harvey’s approach to quality and refers to the accountability from parents, taxpayers and following: politicians: • The exceptional approach which emphasises “Die Nederlandse inspektoraat formuleer the maintenance of academic standards. It twee kernfunksies , nl. : … door middel van refers to a standard of learning that is to be het toezicht waarborgt de overheid voor de desired by the mass, and advocates high-level burgers dat er in scholen onderwijs van vol- skills. doende kwaliteit wordt geleverd” and “door • The fitness-for-purpose approach relates to middel van het toezight stimuleert de over- particular specifications that meet the heid scholen tot ontwikkeling van de eigen demands of expectations. kwaliteitszorg en daarmee van de kwaliteit • The perfection or consistency approach van het onderwijs” (Inspectie van refers to the constant evidence of competency Onderwijs, 1999:5). and perfection in ensuring work of standard. With inspection and auditing being the frame- • The transformative approach emphasises work of the past decades, quality assurance has quality as a process of change and should come to be exemplified by the development of empower the learner in order to make a performance indicators and “school improve- meaningful contribution to the process of ment” planning. There are many levels of transformation. accountability and the development of various • The value-for-money approach highlights measures will depend to a large extent on the accountability of the role-players involved political and economic frame within which and refers to the best acceptable deal for the such measures are enacted. client. The reality is that in South Africa, forms of The above values and approaches may differ in quality assurance have in the past focused on their application in the South African situation. criteria for improvement of the educators only. The particular application is directly dependent A range of indicators was applied only to deter- on the set of variables applicable at a specific mine the level of capability and promotability learning site. Any practitioner of education who of educators and no indication of the function- wishes to become engaged in the search for ality of schools was discussed. In the immedi- excellence and quality should take clear cogni- ate past, national initiative activated a process sance of these approaches and their application of quality assurance of schools. Schools, school before identifying the best set of indicators. leaders and managers are therefore about to become part of these procedures within which 3. QUALITY , STANDARDS AND AUDITING they previously did not engage. The very elimi- Quality and standards are difficult to define in natory audit that was administered in schools as much as the meanings sometimes overlap lately, focused on the absolute minimum but are also different. A standard is usually a requirements of operational practice. These measurable outcome indicator. It refers to a instruments should be refined in future in order specific level of quality, skill, ability or for schools to be in a position to attend and achievement by which someone or something is become involved in a thorough practice of

80 Brand quality assurance. One can expect that “educa- From the first years of elementary education to tors will be the first to tell you that setting spe- the final analyses of school graduation, quality cific, strategic, measurable goals was new to education should provide the visible and invisi- their practice and took them out of their com- ble guiding norm for daily practices. fort zone” (O’Neill, 2000:50). A definite reac- Quality education should therefore reflect the tion from South African schools and educators involvement of what Joyce (1999:8) calls the can be expected once the process has become “responsible parties”; those teachers, parents, daily routine. It is also necessary to state – administrators and community members who given the enormous diversity of South African form a coalition to create and maintain a learn- schools, their locations, background and func- ing organisation. School improvement is a part tional realities – that schools will react differ- of the ordinary process of the school rather than ently to the implementations of these practices. a response to a belief that things are terribly wrong, or that there are dreadful problems that 4. QUALITY MANAGEMENT cry out for immediate solution. Very often, lists Quality management refers to the actions, of urgent matters reflect a school’s desire to processes and structures necessary to ensure change practices. that delivery of education is of the highest qual- Action researcher Emily Calhoun in O’Niell ity. As a function, quality management is seen (2000:49) states: “I have seen as many as as the responsibility of those in operational and eleven goals in a school’s improvement plan. managerial roles in the system, whether the sys- As a result, it’s impossible for the school to tem be considered as a school, a district, a achieve any of them.” Learn how to do things region, a province or a nation. The attainment better and better becomes a way of life. of quality requires a commitment of all mem- Creating this evolutionary state is on the agen- bers of the organisation, while the responsibili- da of all responsible parties and should be ty of quality management belongs to the senior administered at all levels. However, no one will management at each level. disagree that school improvement as it affects The South African National Department of students happens in schools, where changes in Education regards the aim of quality manage- the educational environment affect students ment practices “to produce outcomes that not directly. It is within the school itself that many only meet the needs of learners and parents but of the changes can take place recognising the also meet nationally determined standards and input of other parties. are comparable to international standards” Recently, researchers and practitioners have (Department of Education, 1999:10). One taken a more holistic view of the school and needs to ask constantly: what can be done to how to improve it as a social organism. There enhance the quality of education being provid- seems to be a better understanding of the ed? The answer is to be found in a variety of ecology of good schools and the structures or indicators such as training, provision of up-to- patterns of relationships among the various date material, strategies to involve roleplayers, components of schooling. There is consensus etc. These indicators will have to be clearly that together, these components have an effect identified and defined in order to secure their greater than the sum of the parts. application in a particular situation of function- A report by the Process Management Primary ing. Education Committee states it clearly: “Het geheel is meer dan de som der delen” (Proces- 5. SCHOOLS AS BREEDING GROUND FOR management Primair Onderwijs, 1999:1). IMPROVEMENT OF QUALITY As society changes and knowledge about rel- As was remarked earlier, schools must accept evant variables increases, schools need to the challenge to produce quality education as a assimilate and accommodate many new reali- product through engaging in quality assurance ties. Schools need to create a reasonable level as a process. The emphasis here should be on of stability and should be constantly open and the creation of a natural evolutionary state able to change. where continuous efforts to improve the school “This means that what must remain con- become routine. Schools are the show-horses stant, what must remain stable in the life of and thermometers of an education system. a school, is the emotional and intellectual

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disposition toward improvement on the part Question 2: How do we order the indicators in of the responsible parties” (Joyce, 1999:9). a frame of reference? The answer lies in the creation of a certain kind Certain interesting questions can be posed, e.g: of school culture, i.e. beliefs, behaviours, • Can the same framework be used both for norms and expectations which allow the estab- primary and secondary schools? lishment of activities fundamental to school • Do we see educational indicators and organi- improvement. sational indicators at the same level? Other issues are: 6. INDICATORS FOR SUCCESS • The position of an indicator could differ 6.1 The complexities of using indicators among countries. For example, “pupil- Quality is difficult to measure. However, if it teacher interaction” is described in England can’t be measured, it can’t be managed. To under the section of Curriculum, in The identify quality seems quite easy. To agree on Netherlands under School climate and in quality, seems quite difficult. The answer Scotland under Teaching and Learning. appears to be locked up in indicators. • The formulation of indicators might be used The term indicator is described as a selected to establish the ranking of a school and/or item of quantitative data, which helps in the might be used to make an analysis of the evaluation of quality and standards by allowing strong and weak points. comparisons to be made, or changes over time • Should specific standards be expressed by to be measured. Then again, it can never be way of symbols, figures or words? determined purely by personal opinion or based Despite the complexities of using indicators, on judgements. Any researcher will be con- they are being used in the scientific process of fronted with these questions for as long as he determining quality education. Many countries seeks to find the answers, and will be confront- have successfully engaged in auditing, evaluated once again with questions such as: ing and developing schools by using a series of 1) Which indicators need to be considered indicators. A comparative analysis of the when talking about a good school? instruments will point out both the legitimate 2) How do we need to order the indicators in a use of indicators as well as the relevance of frame of reference? indicators in a particular country’s framework.

Question 1 : Which indicators need to be con- 6.2 International examples of the use of sidered when talking about a good school? indicators to determine success • There is a tendency during inspection or an 6.2.1.England auditing process to distinguish between a The Office for Standards in Education (OFST- broad view on the school and a closer, more ED) formulated its vision very clearly: focused look. This leads to the question “The purpose is to identify strengths and whether indicators should be “outcome-indi- weaknesses so that schools may improve cators” such as in England and Scotland, or the quality of education they provide and “process-indicators” such as in Flanders. raise the educational standards achieved by What are the underlying ideas and philoso- their pupils.” phies, and is it possible to find a compro- The OFSTED publishes a report of individual mise? schools. Consistent with the requirements of • Another core issue seems to be the fact that the Parents’ Charter, it provides information for results (output/assessment/outcomes/attain- parents and local communities about the stan- ment) are one of the main indicators of quali- dard of the school. The idea is that parents and ty. Another relevant question is how to obtain others involved in the school will use the report a view on outcomes without a system of cen- as a basis to press school management to intro- tral examinations? duce improvements; or else children will be • Quality education will always depend on a removed from the school and no more new number of external factors. The surroundings, pupils will be enrolled. There also exists a list environment, people, financial means, etc. containing the names of schools which fail to How do we take these favourable or less- provide an adequate education and which favourable conditions into account? require special measures.

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Inspection of a school reports on the quality financial, juridical, administrative and educa- of education, educational standards achieved, tional data that may affect the school’s input, whether financial resources are managed effi- process and output. ciently and the spiritual, moral, social and cul- Input is the content of personal data of every- tural development of pupils at the school. The one involved in the learning process and includ- framework describes specific requirements for es children, teachers and the head teacher. evaluation and the criteria which are the basis Process refers to the whole of educational for giving judgements. To describe the frame- and school organisational features and activi- work, sections and factors are used. ties, indicating which efforts the school makes The report is normally presented in three sec- in order to attain the targets laid down by the tions: authorities. Section A: The Output indicators characterise results 1. The context should give a factual statement which will be obtained and focus strongly on about the characteristics of the school, its the learning domain-related final objectives. pupils and the area it serves. When evaluating for example the educational 2. The outcomes in the form of educational operation of a secondary school, the direction is standards are covered in Attainment and indicated by the developmental objectives, Progress (what pupils know, understand and attainment targets, expectations and curriculum can do ); Attitudes, behaviour and personal aims. The Output indicators occupy a central development (pupils’ response to what the position in the school audits. school offers ) and Attendance – including punctuality. 6.2.3 The Netherlands 3. Contributing factors are evaluated in terms In evaluating schools, the inspectorate mainly of their contribution to the outcomes and has a supervisory task. Evaluation indicates the include curriculum and assessment; pupils’ gathering of data directed at systematically spiritual, moral and social development; assessing the quality of education. Supervision teaching; support, guidance and welfare; means executing activities enabling one to and partnership with parents and the com- compare the actual state of education with the munity. situation intended by the legislator. This 4. Management and efficiency are closely process is an integral one which refers to the linked in leadership and management; fact that characteristics have to be seen in staffing, accommodation and learning coherence. The focus is clearly on what can resources; and the efficiency of the school, reasonably be expected from schools. The leg- measured by the use of available resources. islation is based on a concept of how schools Section B focuses on curriculum areas and sub- should operate, on what they base themselves jects. Section C deals with inspection data and what is socially considered to be good edu- which include main findings as well as key cation. issues for action. For primary education, a good school can be referred to as a school at which teachers pro- 6.2.2 Flanders vide good instruction under favourable school- Flanders announced an interesting style to ing conditions so that all pupils achieve opti- inspection and made it clear that schools will be mum results. Based on this definition, the the main focus instead of individual teachers. process focuses on three areas, namely: the Reports are made available to staff members teaching-learning process as indicator for suc- and anybody who asks for them. Separate cess; the extent to which the school achieves instruments address the realities of primary, results; and to what extent the school condi- secondary and special education. It advocates tions are sufficiently conducive to the quality of the CIPO model (Context, Input, Process and the above two areas. Output) as a structural framework. Each section Standards are clearly set. Indicators are the indicates the specific aim, followed by the indi- aspects in which the standards are opera- cators and descriptions as examples of situa- tionalised. Standardisation is expressed on a tions that may occur. four-points scale, namely mainly weak; more Context includes demographic, structural, weak than strong; more strong than weak; and

83 Brand mainly strong. Although different frameworks or “What are children supposed to learn?” are used for different phases, there are aspects highlight the issue of outcome indicators that show clear similarities. against process indicators. • The place of an indicator within the instru- 6.2.4 Scotland ment and the relationship between indicators In 1996, Scotland created a change in emphasis and their field of application seems to initiate from “How good is our school? “ to “ Self- new debates. evaluation using performance indicators”. The • “Quality is an empty concept” according to following questions clearly reflect their aim: Deketelaere (1999:105). What is regarded as • How well are pupils performing? a good school is the result of discussions and • How well is the school managed? is based on consensus among people in a cer- • How effective is the school? tain place and at a certain moment. The performance indicators provide a coherent, • It will always be important to evaluate the consistent yet flexible approach to enable a specific viewpoint or point of departure when school to evaluate itself. How are we doing?; declaring the relevance of an indicator. Can How do we know?; and What are we going to we, for example, use good after-care as an do now? seem appropriate follow-up questions indicator for a good school? It might be valu- to keep the process focused. Apart from the able to certain parents only. seven key areas, performance indicators were • Talking about good schools, one will have to identified, while each of these were refined bear in mind the educational tradition in a with themes. country. One has to situate the indicators of a Scotland used the following indicators as key country within a particular historical frame- areas, namely: Curriculum, Attainment, work and link them with current legislation Learning and teaching, Support for pupils , and educational policy. For example, South Ethos, Resources and Management. It must be Africa lists safety and security as important noted that this instrument is applicable to all correlates that need attention. types of schools. A system of “baseline assess- • Agreement on the exact meaning of concepts ment and value added” was developed to must be dealt with thoroughly in order to pre- address the issue of raising standards to ensure vent misunderstandings and a variety of that all schools provide the quality of education interpretations. to which the pupils are entitled. 8. INDICATORS FOR SOUTH AFRICA 7. ANALYSES OF INTERNATIONAL PRACTICES It is evident from practices in South Africa that The following remarks can be made as an this country has not yet embarked fully on the analysis of the above-mentioned instruments. debate regarding good schools. Workshops on • Given the different variations on indicators quality assurance throughout the country mere- and their related sub-categories, it seems ly serve as sensitising exercises to initiate a par- clear that four areas were used by all the adigm shift and to make practitioners aware of above-mentioned countries. These are : a reality that lies beyond their present experi- Input: context. ence. Teaching-learning process: teaching con- The initial instrument as part of an auditory tent teaching strategy and contributing fac- framework and process is elementary and can- tors. not yet be seen as an instrument ensuring quali- Management: organisational factors and ty education. school conditions. As was discussed in the analyses, instru- Output: outcomes, pupil performance and ments, criteria and indicators may differ in ori- attainment. gin, context and application. One can even • It seems important to determine the dimen- compile acceptable arguments for the compila- sion of the evaluation of the school. Is a tion, inclusion or exclusion of particular key broad evaluation of the whole school just an areas and any given subtheme in an instrument. enlargement of a small one, or is it a comple- This concludes the argument of any given mentary enlargement? instrument’s application on circumstances other • Questions such as “What do children learn?” than those for which it was designed.

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In an effort to compile a suitable instrument deliberation with school leaders from different for South African conditions, the writer would schools as representatives of different school like to present five primary key areas for inclu- types. These are: Context, Management, sion in the auditing process. This product was Resources, Curriculum and Output. compiled after thorough investigation and Arguments for inclusion are as follows : Table 1: A complete view of the classification of primary and secondary key areas

PRIMARY KEY AREAS

Context Management Curriculum Resources Outset

Mission Philosophy Governmental Human Quality of policy resources management

Vision Structures School Physical Quality of curriculum resources leadership

Character Organisation Pedagogical Financial Quality of climate resources grade leaders

Environment Communication Structures Resource Quality of – internal center learning area – external leaders

Language Infrastructure Learning areas Research Attendance

Ethos and Organigrams Learning Resources Relations climate programmes staff

Health Policy Teaching Resources Academic documents content learners results

Safety Planning Teaching styles Resources Extramural community results SECONDARY KEY AREAS Socio-economic Control Classroom Support to management educators

Admission Audit Learning and Support to policy teaching learners

Support Social and Evaluation structures moral educ. of educators

Administration Life education Learning

Marketing Involvement of parents

Developmental Educational planning programme

School plan Contact with other institutions

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• Context corresponds with internationally environment and socio-economic conditions agreed Input, but accentuates the particular in which the school functions.

Table 2

• The secondary key areas are refined into indicators in the form of quality statements. These will give guidelines for auditing and indicate expected levels of attainment. • Each indicator should then be assessed according to a scale. A four-point scale is used.

SCALE

Primary key area: CURRICULUM

Secondary key area: LEARNING AND TEACHING

1234

INDICATORS

Set clear school aims that will guide teaching.

Philosophy that each child is a capable learner whose success is dependant on quality teaching.

Carefully planned and structured lessons and learning programmes that are relevant and reflect progression.

Empower learners to take responsibility for their own learning.

Challenge pupils to continuously produce their best efforts.

Table 3

• The process of auditing is not discussed in this paper. However, it needs to be stated emphatically that quality assurance requires a through process which includes planning, assessing, development planning, etc. • The auditing and assessment is also dependent on carefully planned actions in order to realise the expected levels of attainment. • Given the aims of this instrument, an additional section (Table 3) was included that deals with planned action related to the various indicators.

Primary key area: CURRICULUM Secondary key area: LEARNING AND TEACHING

Scale

School plan Indicator 1 2 3 4

1 Teachers meet weekly to plan content, Carefully planned and structured progression, assignments and lessons and learning programmes which assessment criteria. are relevant and reflect progression.

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• Curriculum as a key area contains the teach- CONCLUSION ing and learning processes and includes The purpose of this paper was to put schools teaching content, learning areas, teaching and quality education in the spotlight. It did not strategies and other contributing factors. serve to discuss processes of development plan- • Management and Output are used in similar ning. This conceptualisation of indicators for ways to other recognised instruments. good schools starts from the preoccupation that • Resources is given particular preference as an it is possible to grasp a good school in indica- independent key area due to its importance, tors. It needs to be emphasised that no outcome but specifically to accommodate the possible should be seen as a verdict, but should rather differences in resources and its application motivate a process of self-evaluation using per- that marks South African educational reali- formance indicators. This could become the ties. moment of activation followed by innovative • Under every primary key area, a number of actions towards quality education. secondary key areas are listed to indicate the After being involved in a similar process areas of focus. abroad, one of the researchers concluded by • The subsections are interrelated to demon- saying: “Maybe it is more realistic to see the strate the interdependence of indicators and indicators as a heuristic look at a school – thereby illustrate the complex realities of a which shows you the way – and not as an algo- school. rithm which gives you the false certificate that • The instrument was carefully designed in you can catch quality by one instrument” (Van order to ensure its application to all school Bruggen, 1999:112). types. Primary, secondary and special schools For South African schools this can only serve could easily engage in this process due to the as a guideline, an awakening and stimulating broad overview and spectrum of indicators exercise to encourage thought on quality assur- which are covered. ance in education and schools.

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REFERENCES

DEKETELAERE, A. 1999. Indicators for good JOYCE, B., CALHOUN,E. & HOPKINS, D. 1999. schools; analysis and a proposal. Report on The new structure of school improvement – the workshop, organised by the Flemish Inquiring schools and achieving students. Inspectorates of Education for SICI. Open University Press. Buckingham. DE KLERK, J. 2000. The values underlying Philadelphia. quality and equality in educational transfor- O’NIELL, J. 2000. Smart goals, smart schools. mation. Paper presented at conference on Educational Leadership. February, 2000. Democratic Transformation of Education. PROCESMANAGEMENT PRIMAIR ONDERWIJS 1999. Stellenbosch. Het geheel is meer dan de som der delen. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. 1999. Quality Verslag over het jaar 1998 Faces Reclame & Assurance for Schools. National Department Communicatie, Veghel. Mei 1999. – South Africa. Training Manual. STEYN, J. 2000. Balancing quality and equality EDUCATION AND INDUSTRY DEPARTMENT – THE in educational transformation. Paper present- SCOTTISH OFFICE. 1996. How good is our ed at conference on Democratic Transfor- schools?: Self-Evaluation using performance mation of Education. Stellenbosch. indicators. Audit Unit. VAN BRUGGEN, J.C. 1999. Evaluation of teach- INSPECTIE VAN ONDERWIJS. 1999. Schooltoezicht ers and school in Europe – The role of inspec- 2000 – Informatiebrochure voor Scholen torates of education. Paper presented at the voor primair onderwijs en de expertisecentra. Standing International Conference of Central Jan Evers, De Meern. October 1999. and General Inspectorates of Education.

88 Assessment: Transforming Policy into Practice

Riana Hall & Wilma Rossouw

“There is no end to the adventures that we transformation of the system as a whole to meet can have if only we seek them with our eyes the needs of all learners. open.” – Marcus Aurelius INTRODUCTION ABSTRACT International recognition that education sys- Education is going through a period of large- tems should cater for diversity has been grow- scale, radical change. Teachers, schools and ing steadily in recent years. The 1990 United school systems are confronted with change Nations (UN) Conference in Jomtien focused when the traditional ways of teaching, teaching on “Education for All” and the 1994 Salaman- roles, the curriculum, and ways of assessment ca Conference on Special Needs added to this are questioned as educational provision to impetus by drawing attention to the large num- learners with special educational needs, bers of groups of children currently excluded becomes more inclusive. from mainstream education (Hallahan, The transformation to inclusive education is Kaufmann & Lloyd, 1996:7; Unesco, 1994). considered inherently as an irrevocable social The world’s children with special needs are transformation. Education for all learners is often hidden away or sometimes separated the preparation for full participation in a from other children. Strong negative attitudes diverse, integrated, democratic community towards people with a disability held by par- (Saleh, 1996). ents, professionals and society in general are Traditional methods in education are being perhaps the greatest barrier to inclusion criticised for narrowing the curriculum; the (MacLean & Gannon, 1995; De la Rey, quality of assessments; the consistency of scor- Duncan, Shefer & Van Niekerk, 1997). ing and of learner performance; the fairness of “Quality education for all: Overcoming barri- assessments; the interpretability of scores; and ers to learning and development” is the title of the classification of learners for placement a report commissioned by the South African purposes. Minister of Education which was completed in This paper reflects on the challenges experi- 1997 (NCSNET, 1997). The document will enced with the implementation of non-tradi- form the basis of a new national policy on spe- tional forms of assessment for learners with cial needs education, which is directly in line special educational needs in the mainstream. It with general education transformation initia- argues that teachers must be empowered to tives. The principles underpinning this educa- make their own choices from a growing range tional transformation include: human rights and of options, with considerable freedom to craft justice for all learners, equal access to a single, assessment systems to meet their specific inclusive education system, removing past needs. It questions the extent to which the sys- inequalities, the development of strong links tem is able to accommodate diversity; the abili- between the community and the centres of ty of teachers to meet individual needs; and the learning, and cost effectiveness. Educational

