Neupane 1

Chapter I

Locating Setting and its Role in Drama

A setting is just a beautiful thing, a collection of beautiful things. It is a

presence, a mood, a warm wind fanning the drama to flame. It echoes, it

enhances, it animates. It is an expectancy, a foreboding, a tension. It says

nothing, but it gives everything. (Jones 26)

An American scenic, lighting and costume designer, Robert Edmond Jones in his book The Dramatic Imagination (1941) exposes the basic sense of setting in drama. In another context, Jones states, "A stage setting has no independent life of its own. Its emphasis is directed toward the performance. In the absence of the actor it does not exist. Strange as it may seem, the simple and fundamental principle of stage design still seems to be widely misunderstood. . . " (Qtd. in Cohen, 122). The visions of setting and its significance are not defined clearly. On the one hand, Jones explains setting as an element that describes every emotion of the performance. On the other hand, he describes setting has no independent existence in absence of the performance and actor. Therefore, there is no clear perception on the importance of setting in drama. Since the setting is the crucial part of any text, it cannot be omitted or analyzed separately from the meaning. Kari K Pitkanen in The Spatio-Temporal

Setting in Written Narrative Fiction brings the references of various researchers to introduce setting. He presents setting as such:

For several researchers including e.g. Labov & Waletsky (1967), Rumelhart

(1975: 213) and Van Dijk (1980), a setting is a text-initial, structural macro-

unit that describes the starting point and surroundings for a story by providing

the main character, the spatio-temporal location and other necessary

information. (1) Neupane 2

The dramatists construct setting to introduce situation and surroundings which inform characters where and when they exist in the drama. Pitkanen's explanation behind the use of setting is "the compositional frame which defines a situation and surroundings in a world depicted by the text in relation to encyclopedic knowledge and specifies the preliminary key properties of this world" (39). Despite having multiple perspective about setting and their role in drama, nobody can avoid them to understand situation and surroundings of world depicted in drama. From ancient time to modern time to present day, settings in drama have always remained important to draw meaning or knowledge from drama.

This dissertation focuses on elaborating the significance of setting in drama through reading and analysis of wide varieties of six Nepali drama: Balkrishna Sama's

Bhimsen ko Antya (2012 B.S.), Bhimnidi Tiwari's Sahanshila Sushila (1995 B.S.),

Govinda Bahadur Malla 'Gothale''s Bhus ko Aago (2018 B.S.), Ashesh Malla's Sakuni

Pasaharu (2068 B.S.), Sarubhakta's Sirumaraani (2061 B.S.), and Abhi Subedi's

Dreams of Peach Blossoms (2058 B.S.) all of them written and performed during modern time. Regarding modern time drama, we need to know that the period from

Balkrishna Sama to Abhi Subedi was actually preceded by two major events: Political

Revolution and Access to Globalization. So, this modern time represented massive social, political, economic, philosophical and artistic changes. Especially, art and literature no longer depended on authority and religion. With the spirit of modernism, the above-mentioned dramatists are concerned about social issues which made drama as medium for social criticism. While doing so, these dramatists and others of modern time rejected traditional conventions, influences from Parsi and other melodramatic forms of play to make foundation for realistic and original drama.

Before exploring into the analysis of the drama from these six writers, this Neupane 3 dissertation traces what different scholars and theatre practitioners have written about the setting and its use in deriving meaning. For this purpose, the dissertation draws on concept of performance and theatre conceptualized by Jon Whitmore to reflect how setting supports in development of artistic vision in transformation of the text into the stage. Apart from Whitmore, the ideas related to study of setting and design of drama as developed by Martin Esslin, Stephanie Arnold, Stanley L. Glenn, Katharine Anne

Ommaney, Edwin Wilson and others are also constituted to support the analysis. The study limits on study of setting in drama – the written text and avoid setting in play- the performance due to lack of time and space.

The thesis is divided into three chapters. The first chapter introduces the concept of setting in a drama and also presents the introduction and goal of the dissertation. It focuses on emphasis on a few questions – Why do dramatists create setting? What is the role or existence of setting? Is it possible to write drama excluding setting? How do dialogue and setting exist together in drama? – to trace out significance of setting in drama. This chapter makes literature review of the settings used in modern drama. It also includes the theory and framework used in settings of drama. Likewise, second chapter analyses and evaluates the setting used in six selected Nepali dramas. It explores the evolution of setting in Nepali drama based on selected dramas of different dramatists. The chapter will reflect on how construction of such settings in those dramas help to transfer message to readers in more appropriate and meaningful way. Finally, third chapter sums up the preceding chapters tracing significance of setting and it reflects on potential directions for future work.