89 Hall & Rossouw provision and support for all learners must be learner and the teacher (Bradley et al, 1997). appropriate, effective, affordable, imple- The involvement of learners improves as they mentable and sustainable. Starting from the participate in setting goals and criteria for basis of respecting the human rights of all indi- assessment. As the learner performs, creates, viduals, this radical new policy paves the way produces, or does something, a variety of choic- for an education system, which welcomes and es in the completion of tasks require learners to responds to diversity (NCSNET, 1997). use higher-level thinking and/or problem solv- The traditional approach to the education of ing skills (Wilson & Wing Jan, 1993:112). learners with special needs was that only spe- Tasks often provide measures of meta-cogni- cially educated teachers could deal with this tive skills and attitudes, collaborative skills and task, and only in separate educational settings. intrapersonal skills as well as the more usual The belief was instilled that learners must be intellectual products. Assessment tasks measure able to conform to the ways teachers teach, and meaningful instructional activities and are often that those learners who do not conform, do not contextualised in real-world applications. The belong in the mainstream. Mainstream teachers learner responses are scored according to speci- were therefore relieved of responsibility for the fied criteria, known in advance, which define education of learners with special needs standards for good performance (Hall, 1998: (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1996). 110). Learners with a wide range of different needs are currently in mainstream schools, in the care 1. RESEARCH QUESTION of teachers who have little or no support and/or The purpose of this article is to reflect on the training (Engelbrecht & Forlin, 1997; Bradley implementation of non-traditional assessment & West, 1994; Kemple, Hartle, Cornea & Fox, for learners with special educational needs in 1994). For inclusion to work, educational prac- the mainstream. According to the literature tices must be child-centered. Teachers who (Botes, 1996), learners with special educational view their role more as being facilitators of needs who are to be included must have com- learning rather than simply transmitters of prehensive assessment if teachers are to imple- knowledge, will develop and use good practices ment optimal learning programmes for them. and skills in curriculum-based assessment, team Assessment should not be limited to traditional teaching, mastery learning, assessing learning standardised, discrete-point tests, but should styles (and modifying instruction to adapt to include observation of the learners’ skill levels learners’ learning styles), other individualised (Westby, Watson, & Murphy, 1994). and adaptive learning approaches, cooperative While assessment has the potential to learning strategies, facilitating peer tutoring and improve learning for all learners, historically it “peer buddies,” and social skills training has acted as a barrier rather than a bridge to (Bradley, King-Sears & Tessier-Switlick, educational opportunity. Assessments have 1997). been used to label learners and put them in The influence of assessment on curriculum dead-end tracks. Traditional tests have been and instruction is widely acknowledged, and soundly criticised as biased and unfair, and a teachers, policy makers, and others are turning very narrow concept of human intelligence has to alternative assessment methods as a tool for driven views of human learning. This inade- educational reform (Lipsky & Gartner, 1997). quate and inappropriate assessment of intelli- The movement toward non-traditional methods gence has come under close scrutiny of assessments has led to the quest for more (NCSNET, 1997:29; Gipps, 1994:8). meaningful assessments which better capture the significant outcomes we want learners to 2. METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH achieve and better match the kinds of tasks The implementation of non-traditional assess- which they will need to accomplish in order to ment of learners with special educational needs assure their future success (Gipps, 1994:4). in mainstream schools was explored with the The continuing faith in the value of assess- help of: ment for stimulating and supporting school • an analysis of the reflections of 18 Further improvement and instructional reform, links Diploma in Education (FDE) students in with the principle of partnership between the teaching practice

90 Hall & Rossouw

• interviews with learner support facilitators at exploration, feedback and practice combine to the Western Cape Education Department create an atmosphere where process, not prod- (WCED) uct, is emphasised. Students are encouraged to • a survey of the theoretical component of the develop knowledge to pose questions and make Assessment module. choices, rather than to seek simple answers to complex questions. 2.1 Participants In order to explore the implementation of non- 2.3 Data analysis traditional methods of assessment, 18 FDE stu- A qualitative methodology was employed to dents from the University of Stellenbosch were analyse the data from students’ reflections as doing weekly sessions of teaching practice in well as data from the interviews. The researcher randomly selected schools in the Western Cape searched the data for common ideas and themes Peninsula over a period of six months. (Strauss & Corbin, 1990) and used those to This study also involved interviews with the develop a set of categories. Using the coding learner support facilitators at the WCED that scheme, all responses were tabulated within the were co-supervising the students in their teach- respective categories. (Maykut & Morehouse, ing practice. Initial interviews took place after 1994:133; Miles & Huberman, 1994:249). An the first session of teaching practice. Interviews independent researcher read a protocol of the were in the form of informal discussions. data and indicated categories as well as the fre- quency of each category. These categories were 2.2 Contexts then compared with that of the researcher. In order to understand the context of the FDE students, it is important to state the implied out- 3. RESULTS come of the FDE course. The FDE course The results enabled us to reflect on the imple- necessitates a critical view of society and the mentation of non-traditional methods of assess- world of education and special needs education. ment and what emanated was the discovery that At the same time the course aims to provide the challenges we face are mainly in two areas: students with the confidence and ability to • The specific procedure of the assessment make instructional, curricular and professional process decisions based on new policy documents as • The non-traditional methods of assessment well as on the needs of learners. The course focuses on the development of 3.1 The specific procedure of the assessment necessary skills to work collaboratively with process colleagues and to adopt key roles of leadership The facilitators of the WCED questioned the and coordination as part of being advocates for specific procedure of the assessment process positive change in the profession, schools and that the FDE students followed. They were par- society. Students are encouraged to develop ticularly concerned about the fact that learners, ownership in their professional contexts and who were allocated to students to be assessed, become reflective practitioners (Engelbrecht & were not being assessed using standardised Snyman, 1999). tests in their first session. The focus of the FDE The assessment modules focus on making students was to gather information about the assessment on a continuous basis more integral learner as an individual rather than in relation with learning tasks, so that skills such as prob- to other individuals, as a starting point of the lem solving and critical thinking can be assessment process. The diagnostic use of stan- assessed. The modules on learning support are dardised tests was planned for a later stage. based on the definition of learning support as Teachers at the various schools requested preventative interventions, which incorporate immediate results from students wanting, for all aspects of the teaching-learning process in example, to know what the learners’ specific the classroom. It includes both eco-systemic scores were. When students explained that they and individual needs, providing support for had not done standardised assessments in the teachers, parents, learners and the social com- first session, some teachers were unhappy and munity at large. The nature of the FDE pro- mentioned that they cannot allow learners, gramme is one in which dialogue, discussion, “who were already failing, to spend time play-

91 Hall & Rossouw ing when they have to catch up”. It seemed as if ers employing metacognitive strategies, present teachers wanted confirmation of what they learners with increasingly explicit cues and already knew, that the learners they referred for prompts for performing a task (Wilson & Wing assessment were the lowest achievers in their Jan, 1994:8). The assessment of learning effi- classes. ciency focuses on how much help is needed for learners to reach their learning potentials in a 3.2 The non-traditional methods of particular domain, rather than a static measure assessment of what has already been acquired. Students in the FDE course have to make their FDE students apply the theory of multiple own choices from a range of options for assess- abilities, talents and skills. There are many ment. Assessment aims to devise tests which kinds of knowledge or talents that enrich our look at the individual rather than in relation to lives and help us respond effectively to our other individuals and to use measurement con- environment. Traditional schools have empha- structively to identify strengths and weaknesses sised the assessment of logical-mathematical individuals might have, so as to aid their educa- and verbal-linguistic abilities, leaving other tional progress (Gipps, 1994:8). abilities out of the assessment process, and in FDE students approach assessment from the so doing it discriminates among learners new vision of learning and assessing of learner (Gardner, 1983). As different abilities and skills learning that is broad-based, relevant to real become increasingly valued in schools, new life, process oriented, and based on multiple visions of assessment increasingly include measures which provide a rich portrayal of assessment of the various abilities and skills learner learning. It taps the power and diversity based on a broader concept of intelligence, of active learning, creates multiple sources of ability and learning. Not only will logical and information to support instructional decision verbal abilities continue to be assessed, but making, and helps learners become more assessment also will include visual, auditory, reflective and capable learners. This approach kinesthetic, intrapersonal and interpersonal integrates assessment into classroom instruction abilities. This means assessing learners’ reper- (Shearer Mariotti, 1997). toire of learning strategies, skills in communi- Assessment needs to be considered as an cating with others, and knowledge as it is ongoing dynamic process in which learners applied to day-to-day problem solving and cul- orchestrate learning strategies in a dynamic turally diverse contexts (Fogarty, 1998:14; flow as they move in and out of different tasks Wilson & Wing Jan, 1993:52). and phases of learning and forms part of a The need for rich contexts in problem solving process that enables learners to become suc- extends to the task of assessing learner perfor- cessful learners. Assessment becomes the feed- mances (Lewis & Doorlag, 1995:459; Gipps, back that enables learners to be strategic in 1993:9). The performances that are selected for their own learning process and enables teachers assessment must reflect the actual skills and to adapt the instructional process to meet the competencies that are valued in the appropriate needs of their learners (King-Sears, 1997:165). context (Marzano, Pickering & McTighe, 1993: Assessment helps teachers communicate expec- 13). As learners work through a number of per- tations and standards of learning and perfor- formances, they collect the results in a folder mance to learners. It also helps learners gain (Elliott, 1994). This collection, along with a information about what is valued, set personal description of what has been selected and why, academic expectations, internalise the required comprises the portfolio. knowledge and skills, promote their self-knowl- Learner reflection is a meaningful ingredient edge about performance, understand who is in in a portfolio not only because it fosters a sense control of learning and improve their learning of ownership, but also because it is instructive. (Wilson & Wing Jan, 1993:10). Learners must learn how to teach themselves Strategies such as dynamic and continuous new skills and ideas. Formal schooling can fos- assessments enable teachers to modify instruc- ter this ability by having learners pay careful tions as needed. The concept of dynamic attention to their individual learning styles, by assessment is a natural extension of the idea of having them make important choices about integrating assessment and instruction. Teach- their learning while they are in school, and by

92 Hall & Rossouw having them create portfolios that document needs. The traditional paradigm is also reflect- those experiences (King-Sears, 1997:145). ed in teachers’ negative responses and unrealistic expectations of the assessment process of 4. DISCUSSION individual learners. The schooling system must establish a mean- To a large extent school is a mechanism for ingful context for problem solving and provide transmitting the expectations of society. This an opportunity for learners to practice using a transmission is traditionally based on language. variety of intelligences in order to build self- Such an environment will place many individ- esteem by helping all learners develop an accu- uals at a disadvantage and will unfortunately rate and complete picture of their capabilities. yield the view that not every learner can learn. Assessment situations have to facilitate and This misrepresentation occurs for any learner reinforce this approach. whose particular blend of intelligences does not If we want our schools to prepare learners for match precisely what the traditional school the challenges they will face after they leave, requires. we must constantly pose challenges in school The transformation process of the system as a that force them to invoke a variety of intelli- whole can only be accelerated if we begin to gences. These challenges should have different think of school as a place where learners pursue kinds of solutions, involve a variety of intelli- the successful accomplishment of meaningful gences, encourage collaboration, and provide activities. Such a view takes seriously the opportunities for reflection. Learners leaving notion that every learner can learn, but it does school with plenty of practice in meta-cognitive not require that all learners learn in the same problem solving, will be better equipped to way. Introducing multiplicity to this analysis solve novel problems in the working world by and emphasising success does not imply lower drawing on a more complete understanding of standards. Successful accomplishment requires themselves and their strengths and weaknesses. genuine challenge, high standards, and definitions of accomplishment that are acknowledged CONCLUSION publicly. Furthermore, we can bring demanding This paper concludes that the education para- techniques of evaluation to these disparate digm is still based on the traditional methods of activities via the assessment alternatives of per- teaching where the learner has to perform and formances, projects and portfolios. Using these progress according to predetermined standards. techniques, the schools for success can docu- This paradigm reflects the inability of the sys- ment and evaluate a variety of performances tem to accommodate diversity. Teachers seem while maintaining very high standards. unable to meet individual needs as they find it A school that respects and responds to the difficult to accommodate a paradigm shift with- multiplicity of aptitudes, that builds on its in their traditional frame of reference, which is learners’ backgrounds, and that allows for vari- still deeply immersed in a culture of separate ety in learner performance, can strive for suc- educational provision for learners with special cess for all.

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REFERENCES

BOTES, A. 1996. Hoofstroomonderwys vir hood and early childhood special education. kinders met Down-sindroom: ’n Opvoed- Teacher Education and Special Education, kundige-sielkundige perspektief. M.Ed 17(1): 38-51. (Psig) skripsie. Universiteit van Pretoria. KING-SEARS, M.E. 1997. Assessment. In D.F. BRADLEY, D.F.; KING-SEARS, M.E. & TESSIER- Bradley; M.E. King-Sears & D.M. Tessier- SWITLICK, D.M. 1997. Teaching students in Switlick. 1997. Teaching students in inclu- inclusive settings: From theory to practice. sive settings: From theory to practice. Boston, Mass: Allyn and Bacon. Boston, Mass: Allyn and Bacon. BRADLEY, D.F. & WEST, J.F. 1994. Staff train- LEWIS, R.B. & DOORLAG, D.H. 1995. Teaching ing for the inclusion of students with disabili- special students in the mainstream. New ties: visions from school-based educators. Jersey: Merrill. Teacher Education and Special Education, LIPSKY, D.K. & GARTNER, A. 1997. Inclusion 17(2): 117-128. and school reform. Transforming America’s DELAREY, C.; DUNCAN, N; SHEFER, T. & VAN classrooms. Baltimore, MD: Paul Brookes. NIEKERK, A. 1997. Contemporary issues in MACLEAN, D. & GANNON, P.M. 1995. human development: A South African focus. Measuring attitudes toward disability: The Johannesburg: International Thomson interaction with disabled persons scale revis- Publishing. ited. Journal of Social Behaviour and ELLIOTT, S.N. 1994. Creating meaningful per- Personality, 10, 791-806. formance assessments: Fundamental con- MARZANO, R.J.; PICKERING, D. & MCTIGHE, J. cepts. Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional 1993. Assessing student outcomes: Perfor- Children. mance assessment using the dimensions of ENGELBRECHT, P. & FORLIN, C. 1997. Training learning model. Alexandria, VA: Association of teachers in inclusive education: A South for Supervision and Curriculum Develop- African perspective. Paper presented at the ment. Inclusive Education: Inclusive Society Inter- MAYKUT, P. & MOREHOUSE, R. 1994. national Conference, Brunei, Darussalam. Beginning qualitative research. A philosoph- ENGELBRECHT, P. & SNYMAN, H. 1999. ical and practical guide. Educating pre-service teachers in inclusive MILES, M.B. & HUBERMAN, A.M. 1994. education: Reflections on the Stellenbosch Qualitative data analysis. (2nd ed.). London: experience in South Africa. International Sage publications. Journal of Special Education, 14(1): 96-100. NCSNET. 1997. Quality education for all: FOGARTY, R. 1998. Balanced Assessment. USA: Overcoming barriers to learning and develop- Skylight Training and Publishing Inc. ment. Final Report - November. Unpublish- GARDNER, H. 1983. Frames of mind: The theo- ed. ry of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic SALEH, L. 1996. From inclusive education to Books. inclusive communities. Paper presented at the GIPPS, C.V. 1994. Beyond testing. Towards a University of South Africa. Pretoria: March. theory of educational assessment. London: Unpublished. The Falmer Press. SCRUGGS, T.E. & MASTROPIERI, M.A. 1996. HALL, R. 1998. Die rol van spesiale skole in Teacher perception of mainstreaming/inclu- inklusiewe onderwys. PhD. verhandeling. sion, 1958-1995: A research synthesis. Universiteit van Stellenbosch. Ongepublis- Exceptional children. 63(1) Fall: 59-74. eerd. SHEARER MARIOTTI, A.P. & HOMAN, S.P. 1997. HALLAHAN, D.P.; KAUFMANN, J.M. & LLOYD, Linking Reading Assessment to Instruction - T.W. 1996. Introduction to learning disabili- An application worktext for elementary class- ties. New York: Teachers’ college Press. room teachers. KEMPLE, K.M.; HARTLE, C.C.; CORREA, V.I. & STRAUSS, A. & CORBIN, J. 1990. Basics of qual- FOX, L. 1994. Preparing teachers for inclu- itative research: Grounded theory proce- sive education: the development of a unified dures and techniques. Newbury Park, CA: teacher education programme in early child- Sage.

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UNESCO, 1994. The Salamanca statement and kids by including them. Journal of Childhood framework on special needs education. Paris. Communication Disorders, 16(1), 13-22. Unesco. WILSON, J. & WING JAN. L. 1993. Thinking for WESTBY, C.E.; WATSON, S.; MURPHY, M. 1994. themselves. Developing strategies for reflec- The vision of full inclusion: don’t exclude tive learning. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

95 A Case for Human Rights Education in an African Context: The Concept and the Practice

Tarcisio Nyatsanza

INTRODUCTION ing such narrow conceptions of human rights. While everyone agrees that human rights edu- Questions started being raised as to how indication should be implemented, several ques- viduals should treat each other, what institutions are being raised as to the actual nature of tions (such as the state or religion) can do and human rights, particularly when applied to non- cannot do, and how individuals and groups Western and African context(s) in particular. should relate to each other. Rights, it has also been argued, are derived from the nature of 1. UNDERSTANDING HUMAN RIGHTS human beings as such. With the outbreak of the The discourse on human rights is contestable two world wars (1914–1918 and 1939–1945), a insofar as it has attracted the attention of, plethora of human rights issues came on board. among others, philosophers, politicians, theolo- Thus, both the League of Nations and the gians, social protagonists and educationists. United Nations formulated procedures and Given this contestability, there is a need to re- guidelines that prescribed what human rights examine the issue of human rights prior to would entail. It is important to note that such a implementing them in a meaningful way within project would be set up using particular lan- the school curriculum. guages. Those languages arose from specific One of the critical issues surrounding discus- cultural experiences. This in itself presents sions on human rights education is the fact that unique challenges, and these challenges will be it has been problematic, although not totally explored later. impossible, to come up with an agreed upon With the formation of the Organisation of definition of what the exact nature of human Africa Unity (OAU), however, the African rights is. There has, however, been consider- continent formulated its charter on Human and able consensus on the articulation of various Peoples’ Rights. Despite the widespread human rights articles. I emphasise the articula- assumption that human rights are universal tion because beyond that, a number of prob- (Dower, 1983), the attempt in the current lems arise. The problems are by way of exam- decade to introduce human rights education ple, historical, semantic, economic and contex- within an African/multicultural context, raises tual. These problems arise because there is no pertinent issues of concern with respect to both agreement on which rights to grant, who has the concept and the practice. the obligation to realise these rights and what the source of these rights is (Gwisai, 1999). 2. TENSIONS BETWEEN WESTERN AND AFRICAN In the Western world, human rights have CONCEPTIONS OF HUMAN RIGHTS been discussed from early times. Their origin Multiculturalism has therefore been broadly has been variously described – for example, in understood to refer to an individual’s having feudal times, rights had to do with what people his/her own world view, engaging in practices owed their landlords, kings of God. With the that are different from other peoples’, having collapse of feudalism, people started challeng- the ability to interpret other people’s signs, lan-

97 Nyatsanza guage, gestures, cues, as well as developing One of the ways in which this would be anti-racist, anti-gender biases based on both realised was to emphasise the concepts of con- historical and contemporary experiences sent, accountability, democracy and participa- (Bennet, 1999:30). tion. To that end, it was argued that the individ- This then brings us to a point where educa- ual should be given the highest regard vis-à-vis tional practitioners need to translate the concept the community (Komba, 1998:197). John Stuart of human rights into a meaningful practice Mill also argued that the independence of the within the school curriculum. individual was absolute and that the rest of the Before the concept human rights itself is community was dependent on such axioms addressed, one needs to clarify the issue of (ibid). It was on the basis of the same logic that multicultural education, of which the African Benjamin Constant stressed the fact that in context is a typical example. I need not spend order to free oneself, one should be free to much time explaining how the African context determine one’s life and ends without interfer- is multicultural, but suffice it to say that there is ence. Modern liberty was to anchor on a consti- a debate on whether or not the term African tution that defended the rights of individuals refers to something simple or complex. In fact, (Constant, 1988). many strands of meaning may be identified. The preceding points present a backdrop One is that multiculturalism within an African against which the West conceive and exercise context refers to historical genres: Pre-colonial, their rights. Thus, in Western terms, rights are colonial and post-colonial and how the three understood more in terms of the singular pro- sometimes coexist. noun rather than the plural. In practical terms it The other level of meaning refers to African therefore makes perfect sense to talk of an indi- multiculturalism insofar as Africa consists of vidual demanding social space, claiming a various cultural groups. This way of character- realm of privacy and arguing for a child’s right ising African multiculturalism avoids the to choose “a”, “b”, “c”, etc. Within such a reductionist tendency of assuming African par- framework, human rights education would be ticularity rather than multiplicity (Makang, based on values that are in tandem with individ- 1997:330). What this therefore means is that ualism and Western ideology. multiculturalism in Africa does not necessarily The above scenario stands in stark contrast to entail uniqueness but the ability of the com- the African conception(s) of human rights. In plexity of African culture to interface with fact, the idea of singling out human rights as an Western experiences. Mudimbe reiterates the identifiable aspect of human enterprise is itself same point when he argues that such thinking is an issue. From the traditional (pre-colonial) a result of the notorious mystification of through to the contemporary African point of African tradition ((Mudimbe, 1988:153). view, life is not necessarily segmented. It is The rest of the paper will try to explore the conceived in holistic terms, that is, regarding various tensions that emerge from the African one’s cosmic experiences as a totality. Values context within itself, as well as the interface (and therefore rights) are construed in collec- between the African and the Western concep- tive terms (Komba, 1998:197). Edison Zvobgo tions and practice of human rights. The author (1979:93), a renowned Zimbabwean legal would like to argue that it is the discussions expert, has similarly argued that: about these tensions that will inform us whether “Rights ... do not exist as an integral part of or not the human rights education is imple- human nature. They arise from a person’s mentable or not. Notwithstanding the above, destiny of living in relationship with family, Zimbabwe has launched a pilot scheme through friends, the ethno-linguistic group and the auspices of the United Nations Educational, nation ... No rights can be exercised apart Scientific and Cultural Organisation (Unesco) from one’s relationship with another.” in partnership with some neighbouring coun- In fact, Ramose argues that what Zvobgo pro- tries, but the results will depend on the appro- pounds is true insofar as the African political priateness of the theoretical framework. culture emphasises reciprocity in the realm of Since the 18th and 19th centuries, European human relations. Reciprocity, according to political thinkers have been concerned with Ramose (1999:139), crystallises into the princi- how authoritarianism could be kept in check. ple of solidarity. Human rights then operate

98 Nyatsanza within a context where the group is mutually one of my colleagues from Kenya to find out agreed to respect and recognise (collectively) what the KiSawahili phrase for “human rights” each other’s life experiences. Gyekye (1987:8) is, he paused for a couple of minutes before reiterates the same point when he argued that: answering. In fact, he told me that he was try- “The communal ethos of African culture ing to translate because the expression is not necessarily placed a great value on solidari- part of the ordinary language use. I am ty, which in turn necessitated the pursuit of informed that the equivalent phrase is haki za unanimity or consensus not only in such watu wote. In SiNdebele, the expression is important decisions as those taken by the amalungelo abantu, in Setswana, it is highest political authority, town or state, but ditshwanelo tsa batho and in ChiShona they also in decisions taken by lower assemblies say kodzero dzevanhu. such as those presided over by heads of Because language is conceptual and is clans, that is the councillors.” intended to convey meaning, it becomes prob- It has therefore been demonstrated that the lematic if words are used but their meaning is African perspective is collective and this in turn unclear. The practice of human rights essential- informs their conceptualisation and exercise of ly becomes problematic. In fact, part of what human rights. But of critical importance is the emerges from this discussion is that within the fact that the collectivity did not entail unanimi- African context, human rights are not singly ty. The collective position was arrived at considered. They are conceptualised within the through a process of reconciling many and broad framework of a cosmic view of life. The often divergent views. issue of the relatedness of beings already dis- The above argument proceeded on some cussed aptly, applies here. assumed premise that rights do exist in one Humans are related to other human beings, to form or another. However, Karl Marx’s critique animals, the environment and the spirit world. of society offers some useful insights into the Whatever conception of rights one would have, discussion of human rights. According to his within this context, they are defined in a rela- logic, human rights are based on economic tional manner. power relations. It is the propertied class, which Another example of how rights become prob- has rights and entitlements. This imbalance (of lematic in the African context is the impact of only the dominant class having rights) under- the role of patriarchy in defining those rights. mines the concept of rights being universal. Questions are asked, for example, whether or According to the Marxist trajectory, the final not women’s rights are in fact human rights. stage of societal development is when there Pat McFadden (1988) has explored how male will be a classless society. In this society, it is dominated epistemology has been constructed presumed, rights will not make sense. In in order to define and exercise “human rights” Marxist terms, any talk of rights is meaning- from a biased and monolithic point of view less. (Gwisai, 1999:5). A similar paradigm also applies when children’s rights are considered. It 3. PROBLEMS OF THE CONCEPT AND PRACTICE has been argued that there should be a distinc- OF HUMAN RIGHTS tion between the rights enjoyed by adults and The preceding discussion has already charac- those enjoyed by children. In a famous case in terised the broad differences between Western Zimbabwe, Justice McNally ruled that it was and non-Western conceptions of human rights. not inhuman to whip a juvenile, but that it was This section will cite some specific examples of inhuman to whip an adult (Unesco:127-134). the African context. One area in which the term I shall briefly focus on Zimbabwe in terms of human rights is problematic is language. An the Unesco project on human rights education. exploration of a few African languages demon- While it should be applauded that such a ven- strates that the term is relatively new, and has ture has been embarked upon, critical issues been coined in the recent “era of development”. need to be considered if it is to succeed. In fact, what has happened is that the two Workshops have been held with the view to words human and rights have been separately exploring how to incorporate human rights translated in order to come up with the African issues in various subjects within the curricu- (indigenous) language phrase. When I called lum. While such an inclusivist approach has

99 Nyatsanza some merits, there is need to clarify the concep- CONCLUSION tual issues that have been highlighted above. It Turning to our own region, I would like to is the author’s view that current conceptions argue that it is imperative to continue to search (including the manual Human Rights and for a just and equitable society. In order to do Democracy for Southern Africa:1999) present a this, there is need for an appropriate education rather simplistic and uncontroversial view of system with both the educators and those being human rights. The text does not reflect a home- educated being critical as well as resourceful. grown product in terms of sensitivities, pecu- Because the education system is the seedbed of liarities and dialectics of the African experi- future society, human rights education must be ences. Take for example the right to health or the basis upon which it should develop. the need to protect the environment (Unesco: Although some work on human rights has 127-134). been done, very little work has been done to Within the African context, to be healthy explore the problems surrounding the concept means, among other things, being at peace with and practice of human rights in the African the spirit world, being physically fit, being pro- context. More importantly, if human rights edu- ductive and being prosperous. On the other cation is to be introduced in the school curricu- hand, the environment does not just refer to lum, it will require that a well-articulated and geophysical space, but it is a whole world of defensible theoretical framework first be put in existence with beings of different levels. These place. The African context urgently needs spe- beings have a history, politics and ideologies, cific attention in order to provide a meaningful and relate in very complex ways. response to continued violations in many parts It should also be borne in mind that education of Africa. on the African continent is diverse and com- It is hoped that this paper has raised some plex, reflecting the educational traditions, pertinent issues on human rights education and strategies, aspirations and policies of various that out of this will come some suggestions communities as well as those of the whole of towards broader and African-oriented concep- contemporary Africa. tions of human rights.

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REFERENCES

BENNETT, C.I. 1999. Comprehensive MARX-ENGELS. 1982. Selected Works. Moscow: Multicultural Education: Theory and Progress Publishers. Practice. Indiana. MCFADDEN, P. 1998. Southern Africa in transi- CONSTANT, B. 1988. Political Writings. tion: A gendered perspective. Sapes. Cambridge University Press. MUDIMBE, Y.V. 1988. The Invention of Africa. DOWER, N. 1983. World Poverty: Challenge Indiana. and Response. York. RAMOSE, M.B. 1999. African Philosophy GWISAI, M. 1999. An Overview of Human through Ubuntu. Harare: Mond Books. Rights and Democracy. (Unpublished paper.) RAY, D. (ed.). 1994. Education for Human Harare: Unesco workshop. Rights. Unesco. GYEKYE, K. 1995. An Essay on African Unesco. 1999. Education for Human Rights Philosophical Thought. Philadelphia. and Democracy in Southern Africa. HALL, P. (ED.). 1997. Race, Ethnicity and USHER, R. & EDWARDS, R. (eds.) 1994. Multiculturalism: Policy and Practice. New Postmodernism and education. Routledge. York. ZVOBGO, E.J.M. 1979. A Third World View. In: KOMBA, W. 1988. Choices in Liberal and Non Kommers, D.P. & Loescher, G.D. (eds.). Liberal Educational Thought. In: Journal of Human Rights and American Foreign Policy. Philosophy of Education, Vol. 32 No. 2. Notre Dame. Blackwell.

101 Implications of Culturally Based Assumptions of Leadership for the Process of Educational Transformation

Johan Schreuder

INTRODUCTION: TRANSFORMATION OF THE appointed a Task Team on Education EDUCATION SYSTEM Management Development to draw up guide- “During the last decade, the educational lines for and to develop education manage- arena has been replete with the rhetoric of ment. This Task Team was briefed to: decentralisation, site-based management, • translate the broad vision of the transforma- teacher empowerment and distributed lead- tion of education into the practical day to day ership. But does the reality match up to the reality of school life rhetoric?” (Shen, 1998: 35) • promote a culture of participatory manage- Although this quotation actually refers to the ment that would empower all levels of school present situation in the United States (US), it management and refine their management also reflects to a large extent the present dilem- skills. ma in schools in South Africa. In order to achieve this vision for transforma- In the past, the South African school system tion in education, it is necessary to: was divided into different departments of edu- • develop effective structures to enable par- cation based on racial grounds. These depart- ticipatory management to take place at all ments were also managed in divergent ways. levels of school management; This diversity meant that schools in the differ- • provide for leadership and management ent departments did not all enjoy the same training which will provide role-players degree of managerial autonomy. It also meant with the necessary skills to contribute to the that differences existed regarding management system; and quality and management capacity. • empower individuals and groups with the Principals and teachers have consistently necessary information, skills and attitudes been at the receiving end of top-down manage- so that they can effectively manage educa- ment structures. They have worked in a regu- tion on a day to day basis (Report on lated environment and have become accus- Education Management Development, tomed to receiving direct instructions from 1996:11-16). departmental officials. Educational institutions This new paradigm requires that: have been unable to make decisions on how to “ ... school governors will have to learn be managed and have been unable to respond how best to take responsibility for making effectively to community needs. decisions that affect their schools, and how Over the past six years, however, democrati- to interact with the school management sation has removed all discrimination and team in ways which offer support and guid- unequal opportunities in society. Each aspect ance, balanced by thoughtful direction and of education has been transformed which, in control. The task of instilling these new turn, has far-reaching implications for the man- attitudes, skills, knowledge and understand- agement of the South African school system. ing is at the heart of the challenge we face The national Department of Education also in transforming governance and manage-

103 Schreuder

ment” (Report on Education Management insight and understanding; clarify purposes; Development, 1996:35-36). make behaviour congruent with beliefs, principles, values and bring about changes that are 1. THE NEED FOR LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION permanent”. In spite of the initiatives to translate and implement the vision of the transformation of educa- 2. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEADERSHIP AND tion and the culture of participatory manage- CULTURE ment into the practical day to day school life, From the above viewpoints on leadership, it is there has been relatively little progress with the clear that it is indeed a highly subjective con- implementation of new structures and processes cept, because different people may have differ- to improve the capacity and quality of the manent interpretations of leadership. Hofstede agement of schools. described culture as the “collective program- The most important reason for this dilemma ming of the mind which distinguishes the mem- is a lack of understanding of the new leadership bers of one group from another”. paradigm that underpins participation. Sergio- Culture has such a major impact on human vanni (1994:6 ) noted in this regard that it is not behaviours and beliefs that leadership is actual- leadership that is outdated, but rather the indi- ly rooted in culture (Bryant, 1998:7-8). Tromp- vidual’s understanding of the concept. enaars (1993:1-2) concluded that the success of Charlton (2000:29-30) believes that leadership and management practices are “... underperformance of organisations can be directly affected by cultural differences. He directly ascribed to ineffectual leadership”. He pointed out that most leaders and managers are regards leadership as “... the key factor differ- familiar with most of the modern concepts such entiating average from excellent”. Charlton as site-based management, school-based man- (2000:60) identified the following competen- agement, and total quality management, but the cies of leadership in order to help people to per- key question is what these concepts mean to form consistently and introduce change to the people in different cultures. benefit of themselves and the organisation When one analyses the concept culture, one where they work. There were: only then realises the complexity and inclusive- • creating an inspiring shared vision that pro- ness of it. Culture consists of various layers vides focus, hope and direction which are not independent, but rather comple- • communicating this vision in understandable mentary in nature. The outer layer, known as ways in order to motivate people to do more explicit culture, refers for example to the than what is expected of them uniqueness of a group’s language, food, build- • building a trust relationship with the people ings, fashion and art. The middle layer repre- whom one works with sents norms and values. • being a visible role model and an exemplary The core of the concept has to do with the leader ways in which groups have organised them- • creating an empowering environment where selves over the years to make a living and to people are willing, able and allowed to per- deal with problems and challenges (Trompe- form to their potential. naars, 1993:22-24). Sergiovanni(1994: 6-7) stressed that “... school Trompenaars indicated that human beings leadership is about connecting people morally deal with each other in the following ways: to each other and their work”. Leadership • Individualism versus collectivism: Do people involves “... developing shared purposes, regard themselves as individuals (individual beliefs, collegiality and character develop- freedom) or as being part of a group (work- ment”. He also warned that “empty leadership ing for the group)? is encouraged” when leadership style and skills • Neutral versus emotional expression: Should are separated from school contexts and sub- the nature of interaction be objective or is it stances. acceptable to express your emotions openly Covey (1993:287) summarised the goal of and freely? transformational leadership as to “transform • Achievement versus ascription: Should one people and organisations in a literal sense”. be judged on what one has accomplished This implies that they have to “enlarge vision, (skills and competence) or is one’s status

104 Schreuder

attributed (reward based on experience, age, coming from the right family, having the right education, etc)? friends, consequently “... a perfect product to • Internal versus external control: personal produce more of the same”. Twice-born leaders responsibility for life experience versus have learnt the courage to “... listen to their dependence on circumstances due to outside own inner voice and therefore what works for factors. them, rather than society at large” (Charlton, The way in which societies look at particular 2000:93). times, also differs. Some societies regard the In many multicultural countries, leadership failures and accomplishments of the past as not development has been interpreted from specific being all that important, while the emphasis internalised patterns of thinking and behaving should rather be on what should be planned for that are believed to be natural and to be applic- the future. The attitude of a society to its envi- able to and supported by all cultures. Examples ronment is also an important cultural differ- of assumptions that could have been incorrectly ence. One cannot fully understand why individ- taken for granted are (McCauley et al., 1998: uals or organisations act in a specific manner 340-341): without analysing the meaning they attribute to • Leadership development is development of their environments (Trompenaars, 1993:8-19). individuals. If culture is therefore regarded as a set of • Everybody can develop leadership capacities. shared values, beliefs and preferred actions • Almost everybody is called on to lead at among the members of a society, it will auto- times. matically determine and influence the parame- • Leadership can be learned through delega- ters within which leadership development will tion. take place. The cultural values and beliefs • It is good to face challenging tasks in life. directly affect the assumptions on which leader- • Ambiguity and uncertainty are natural. ship development is based, as well as the • Being open to change is good. boundaries within which leadership develop- • Sharing power is a prerequisite for good lead- ment is understood and practiced (McCauley et ership. al, 1998:339-341). • Improvement and progress are normal. In South Africa, leadership has mainly been • Objective feedback is necessary. interpreted from a Western perspective during • Taking action is essential. the apartheid era, while the concept of Ubuntu In order to determine how local teachers feel and the philosophy associated with it was hard- about these assumptions and to make deduc- ly taken into consideration. Ubuntu expresses tions about how this could impact on education the humanistic experience in which all people transformation, a questionnaire was given to are treated with respect as human beings, and it 120 teachers in the Western Cape who are forms to a large extent the foundation of sound actively involved in tertiary studies. This group relations in African societies. Ubuntu means of teachers generally reflects the multicultural being human, and being human implies values nature of the population (65% black, 35% that are not subjective, but universal. This Coloured and 10% white). Their opinions are approach emphasises values such as truth, hon- reflected in the following paragraph. esty, justice, respect for person and property, compassion, tolerance of different religions, 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION views and races, sensitivity to the aged, the The feedback from the sample of teachers is handicapped, the less privileged and an enthusi- summarised in the table (over page). asm for life (Steyn and Motshabi, 1996:20-21). This analysis emphasises the real complexity In a multicultural country such as South and difficulty of judging the interaction Africa, it is especially important to allow for between members of different cultural groups. the diversity of cultural paradigms and not to Certain assumptions which may be valid in one judge leadership from one internalised view- situation may be completely invalid under dif- point only. In this regard Warren Bennis distin- ferent circumstances. Peoples’ viewpoints and guished between the once-born and the twice- perceptions about things are not only the result born leader. The former is a product of the pre- of their cultural paradigms, but previous expo- vailing culture, attending the right schools, sure to positive or negative experiences also

105 Schreuder

Yes No in view of the political circumstances which Leadership development is existed before the period of transformation in development of individuals: 61% 39% South Africa. Leadership development is The analysis also reflects a clear choice in development of the group: 71% 29% favour of facing challenging tasks in life, shar- Everybody can develop leadership ing power and the importance of taking action capacities: 72% 28% when being in positions of leadership. Personal Almost everybody is called on responsibility for life experience is therefore to lead at times: 74% 26% rated as a very important aspect of leadership. Leadership can be learned through delegation: 79% 21% CONCLUSION It is good to face challenging Although this analysis gives a rough estimation tasks in life: 99% 1% Ambiguity and uncertainty of the opinions of a group of teachers regarding are natural: 73% 19% culturally based assumptions of leadership, it is Being open to change is good: 97% 2% by no means representative of the feelings of Sharing power is a prerequisite the teachers in the Western Cape. This exercise for good leadership: 95% 3% was actually undertaken to highlight the follow- Improvement and progress are ing aspects about leadership, especially in mul- normal: 86% 12% ticultural societies undergoing a process of Objective feedback is necessary: 92% 4% transformation: Taking action is essential: 87% 11% • It is difficult to determine the real impact of culture on leadership and management prac- play a significant part. This is specifically tices because of the complexity and inclu- applicable to the people of South Africa during siveness of the concept culture. the apartheid era. • Leadership can never be interpreted only The analysis indicates that there is not a clear from a specific internalised pattern of think- choice between individualism and being part of a ing and behaving that is believed to be group. In fact, the situation in which people are applicable to and supported by all cultures. may determine to large extent whether they • Leaders in multicultural societies should regard themselves as individuals or as part of a realise the importance of making provision group. Regarding the nature of interaction, there for cultural diversity. There is always a push is a definite need in favour of objective feed- toward uniformity that one has to struggle back, as indicated by the score for this item. against. Many leaders instinctively select Regarding the difference between achieve- people to work with them who think and ment and ascription, there is a clear preference sound like them. In making provision for in favour of judging people on their skills and diversity one generates creativity and one competence, rather than judging their status on realises that it is the “difference that actually aspects such as experience, age, and their edu- makes the difference” (Charlton, 2000:94- cation. One can also understand this preference 96).

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REFERENCES

BRYANT, M.T. 1998. Cross-cultural understand- book for leadership development. San ings of leadership. Educational Management Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. & Administration. Vol. 26 (1), 7-20. SERGIOVANNI, T.J. 1994. The roots of school CHARLTON, G. 2000. Human habits of highly leadership. Principal, November, 6-9. effective organisations. Pretoria: Van Schaik. SHEN, J. 1998. Do teachers feel empowered? COVEY, S.R. 1989. The seven habits of highly Educational Leadership, April, 35-36. effective people. London: Simon & Schuster. STEYN, M.E. & MOTSHABI, K.B. (EDS.). 1996. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION: SOUTH AFRICA. Cultural synergy in South Africa. Randburg: 1996. Report of the Task Team on education Knowledge Resources. management development: Changing man- TROMPENAARS, F. 1993. Riding the waves of agement to manage change. culture. London: Nicholas Brealey Publish- MCCAULEY, C.D. ET AL (EDS.). 1998. Hand- ing.

107 The Need for the Transformation of Religion in Education: Towards an Understanding of Democratic Values

Cornelia Roux

“Issues like integrity and trust and respect the position of religion in education in South and decency have nothing to do whether Africa from a historical perspective. This is one is Jewish, Protestant, Catholic or based on my personal conviction that the role Buddhist. The whole idea of such values is and function of religious education in the South clearly as part of the school system as African education system needs to be democra- learning.” – T. Peters tised in order to fulfil the needs of the post- modern learner in the new millennium. The INTRODUCTION question to be asked is whether religion in edu- The democratising process in education needs cation in South African schools can really con- to address all aspects of the curriculum. This tribute in any significant way to the develop- implies that the relevance of religion in educa- ment of life skills such as respect, understand- tion has to be challenged in order to make a ing and tolerance? The presence of religion in contribution towards transformation in school the school system may perpetuate the myth that environments. Since the democratic elections it does in fact make a difference. In my opinion in 1994 the position and curriculum of religion religion in education can only make this contri- in education has become a matter of con- bution if parents, educators and curriculum tention. Monoreligious and monocultural developers recognise the special contribution schools became more multicultural and mul- of religious diversity and mutual values of the tireligious. Problematic situations surfaced in broader society. many schools where communal values and reli- My arguments will make reference to: gion are regarded as non-negotiable elements. • The fact that the role of religious education Many studies during the 1990s indicated that or religion in education has not really been the teaching of religion in schools has to adopt clarified within the new democratic educa- a new approach in order to stay relevant in the tion system since 1994. process of transformation and globalisation. • The fact that religion in education in South The democratic change in South Africa has Africa has historically been entrenched with- also influenced scholars to re-evaluate the sub- in a specific paradigm, which as such ham- ject at tertiary and at school level. New empha- pers the transformation of democratic values sis on communal values, focusing on the estab- in the pluralistic South African society. lishment of an understanding and knowledge of First, I would like to define different concepts different cultures, religions and behaviours, is used in religion in education. becoming a worldwide trend. The teaching of religion in schools needs to change in order to Religious education fulfil the requirements of transformation in Religious content taught to learners as a sepa- society, education in general and the needs of rate subject with a specific curriculum and learners in particular. didactic approach. The content can either be With this topic I would first like to address mono- or multireligious:

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Religious instruction different religions in their school community Religious content taught to learners as a sepa- and their region. In metropolitan areas the dif- rate subject with a specific curriculum and a ferences between religions are more pro- nurturing didactic approach. The content is nounced and this is reflected in the composition only monoreligious. of the school communities. It is also apparent that some religious groups, as well as parents Religion in education and teachers, very often are suspicious of any Religious education in a wider context being new development. This is particularly the case part of the curriculum such as life skills pro- in the discussion of educational goals when grammes. introducing new approaches and contents developed for a multireligious society and for Religious community religion in education. The approval of religious Persons belonging to the same religion, but not leaders seems to be more important than the necessarily the same denominations or groups. knowledge and scientific responsibility of educators working in this field (cf. circulars on School community religious seminars from religious communi- Parents of learners, the learners and the teach- ties). Some religious leaders still embrace old ers/educators who attend the same school. They paradigms and perceptions of religion in educa- may be from different cultural and religious tion as religious instruction despite their aware- communities. ness of the different religious backgrounds in society. Some have even proved to be con- 1. THE ROLE OF RELIGION IN EDUCATION IN frontational with respect to new developments. THE NEW DEMOCRACY Why is there a necessity to respond to mul- The democratic elections in 1994 created an tireligious education as part of democracy? awareness of religious diversity and this is Responses to religious plurality and diversity reflected in the South African constitution and came mainly within the South African scenario the South African Schools Act (1996/97). with the rise of and debates on Religious However, the role of religion in education in Studies at different universities. Debates on the new democratic education system remains religion in education started in 1992 and many unclarified. As a result, the majority of schools research projects were undertaken since 1993 continue to adhere to traditional approaches. (ICRSA, 1992; Roux, 1993, 1994, 1997; Braaf, The recognition of the diversity of different 1994; Hoblyn, 1997; Baatjes, 1997; Rhodes, religious communities within the school com- 1997; Snyders, 1999 and Ferguson, 1999). munities therefore seems to remain of academic Although numerous reports were presented to interest. Although South Africa is a multicul- the national and provincial departments of edu- tural and multireligious society, many schools cation, study groups with tertiary institutions continue to reflect a monocultural and specially were established and curricula developed, very a monoreligious ethos, as if learners of different little has been achieved since 1994. cultural and religious backgrounds do not exist. This situation confuses teachers regarding Some teachers and parents are still not willing their perceptions of the new education system to accommodate the religious needs of learners (Carl et al, 1999). Some schools are aware of from different cultures or religious back- religious plurality while others ignore their grounds owing to the status of monoreligious diversity. Schools tend, with the permission of education in public schools. Communities, their governing bodies, to invite unqualified especially those in rural areas (e.g. Transkei) parents or religious leaders to teach religion in and in towns (South Africa’s platteland) are not order to avoid any multireligious approaches. even aware of religious diversity except for The arguments are that there are no sufficient maybe the existence of different Christian faith strategies or curricula at present in place and communities or denominations. Feedback from therefore they need to make a contribution. I students from different regions participating in believe that this is a further decline of the pro- distance education courses of the Faculty of fessional approach towards religion in educa- Education, University of Stellenbosch (B.Ed / tion, especially in schools. Religion in educa- 2000) confirmed their lack of knowledge on tion will continue to be introduced as religious

110 Roux instruction, that is from a confessional and nur- kinds of compromises between these two turing perspective, as has been the case in the above-mentioned approaches had a direct influ- past and quoted by so many research studies in ence on the role of religion in education. South Africa (Summers & Waddington, 1996; In the outline of the new curriculum docu- Roux, 1997). In a research project (Roux, 1997) ment (Curriculum 2005, 1997), the focus on it was demonstrated that this is indeed the only life skills implies that information on all cul- approach many teachers adhere to in schools, tures and religions must be promoted in order especially in the rural areas. to understand and promote respect and toler- The learner composition in schools and lack ance as well as other values within a diverse of responsible and scientific educational mater- South African society. Taking the failures of ial as well as information on religion in educa- the past into consideration – where religion in tion contribute to this un-educational situation, education focused mainly on nurturing with a where very little change has taken place in confessional approach – an opportunity for reli- schools with diverse religious school communi- gion to contribute to a more democratic school ties. However, there are a few multireligious environment is created. This implies that more schools where appropriate programmes are in emphasis can be placed on communal values in place (Ferguson, 1999), because the learning order to establish mutual understanding, respect area, Life Orientation, of Curriculum 2005 and knowledge. To a very large extent the old (1997) provided an opportunity for multireli- paradigm of religion in education has become gious programmes. inappropriate (cf. Roux, 1998:86). The question is whether these programmes in One of the reasons for the failure of religion some schools can contribute to the democratis- in education is the so-called truth claims of dif- ing process of values in a multireligious school ferent religions (cf. Küng, 1995) that tended to community? be part of the curriculum, with no room for dif- The slow progress of the implementation of ferent opinions. In South Africa, as in many new programmes or approaches towards reli- countries worldwide, religious private schools gion in education is part of this dilemma (cf. present a dogmatic religious education pro- Roux, 2000a). This is the case despite, or as a gramme while in public schools the policy of result of, the composition and eventual report the government regarding religion in schools of the Ministerial Committee (formed in determines the curriculum. However, religious August 1998, reported in January 1999) on a freedom and the conscience clause are always new education paradigm in religion. The docu- options for educators and learners. If one con- ment accommodated different outcomes, from siders the poor outcomes of religion in educa- knowledge on religions and values to social tion in public schools in South Africa, and its skills. However, the schools were left to choose influence on important democratic values such their own model or approach provided that they as respect, it seems that there are indications of did not violate the constitutional rights of more problems than successes in the broader teachers or learners (Stonier, 1999), thus the society. status quo prevails. It became clear that the According to Du Toit (1998:61), values are education of religion in schools is still different historically linked, contingent and contextual. from the debates and traditional conceptions of He argues that it is therefore difficult to find in Religious Studies at universities. any culture a fixed and integrated value system that will accommodate value differences. 2. RELIGION IN EDUCATION WITHIN AN People who are unemployed and live in poverty INTEGRATED MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY are hungry and lack basic human needs. They There has been a worldwide shift, especially may even view themselves as worthless human over the past 30 years, from the study of a sin- beings. In such a case, stealing may be the only gle religion (monoreligious), also linked to a means of survival. In various traditions, value specific view of culture, to a multireligious systems and religions, stealing is wrong and approach associated with human rights. This accountable before the law. How does one then started mainly with the influences and results of teach beliefs and values without the context in development projects and with the works of which it has to function? No programme on Ninian Smart (1968). The tension or various democratic values will solve the basic needs of

111 Roux a school society unless the broader perspective global environment. Another factor is the rise of and responsibility of the diverse society is pre- a network society by Internet or satellite, chal- sented in context. Mutual values in a diverse lenging values and questioning and/or marginal- society cannot be forced on people, especially ising religions and customs. On the other hand, on parents. It has to be facilitated by educators there is also an awareness of the power of an to the very young and the youth. The lack of identity with strong religious and cultural roots. knowledge and skills to handle multicultural In order to understand the role of religion in and multireligious content as well as values and promoting democratic values in education, reli- customs in the everyday life of a diverse soci- gion should first be studied and understood as a ety, remains contentious. Knowledge of beliefs phenomenon. The intention is to present knowl- and values seems also to be a requirement to edge and information on different viewpoints in facilitate content of different learning areas. order to promote the understanding of people’s The main question, however, is whether educa- behaviour. Religions and other ideologies’ influ- tors are aware of this new role as value practi- ences on different spheres of life – such as val- tioners. Will they be willing to obtain skills and ues, customs environmental issues, art, health knowledge to facilitate the different belief and and gender issues – should be recognised. This value systems of a diverse multicultural and approach can assist educators who feel threat- multireligious society? ened by other religion’s and cultures’ belief and value systems (cf. Roux, 1997, 2000b). 3. THE ROLE OF RELIGION IN PROMOTING Another aspect is to promote the skills need- DEMOCRATIC VALUES IN A MULTICULTURAL ed to develop values and other related issues. EDUCATION SOCIETY This should be done in such a manner that the There is a need in many developing multicul- way of thinking or conscience of the different tural societies in Africa, Asia and Europe to religious beliefs is related to practice and every understand religious pluralism (Lähnemann, day life. This approach means that skills should 1995; Weisse, 1996). Religious diversity was, be developed from practicable experiences. The and will always, be part of the world’s soci- approach gives educators and learners the eties. The South African scenario regarding opportunity to reflect first on their own frame religion in education reflects similarities with of reference, before embarking on new or other parts of the world (cf. Jackson, 2000). mutual values. This will also enable developing The survival of humankind has become a glob- communities to integrate their traditional reli- al issue. What happens in Africa or Asia has an gious values within the broader society. It influence on Europe, whether emotional or eco- enables educators to identify different values nomic. One starving child in Africa becomes, and beliefs on specific issues to be incorporat- or should become, the conscience of Europe ed, rather than serving to exclude. The develop- and/or America. The colonialism of the previ- ment of a social responsibility towards the ous centuries, wars and undignified political whole community should be established. In a dispensations of the 20th century showed their study at schools in the Western Cape, Rhodes influence on new directions of thought. (1997:98) indicated the lack of responsibility of According to Küng (1995), the survival of educators and other role-players towards values humankind, also at a religious and spiritual of a diverse community. A responsible involve- level, will increasingly become a global issue. ment of learners in the broader community Religion in education can thus no longer edu- through which educators can assess learners to cate learners on issues of old scriptures, or to determine the outcome of democratic values of comfort them only in their daily need. From a society is suggested. However, any assessment hermeneutic point of view, religion has to make of values developing through belief systems more sense to learners. The understanding of should be done responsibly because of the religious content and values follows if they are diverse interpretation of cultural and religious presented in an understandable paradigm. values. Religion in education has to provide learners with skills to understand their own spirituality, CONCLUSION values imbedded in humankind, their multireli- The role of religion in education in promoting gious and multicultural environment and the democratic values is still underestimated by

112 Roux many educators and policy makers. To fulfil the responsible facilitation of different religious requirements of transformation in any multireli- belief and value systems can only contribute to gious society, as indicated by the Schools Act the understanding of democratic values in a (1997), religion should play a vital role. The multicultural society.

REFERENCES

BRAAF A.J. 1994. Bybelonderrig in staat en FERGUSON R. 1999. Strategies for teaching reli- staatsondersteunde skole in ’n multi- gion in colleges of education. Unpublished religieuse samelewing. (Bible education in M.Ed.-thesis, University of Stellenbosch. state and state-funded schools in a multireli- HOBLYN W.R. 1997. The role of the education gious society). Unpublished M.Ed. thesis. leader in facilitating a multireligious pro- University of Stellenbosch. gramme in a secondary school. Unpublished BAATJES F.H. 1997. Religieuse onderrig in ’n M.Ed.-thesis, University of Stellenbosch. multi-religieuse primêre skoolopset: die ver- ICRSA. 1992. Religion in Public Education. houding tussen religie en moraliteit. Report by the Institute for Comparative (Religious Education in a multireligious pri- Religion in Southern Africa. University of mary school environment: the relationship Cape Town. between religion and morals). Unpublished JACKSON R. 2000. From the study of religions M.Ed. thesis. University of Stellenbosch. to religious education: A response to David CARR D. & LANDON J. 1998. Teachers and Chidester. Paper read at the IAHR Con- Schools as Agencies of Value Education: ference. Durban. South Africa. August. Reflection on Teachers’ Perceptions. Part KÜNG T. 1995. A global ethic and education. One: The role of the Teacher. Journal of British Journal of Religious Education, Beliefs & Values 19(2):165-175. 18(1), 6-21. CUSH D. 1999. The Relationship Between LÄHNEMANN J. 1995. Protestant education and Religious Studies, Religious Education and global changes. British Journal of Religious Theology: Big Brother, Little Sister and the Education, 18(1), 27-30. Clerical Uncle? British Journal of Religious MITCHELL G. 1995. Principles in the develop- Education, 21(3), 137-146. ment of religious and moral education in DU TOIT C.W. & KRUGER J.S. 1998. Multi- South African schools. British Journal of religious education in South Africa - Religious Education, 18(1), 55-58. Problems and prospects in a pluralistic soci- RHODES B.D. 1997. Die onderrigleier se rol ten ety. Pretoria. Research Institute for Theology opsigte van vraagstukke rondom religie en and Religion. University of South Africa. etiek binne skoolverband. (The education

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leader’s role on problem areas like religion STONIER J .1999. A new direction for Religious and ethics in the school environment). Education in South Africa? The proposed Unpublished M.Ed. thesis. University of new RE policy. Diversity as Ethos, Chidester Stellenbosch. D., Stonier J., Tobler J. (eds) Cape Town: ROUX C.D. 1997. Biblical values and multireli- ICRSA. 28-46. gious education in the primary school: prob- SUMMERS H.C. AND WADDINGTON R.R. 1996. lems and proposals. Scriptura (International Religious Education for Transformation. Journal for Bible, Religion and Theology in Pretoria. Kagiso Trust. Southern Africa) 60(1), pp 63-70. PETERS T. 1988. In search of excellence – a talk ROUX C.D. 1997. Redefining the role of with Tom Peters about principalship. Bulletin Religious Education in a multicultural and Vol 72, 12 multireligious school environment. HSRC WEISSE W. (ED.) 1996. Inter-religious and Special Report. Pretoria. pp 65. intercultural education: methodologies, con- ROUX C.D. 1997. The need for a paradigm shift ceptions and pilot projects in South Africa, in teaching religion in multicultural schools Namibia, Great Britain, the Netherlands. in South Africa. South African Journal for Education. Vol. 18(2), pp 84-89. ROUX C.D. 2000 (A). Multi-religious education Official Government Reports – an option for South Africa in the new edu- 1996 Norms and standards for teacher educa- cation system. British Journal of Religious tion (COTEP), Department of Education, Education, 22(3):173-180. Pretoria. ROUX C.D. 2000 (B) Facilitating religion in Life 1996 Lifelong learning through a National Orientation programmes: challenges for a Qualifications framework, Report of the multicultural society. Journal for the Study of Ministerial Committee, Pretoria. Religion (to be published). 1997 The South African Constitution. Pretoria. ROUX C.D. & STEENKAMP D. 1995. A curricu- Government Printers. lum proposal for the school subject – 1997 The South African Schools Act. Pretoria. Religious Studies. Scriptura (International Government Printers. Journal for Bible, Religion and Theology in 1997 Curriculum 2005, Department of Southern Africa). 53(2), 73-95. Education, Pretoria, (April). ROUX C.D. & STEENKAMP D. 1997. The 1998 Outcomes-based education in South Christian teacher and multireligious educa- Africa. Background information for edu- tion. Pretoria. Via Africa. cators, Department of Education, SMART N. 1968. Secular Education and the Pretoria, (April). Logic of Religion. London. Faber and Faber. 1999 Report of the Ministerial Committee on SNYDERS A.E. 1999 Die hantering van mono- RE. Department of Education, Pretoria, religieuse kurrikulum binne ’n multi- (January). religieuse skoolopset. (A monoreligious cur- 2000 Values, Education Democracy. Report of riculum in a multireligious school environ- the Working Group on Values in ment). Unpublished M.Ed.-thesis, University Education, Department of Education, of Stellenbosch. Pretoria, (May).

114 Democratic Values and Content-Specific Language Teaching and Learning: Experiences in the Northern Cape

Carol Puhl & Jeanette de Klerk

INTRODUCTION: VALUES, LANGUAGE AND identity. A discourse – such as an educational CITIZENSHIP approach to mathematics, for example – pro- South Africans live in a newly democratic soci- jects a particular version of reality, which can- ety; our schools have the task of educating not escape privileging some views of reality learners not only for self-development and as and marginalising others. income earners, but also to become construc- Entering the discourse in a learning area tive citizens who contribute to building a involves obtaining a certain amount of knowl- democratic nation. Young people learn what edge, which in this context is meant to include they do – if they are educated through authori- also attitudes, values (in the context of that dis- tarian ways, they learn these ways; if they are course) and skills. As learners proceed into this educated through democratic ways, they learn discourse, they can challenge it through critical these ways. Implicit in educational practice are thinking, begin to own what is “received” as values. There is no such thing as “value-free” well as what is the result of the dialogic education – values are always there. In this process of challenge, let their constructed paper, we will discuss how democratic values knowledge inform their personal and future can transform classrooms in South Africa. professional lives, and perhaps make further There is a growing trend to demand that contributions in the process. The role of lan- learners become literate in various school- guage in entering the discourses of science and defined areas, such as social studies, science, mathematics is crucial. and mathematics. As Gibbs and Fox (1999:66) In this paper we explore the link between the state in one such context: development of language competencies needed “A consensus has begun to emerge among for learning area literacy and the practice of science education researchers, teachers and democratic values in the classroom. First we practicing scientists that schools should examine the meaning of language competen- turn out scientifically literate citizens, not cies, then we explore democratic values, and more candidates for the academic elite.” finally we will see how these ideas are contex- Learning-area literacy means that learners must tualised in a special project in the Northern be conversant in the discourse of that area to Cape to upgrade the teaching of mathematics the extent considered appropriate to their age and science at secondary level. and level. Helsby (1999:3) offers a definition of discourse, rooted in the work of Bourdieu 1. THE PIVOTAL ROLE OF LANGUAGE and Foucault, as a set of related social practices 1.1 Language and thinking made up of many language modes, including To construct new meanings people need lan- ways of talking, listening, reading, writing, act- guage, both in a general sense and especially in ing and interacting. Discourse in this sense is the sense of language as it is used within a spe- situated in time and place, and it involves using cific learning area. The inseparability of lan- tools and objects, indicating a particular social guage and thinking is well documented, as

115 Puhl & De Klerk illustrated by Vygotsky (1978:24), who shows verbal learning”. Much is thus non-experiential, how language as it develops in children moves which means it must necessarily proceed from reflecting the world to organising it. He through symbolic means. Meaning in mathe- says further: matics, for example, is (at worst) experienced “The specifically human capacity for lan- as a set of rules that learners must remember guage enables children to provide for auxil- and follow correctly; even real-life problems – iary tools in the solution of difficult tasks, such as asking learners how to divide up a log to overcome impulsive action, to plan a of precious wood fairly among three brothers – solution to a problem prior to its execution, while more concrete, are still not experiential. and to master their own behaviour. … The Likewise, much of meaning in science is cognitive and communicative functions of expressed through “if’s” – varying conditions language then become the basis of a new that exist on paper, without learners seeing or and superior form of activity in children” touching or smelling the consequences of those (Vygotsky, 1978: 28-29). conditions (Puhl, 2000: 4). The classroom can By mastering one’s environment through lan- be far from experience. guage, the learner produces new relations with This is also true for examinations and portfo- that environment “in addition to the new organ- lios; learners “write” them – they must show isation of behaviour itself” (Vygotsky 1978: their knowledge symbolically, through lan- 25). Continually creating these uniquely human guage. When they lack sufficient proficiency in forms of language-based behaviour gradually the language of instruction or the language of produces the intellect and becomes the basis of assessment (often the case: see Prins, 1995:21- productive work. Language and thinking are 25), which language must be developed in the interdependent; one cannot do much thinking context of the subject they are studying or writ- without language, and language develops ing, they are definitely not set for success. through thinking. The language of a subject is an integral part For learners to become fluent in the language of the discourse of that subject, as Helsby of their subject, they need to acquire it through (1999:3) says. Only through language can one using it in meaningful ways. This implies that get a hold on the concepts appropriate to that telling is not enough and memorising is not subject. One often uses metaphors of language enough. Learners need opportunities to use lan- as tool or barrier, but any such comparisons are guage in ways that are meaningful and commu- limited. One could more accurately say “lan- nicative in their own terms, so that they can guaging” to indicate that language is more a make it part of themselves, part of their intel- process, a way of getting a handle on reality, to lectual development, and keep on “producing the extent that this is possible. At the same their own intellect”. This is especially true for a time, such “languaging” helps to define that country like South Africa, in which most learn- reality. According to linguist Michael Halliday ers must experience schooling and pass exami- (1993:94), it is through language that fluid, nations in a language other than their mother undifferentiated experience is turned into tongue, usually English. While languages used knowledge. as mediums of instruction remain an open issue, secondary schools at present (and proba- 1.3 Language proficiency – what and how bly for the next few years) have as their medi- Language proficiency – here also called com- um of instruction either English or Afrikaans. municative competence (CC) – is a construct with a multiplicity of meanings, depending on 1.2 Language in education which researcher or practitioner one consults One of the major reasons for developing litera- (Brown, 1994:29; see also Savignon, 1997:56, cy in elementary school is that it enables more and Canale & Swain, 1980). However, CC is education to take place. (And more education generally accepted to consist of several compo- should continue to develop learners’ language nents such as the typical list below: abilities.) Language draws on the symbolic – • organisational competence, which includes much of education is from classroom discourse grammatical correctness and discourse com- and/or books; as Halliday (1993:93) says, “edu- petence, or how ideas are connected by use of cational knowledge is massively dependent on language

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• pragmatic competence, which includes func- should allocate “talk time” in the classroom and tional competence, such as what is accom- find ways to allow a significant portion of time plished through language, e.g. a request, a for learner talk (and other forms of use of lan- disagreement, etc., and sociolinguistic com- guage by learners, such as writing, reading, petence, referring to the appropriateness of problem-solving, etc.). This gives the learner what is said or written “space” for making a creative contribution. • strategic competence, which includes “paths” With meaningful language use, along with a the learner chooses to reach his/her goals modicum of language instruction, comes the • psychomotor skills, which include pronuncia- development of the learner’s own communication, the act of writing or typing, eye move- tive competence. It follows that the developments when reading, etc. (Brown, 1994:29). ment of CC correlates strongly with the amount If learners are to learn science or history or and quality of opportunities given to learners to mathematics, it means they must be able to engage in communication. These opportunities, communicate in it. This means they need to be we suggest, are dependent on a classroom prac- able to talk about the subject, write about it, tice which could be described as participative, complete tasks and projects in that area, pro- based on democratic values and behaviour. The duce a portfolio, and write exams, all of which absence of democratic values in practice has, are heavily language-based. Brown states: however, proved to be a huge stumbling block “The array of studies on CC provides what in this process of developing CC. We will now is perhaps the most important linguistic take a fuller look at which democratic values principle of learning and teaching: Given should be encouraged in the classroom situa- that communicative competence is the goal tion. of a language classroom, then instruction needs to point toward all of its components: 2. DEMOCRATIC VALUES IN THE CLASSROOM organisational, pragmatic, strategic, and One usually thinks of democracy in a political psychomotor. Communicative goals are sense; however, political democracy is not best achieved by giving due attention to lan- quite the same as democracy in the classroom. guage use and not just usage, to fluency and For example, equality is a pivotal principle in a not just accuracy, to authentic language and democracy, but the educative relationship is not contexts, and to students’ eventual need to a relationship between equals. According to apply classroom learning to heretofore Higgs (1996:247) there is no “... tension unrehearsed contexts in the real world” between the concept of democratic education (1994:29). and unequal educative relationships, and any What is operative here is the emphasis on use. notion of complete equality must therefore be Fluency, authenticity, and transfer to the real abandoned in the context of education”. The world can be seen as part of using the language. inequality is not an inequality of human dignity Such language use implies attention in some but lies in the inequality of wisdom, knowledge form to all the components, which is impossible and expertise, in which the teacher is the supe- without context (the subject). As Savignon rior. Although this relationship is not one (1997:35) says, speaking perhaps for much of between equals, it is a participatory relationship the field of language teaching: “One learns to in which the student is an active participant. communicate by communicating.” Within the The fact that relationships in democratic educa- scope of each learning area, teachers need to tion are not only participative, but also recipro- use the context of their subject to teach the lan- cal, non-repressive and non-discriminatory, has guage of that subject. There is just no other way important implications for teaching practice in as meaningful for developing proficiency in the the classroom. language of that subject. In a democratic classroom, learners are given freedom within defined limits and they are 1.4 Language and democratic values allowed to make decisions about their behav- Such an approach, which has the learner speak- iour. Teachers believe that learners are capable ing, listening, reading and writing actively and of solving many problems on their own and meaningfully in authentic contexts, requires learners are given as much freedom as they can respect for the learner because the teacher manage responsibly. Discipline in a democratic

117 Puhl & De Klerk classroom is characterised by consistency, clar- sistent way of life. Surely one of the biggest ity and respect, as well as firmness and freedom challenges for teachers today is to emphasise with responsibility. Learners learn to respect democratic values in the classroom. Democracy rules and authority, and they learn self-control as a way of life and as a form of government is and self-discipline, independence, cooperation directly dependent on democratic values, atti- and responsibility. These are all characteristics tudes and beliefs which are instilled in young that are important for a person to function as a people by their primary educators, their parents, citizen in a democratic society. and by the follow-up educators, their teachers. Learners in a democratic classroom are per- Democratic values and practices have to perceived as valuable, able and responsible human vade classrooms and become entrenched in the beings with the ability to think, learn, choose minds and hearts of learners and teachers. and value. Because of this, there is an atmos- Democratic values became an issue for phere of mutual respect and positive regard for research within the special project (called the fact that humans are unique. The learners GEMS, discussed below) mainly because of experience that they are recognised and accept- their perceived absence. When some desired ed as individuals with potential. They are not changes did not seem to happen to the extent compared with one another or belittled. Not anticipated, the perspective offered by democ- only is the teacher courteous towards the learn- ratic values seemed one way to understand the ers, but the learners are also expected to be situation. We must first, however, explain the courteous to one another. Because of mutual project more clearly. respect and positive regard, the emphasis is not on competition but on cooperation. The atmos- 3. GEMS PROJECT: OVERVIEW phere is one of support, clear communication, This three-year project is based at the Univer- flexibility, sharing and ownership. Motivation sity of Stellenbosch. Its initials stand for the takes place through encouragement and reward four aspects it targets: G for governance, E for and not through threats and punishment (Steyn, English/Afrikaans related to mathematics and De Klerk & Du Plessis, 1999:80-93). science, M for mathematics, and S for science. A democratic lifestyle is served by people The first two aspects are addressed through the who have developed their negotiation skills, lis- Centre for Education Development (Cenedus), tening skills, respect for and sensitivity to oth- which coordinates the Education Faculty’s out- ers, communication skills, adaptability, open- reach and service functions along with related ness, flexibility of thought, teamwork, research. The last two aspects are addressed unselfishness and critical thinking (Steyn et al., through the Institute for Mathematics and 1999:18-20). The possibility of giving shape to Science Teaching (Imstus), also at the democracy depends heavily on the develop- University. The GEMS Project is charged with ment of critical thinking skills on the part of improving the teaching and learning of science both teacher and learner. Independent thinking and mathematics in 11 secondary schools is a cornerstone of democracy, because leaders (Grades 8-12) within a certain geographical must not be slavishly followed; their ideas and area in the province of the Northern Cape. This behaviours must be reviewed by people who province is the largest geographically of South can think critically and judge for themselves. Africa’s nine provinces, and paradoxically it Although South Africa became a democracy has the smallest population, fewer than a mil- in 1994 in the political sense, day-to-day reali- lion people. Its population density is two people ties since then have made it quite clear that a per square kilometre, compared with 32 in the democratic system of government does not Western Cape and 459 in Gauteng (South automatically lead to democratic behaviour, Africa Survey, 1999:10). The low population and that a democratic culture based on democ- density can be explained by the regions dry ratic values is not automatically affirmed. weather conditions, from the Kalahari savannah Democracy as a way of life is not inherited; in the north to the Karoo shrubland in the south. rather, it needs to be taught through various The province is strong on mining and meat pro- social institutions such as the family, the duction. school, universities and colleges, the work- The GEMS schools are themselves diverse, place, and, most importantly, it has to be a con- with two being former Department of Educa-

118 Puhl & De Klerk tion and Training (DET) schools, which were, action to be considered and amended as and are, attended by Setswana-speakers. Four possible.” schools are former House of Representatives Helsby (1999:viii) writes of interfering and pre- (HoR) schools, with learners who speak either venting, but we see this human element as a Afrikaans or Setswana as their mother tongue. positive way of opening creative spaces for the Five are former Model C schools, which were teacher. Thus it can be argued that, although the most privileged schools under the apartheid there are many influences impinging upon edu- system. Two of these schools have only cational practice, there remains enough choice Afrikaans-speaking learners, while the remain- regarding teaching approach, and that choice ing three comprise Afrikaans or Setswana remains principally and ultimately with the mother-tongue speakers, with a few English classroom teacher. and Portuguese mother-tongue speakers. The The main means of effecting change, at first, schools are spread over five towns with about was through workshops, through science expo- one to two hours’ drive between them. This sitions, and through providing new materials highlights one of the unique problems facing especially in mathematics based on a construc- the Northern Cape – namely, the dispersion of tivist approach. Imstus has a “facilitator” who its people over a large area. Some 55 mathe- lives in the area and visits each school twice a matics and science teachers are eligible to par- month. For the language component (the E part ticipate in GEMS, with about 35 choosing to of GEMS), workshops became supplemented actively do so. by class visits plus the requirement of one project per semester, or five projects per teacher 3.1 Focus on classroom change over the three years, and finally, some micro- The focus was placed on the classroom because teaching to a group of learners by the lecturer this is where learners experience most of their and teachers themselves. Initially it was school life. The teacher has great power in his believed that, because teachers were already in or her classroom. service and were thus experienced at teaching, While the classroom is not unaffected by the it would not be so difficult to share with them context of its school, its community and cen- some language-based techniques that would at tralised policies, we maintain that, generally times focus class work on language aspects of speaking, the teacher as “agent” or one who mathematics and science. Both first-language acts, remains its most powerful force (Muller, medium teachers (L1, mainly Afrikaans, with 2000:1, 8 12, 16; Helsb,y 1999:viii). As Helsby some L1 English) and second-language medi- states (1999:172-173): um teachers (L2, English-medium, to mainly “As long as governments remain dependent Setswana speakers) are included. The reasoning upon teachers to translate their policies into is that using language, even an L1, in a learn- practice, then teachers will retain a degree ing-area context seems to be a universal prob- of freedom in their day-to-day work. As yet, lem (for example, see Tanner & Casados, no government has been able to reduce edu- 1998:345), and developing language proficien- cation to a machine-deliverable process or cy in the discourses of science and mathematics to devise a teacher-proof curriculum. becomes that much more difficult when an L2 Accordingly, the human element will is involved (Prins, 1995:22). always tend to interfere with even the most In the workshops, several generic language carefully designed system and prevent it teaching techniques were suggested and mod- working in entirely predictable ways. Thus elled by the presenter, and worked through by teachers do continue to have some choice the teachers. Some were created especially for over how they respond to policy initiatives, this project: Debug, a multi-level vocabulary although they may react in varying ways. technique; Menu, a means of getting an Whilst some may experience strong feelings overview of a unit or chapter; and Website, of disempowerment and therefore adopt a making a combined word-picture “web” of passive approach to what is asked of them, meaning in the learner’s own words and draw- others may deliberately refuse to view poli- ings. Other techniques were introduced and cy texts as operational prescriptions and worked through as well, such as cloze work, instead see them as possible courses of writing tasks, focus on function words such as

119 Puhl & De Klerk discourse markers, as well as several interactive authoritarian way. To make science and maths group and pair techniques. teachers also language teachers turned out to be An example using “debug” can show some of much more of a challenge than anticipated. Had the proposed change from authoritarian to a the teachers already been operating from a more democratic teaching style. There is no basis of democratic values, the language escaping the need of learners in science and aspects would have been much easier for the mathematics to know scientific and mathemati- teachers to adapt and implement. cal definitions of key words. But rather than Most of the teachers were enthusiastic (other- copying them from the board and memorising wise they would not have attended), and as them, at worst by rote, the process can be made delighted as they seemed, it became apparent, more learner-centred by “debugging”, in which through a paucity of project work and through they are encouraged to: class visits, that not enough meaningful change • themselves identify important words that they was taking place. These results were also want to understand better apparent from an extensive, systematic outside • guess at a workable definition using back- evaluation conducted by the Joint Education ground knowledge and helped by peers Trust (JET) and written by Reeves (2000). • define informally also with a small drawing In this study, classroom observations showed • then define precisely. that teachers still engaged most in explaining, In both styles they learn the words, but the sec- demonstrating, and defining, but did not engage ond way seems to reflect democratic values much in establishing learners’ understandings because it honours the initiative, choices and at the start, and did not give learners much prior knowledge of the learners. chance to practice, grapple with text, interact The task at first seemed relatively straight- with one another, or experiment (Reeves, forward, seeing that the teachers were experi- 2000:25). They were teacher-centred rather enced in their areas. It was to help the teachers than learner-centred, and one might say author- understand the important role of language in itarian rather than democratic. This fact sug- their subjects, then share the most effective lan- gests that most of the teachers in the project guage teaching approaches and techniques with allowed the learners almost no space in which them, and the job would be done. One of the to enter as “agents” into the discourse, and as a authors (Puhl) was the person responsible for result, the learners had little chance to develop the language aspect of GEMS. After the first their abilities regarding language within the dis- two workshops, which included some theory course of the learning area. and several techniques, it became evident to her The basic principle of language acquisition as that not much discernable change in the class- currently understood is use; to learn a language room was taking place. She tried to form (scientific, mathematical, other), one needs groups of teachers who were teaching in the appropriate opportunities to use it. In the class- same learning areas, but this was problematic room, teachers need to create such opportuni- due to time constraints and the great distances ties, taking into account desired learning area involved. She then moved to “projects”, which outcomes as well as the specific situation in meant at first any change that a teacher wanted which they teach. It became clear in the field to make. This proved to be too open-ended, so research that one of the barriers to improve- “project” was defined as any one-class session ment was the authoritarian style of most of the of language-based science or mathematics. This teachers. It was not that these teachers did not approach proved manageable by the teachers want to change to become more democratic; but was systematically implemented by only a rather, they just had very little awareness of few. what changes were needed, why they were There seemed to be two main stumbling needed, let alone how to go about changing. blocks: the first is that understanding the role of They seemed to have little concept of the free- language in education is no small matter, and dom that is already in their hands. The same the second is that effective language teaching seemed to hold for the principals. as understood in contemporary terms requires Rather than impose information on the learn- the practice of democratic values, and most of ers, teachers must stimulate, encourage and the teachers were operating in a traditional, assist them to re-create it for themselves, a

120 Puhl & De Klerk basically constructivist approach. To construct workshop) made me realise that we do not meaning implies not only access to, but also have to be bound to the book, but that we command of, the symbolic systems which are have to make the learners aware of sum- part and parcel of “received” knowledge. It is maries and writing techniques” [translated argued that by far the most powerful of these from Afrikaans]. symbolic systems is the verbal one, language. This comment also indicates that the teacher Such a classroom requires learners to use lan- has an intuitive understanding that knowledge guage, and by using it, they are more likely to does not necessarily come from the “top learn to become literate in their learning area down”, in that he could learn through his peers. and thus be able to enter the discourse of the Although the project has not yet exerted its discipline. This does not mean they are expect- full impact, it is encouraging that some move- ed to add to the body of “received” knowledge ment in a more democratic direction is becom- while in school, although one must not discount ing evident to the researchers, as reflected in the possibility. the following teacher comments: That the teachers do not see the freedoms that “I learned how to deal with learners so that they already have is clear from the dialogue they can communicate, reason and respect below. In one of the project workshops, we one another’s standpoint.” [ This shows explained that learners need to be active values of participatory relationships, non- because they must be busy with constructing repression, mutual respect and courtesy – new meaning, that is, making science and authors] mathematics meaningful to themselves, in terms of what they already know in general and “Will this (problem-solving, an open-ended what they have learned so far in these areas. technique) be suitable for Grade 8 learners? We contrasted transmission teaching with con- Will it confuse them or will they learn to be structivist teaching, and for all but one of the taught in this way?” [This teacher is show- teachers, constructivist teaching was news. At ing openness to new ideas, as well as criti- the end of the workshop, a school principal cal thinking – authors] approached one of the authors (“I”), below: He: You know, you have set us free (shak- “I will be glad if we can have more working his head). shops like this because we will be helped to I: What do you mean? maintain the interest of our learners and He: I’ve known all along that there must be keep them in class.” [This teacher is valu- a better way than the way we have been ing cooperation both with us and with his doing things, and now such a way is becom- or her learners. It also shows empathy with ing clear to me. the learners, in wanting to relate to what I: How so? interests them as well as what the teacher He: Well, when I started school myself, as a needs to teach – authors] learner, I saw it as 12 years of slogging. I had to get through it, memorise everything, 4. OVERALL RESPONSES OF TEACHERS pass the exam hurdles ahead of me. I did it. A few of the teachers went for immediate But I never thought it had to be meaningful implementation in their classes, and saw the to me. The idea that we have to build on project as a means of self-renewal as teachers. what the learners bring – that is freeing. My One could hardly ask for a more positive atti- teachers already have lots of freedom, and tude, which was the overwhelming general now, I know why this is a good thing. It response. (The teachers who do not want shows that I as a teacher can make a differ- change obviously have chosen not to participate ence through my own initiative. I can even in the GEMS Project.) Examples of teacher adjust the syllabus, something that was comments follow. never done in the past. “I really like these sessions, because they Another teacher’s comment is also instructive, are informative and enhance one’s teaching indicating there is more freedom than he had and build one’s confidence.” [This teacher realised: and the one below seem to be in the process “The ideas from the group (of teachers in a of realising their own potential – authors]

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“I am developing and growing from these driven, transmission model; and contemporary workshops.” language teaching approaches require learners to use language, which implies a bottom-up, “I liked best that I have learned a new task-based, learner-centred constructivist method – the learners don’t have to write model. Such a shift would have been easier, it just for the teacher.” [He/she is open to seems, had democratic values been operative in change, and to incorporating more of the most classrooms. community into class work – authors] South Africa is experiencing transformation at every level, including several paradigms “I’ve learned and experienced something within education. National education policy has new – AGAIN.” embraced the approach known as outcomes- based education (OBE), which began to be “It made me feel even more excited about implemented in 1998. For teachers coming changing my teaching methods and my way from a traditional lecture approach, OBE of thinking.” requires various paradigm shifts. One of the far-reaching changes is the fact that this “This workshop made me eager to think of approach is learner-centred rather than teacher- myself beginning something new, to make centred. The teacher no longer uses the tradi- things nice not just for my learners but also tional lecture method, but is the facilitator of for myself.” [Words like “new”, “excited”, the learning activities. He or she organises the “eager” indicate openness, enthusiasm for learning environment of the learner so that change maybe even to the extent of a para- learning can take place. This approach puts its digm shift toward transformation, maybe faith in the abilities and individuality of each toward more learner-centred teaching – learner (and teacher). authors] “Different learning styles and rates of learn- Wideen (1992: 134) notes three stages at which ing need to be acknowledged and accom- many teachers engage in a transformative modated … . The ways in which different process. At Stage One teachers tend to focus on cultural values and lifestyles affect the con- “what works better” in the classroom. This is struction of knowledge should also be where we started out in the GEMS project, and acknowledged …” (Curriculum Framework many teachers have implemented changes at for General and Further Education and some level in their own situations. At Stage Training, 1996:11). Two, the teachers examine and re-formulate The uniqueness of the learner is recognised and their perceptions of teaching, how it is best the learners’ prior knowledge is taken into done, what the purposes are, and so forth. At account. Stage 3, teachers inquire into the nature of the “Educational processes must therefore put education process as they experience it. In the the learner first, recognising and building GEMS project it seems to the researchers that on their knowledge and experience, and participants in general have come through responding to their needs” (Department of Stage One and have entered Stage Two. We Education White Paper, 1995:21). may need to be there for a while. Stage Three, Without a democratic culture of learning and it seems, has been glimpsed by a few teachers teaching, the learners cannot be empowered. but we have not as yet gone there much. Much They can no longer merely memorise and work remains to be done, and this work can be reproduce facts from a handbook, but they must more fully explored by looking at how such a be able to think independently, communicate paradigm shift may be conceptualised. effectively, be tolerant toward others and dare to take on their own learning and living envi- 5. PARADIGM SHIFT ronment with self-confidence. This demands It became clear that the implementation expect- not only new teaching strategies, but also a ed, far from being the addition of a few tech- change of attitude and approach. niques, required a huge paradigm shift on the part of the teachers. Their model has been a tra- 6. TRANSFORMATION ditional, top-down, lecture-based, information- A transformative paradigm shift on the part of

122 Puhl & De Klerk teachers is crucial, but the larger context must atmosphere of the school and part of every les- also change, in the sense of broad and deep son”. We may have started out in the GEMS educational transformation. (Bitzer, 1998:4) has Project by concentrating on first-order changes, proposed an analysis of educational transforma- but we came to understand that second-order tion as follows: changes (transformation) were required, and we • A fundamental change in the underlying val- are moving to facilitate them. ues and presuppositions that applied in the past. 6.1 Encouragement from the learners for • A new vision for the future in terms of expec- transformation tations, possibilities and opportunities. The GEMS language projects done by the • New aims and objectives. teachers required teachers to obtain feedback • A new disposition/attitude as a result of from their learners after implementing a lan- transformed perspectives. guage-focused technique. Usually this took the It is clear that transformative efforts will mean form of a page in which learners could answer very little outside of a context of values. This anonymously a few questions relating to the will require that teachers develop an awareness class process and a few open-ended questions, of their own values and a sensitivity to the fact such as what they liked best, what they did not that what they say they value and what they like, and what they believed they learned. actually do in practice often differ. Typical feedback from two classes is given and Cuban (1990:73) distinguishes two basic discussed below. types of change – first-order and second-order Science class. After a group-based task of changes: putting eight statements regarding an electrical “First-order changes try to make what circuit into logical order, 25 feedback sheets already exists more efficient and more were obtained, representing nearly all of the effective, without disturbing the basic class. organisational features, without substantial- Twenty-three said they liked the activity “a ly altering the ways in which adults and lot”, two liked it “a little”, and no one said “not children perform their roles … . really”. Second-order changes seek to alter the fun- “I liked it, it was fun and I discovered things damental ways in which organisations are that I never thought I would.” We comment put together … [and] introduce new goals, that the overwhelming reaction was very posi- structures and roles that transform familiar tive, as reported by the learners. ways of doing things into new ways of solv- Most learner comments were as follows: “I ing persistent problems.” liked it a lot because I can understand it better” The changes taking place in South African (several), “because I did well”, “it was a little schools cannot be just first-order changes. Nor bit different”, “it tested our knowledge about a can they be merely new curriculum content or circuit”. “I liked the understanding we gained new learning areas and levels; they must be in groups”. really fundamental second-order changes, and “I liked this activity a lot because I’ve this new approach, relationship and attitude learned a lot of science skills.” And below on must be embedded in democratic values. the same page, to respond to “I have the follow- Change toward a more democratic approach in ing question(s)”, this learner wrote: “What is schools needs to be more than merely of a the importance of this activity?” structural nature, which often means “change This comment shows how the learner did not without difference” (Roemer, 1991:447). see his/her work in a larger context, and could Rather, it must be a basic change concerning not see the reason to learn it. This gap also core values on which ideas and behaviour are must be addressed. It seems to show that much based. Instead of restructuring, schools need of what we ask of some learners, appears mean- “rewiring” (McDonald, Smith, Turner, Finney ingless to them. & Barton, 1993:8). This “rewiring” in our “I liked it a bit because it was a bit difficult”. schools fundamentally means “inculcating “My group worked well together because we democratic values in the ethos of a classroom discussed our answers.” and school so that it will become part of the Mathematics class. A similar implementa-

123 Puhl & De Klerk tion in a class of Grade 8 learners elicited the CONCLUSION following feedback from learners in five We have argued that, for this secondary-level groups. Groups were given a cloze passage Northern Cape project, learning-area literacy which the teacher had created from the text- depends on language proficiency in the book, to review understanding of arcs, chords, discourse of the learning area; that language and theorems. Certain words had been deleted, proficiency for both L1 but especially for L2 and learners in groups had to put the words learners, depends for its development on oppor- (given at the bottom of the page) into the prop- tunities for learners to use the language in con- er blanks. This is essentially practice in reading text; and that learners do not get much opportu- a text and in negotiating meaning. The groups nity when the teacher does nearly all the talking then compared answers in the large class group. (“languaging”). Three groups said they liked the activity a lot We have argued that lack of democratic val- because “it was extremely interesting”, “it was ues in practice is a major stumbling block to practical”, “it teaches you to ‘prove’ problems more learner-centred, transformed teaching. by yourself”, “we all participated and gained Work within the “E” or language component of something from this activity”. One group said the GEMS project has shown that participating they liked it only a little because “it needed a teachers and their learners show enthusiasm for lot of thinking and attention”, which shows such changes. they were engaged, perhaps more than they However, such changes do not come sponta- wanted to be! This comment, “It was under- neously or easily or rapidly. It seems that a standable for the first time”, showed perhaps better practice of democratic values in the how the learners can learn from one another, classroom could serve as a foundation for edu- not just from the teacher. cational practices that promote better language The learners said they liked best how to development, fuller learning-area literacy, and approach theorems in different ways. They said a lived experience for preparing citizens to con- they put ideas together and worked well as a tinue developing hard-won South African free- group, solving the theorem (as they saw it). doms. Something they did not like: the time was too Unfortunately the practice of democratic val- short, “having many reasons and they are con- ues and better language teaching cannot solve fusing to us”, “undermining our ideas and everything. The very limited employment laughing at one another.” These last two opportunities in that region of the Northern responses are also instructive, showing the need Cape, and in the country as a whole, also have for getting used to a new way of learning and an impact. the need for learners to practise democratic As one teacher asked: principles of respect and sensitivity toward “How [can we] get learners with no expec- their peers. Democratic values, as we pointed tations for the future, motivated for mathe- out earlier, need to be taught. matics? They come from homes without From these two examples, typical of many breadwinners and most of them are without other teacher projects, one can see that the work when they leave school.” majority of the learners appreciated the direc- While our secondary schools cannot do every- tion of the changes. Even though the lessons thing, they can do something to make a differ- were not necessarily ideal and the teacher-made ence. If citizens in the schools can live the free- materials may not have been letter-perfect, the doms that they already have, if learners and learners expressed great enthusiasm. We were, teachers can create democratic classrooms and still are, hoping that learner enthusiasm while developing competencies for entering would encourage transformation, and we national and global discourses of science and believe that it may have an important, though mathematics, then we will be building a nation as yet not totally clear, role to play. on solid democratic values.

124 Puhl & De Klerk

REFERENCES

BITZER, E.M. 1998. Hoër Onderwys as ’n Unpublished paper prepared for the Joint Studieveld: Uitdagings in ‘n tyd van Education Trust. Cape Town. Omvorming. Inaugural Lecture, University of PRINS, E. 1995. The influence of readability on Stellenbosch. achievement in senior secondary school BROWN, H.D. 1994. Teaching by principles: mathematics. Unpublished doctoral disserta- Interactive language teaching methodology. tion. Stellenbosch: University of Stellen- New York: Prentice Hall Regents. bosch. CANALE, M. & SWAIN, M. 1980. Theoretical PUHL, C. 2000. Content-based (science) lan- bases of communicative approaches to sec- guage teaching: experiences in the Northern ond language teaching and testing. Applied Cape. Paper given at the Conference of the Linguistics 1:1-47. South African Association of Applied CUBAN, L. 1990. A fundamental puzzle of Linguistics, 14-16 September, University of school reform. In Lieberman, A. (ed.). Stellenbosch. Schools as collaborative cultures: creating REEVES, C. 2000. Evaluation of the Northern the future now. New York: Falmer Press, pp Cape GEMS Project. Unpublished report. 71-77. Cape Town: Joint Education Trust (JET). CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK FOR GENERAL AND ROEMER, M. 1991. What we talk about when FURTHER EDUCATION AND TRAINING. 1996. we talk about school reform. Harvard Pretoria: Government Printers. Educational Review, 61, pp. 434-448. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION (DOE) WHITE SAVIGNON, S. 1997. Communicative compe- PAPER. 1995. Pretoria: Government Printers. tence: theory and classroom practice. 2nd ed. GIBBS, W. & FOX, D. 1999. The false crisis in NewYork: McGraw-Hill. science education. Scientific American, SOUTH AFRICA SURVEY 1999-2000. 1999. October, 65-71. Johannesburg: South African Institute of HALLIDAY, M. 1993. Towards a language-based Race Relations. theory of learning. Linguistics and Education STEYN, J., DE KLERK, J & DU PLESSIS, W. 1999. 5(2), 93-116. Education for democracy. Durbanville, Cape HELSBY, G. 1999. Changing teachers’ work. Town: Wachwa Publishers. Buckingham: Open University Press. TANNER, M. & CASADOS, L. 1998. Promoting HIGGS, P. 1996. Democratisation and the trans- and studying discussions in math classes. formation of education. In Coetzee, J H & Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, Smith, T G (Eds.) International conference 41:5, pp. 342-50. on educational change: discourse in educa- VYGOTSKY, L. 1978. Mind in society: the devel- tion and change. Pretoria: University of opment of higher psychological processes. South Africa. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard MCDONALD, J, SMITH, S, TURNER, D, FINNEY, University Press. M, & BARTON, E. 1993. Graduation by exhi- WIDEEN, M. F. 1992. School-based teacher bition: assessing genuine achievement. development. In Fullan, M. & Hargreaves, Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision A., eds. Teacher development and education- and Curriculum Development. al change. Washington, D. C.: The Falmer MULLER, J. 2000. The sound and fury of inter- Press, 123-155. national school reform: a critical review.

125 Language and Democracy

Elaine Ridge

INTRODUCTION Two assumptions underlie my discussion and The development of democracy in South Africa should be stated immediately. The first is that will be strongly affected by the ability of future language is critical in learning. The second is citizens to use language effectively. The social, that, at least in the short- to medium-term, most economic and political competence of citizens children will learn through the mother tongue is greatly enhanced by their ability to use lan- and English (Heugh, 2000). guage well. The architects of our new educational dispensation recognise this. The real 1. ACTIVITIES AND LANGUAGE LEARNING issue is whether outcomes-based education The illustrative materials and broad guidance (OBE) in the mode of Curriculum 2005 can that has been offered to language teachers deliver on its promise to transform classrooms within the Curriculum 2005 initiative have gen- thereby creating opportunities for immediate erally displayed the optimistic view that mere participation on more equitable terms for the involvement in activities which require lan- majority of learners. guage use will bring about adequate language In some important areas, Curriculum 2005 is learning. This is deeply misleading. The com- vague. The Chisholm Report acknowledges plex nature of language development indicates this problem: a great deal needs to be specified a strong role for conscious awareness of what and teased out if Curriculum 2005 is to be is required for success in situated activities. effective. In this paper, I hope to contribute to Without this, learners may be condemned to that process. I shall examine five areas. First, remain outsiders, never really engaged. This an understanding about language learning becomes particularly acute in multicultural sit- implicit in Curriculum 2005 must be critiqued. uations. For example, township children in elite Second, the implications of treating language former model C schools may fail because they generally must be explored (the curriculum do not understand the implicit demands of the deals with language as a general category learning and practical situations they find rather than with Afrikaans, English or Xhosa). themselves in. Third, there are major consequences of not dis- As opposed to a strong communicative tinguishing between main language and addi- approach in which language is said to be unpre- tional language. These must be understood. dictable, a “situation” perspective sees situa- Fourth, the three elements in the Language, tions in which language is used as never entire- Literacy and Communication learning area ly novel. Analogous situations are repeated must be explored, to make plain both the scope with more or less variation over time. It is which they suggest, and the important aspects important for learners to have knowledge and which seem to be excluded. My paper con- understanding of how specific configurations cludes with some remarks on specific actions or patterns are characteristic of specific kinds necessary if Curriculum 2005 is to serve the of communicative situations. Here we are talk- democratic purposes envisaged. ing about shared assumptions which have to be

127 Ridge, E. honoured if one is, for example, to participate 3. MAIN LANGUAGE AND ADDITIONAL in small group discussion, report on a scientific LANGUAGE HOMOGENISED experiment, answer a comprehension test, or Curriculum 2005 provides one set of documen- write a letter of complaint. Most learners need tation for the learning area. While this allows to acquire this kind of pragmatic competence in for a more realistic view of the role that, for order to operate successfully in school-related example, English may play, like most activities. The principle is readily extended to homogenising processes it is likely to affect the real-life situations. distinctive fullness of flavour of the various All too often the reason given for poor per- languages that would be possible. But there is formance at school is the medium of instruc- perhaps an even greater danger. Bilingualism tion. Carol MacDonald (1990) is the best may be seen as a barrier to learning. Consider known of a number of researchers who have the underlying message in the following extract attempted to explore the effect on learning drawn from The Borrowers. when learners are not able to use effectively the “Can you read?” the boy said at last. language being used as a medium. Unfortun- “Of course,” said Arrietty. “Can’t you?” ately, her important research findings have “No,” he stammered. “I mean – yes. I mean been used to argue for language medium as the I’ve just come from India.” only problem. “What’s that got to do with it?” asked I argue that the problem is more complex. It Arrietty. is obvious that knowledge of the particular lan- “Well, if you’re born in India, you’re bilin- guage that is chosen as medium is important. gual. And if you’re bilingual, you can’t But a deeper cause of difficulties may be that read. Not so well.” opportunities have not been created for learners Arriety stared up at him … to acquire the necessary pragmatic competence. “Do you grow out of it?” she asked. If the problem of poor success rates could be He moved a little and she felt the cold flick solved by merely changing to mother tongue of his shadow. instruction, it would be hard to explain the rela- “Oh yes,” he said, “it wears off. My sisters tively poor results in the former House of were bilingual; now they aren’t a bit. They Representatives schools. could read any of those books upstairs in the schoolroom.” 2. TREATING LANGUAGE GENERALLY It is vital that bilingualism/multilingualism Linguists and anthropologists may find that should be seen as a resource, where new lan- viewing language generically is essential within guages are added to enrich the learners reper- the broad exploration and analysis with which toire. they are concerned. However, the needs of the classroom are with the specific and must deal 4. THE THREE TERMS OF THE LEARNING AREA with the systematic development of each of the In Curriculum 2005, the languages are com- languages which form part of the learning pro- bined in a learning area known as Language, gramme of a particular set of learners. Generic Literacy and Communication. This name is not treatment of language is unlikely to advance unpacked clearly in the Curriculum document. that goal. Nor is it possible to study specific In what follows, I examine each term separate- languages generally. In both cases one can ly. learn facts about them, but that does not help one to learn them or to learn how to use them. 4.1 Language Ironically, the fact that it is necessary only to What is meant by language? Like the other spe- pass one language in this learning area may cific outcomes, Specific Outcome 5 lacks increase the dominance of English rather than usable definition. It may therefore be seen as fostering additive bilingualism. There are also affirming a role for traditional grammar. timetable implications. One learning area has However, it could be seen as making provision only one foothold in the timetable, so class- for a study of use and even for a nuanced room time and notional learning time for lan- exploration of form. This would mean that we guages will be reduced. The more languages could escape the crude, binary distinctions you learn, the less time you have to learn them! which suggest that form and meaning are sepa-

128 Ridge, E. rate concerns. We would also be able to look at to find a means of enabling learners to acquire English grammar (etc.) and so terms such as the information and competencies. Successfully incorrect vs. correct might be largely replaced addressing the needs of learners cannot be by appropriate vs. inappropriate. The focus achieved by a return to exercises which use dis- could fall instead on particular patterns and crete sentences to focus on specific language choices within a number of systems. Even that, items and treat knowledge of these sentence however, would not go far enough. The belief grammar items as “outcomes”. If the outcome that the ability to use a second language (know- is to be understanding, language teaching must ing “how”) would develop automatically if the always be contextualised and underlying con- learner were allowed to focus on meaning, has cepts must be systematically developed. been strongly challenged (Nunan, 1995: 13). The majority of our learners have limited We need a clearer framework if we are to see opportunities to extend their knowledge of form as integral to meaning, selected in the English, and so require more fine-tuned expo- light of factors such as sure and systematic opportunities to develop a context and the relationship between the com- more complex understanding of how language municators, and operating in complex interac- functions. The demands of equity make it tion with them to provide situated meaning. essential that the advantages of the classroom What I am concerned with here is what Gee be exploited. (1999) terms “grammar two”. This is the rules by which grammatical units like nouns, verb 4.2 Literacy forms and clauses are used to create patterns Next we focus on literacy. In attempting to which signal or provide an “index” which indi- understand what is meant by the term, we look cates to interpreters their situated identities and at excerpts from the OBE policy documents: the specific activities they are engaged in. Literacy: Initially “literacy” was seen as a Understanding sentences is a matter of semantic cognitive process that enables reading, writ- decoding. This knowledge alone will not allow ing, and numeracy. us to understand language in use (Widdowson, Literacies: Currently the term “literacy” has 1990:102). Co-locational patterns signal specific expanded to include several kinds of litera- social language and the social identities and cies. “Literacies” stresses the issue of activities which it implies. Put simply, we are access to the world and to knowledge able to arrive at agreed understandings of dis- through development of multiple capacities course because what we read or hear is inter- within all of us to make sense of our worlds preted within a whole set of larger contextual through whatever means we have, not only understandings. The implication for teaching is texts and books. that meaning making can be taught effectively only by embedding language (i.e. sentences and Examples of kinds of literacies: other structures) in what Gee calls “the conver- • Cultural literacy – Cultural, social and sational sea in which it swims”. ideological values that shape our “reading” It is important to recognise that while some of texts. learners acquire a language incidentally, the • Critical literacy – The ability to respond majority of pupils will not. On the basis of critically to the intentions, contents and pos- careful research involving three communities, sible effects of messages and text on the Shirley Brice Heath (1983: 352) argues that: reader. “Academic success beyond the basis of • Visual literacy – The interpretation of readiness depends on becoming a contextu- images, signs, pictures and non-verbal alist who can predict and manoeuvre the (body) language etc. scenes and situation by understanding the • Media literacy – The “reading” of e.g. TV relatedness of parts to the outcome or the and film as cultural messages. identity of the whole.” • Computer literacy – The ability to use and An understanding of grammar within particular access information from computers. situations is vital so learners can read and use (Department of Education 1997: 25) the cues and clues it offers to meaning with It must be acknowledged that this moves us increasing sophistication. The problem for us is beyond the traditional definition of literacy as

129 Ridge, E. the ability to read and write. However, “litera- does not take account of the learners for whom cy” is ill-defined. Phrases such as “through they are intended. whatever means we have” are vague and need Perhaps the main difficulty in the OBE closer specification if they are to be useful. descriptions is that literacy is presented in static What kinds of things might be encompassed by terms, as opposed to being seen as a dynamic the word “means”? A key obstacle to easy developmental receptive and productive inference here is that the term “texts” does not process which involves an understanding of seem to include “books”. From a social con- how language, thought and increasingly com- structivist perspective – this seems to be the plex social interaction combine for particular informing philosophy – “texts” refers to very purposes in particular situations. much more than books, but it most decidedly Literacy is not a neutral technology. Learning includes them. to make meaning is not simply a matter of A huge problem is that the definitions of lit- being exposed to rich resources and systemati- eracy (with the exception of computer literacy) cally integrating the four skills. Such an describe exclusively passive or receptive abili- approach can, of course, help, but much more is ties. The “definition” of critical literacy is a needed if the empowering intentions of the cur- case in point: the ability to respond critically to riculum are to be realised. Consider Willinsky’s the intentions, contents and possible effects of (1990:8) comments: messages and text on the reader. This does not “The new literacy consists of those strate- appear to take account of the ideological gies in the teaching of reading and writing debates which relate to literacy – perhaps the which attempt to shift the control of literacy most important one relates to language as a site from the teacher to the student; literacy is of power. At an obvious level, therefore, the promoted in such programmes as a social description in the documents leaves out the pro- process with language, which can from the ductive ability to use language consciously for very beginning extend the students’ range a particular purpose. There are a number of of meaning and connection.” other ways of exercising power, as the follow- This opens up cognitive possibilities and serves ing examples illustrate: the use of terror tactics, already recognised as well as burgeoning the use of satire, the use of seemingly abject needs. Literacy should be a dynamic develop- behaviour. It is also possible for learners to be mental process involving conceptual develop- subjected to a kind of indoctrination as they are ment, the learner’s own questions and the schooled to interpret particular texts mechani- immediate demands being posed by a particular cally, without regard to the contexts in which situation in increasingly complex social interac- they would be found or the purposes they tion. The sociocultural context in which learn- would serve. ing takes place becomes important and the Gee (1999: 28) offers these examples to show social identity of the learners, the teacher and how audience affects discourse. the producers of material is crucially signifi- “Experiments show that the Heliconius but- cant. Heath (1983), Kress (1989) and Gee terflies are less likely to ovipost on host (1990, 1999) are among those who emphasise plants that possess eggs or egg-like struc- the connections between becoming literate and tures. These egg-mimics are an unambigu- social process. Through interaction with a ous example of a plant trait evolved in group, the individual is involved in bigger con- response to a host-restricted group of herbi- texts of values, intentions and meanings. vores.” (Professional journal) Depending on the transitions that are made or not made, the individual is an insider or an out- “Heliconius butterflies lay their eggs on sider. Literacy (and classroom practice in this Passiflora vines. In defence the vines seem regard) is thus directly related to larger issues to have evolved fake eggs that make it look of democratic participation. to the butterflies as if eggs have already Views of literacy have direct implications for been laid on them.” (Popular science) assessment and for practice. In a skills-based, It seems to me that textbook writers and materi- instrumental system, literacy is described in al developers sometimes themselves prevent terms of performance at a certain level. In that development through producing discourse that view, literacy is a matter of training. It is not an

130 Ridge, E. empowering process for the learner, but con- • focusing upon the means towards the learn- sists of teacher-directed preparation and prac- ing of a new language: give priority to the tice to meet externally generated “standards”. changing process of learning and the poten- This view tends to equate proficiency with tial of the classroom – to the psychological demonstration of mastery. I believe OBE has and social resources applied to a new lan- been strongly influenced by this view. The guage by learners in the classroom context problem with this kind of approach is that it • a greater concern with capacity for communi- ignores social process. Furthermore, it does not cation rather than a repertoire of communica- take into account what Bonny Norton Peirce tion (1995) has termed “investment” – learners must • that the activity of learning a language should identify with the purpose at hand before there be viewed as important as the language itself can be affective commitment. MEANING • and a focus upon means rather than predeter- RELATES TO THE HERE AND NOW AND mined objectives. THE ENVISAGED FUTURE: What Freire All these indicate priority of process over con- terms in Freire and Macedo (1987) “Reading tent. the word – reading the world”. Without an awareness of the diversity and complexity of CONCLUSION: IMPLICATIONS AND CHALLENGES the processes involved in empowering literacy, My argument leaves us with a number of daunt- lifelong learning and OBE itself could be ing challenges: reduced to no more than the accrual of discrete • How do we ensure that our decisions do not modules, confining learners to a very limited represent new sites of contestation? Insisting and potentially disabling set of possibilities. on particular approaches to learning such as constructivism may precisely deny some 4.3 Communication learners space and actually marginalise them. What is meant by communication? The history • How can we come to know, understand and of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) adapt to the “language” and identities of the attests to what an elusive concept this is. learners in a multicultural situation? And in Pennycook (1994), perhaps one of the harshest doing so how can we ensure that this does not critics, has dismissed CLT as trivialising the introduce new sites of contestation? Focusing teaching of language. One thing is certain, on where learners have come from instead of rigour will be important if the empowering acknowledging where they might wish to be intentions behind giving communication promi- going, might deny them opportunities in the nence in the curriculum are not to be lost in short term and limit their capacity to operate practices which reduce communication to bare within the sphere of social and political life intelligibility. In reviewing the work of Canale in the long term. and Swain, Bachman, Bachman and Palmer, • How can we incorporate an understanding of and Widdowson, Skehan (1985:100-106) pro- how particular communities interact socially vides a useful picture of communication as and share knowledge in literacy events into being achieved by means of an information our classrooms? processing system in which there are limited Nothing short of re-education for present and attentional capacities. He lists the multiple future educators will suffice. We have to be demands made on attention as cognitive able to engage in alternative imaginings so that demands, linguistic demands, linguistic criteria, we can see that present situated meanings could time pressure and unpredictability. The non- have been different. In a sense, the present is native speaker can call on five resources: exist- partly an artifact of a very specific past. And ing competences, previous experience, skill in we have to be able both to offer overt instruc- using time-creating devices, degree of influence tion and to immerse learners in situated prac- on the communicative encounter and planning. tices. Despite its declared concern for process, Without strong educator competencies (both OBE is essentially (and perhaps inevitably) the ability to use language effectively and to concerned with product. Breen (1984:52-3) create opportunities for systematic develop- provides a useful balance. He advocates: ment) we may very well continue to engage in • prioritis[ing]the route itself disabling practices.

131 Ridge, E.

The road forward could represent an exhila- 1998:12) and discover that rich fulfilment of rating time as we apply Lila Watson’s adage the role of educators depends on creating the “your survival is bound up in mine” (Gough, possibility of rich fulfilment for learners.

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BREEN, M. 1984. Processes in syllabus design. HEUGH, K. 2000. The case against multilingual In C Brumfit (ed.) General Syllabus Design. education in South Africa. Paper presented Oxford: Pergamon Press. at the 2000 SAALA Conference, CHISHOLM, F., VOLMINK, J, POTENZA, E., MUL- Stellenbosch. LER, J., VINJEVOLD, P., MALAN, B., NDHLOVU, KRESS, G. 1997. Before Writing: Rethinking T., MAHOMED, H., LUBISI, C., NGOZI, L. AND Paths to Literacy. London: Routledge. MPHAHLELE, L. 2000. A South African MACDONALD, C. 1990. Crossing the Threshold Curriculum for the Twenty First Century: into Standard Three in Black Education. The Report of the Review Committee on Curricu- Consolidated Main Report of the Threshold lum 2005. Pretoria: Government Printer. Project. Pretoria: Human Sciences Research DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. 1997. Discussion Council. Document: Curriculum 2005: Specific NORTON, M. 1958. The Borrowers. Harmonds- Outcomes, Assessment Criteria and Range worth, Middlesex: Puffin Books. Statements: Grades 1-9. NUNAN, D. 1995. Designing communicative FREIRE, PAULO AND DONALDO MACEDO. 1987. tasks. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Literacy: Reading the word and the world. PEIRCE, B.N. 1995. Social identity, investment, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. and language learning. Tesol Quarterly GEE, J. 1990. Social Linguistics and Literacies: 23(3): 401-420. Ideologies in Discourse. London: Routledge. PENNYCOOK, A. 1994. The Cultural Politics of GEE, J. 1999. An Introduction to Discourse English as an International Language. analysis: Theory and Method. London: London: Longman. Routledge. SKEHAN, P. 1995. Analysability, accessibility, GOUGH, N. 1998. Decolonising sustainability: and ability for use. In Guy Cook and subverting and appropriating mythologies of Barabara Seidlhoffer, Principle & Practice in social change. Southern African Journal of Applied Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford Environmental Education 18: 3-13. University Press. HEATH, SB. 1983. Ways with Word: Language WILLINSKY, J. 1990. The New Literacy: Rede- and Life in the Community and Classrooms. fining Reading and Writing in Schools. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.. London: Routledge.

132 Can Devolution of Power Enable Transformation in South African School Systems?

Chris Reddy

ABSTRACT in the locus of power from central agencies to Over the past decade, a trend has been the school site. Geijsel F, Van Den Berg R and observed regarding the reform of administra- Sleegers P (1999) write that contemporary edu- tion of schools and school systems in various cation reform being undertaken simultaneously parts the world. Many of these reforms have in many countries in the world, which includes been undertaken under the overt agenda of changes to traditional institutional patterns of decentralisation or devolution of control and school administration, seem to indicate that were designed to provide for increased autono- schools need to become increasingly responsi- my at the level of the local school site. Steven- ble for their own future. Gordon and Whitty son and Schiller (1999) write that policies (1997) mention that: encouraging site-based management are asso- “… in recent years many governments have ciated with increases in the influence of teach- sought to restructure and deregulate state ers and school councils in decision making education. Central to these initiatives have with decreases in the influence of central been moves to reduce educational bureau- office. Chapman, Froumin and Aspin (1995) cracy and create devolved systems of state that the examination of data and practices schooling entailing significant degrees of suggests that the situation is far more complex institutional autonomy and a variety of than this. forms of school self-management.” In this paper I discuss some of what Chapman et al (1996) write that: Chapman et al (1995) call “the complex fac- “devolution, school-site management, and tors and variables associated with changed local management of schools seem to have relationships along the centralisation-decen- been the main versions of administrative re- tralisation continuum”. I refer particularly to arrangement found in the rhetoric of pro- issues likely to be encountered in the current posals for systemic restructuring in many shift in the South African formal schooling con- countries in recent years.” text, from a virtually totalitarian, centralised Stevenson and Schiller (1999:261) in turn men- approach to school administration to one of tion that state policies encouraging site-based school-based management and decision mak- management are associated with increases in ing. In my argument I contend that such a shift the influence of teachers and school councils in will be highly problematic unless accompanied decision making and with decreases in the by parallel processes of skills development influence of the central office. According to related to changing roles for all stakeholders Rivarola and Fuller (1999), a dominant charac- and critical appraisal of policy shifts. teristic of the image of reforming schools in Nicaragua was the development of policies that INTRODUCTION encouraged the redistribution of decision-mak- What does devolution of power entail in school ing authority to the local school. This entailed systems? Essentially this process entails a shift the involvement of parents, teachers and school

133 Reddy councils in decisions related to personnel and (1998:65) this act is the culmination of a long the use of school resources. David (1996) process of establishing democratic practice in argues that there are as many versions of schools. The establishment of school governing devolved management systems as there are bodies was an important development in the people proclaiming to have instituted systems Schools Act. of site-based management, and that the concept Beckmann and Blom (2000) summarise the is difficult to define or explain easily. important implication of this development. As In South Africa the trend to devolved school statutory bodies the governing bodies of management is related to the increase in demo- schools ensure the participation of parents, edu- cratic practices in political and social life fol- cators other staff members, the principal, learn- lowing the shift to a democratic government in ers and co-opted members in the governance of 1994. Chishlom (1997:50) mentions that the public schools in South Africa (South African move to devolve decision- making power to Schools Act section 23(1) and (2)). According schools (site-based management) is not unique to this act the governance of every public to South Africa and points out that, “…educa- school is vested in its governing body (section tional policies for a new South Africa show 16(1)), and the principal of the school has for- remarkable congruence with international mal legal authority in terms of the management trends”. of the school (section 16(3)). This act, according to Beckmann and Blom (2000), can be 1. SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT: BACKGROUND TO interpreted as a mandate for increasing the REFORM accountability of schools and governing bodies. Traditionally, the South African system of edu- This implies that both the governing bodies and cation was highly centralised and unified. The the principals are legally required to perform control exercised from the centre over institu- certain functions for which they are account- tions, curriculum and pedagogy was heavily able, (Beckham and Visser, 1999). influenced by ideological considerations. The Schools Act makes provision for repre- Principally, neither school-based personnel sentative governance at schools, in the form of (students and teachers) nor stakeholders in the democratically elected community-based community (including parents) were allowed to school governing bodies and has essentially express or disseminate any opinions on educa- devolved power and responsibilities to the tional matters that differed to the position pro- school communities in the form of governing nounced as official by the government. This bodies. resulted in the establishment and perpetuation School governing bodies in South Africa of an extremely rigid hierarchical administra- have the power to decide, among other things, tive structure ruling out the introduction of any admissions, religious and language policies, a innovations at any level other than official code of conduct for learners, and the times of provincial or national education departments. the school day. They also play an important Rigid teaching techniques and centrally dictat- role in the appointment of staff, make recom- ed and approved text books and content was the mendations to provincial education depart- order of the day. ments, control property and raise funds for the With the shift to a democratic government in schools. If necessary, they can make curriculum 1994, definite attempts were made to transform choices in terms of provincial curriculum poli- the education system. These included the man- cy regarding the purchasing of textbooks, edu- agement and administration of schools, and this cational materials and equipment. Inputs can be was officially promulgated in the South African made in determining extra mural curriculum, Schools Act, 1996 (Act 84 of 1996, Republic of which ensures representivity and opportunities South Africa 1996). The vision for which many for influencing developments in this regard, parents, educators and students struggled – (Beckmann and Blom, 1999). namely, the right to have democratic structures of school governance in place at all schools in 2. DEVOLUTION OF POWER IN THE SOUTH South Africa – has become a reality as a conse- AFRICAN CONTEXT quence of the South African Schools Act, Hendricks (2000) indicates that school gover- Hendricks (2000:1). According to Pampallis nance is an entirely new terrain for the vast

134 Reddy majority of South African communities – so the wisdom that lend cohesion to any organisation changes have not all been plain sailing. She – is difficult to break down and recraft”. highlights some of the challenges that arose Poverty and social disintegration, such as fami- during the implementation of the Schools Act ly breakdowns, are another factor cited by and that were experienced by some governing them. These are all issues which could be relat- bodies. These include: ed to the problems being experienced in some • Lack of education among some stakeholders South African communities. represented on the governing body. Many other factors also affect the successful • Apathy and disinterest. working of governing bodies. David (1996:6) • Lack of experience and capacity. mentions that school councils (governing bod- • Many communities are steeped in back- ies) are often made up of people who have grounds where democracy was previously never worked together as a group previously curtailed or completely denied. and who often have no experience in collabora- Hendricks (2000) also mentions the following tive decision making. In many cases members issues/problems that emerged during imple- may in fact have a history of being adversaries. mentation: There is always suspicion and uneasy relation- • Failure of parents to participate. ships in such settings. • Rivalry between groups. Guskey and Peterson (1996:11) mention the • Conflict of interests. lack of time and work commitments as possible • Inadequate infrastructure. constraining factors. They also indicate that • Provincial government interference. meaningful deliberations and carefully rea- The problems and issues experienced are not soned discussions about complex issues require unexpected or unique to the South African con- considerable time, and the nature of teaching text. Many similar issues arose in other coun- commitments and the inflexibility in daily tries and contexts where decentralisation was schedules do not always make this possible. favoured as a transformative approach to edu- Meetings therefore need to be wedged in cation management at school level. between various other activities and often do not make the necessary progress possible. Lack 3. DISCUSSION of expertise and poor education is another real The South African experience (issues and chal- problem in many South African schools, as are lenges) as mentioned by Hendricks (2000) is the personal agendas of individuals and group- not surprising. While it is early days yet in ings that seem to take precedence over school South Africa, the experiences are similar to that interests. in many other countries. Advocates of devolution assumed teachers and parents would jump 4. MOTIVES FOR DEVOLUTION: A CRITICAL at the opportunity to participate, but numbers of APPRAISAL parents willing to be involved are dismally Dunstan (1996:123) alludes to suspicions relat- small and many schools fail to attract quorums ed to the motives for devolution of authority to when meetings are held for the election of offi- schools. In his critical appraisal of the democra- cials. Rivarola and Fuller (1999:506) relate tisation of schools in the state of Victoria, similar experiences in Nicaragua. They mention Australia, Spicer (1996:132) writes that this that devolution of school authority results in process involved a realignment of power which contested terrain for a complex set of local gave far greater power to the members of actors that are not always prepared and willing teacher unions and parent associations, than to become involved in taking decisions related bureaucratic officials. He adds that the so- to schools. They mention that it is difficult to called democratisation of schooling in Australia develop “… more horizontal relations at the was concerned with the locus of control for cer- grassroots level inside what are historically top- tain key areas of decision making from the cen- down institutions”. They describe the apparent tre to the school site. The reasons for devolu- lack of willingness to change to strong social tion according to him have been far more relat- organisation and tradition and mention that “the ed to issues of productivity, efficiency, value habitus of any social collective – the daily cus- for money and power than they have been to toms, sources of authority, and conventional democracy. These are all tenets of economic

135 Reddy rationalism in education based on World Bank and support systems needed to move from poli- structural adjustment programmes. cy enunciation to policy enactment within In South Africa, devolution of authority schools. He warns that uniform large-scale resulted in schools having much more responsi- changes are more likely to benefit advantaged bility for everyday school management. schools than disadvantaged institutions. Schools have had to carry more of the running David (1996) indicates that support systems costs as well as the costs of extra teachers, are needed during policy implementation to when teacher numbers decreased during down- ensure that site-based management does not sizing. Unpopular decisions had to be made at exacerbate resource differences between school level, leaving principals and governing schools and leave schools in the poorer neigh- bodies to face the flack from communities. bourhoods at risk of being further disadvan- Jones (1997) mentions the idea of increased taged. She adds that support systems also need user accountability and responsibility for edu- to be in place to ensure meaningful participa- cation processes as an important trend in the tion of broader school communities in gover- World Bank policies on education. This, they nance in varying contexts so as to avoid busi- argue, will improve efficiency of delivery and ness as usual operations that serve to entrench reduce state responsibility for education provi- privilege held by some communities. sion, and they encourage governments not to The challenge according to David (1996:7) is underestimate the willingness of communities “…to maximise the likelihood that decisions to take responsibility for the education of their will be appropriately participatory, informed children. and sensitive to the context”. To ensure that Pape (1998) writes that the South African this happens she calls for opportunities for prin- education arena of policy development certain- cipals, staff and parents to learn new roles, and ly shows similarities to the World Bank eco- for redefining teachers’ jobs to allow time for nomic structural adjustment programmes that collaborative decision-making and ongoing have been imposed on developing countries. A professional development that could help to question begging an answer is whether devolu- make this possible. These suggestions also tion of power in South Africa is serving to seem to be relevant in the current South African enable democracy or if it is in the service of context. economic rationalism? Clear motives need to be established for devolution of power. It needs to be questioned CONCLUSION whether devolution of power to schools is relat- The devolution of power to schools and the ed to promoting democracy or whether it is consequent decentering of school management linked to economic rationalism? If coupled to has resulted in what Rivarola and Fuller (1999), the latter, it could represent a destructive rela- when writing about experiences in Nicaragua, tionship in which devolution of power will refer to as both painful anxieties and heartening serve to further entrench state control and not benefits in various countries. Making funda- enable transformation at site level through mental changes and shifts in education systems meaningful participation of stakeholders. is complex and raises some questions and chal- Broader community involvement could be seen lenges for which there are no easy answers. In as mere token participation to legitimate state South Africa, decentralised school governing initiatives, reducing transformation through bodies can be linked to the historical struggle democratic participation to a facade of democ- for the democratic right of school communities racy and transformation of schools by commu- (parents, teachers and students) to participate in nities, to a pipe dream. In attempting to answer the exercise and control of all matters affecting the question in the title, I believe that only ade- their school (Hendricks 2000:4). This cherished quate support systems for policies and a sincere ideal needs to be enabled and sustained. commitment to democracy will enable transfor- Jansen (1999) writes that declaring policy is mation through devolution of power to school not the same as achieving it. Attention needs to sites. Anything less is unacceptable and could be given to the complex of varying contexts have the opposite effect.

136 Reddy

REFERENCES

BECKMANN J. AND BLOM M. (2000). Thoughts JANSEN J. (1999). Policy learning: lessons on accountability and democratic school learned (and not learned) from the OBE management. South African Journal of experience. Unpublished proceedings Education Vol 20(1). Western Cape Education Department, OBE CHAPMAN J., FROUMIN I., ASPIN D. (EDS) 1995. conference “Making OBE work?” Kromme Creating and Managing the Democratic Rhee, Stellenbosch, 13-15 December 1999. School. London: Falmer Press. JONES P. (1997). Review article on World Bank DAVID J. (1996). The who, what and why of Education Financing. World Bank (1995) site based management. Educational Policies and Strategies for Education: A Leadership Vol 53 (4). World Bank review (Washington DC, World DUNSTAN J. (1995). The structure of democracy Bank). Comparative Education, Vol 33(1), in educational settings: The relationship pp117-129. between the school and the system in PAPE J. (1998) Changing education for majority Chapman J., Froumin I., Aspin D (Eds) 1995. rule in Zimbabwe and South Africa. Creating and Managing the Democratic Comparative Education Review, Vol 42(3), School. London: Falmer Press. pp 253-266. GORDON L. AND WHITTY G. (1997). Giving the REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA. 1996. South ‘hidden hand’ a helping hand? The rhetoric African Schools Act. Pretoria: Government and reality of neoliberal education reform in Printer. England and New Zealand. Comparative RIVAROLA M. AND FULLER B. (1999). Education Review, Vol. 33 (3) Nicaragau’s experiment to decentralise GEIJSEL F., VAN DEN BERG R., SLEEGERS P., schools: contrasting views of parents, teach- (1999). The innovative capacity of schools in ers and directors. Comparative Education primary education: a qualitative study. Review, Vol 43 (4), pp 489-521. International Journal of Qualitative Studies SPICER B. (1995). Democracy in the school set- in Education, Volume 12 (2), pp 175-191 ting: power and control, costs and benefits in GUSKEY T. AND PETERSON K. (1996). The road Chapman J., Froumin I., Aspin D. (Eds) to classroom change. Educational Leadership 1995. Creating and Managing the Vol 53 (4). Democratic School. London: Falmer Press. HENDRICKS M. (2000). School governing bod- STEVENSON D. AND SCHILLER K. (1999). State ies: Their significance in the democratic education policies and changing school prac- transformation of South African society. tices: evidence from the national longitudinal Unpublished Master of Education thesis, study of schools, 1980-1993. American University of Stellenbosch. Journal of Education 107, August 1999.

137 Shaping and Sizing: Proposed Transformations of the Higher Education Landscape in South Africa

Eli Bitzer

ABSTRACT education systems in developed countries have The Council on Higher Education (CHE) in reached mass-status (Guskin, 1996) and in South Africa issued a discussion document on terms of demand, the sector has never been in a the restructuring of higher education drafted better shape globally. by its Shape and Size Task Team in April 2000. Mass higher education, however, has forced This document was followed by a final report institutions to adhere to some principles of to the Minister of Education by the end of June mass production. Personalised interaction has of the same year. The report proposed a model been replaced by mass modes of delivery and whereby higher education will, essentially, be crowded tutorials; scholarly contemplation and differentiated into at least three institutional leisurely reflection has given way to forms of types, ranging from mainly teaching to pre- rote learning, and market-like analogies have dominantly research institutions. The Task become commonplace within and among insti- Team claims that the model seeks a meaningful tutions and national governing systems. realisation of higher education goals in rela- The basic explanation for most of the above tion to equity, quality and cost effectiveness. is economic rationalism (De Boer, Goedege- These goals will be achieved, inter alia, by the buure & Meek, 1998). Governments, and thus proposed institutional differentiation, society, were not prepared to bear massive increased and widened access, improved expansion costs in higher education. At the throughput and measures to counteract same time, however, they were not prepared to institutional drift. lower their expectations of what the sector This paper contextualises the proposals of could be contributing to national development the Task Team within developments on the goals either. international higher education scene during The effects of all this were rather predictable. the past decade. It also analyses a number of Higher education was to cater for increasingly responses to the proposals of the Task Team diverse constituencies, and deliver more, in and finally draws conclusions as to possible spite of fewer resources. Consequently, as effects and implications the proposals, if highlighted by De Boer, Goedegebuure & accepted, might have on the transformation of Meek (1998:104): higher education in South Africa in the longer “… with remarkable agility, universities term. jumped on the bandwagon of total quality management, performance-based funding, INTRODUCTION benchmarking, product diversification, ven- Judging from articles published on the restructure capital and strong, executive leader- turing of higher education internationally, there ship.” is little doubt that the past decade was a period During the past decade, many countries intro- of substantive change (Cabal, 1993; Teichler, duced new legislation or amended legislation 1993; Farnham, 1999). Many of the higher regarding the governance and management of

139 Bitzer higher education. These developments were merging and transforming institutions in the most obvious in the United Kingdom (UK) and mid-1990s. Commonwealth policy directives Australia during the early 1990s, and were to changed higher education from an elitist to a be followed later in the decade by European mass system, comprising 37 publically funded countries such as Norway, Denmark, the and two private universities. Four “clusters” of Netherlands and Austria (Farnham, 1999). institutions – the so-called “group of 8, the sec- Most of the changes in higher education had ond wave, the universities of technology and a similar thrust, namely to introduce a more the former colleges” – can be distinguished on corporate form of decision making in higher the grounds of their distinct institutional goals education, to streamline the system and to and missions. Meek & Wood (1998), in their locate authority at the apex of both the national studies on university governance in Australia and institutional structures. A few examples found, inter alia, that tensions were markedly will serve to illustrate the effect of some of the discernible between the executive leadership initiatives taken in different countries, as they and the day-to-day practices on the academic have recently become noticeable. shop-floor. Their findings pointed towards increasing discrepancies between the values, 1. EXAMPLES OF INTERNATIONAL HIGHER objectives and actions of central management EDUCATION SHAPE AND SIZE DEVELOPMENTS and those of devolved units. Furthermore, 1.1 The United Kingdom and Australia Australian higher education faced, and is still Both the UK and Australia, traditionally placed facing, substantive challenges arising from in the Anglo-Saxon group, have experienced massification combined with an increased profound changes, one of which was the termi- emphasis on efficiency and competition. nation of the binary institutional divide, with important consequences for governance and 1.2 Belgium and the Netherlands management. Issues of language and cultural identity within a In the UK, the changes were heralded already federal state make Belgian higher education an in the mid-1980s during the heyday of the interesting object of study. The first real expan- Conservative Government. By the late 1990s, sion of Belgian higher education started in higher education in the UK had become an 1965 with the establishment of a number of essentially unitary system, largely based on new universities (Verhoeven and Beuselink, universities, but institutionally diverse. The 1999). Expansion was mainly the result of two emergence of this unitary system was only pos- factors: a greater demand for university educa- sible because historically the idea of “the uni- tion on the one hand and divisions between lan- versity” had dominated the concept of higher guage and ideological groupings on the other. education in the UK (Farnham, 1999). What Currently the structure of higher education in was formerly a status hierarchy of types of Belgium is characterised firstly by a language institutions (universities, polytechnics, col- divide (Flemish and French institutions) as well leges) was replaced by a single hierarchy of as by an academic–technical divide between universities. As indicated by Trow (1995), new universities and colleges of higher education status groupings of research universities, (hogescholen). Both communities have thus research and teaching, and mainly teaching uni- retained the binary divide, although colleges versities were created. Dearlove (1998) con- have been organised into smaller groups to cludes his assessment of the situation in the UK improve educational delivery. Attempts have by stating that, notwithstanding the legal also been made to bring universities and col- requirements for institutional diversity and gov- leges closer together, although different mis- ernment pressures for increased efficiency, the sions and structures remain intact, as a result of organisation of higher education would always which staff at universities are mainly rewarded be a somewhat messy business where much is for research, and those at colleges for teaching. decided informally under the skin of estab- Before 1997, and following political develop- lished and formal arrangements. ments in many Western European countries, the In their overview of Australian higher educa- Dutch university system became mired in tion reforms, Kelso and Leggett (1999) notions of representation and democratic gover- describe how a unitary system was created by nance (De Boer, Goedegebuure & Meek,

140 Bitzer

1998). In 1997 an act was passed by the Dutch there is much talk and action on the issue of parliament which provided much more scope institutional differentiation, aiming to transform for individual institutions towards executive a number of universities into research intensive leadership and managerialism. The Dutch high- institutions while others would become essen- er education system represents a binary divide tially teaching institutions with no research per- between the current 13 universities and 70 mitted and effecting much lower costs. A more vocational institutions (Hoger Beroepsonder- common form of the differentiation debate in wijs or HBOs). While the main goals of the uni- Canada, however, is within institutions versity sector include the pursuit of indepen- (Savage, 1999). It is argued that institutions dent scholarship, preparing students for profes- should concentrate on what they do best. They sional functions and bringing about an under- have also realised that the closing down of clas- standing of the ultimate unity of knowledge sics or religion departments does nothing to (De Weert, 1999), the main task of the HBO solve budgetary problems. Only abolishing institutions is to provide theoretical and practi- expensive programmes in science, engineering cal training with a clear vocational orientation. or medicine will have that effect. These are, HBOs also have the important task of transfer- however, precisely the programmes that boards ring and developing knowledge for the benefit of governors and provincial governments wish of the professions in the industrial and service to maintain. sectors. According to De Weert (1999) the cur- The history, culture and politics of the US rent trend for these institutions is to operate on have resulted in a highly decentralised, com- an increasingly national and international basis plex and pluralistic system of higher education. instead of providing learning opportunities rele- Horton (1999) points to the fact that in 1995 a vant only for the regions or economies within total of 3698 higher education institutions were which they are situated. classified by the Department of Education according to ownership and types of degree 1.3 Canada and the United States qualifications offered. Although the responsi- Savage (1999) points out that Canadian univer- bility for all education, including higher educa- sities are firmly part of the North American tra- tion, rests primarily with each of the 50 states, dition in the sense that there is no national sys- the Carnegie classification system to differenti- tem of higher education. Most universities are ate among institutions has been in operation for either de facto or de jure individual corpora- more than three decades (McCormick, 2000). tions, with their own boards of governors. The In 1970, the Carnegie Commission on Higher only exception is that of the University of Education developed a classification taxonomy Quebec system, where strong tendencies that would reflect the variety of higher educa- towards decentralisation are currently experi- tion institutions in the US. Before 1970, simple enced. Since there is no single federal depart- descriptors such as level (two- or four-year ment responsible for higher education, the key institutions, with four-year institutions some- governmental players are provincial govern- times divided into doctoral and non-doctoral) ments. They have separate ministries of educa- and control (public or private, with private tion responsible for the funding of higher edu- sometimes divided into sectarian and non-sec- cation institutions within their jurisdiction. tarian) were used. Such a taxonomy failed to According to Savage (1999), there are currently capture important differences, grouping widely 71 universities in Canada, while a number of divergent institutions together, while separating colleges are affiliated to universities as degree institutions that had much in common, such as granting institutions, and community colleges public and private research institutions also offer recognised university transfer cours- (McCormick, 2000). es. The binary divide in the English-speaking The Carnegie classification, adopted widely parts of Canada was created, as in the United by researchers, policy makers, funding agen- States (US), by the establishment of a commu- cies, institutional staff and students, distin- nity college sector. The participation rate for guished among the seven following types of 18- to 24-year-olds in higher education was institutions (1994 edition): Research Univer- around 20% in 1993/4, at that stage increasing sities (I and II), Doctoral Universities (I and II), at a rate of three per cent per year. Currently Baccalaureate Colleges (I and II) and Associate

141 Bitzer of Arts Colleges. The 2000 edition, however, tional university, two colleges offering degree distinguishes among only five types of institu- or degree equivalent programmes, 31 teacher tions, since research and doctoral granting uni- training colleges and seven polytechnics pro- versities have been jointly classified as Doctor- viding vocational education (Hj Din and al/Research Universities I and Doctoral/ Shanmugam, 1999). While Malaysia had the Research Universities II. highest per capita spending on higher education Horton (1999) suggests that institutional in the Association of South East Asian Nations autonomy in the US has gradually been eroded (Asean) region in 1994, it also had the lowest by statewide boards, councils or commissions participation rate of 4.3% for the 19-24 age directing policy on public higher education. cohort. Besides referring to universities, col- Even private colleges come under their ambit leges and polytechnics, Hj Din and Shanmu- as states seek to plan for further growth. gam (1999) highlight the fact that there are Consortia, massification and egalitarianism numerous private organisations which collabo- have made institutions interdependent rather rate with universities from abroad via distance than dependent and the trend is towards learning, franchising or joint study pro- increased centralisation – from local to state or grammes. In this respect students are expected national level, and from private to public sector to spend about two years in Malaysia and com- higher education. plete the rest of their programmes at a foreign university. Private sector higher education insti- 1.4 Japan and Malaysia tutions have expanded rapidly and the trend is Higher education in Japan currently consists of to “corporatise” universities, meaning that the three types of institutions: universities, junior national government retains “ownership” but colleges and colleges of technology (Yamamo- that universities are governed by their own to, 1999). Universities are responsible for legal statutes and administered by executive advanced teaching and research in specialised boards. academic disciplines, while all universities may From the limited examples discussed above, set up graduate schools that offer advanced it becomes clear that in many respects vast dif- studies up to the doctoral level. Junior colleges ferences in higher education configurations train students for vocational or practical life exist among countries. These examples also and programmes are normally two or three illustrate that higher education landscapes have years in duration. Colleges of technology have been influenced by historical, cultural, political lower entry requirements than universities and and economic factors within particular con- junior colleges and they equip students with texts, but that globalisation and massification knowledge and skills for vocational life. The are increasingly forcing countries to re-evaluate participation rate of school-leavers in higher their systems on a more regular basis than in education rose from approximately 10% in the past. Farnham (1999:341) puts this quite 1960 to more than 45% in 1995. Table 1 pro- succinctly: vides an interesting picture of the type and “While the exact direction and depth of the number of higher education institutions in changes differ among each of these coun- Japan by 1995. tries, all the higher education systems Malaysia’s higher education system compris- appear to be experiencing similar trends es eight national universities and one interna- such as massification, reductions in public

Table 1: Japanese higher education institutions by 1995

Type of Total National Local Private % of private Number of institution institutions students

Universities 565 98 52 415 73.5 2 546 649 Junior Colleges 596 36 60 500 83.9 498 516 Colleges of Technology 62 54 5 3 4.8 56 234 Total 1223 188 117 918 75.0 3 039 004

(Source: Yamamoto, 1999)

142 Bitzer

funding, movement to the market, curricular CHE during the latter part of 1999 to provide instrumentation and searching for appropri- him with advice on the reconfiguration of the ate methods of managing academic staff in higher education system in order to meet the conditions of change.” high-level human resource needs of the coun- Against this background the South African try. In a memorandum produced in December higher education system and in particular the 1999, the CHE proposed a number of key prin- proposals of the Shape and Size Task Team of ciples and bases upon which the reconfigura- the CHE, as well as responses to those propos- tion of higher education should take place. It als, will be discussed. also proposed the establishment of a Task Team to develop details of a framework and 2. SOUTH AFRICA strategies for the reconfiguration of the higher 2.1 Background education landscape. A number of universities and technikons in Following broad government policies as out- South Africa experienced serious management lined in Education White Paper 3: A Pro- and financial problems during the latter half of gramme for the Transformation of Higher the1990s – mainly due to legacies from the pre- Education (RSA,1997), the Task Team pro- vious political dispensation and weak control duced its first discussion document in April mechanisms. Structural and conjunctural prob- 2000 (Shape and Size Task Team, 2000), only lems characterised the higher education system. three months after its establishment in Structurally, issues such as fragmented geo- February. The gist of the proposals in the dis- graphical location, excessive competition cussion document entertained a differentiated amongst institutions for students, inefficiency, higher education landscape constituting five skewed student distributions among various types of institutions depicted in Figure 1. fields of study and low output levels were obvi- The South African Universities’ Vice-Chan- ous problem areas. Conjunctural problems cellors’ Association (SAUVCA) produced a included an unsuspected decline in student 12-page response to the Task Team’s first dis- enrolments within the public higher education cussion document issued in April 2000. Its system, accompanying financial constraints on response indicated that the proposals in the dis- certain institutions, fragile governance capaci- cussion document offered a prescriptive solu- ties at several institutions and inadequate infor- tion, which was not supported (SAUVCA, mation systems. 2000: 1). It was stressed that any proposals The Minister of Education requested the should account for institutional and overall con-

Figure 1: Model of differentiation and institutional types (first discussion document of the Shape and Size Task Team)

Levels of the National Technical Two-year Bachelor Bachelor, Offers Qualification orientation Bachelor degrees Masters, some qualifications Framework/NQF (Type A) degrees (Type C) doctorates on all levels (Type B) (Type D) (Type E)

NQF Level 5 and beyond Below NQF level 5

(Source: Shape and Size Task Team Discussion Document, April 2000)

143 Bitzer textual realities such as the development needs 2.2 The Shape and Size Report of the economy and society, transformation The report seeks to reconfigurate the South dynamics and the state of the present further African higher education landscape in such a education and schooling systems from which way that it delivers effectively and efficiently, higher education draws its students. SAUVCA based on the principles of equity, quality and a supported an incisive, but flexible system inter- responsiveness to democratic values. It strives vention consistent with the policies and goals to provide a framework for the promotion of a of the White Paper on Higher Education (RSA, coordinated system which will ensure that the 1997) previously published. While the concept knowledge and human resource needs of a of differentiation in higher education was wel- developing democracy are effectively met. comed, the proposed typology was considered A number of important issues are addressed too restrictive and hierarchical by SAUVCA. It by the report: suggested regional solutions, new distinctive institutional missions, larger multi-campus 2.2.1 Goals, principles and values institutions, closer attention to the equity issue One of the important goals of higher education and the use of existing powerful instruments is that of assisting in the process of eroding the like a new funding formula and a national high- legacy of socio-structural inequities, while pro- er education plan as steering mechanisms. viding opportunities for social advancement The Democratic Party’s spokesperson on through equity of access and opportunity. By education, Mike Ellis (The Sowetan, May 1), means of research, teaching and learning, as responded by warning that the future of exist- well as by way of community service pro- ing universities needed to be debated before grammes, higher education must produce the any grading system should be suggested. He knowledge and personpower for national recon- reiterated that expensive institutions with small struction and economic and social develop- student numbers and the overlapping of areas ment. This would enable South Africa to of specialisation among higher education insti- engage proactively with and participate in a tutions should be looked into as a priority. Ellis highly competitive global economy. concluded that the higher education system needed to be reorganised and streamlined, and 2.2.2 Key problems not complicated by the bureaucratic jungle of a The report states that most institutions have grading system. extremely low research outputs, and even those One institutional response (UWC, 2000), as that demonstrate a higher ratio of research out- an example, reflected concern that such a radi- puts in relation to other institutions, appear to cal proposal was presented in a way which be rather inconsistent as to their levels of out- obscured its implications and practicability. put. Available data indicates that the research Another concern was that the discussion docu- outputs of the higher education system have ment did not locate the proposals historically declined since 1994, thus compromising the and politically, thus failing to situate the pro- research and development agenda of the coun- posals within a broad frame of issues. As an try. In 1998, about 65% of all publications example it was noted that no clarity was pro- recognised for subsidy purposes were produced vided whether differentiation was to be effected by only six of the 21 universities. These same only on an institutional basis, or also on a pro- six institutions also produced close to 70% of grammatic one. Being prescriptive with regard South Africa’s total masters and doctoral grad- to research agendas was seen as “bizarre and uates. The Task Team acknowledges that the pernicious”, while the proposals were also criti- technikons were initially not expected to con- cised for overriding previously adopted govern- duct research and produce high-level graduates ment policies on higher education. and that historically black universities were not Taking note of the serious concerns raised by designed as knowledge-producing institutions. several stakeholders about the proposed differentiated model in the first discussion document, 2.2.3 Effectiveness challenges the final report (Shape and Size Task Team, The reconfiguration of higher education is 2000a) was handed to the Minister of Educa- faced with the challenge of increasing the tion by the end of June 2000. absolute number of graduates and diplomates to

144 Bitzer address the shortage of high-level skills on the nel is indispensable for innovation, improved labour market. In this regard, the accelerated social delivery and development. Giving effect construction of appropriate programme mixes to life-long learning will require concentrated which are responsive to the growth and devel- effort, the development of flexible continuing opment needs of the country as well as to indi- and adult education programmes and the neces- vidual needs for employment is also urgent, sary support and resources for such work. particularly with a view to increasing the number of learners in science, engineering and tech- 2.2.6 Differentiation and diversity nology (SET) fields. The dangers posed to the “Differentiation” is used to refer to the social knowledge needs of society and the economy and educational mandates of institutions. The by low and declining numbers of research out- mandates orient institutions to meet economic puts also need to be addressed. Measures and social goals by focusing on programmes at should be aimed at increasing the numbers of particular levels of the qualification structure researchers as well as those of research outputs. and on particular kinds of research and community service. Qualitative and quantitative crite- 2.2.4 Outcomes of the reconfiguration exercise ria (minimum student full-time equivalents According to the report, a more rational land- [FTEs], minimum enrolments in broad fields, scape for higher education will provide a more staff qualifications and research output, etc.) focused framework for innovation. Innovation underpin the mandates of institutions. “Diver- in teaching and learning, as well as in research sity” is used with reference to the specific mis- and in community service, is more likely to be sions of individual institutions. Differentiation stimulated through a concentration of resources and diversity are connected in that mandates and attention on niche areas – centres of excel- provide the overall national framework within lence grounded in real intellectual and physical which individual institutions pursue specific capabilities – than applying them across all institutional missions. To ensure diversity, the areas within the system. missions of individual institutions must be var- Differentiation and diversity in higher educa- ied (see Table 2, over page). tion is a characteristic of most national systems The goal is a differentiated and diverse sys- of higher education. A differentiated and tem that is at the same time integrated and co- diverse landscape should be based on the levels ordinated. An integral feature of such a newly and kinds of programmes offered, the teaching reconfigured system should be the articulation and research capabilities of institutions, the between institutions with different mandates human and physical resources of institutions, and different missions, in order to ensure stu- the qualifications of staff, and other features. dent and staff mobility, to enable teaching and research collaboration and to promote partner- 2.2.5 Growth and development ships. Higher education in South Africa also has a Quality assurance can then target programme crucial role to play in improving the quality of improvement in a strategic way within single or schooling, health care, welfare services and across multiple institutions. Given the limited other public services at national, provincial and financial resources and the small number of local levels. This requires more active promo- academics with advanced qualifications and tion of continuing education and the upgrading research experience, it makes little sense from a of professional knowledge and technical skills, quality assurance point of view to have all thereby creating flexible opportunities for life- higher education institutions offering, for long learning among practising personnel in example, doctoral level (or perhaps, even mas- education, health, social services and other pub- ters level) studies in all fields. lic sectors. It also requires thoughtfully applied Providing a focused framework for knowl- and strategic research around key social policy edge production and application and innovation issues and the concrete problems of social would be better achieved in a reconfigured and reconstruction and development. Such research, rational landscape for higher education. Inno- together with the upgrading, consolidation and vation in teaching and learning, as well as in continuous enhancement of the knowledge, research and community service, will occur competencies and skills of public sector person- through a concentration of resources and atten-

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Table 2: A proposal for institutional types based on orientation and focus Criteria “Bedrock of the higher Extensive masters and Comprehensive education system” insti- selective doctoral postgraduate research tutions institutions institutions

Undergraduate Yes Yes Yes programmes

Postgraduate Limited programmes up Extensive taught and Comprehensive taught Programmes to taught masters level. research programmes up and research pro- No doctoral programmes to Masters level and grammes at doctoral selective taught and level research programmes up to the doctoral level

Research mandate Related to curriculum, Selected areas of Extensive research capa- learning and teaching research bilities across a range of with a view to applica- areas tion

FTEs 4000 6000 8000

Fields of study Not specified Humanities 25% Humanities 15% Commerce 10% Commerce 10% SET 15% SET 25% Postgraduate students Not specified 5% FTEs on M & D 10% FTEs on M & D level level

Research output Not specified 0.2 units/academic staff 0.5 units/academic staff member member

Academic staff Not specified 20% doctorates 40% doctorates

(Derived from the Shape and Size Report, 2000) tion on niche areas rather than across all areas quality and availability of post-graduate stu- within the system. The quality assurance sys- dents, the quantity and quality of research out- tem cannot be satisfied with minimum stan- puts, etc. These requirements make it impossi- dards only. It must also facilitate excellence. ble for South Africa to sustain an adequately One goal of higher education is to facilitate the resourced, extensive and high-level research creation, dissemination and evaluation of new capability and involvement at all higher educa- knowledge and to contribute towards finding tion institutions, carried out on an efficient and new applications of knowledge. This is normal- effective basis. The report suggests benchmark ly achieved through high-level intellectual levels for postgraduate enrolments as well as enquiry and research. The generation of new for staff research outputs (mainly derived from knowledge and the evaluation thereof is an Australian and New Zealand criteria). activity subject to national as well as international norms and standards, underwritten by the 2.2.8 Comprehensive post-graduate and generally accepted mechanism of peer review. research institutions No country can institutionalise postgraduate 2.2.7 Research involvement of institutions teaching and high-level research in a compre- The report stresses that involvement in research hensive way in every one of its higher educa- makes heavy demands on higher education tion institutions. The constraints of available institutions in terms of the qualifications and human and financial resources preclude this, quality of staff, the research infrastructure, the permitting the development of only a limited

146 Bitzer number of institutions with such a mandate. a “blind” research funding component be termi- This points towards a real need for the dedicat- nated, so that research would have to qualify ed funding of postgraduate teaching and for earmarked funding. Such earmarked funds research. However, these conditions will not should make provision for dedicated research necessarily apply across the board, for it cannot and development work related to curriculum, be assumed that post-graduate teaching and learning and teaching, while at the same time research capabilities will exist in every field offering incentives for research collaboration and discipline at all institutions. Institutions among academics based at institutions with dif- will be subject to accreditation processes and ferent mandates. They should also support new quality assurance procedures for gaining access academics for a set period and help build capa- to public funding. bilities at certain institutions which have been In collectively offering a comprehensive placed on a developmental trajectory for rea- range of taught and research postgraduate pro- sons of social need and redress. grammes, these institutions will also have to In essence the report recommends that: ensure that they produce increasing numbers of • the present (binary) higher education system high-level black and female graduates who are should be reconfigured into a differentiated equipped to occupy positions in the public and and diverse system which would be respon- private sectors, as well as academic positions at sive to the varied social needs of the country higher education institutions. Thus, they have • higher education institutions should have dif- the social responsibility of contributing to trans- ferentiated mandates and purposes with res- forming the inequitable predominance of white pect to knowledge production and successful and male South Africans as academics in graduates (cf. Table 2) research and development establishments, and • traditionally disadvantaged institutions at senior levels in the private and public sectors. should be put on developmental trajectories Constituting the class will pose a special • there should be no closure of institutions, but challenge to these institutions if they wish to that the number of institutions should be avoid becoming the preserves of solely white reduced through combination (of which sev- and Indian students, and those from upper mid- eral examples are being mentioned in the dle-class and wealthy backgrounds. Serious report) attention will have to be paid to access and • the higher education participation rates of opportunities for black and Coloured students, “African, Coloured and mature” learners students from working class and poor rural should be increased families, and adult learners. • as part of the development of a national plan there should be an iterative process between 2.2.9 The degree structure the minister and institutions The Task Team proposes that provision should • the present levels of public funding for higher be made for the introduction of a four-year first education should be maintained. bachelor’s degree. The first two years of the Since the recommendations are much more four-year first bachelor’s degree could provide elaborate than the summary above suggests, it for the development of required generic and is impossible to capture all the nuances of the foundation skills and include some broad disci- various responses to the proposals of the Task pline and multi-discipline based knowledge. Team. What follows is an attempt to delineate Years three and four of the degree could some of the more important areas of response include a strong emphasis on single discipline offered by the printed media, institutions and and multi-discipline based specialisation, other stakeholders. including an introduction to elementary forms of investigation and research methodology. The 3. RESPONSES TO THE FINAL PROPOSALS OF THE implication of and the relation between the SHAPE AND SIZE TASK TEAM four-year degree and the existing Honours qual- The Task Team’s detailed proposals to Educa- ification would need to be examined. tion Minister Asmal in June 2000 (Shape and Size Team: 2000a) elicited a distinctly more 2.2.10 Funding positive response than the proposals contained One recommendation on funding purports that in the initial discussion document.

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Reporters and commentators reacted posi- nally set for them, since South Africa did not tively to ideas concerning the merging of insti- need general purpose institutions. What was tutions and the streamlining of the system. The needed instead, were institutions that empha- proposed unifying and differentiation measures sised science, engineering and technology as were also perceived as sound and sensible being instrumental to their primary mission. (Sunday Times, July 23; The Sowetan, July 19; It was hoped that forms of encouragement Business Day, July 19; The Star, July 19; The and possible incentives were to be intro- Citizen, July 20). However, institutions directly duced, whereby institutions would be enabled implicated for combining with other institutions to adopt technological profiles. were quick to react: Professor David Woods of • Objections were raised against the proposal Rhodes University (The Citizen, July 20) was that student numbers be used as a major crite- not in agreement that sheer numbers should be rion for the classification of institutions. a criterion for the grading of an institution. While admitting that this has become a trend Vista University issued a statement pointing out in many public higher education systems in that the Task Team’s recommendations con- order to kerb costs, the university in question cerning Vista was made on the basis of incom- also pointed out that many institutions in plete and incorrect information (The Citizen, South Africa are located in rural or semi-rural July 20), while Professor Brenda Gourley from areas. Since government is also committed to the University of Natal warned against the the development of rural communities, it implications of forced mergers (Beeld, July 20). might be advisable to soften the criteria for Institutional responses to the proposals gener- institutions located in these areas, while hard- ated a vast number of viewpoints. As an exam- ening them for institutions in urban areas. ple, the response of one institution is briefly • Concern was voiced that any timeframe for summarised below (University of Stellenbosch, realising the proposed differentiated system 2000): might be too tight. It is important to consider • Proposals that the higher education system that higher education institutions do not should be characterised by excellence, rele- change quickly and that it could take, for vance and cost efficiency in order to assist instance, ten to twelve years to produce a the country in achieving a meaningful level doctoral student who can initiate and conduct of sustained growth were welcomed. Also the independent research. Higher education insti- 20% overall participation rate for the 19–24 tutions should therefore be given a realistic age cohort of the population was seen as a timeframe in which to prove their develop- laudable goal for the system. The role of a ment towards a particular type of institution. sound schooling system in the realisation of • A multifaceted approach to institutional com- this goal was stressed in particular. The binations, by means of which a variety of important contribution of sustained academic combinations will be catered for, was sug- support to underprepared students entering gested by the commenting institution. This higher education, at least in the interim, was institution was not convinced that mergers or also highlighted. combinations between the institutions as sug- • Measures to ensure accountable differentia- gested in the report would achieve the desired tion and diversity were welcomed. It was also results in the long term. As was proven else- acknowledged that, because of softer distinc- where in the world, geographical distance tions between pure and applied knowledge, and status differences between institutions stronger emphasis could not be placed on play a significant role in the success of com- horizontal differentiation (such as the binations/mergers. technikon–university divide). A proposal par- • The development of a clear policy directive ticularly welcomed was that of softening on the provision of distance education in institutional mandate boundaries and offering South Africa, as well as the lack of any institutions the opportunity to place them- attempt to return to a rigid separation of dis- selves on a realistic development trajectory. tance and contact education modes, was wel- • It would be preferable if technikons had comed. In addition, the emphasis on quality shown a stronger resistance to institutional assurance in higher education was considered drift, remaining committed to the goals origi- as a strong element of the report.

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Currently the most prevalent question in higher monwealth countries) to South Africa might education circles probably concerns the out- lean towards the more radical side in terms of come of the proposals moved by the CHE change in higher education. Farnham (1999: Shape and Size Task Team. What will be 344) concluded that change in those countries accepted and what rejected when the Minister has been “… far-reaching, radical and probably presents the report to cabinet in September? If irreversible”. accepted, what will the effect of the proposals The report seems to have heralded the end of have on higher education? The next section the binary divide between technical/technologi- offers some brief speculation on these and simi- cal and academic (technikons and universities) lar questions. institutions in South Africa. A considerable degree of institutional drift had already taken 4. POSSIBLE FUTURE PROGRESS AND place: technikons are positioning themselves as IMPLICATIONS technological universities and universities are It is inevitable that the higher education land- repositioning themselves for the new differenti- scape in South Africa is finding itself in a ated landscape. It could therefore no longer be process of dramatic change. The main issue is a question of whether the three-tiered higher no longer whether it will change, but how radi- education configuration will be accepted, but cal the changes will be, and within which time- rather how it will be implemented and what frame they will be effected. It has been con- new institutional combinations will emerge. cluded by Farnham (1999) that changes in One of the most crucial elements, however, higher education systems worldwide could be might be how the Minister would handle such a grouped into categories (see Table 3). transitional period. Should he adopt an auto- Considering countries where “extensive to cratic approach, it is likely that institutions and significant” changes in higher education took their constituencies, staff unions and sectoral place since the 1980s, it is clear that those are groupings like SAUVCA will flex their mus- the countries which have been actively involv- cles. If, however, he approaches the process in ed with the post-apartheid government in South a democratic, participative way, it might be Africa before and since the elections in 1994. It possible to change the landscape in a relatively is therefore to be expected that any advice ren- short period of time. dered by those countries (in particular Com- Another reality which cabinet will be con-

Table 3: Indicative rates of change in national systems of higher education, post-1980

GROUP 1 Australia EXTENSIVE CHANGE United Kingdom

GROUP 2 Finland SIGNIFICANT CHANGE The Netherlands Sweden Belgium (Flemish-speaking) Canada

GROUP 3 Ireland MODERATE CHANGE Spain Belgium (French-speaking) Malaysia United States

GROUP 4 France RESTRICTED CHANGE Germany Italy Japan

(Source: Farnham, 1999)

149 Bitzer fronted with, is the number of ineffective and around the world has had at least two important inefficient institutions of higher education in effects: pressure to increase differentiation South Africa. Although higher education insti- among and within institutions, which has run tutions would try to convince them of the con- counter to the integrating effects of the dissolu- trary, known figures tell a different story in tion of binary systems; and a devaluing of the terms of research output, student debt, teaching teaching function in favour of research. costs per student and other indicators. Although Ramsden (1998) points out that both these the Task Team has not recommend any clo- effects are in opposition to traditional models sures, the government would be hard-pressed to of single ideal institutional types which pro- account for this type of squandering. Mergers, pound the advantages of a full range of disci- combinations, rationalisation of programme plines and a close relationship between teach- presentation or other such measures would ing and research. become inevitable. In addition, Barnett (1992) suggests that we On the question of quality assurance, the should start to explain at a structural level why CHE has already produced a founding docu- debates and concerns about higher education ment (Council on Higher Education, 2000b) to have a public resonance. The growing tempo- establish the Higher Education Quality rary interest in higher education is prompted Committee (HEQC). Institutions are currently and fanned by forces external to the higher edu- being invited to comment on this document. cation community, something to be very aware The Minister will thus be in a position to pre- of if we wish to rise above the challenges cur- sent sound suggestions as to internal and exter- rently confronting the sector. nal quality assurance in higher education. The Shape and Size Task Team (2000a) has Firm policy decisions by Cabinet and the identified a number of problems and weakness- National Department of Education will hope- es afflicting the higher education system in fully also bring an end to the haphazard way in South Africa. It has clearly indicated that such which institutional planning processes in higher problems and weaknesses should not be tolerat- education have been conducted during the past ed. number of years. The absence of a firm plan- To promote possibilities for consolidation, ning and funding framework was not conducive the Task Team has suggested a differentiated to any meaningful institutional planning. In higher education landscape involving a number view of clearer guidelines, however, institu- of important related proposals, one of its key tions will at least be better equipped to conduct premises being that the contribution of higher more rigorous self-assessment and determine education in the public domain is not self-evi- their own future positioning within the higher dent and the case for quality and equitable pub- education landscape. lic higher education in South Africa should be made in a democratic way. Higher education- CONCLUSION ists will inevitably have to participate actively Substantive growth in higher education systems in this democratic process.

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REFERENCES

ALEXANDER, F. KING. 1998. The Endless Staff in Changing University Systems. Pursuit of Efficiency: The International International Trends and Comparisons. Movement to Increase Accountability and Buckingham: The Society for Research into Performance in Higher Education. ASHE Higher Education and Open University Press. Annual Meeting Paper. November. 158-173. BARNETT, RONALD (ED.). 1992. Learning to FARNHAM, DAVID (ED). 1999. Managing Effect. Buckingham: The Society for Academic Staff in Changing University Research into Higher Education & Open Systems. International Trends and University Press. Comparisons. Buckingham: The Society for BEELD, July 20, 2000. Research into Higher Education and Open BUSINESS DAY, July 19, 2000. University Press. BUSINESS DAY, July 20, 2000. GUSKIN, A.E. 1996. Facing the future – the CABAL, A.B. 1993. The University as change process in restructuring universities. Institution Today. Topics for Reflection. Change, July/August: 27-37. Paris: Unesco. HJ DIN, MOHAMMED SALLEH & SHANMUGAM CLARK, BURTON R. 1998. Creating Entrepre- BALA, 1999. Malaysia: an Emerging neurial Universities: Organisational Pathways Professional Group. In: Farnham, David of Transformation. Issues in Higher (Ed.). Managing Academic Staff in Changing Education. New York: Elsevier. University Systems. International Trends and COLLIS, B.A. & DE BOER, W.F. 1998. Rapid Comparisons. Buckingham: The Society for Prototyping as a Faculty-Wide Activity: An Research into Higher Education & Open Innovative Approach to the Redesign of University Press. 324-339. Courses and Instructional Methods at the HORTON, SYLVIA. 1999. The United States: University of Twente. Educational Media Self-Governed Profession or Managed International, 35(2) :117-121, June. Occupation? In: Farnham, David (Ed.). COUNCIL ON HIGHER EDUCATION. 2000. Size Managing Academic Staff in Changing and Shape Task Team Discussion Document. University Systems. International Trends and April 7. Comparisons. Buckingham: The Society for COUNCIL ON HIGHER EDUCATION. 2000a. Research into Higher Education & Open Report: Towards a New Higher Education University Press. 260-289. Landscape. June 30. KELSO, ROBERT & LEGGETT, CHRISTOPHER. COUNCIL ON HIGHER EDUCATION. 2000b. 1999. Australia: From Collegiality to Founding Document. Higher Education Corporatism. In: Farnham, David (Ed.). Quality Committee. August 2000. Managing Academic Staff in Changing COUNCIL ON HIGHER EDUCATION. 1999. University Systems. International Trends and Consultative Conference Discussion Paper. Comparisons. Buckingham: The Society for South African Higher Education at the Research into Higher Education & Open Beginning of the New Millennium: Realities, University Press. 293-310. Problems and Challenges. Benoni: Novem- LETNER, ERICH (ED.). 1998. Educational ber 29-30. Research and Higher Education Reform in DEARLOVE, J. 1998. Fundamental changes in Eastern and Central Europe. Studies in institutional governance structures: the Comparative Education, Vol. 6. New York: United Kingdom. Higher Education Policy, Peter Lang Publishing. 11 (2/3): 111-120. MCCORMICK, ALEXANDER C. 2000. Bringing DE BOER, HARRY; GOEDEGEBUURE, LEO; & the Carnegie classification into the 21st MEEK, LYNN. 1998. In the winter of discon- Century. AAHE Bulletin, 52(5): 3-6. tent, business – as usual (Editorial). Higher MEEK, V. LYNN & WOOD, FIONA Q. 1998. Education Policy, 11(2/3): 103-110. Higher education governance and manage- DE WEERT, EGBERT. 1999. The Netherlands: ment: Australia. Higher Education Policy, 11 Reshaping the employment relationship. In: (2/3): 165-182. Farnham, David (Ed.) Managing Academic RAMSDEN, PAUL. 1998. Learning to lead in

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higher education. London & New York: on diversity in British higher education. Routledge. Paper prepared for the CVCP seminar on RSA. (REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA) 1997. Third diversity in higher education. London. 14–15 White Paper on Higher Education Transf- September. ormation. Pretoria: Government Printers. UNIVERSITY OF STELLENBOSCH. 2000. Towards a SAUVCA. (SOUTH AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES’ New Higher Education Landscape: Comments VICE-CHANCELLORS’ ASSOCIATION) 2000. on the Size and Shape Report. August 25. Response to the CHE’s Shape and Size UNIVERSITY OF THE WESTERN CAPE. 2000. Proposal. Pretoria. May 15. Response to the CHE Task Group Discussion SAUVCA CIRCULAR 133/2000 – CHE REPORT: Paper on Size and Shape. April 26. Comments. July 26. VERHOEVEN, JEF. C. & BEUSELINCK, ILSE. 1999. SAVAGE, DONALD C. 1999. Canada: Neo- Belgium: Diverging Professions in Twin Conservative Challenges to Faculty and their Communities. In:. Farnham, David (Ed.). Unions. In: Farnham, David (Ed.). Managing Managing Academic Staff in Changing Academic Staff in Changing University University Systems. International Trends and Systems. International Trends and Comparisons. Buckingham: The Society for Comparisons. Buckingham: The Society for Research into Higher Education & Open Research into Higher Education & Open University 35-57. University Press. 239-259. YAMAMOTO, KIYOSHI. 1999. Japan: Collegiality SUNDAY TIMES, July 23, 2000. in a Paternalist System. In: Farnham, David THE CITIZEN, July 20, 2000. (Ed.). Managing Academic Staff in Changing THE SOWETAN, July 19, 2000. University Systems. International Trends and THE SOWETAN, May 1, 2000. Comparisons. Buckingham: The Society for THE STAR, July 19, 2000. Research into Higher Education & Open TROW, MARTIN. 1995. Comparative reflections University Press. 311-323.

152 Programme

Wednesday, 27 September 2000

08:00 Registration

09:00–11:00 FIRST SESSION CHAIRPERSON: PROF. NIC PRINSLOO

Welcome Prof. Walter Claassen, Vice-Rector (Research), University of Stellenbosch

Opening Remarks Dr Michael Lange, Resident Representative, Konrad Adenauer Foundation – Johannesburg

Education in an Age of Rising Transnationality Prof. Wolfgang Mitter, German Institute for International Educational Research, Frankfurt am Main, Germany

Balancing Quality and Equality in Educational Transformation Prof. Johann Steyn, Department of Education Policy Studies, University of Stellenbosch

Education for Democracy: Revisiting Rortyan Pragmatism Dr Yusef Waghid, Senior Lecturer, Department of Education Policy Studies, Faculty of Education, University of Stellenbosch

Discussion

11:30–13:00 SECOND SESSION CHAIRPERSON: DR DAVID TAYLOR

The Values Underlying Quality and Equality in Educational Transformation Dr Jeanette de Klerk, Department of Education Policy Studies, University of Stellenbosch

153 Programme

Quality Education and Equal Opportunities in Education: Current Discussion in Germany Dr Hans Döbert, German Institute for International Educational Research (DIPF), Berlin

Rhetoric and Language Issues in Education in the South African Democracy Prof. Stanley Ridge, University of the Western Cape

Discussion

14:00–15:30 THIRD SESSION CHAIRPERSON: DR JOHAN SCHREUDER

Dealing with the Principle of Equality in East Germany from 1945 to 1990 Dr Gert Geißler, German Institute for International Educational Research (DIPF), Berlin

Official Policy Related to Quality and Equality in Education: A Documentary Study Dr Willem du Plessis, Department of Education Policy Studies, University of Stellenbosch

Educational Research as Democratic Praxis Mr Lesley le Grange, University of Stellenbosch

Discussion

16:00–17:45 FOURTH SESSION CHAIRPERSON: DR JEANETTE DE KLERK

Quality Indicators for South African Schools Against the Background of International Practices Dr Heinie Brand, Eversdal Primary School

Assessment: Transforming Policy into Practice Dr Riana Hall & Ms Wilma Rossouw, University of Stellenbosch

A Case for Human Rights Education in an African Context: The Concept and the Practice Mr Tarcisio Nyatsanza, African University, Mutare, Zimbabwe

Discussion

Thursday, 28 September 2000

09:00–11:00 FIFTH SESSION CHAIRPERSON: PROF. STAN RIDGE

154 Programme

Implications of Culturally Based Assumptions of Leadership for the process of Educational Transformation Dr Johan Schreuder, University of Stellenbosch

The Need for the Transformation of Religion in Education: Towards an Understanding of Democratic Values Dr Cornelia Roux, Department of Didactics, University of Stellenbosch

Democratic Values and Content-Specific Language Teaching and Learning: Experiences in the Northern Cape Dr Carol Puhl, Centre for Education Development, University of Stellenbosch & Dr Jeanette de Klerk, Department of Education Policy Studies, University of Stellenbosch

Language and Democracy Dr Elaine Ridge, University of Stellenbosch

Discussion

11:30–13:00 SIXTH SESSION CHAIRPERSON: DR YUSEF WAGHID

Some Obstacles Obstructing Transformation of Eduction in South Africa Prof. Nic Prinsloo, University of Stellenbosch

Can Devolution of Power Enable Transformation in South African School Systems? Mr Chris Reddy, Faculty of Education, University of Stellenbosch

Shaping and Sizing: Proposed Transformations of the Higher Education Landscape in South Africa Prof. Eli Bitzer, University of Stellenbosch

Discussion

14:00–15:00 SEVENTH SESSION CHAIRPERSON: DR DAVID TAYLOR

Workshops Report Back and Discussion Prof. Sonia Human, Drs Jeanette de Klerk & Johan Schreuder

155