There is no clear point to say from where discussion on setting in academic field started. However, setting's presence in each drama is so important that it is Neupane 4 obvious that dramatists, readers and critics put energy to think on setting. Jon

Whitmore in Directing Postmodern Theatre argues that drama is created or presented on the stage "to communicate meanings" (1). It is often believed that drama brings meanings from dialogues of character like the one Peter Szondi and Michael Hays assert,". . . the dialogue carries the Drama. The Drama is possible only when dialogue is possible" (10). However, the setting in drama is equally important to depict the time, space, mood, social situation, and weather condition of the story in the drama. It reflects background of characters and prepares foundation for the story of drama.

Likewise, setting helps actors to carry the meaning of the text towards audience or reader in more credible ways. The use of setting makes the stage not merely a platform to act; in fact, the stage becomes the atmosphere, which becomes essential to the meaning of the drama. Setting in drama, the artistic vision of the dramatists or director or scenic designer, supports to transfer the text into the stage, which is generally ignored while deriving meaning.

Setting involves design of stage, props construction and placement, costumes, focus and color of lights, makeup, sound and visual engineering, stage management and others, which is practiced from ancient time to modern days in different ways.

However, new forms of settings have challenged the old with privilege of having more advanced technologies and interdisciplinary involvement in theatre. All forms of setting should be understood to draw meaning of drama. Setting works as exterior of the drama to understand what characters speak and what dramatists mean to say. J. L.

Styan, on study of Shakespearean stagecraft, points that the study of signals, signs, and symbols is significant to understand the drama. Styan says, "One of the actor's tasks is to decode lines, in order to discover, often by trial and error, what their signs and directions, explicit or hidden, expect of him" (138). The actors or readers of Neupane 5 drama cannot neglect setting to develop the proper meaning instead of merely understanding dialogues. Therefore, music, song, dance, focus and colors of lights, costume and ornaments, sets, props and placement, makeup, stage, and other forms of settings deliberated by dramatists are powerful medium to understand the text.

The form of using setting has changed over time. The dramatists have replaced the illusionistic settings with the real properties and settings. The real settings give more realistic and make believe world for the readers. Robert Cohen in Theatre Brief

Version classifies setting into realistic and abstract, which "are used in combination, and often the line between them in difficult to draw" (119). In the same context, John

Gassner in The Theatre in Our Times argues that dramatists became more aware about setting in the recent time. He writes, "Realism, departing from its late nineteenth- century literalness, became selective and expressive. Symbolism achieved a finesse and range it had never revealed in earlier decades" (7). Cohen further illustrates about realistic setting in drama:

Realistic settings carry on the tradition of "illusionism" established in

eighteenth-century painted perspective staging; the familiar "box set" of

modern realistic or naturalistic theatre is essentially a series of interconnected

flats of framed canvas painted to resemble walls and ceilings, filled with real

furniture and real properties taken from ordinary real-world environments.

(119-120)

The realistic setting creates more creadible world by replacing abstract and illusionistic setting. The environment of the drama with such setting resembles real world that readers have seen or heard. However, in contemporary period, setting in drama is more flexible, kinetic, symbolic and evocative than stable or realistic setting.

This is possible because of abstract setting. Cohen believes that abstract setting are Neupane 6

"more effectives in establishing moods and styles" (121). He differentiates between these two forms of setting as such:

Of course, mood and style can be established to some extent by realistic

scenery as well: by creating a theatrical space that is tall and airy, for example,

or cramped and squat, by using or withholding color and clutter, the designer

in any mode can define an environment in such a way that the action of the

play takes on highly special tone. But with the extension into nonrealistic

abstraction, the designer can greatly elaborate upon tone and develop it into a

highly specific sensory approach. (122)

Different researchers and dramatists have their own way to approach the kinds of settings. The kind of setting should be selected according to the subject matters or issues raised by the drama. Primarily, the realistic setting directly reflects the society whereas abstract setting depicts in elaborated and symbolic approach.

The purpose of a setting in drama is to portray the dramatic action in visual form. So, it is essential to understand the setting to transfer the written context into the visual form. Jon Whitmore writes, "The setting or environment presents dramatic action in visual form: it is a signifier of the performance's meaning" (134). Therefore, setting depicts the themes or meanings of the drama. Jon Whitman believes that purpose of the setting is to communicate historical period of the situation, year, season, geographical location (like city, country), exact place (bedroom, battlefield), level of society of characters, time of day, season of the year, weather conditions, mood or atmosphere, emphasis and visual style (135). But all dramatists do not use the setting in the same way to communicate all these information. Dramatists describe lot for integral setting whereas for backdrop setting they leave setting loose. So, not all the dramas have elaborated setting. According to necessity of the story, some Neupane 7 dramas are written with no setting whereas others have elaborated settings. Whitmore categories the ranges of the options available from using setting to not using setting to communicate message in drama. According to him, some dramas dominatingly use setting "to communicate mood, historical period, location, time of day, season, social level" where on other dramas use setting "to communicate mood, location, and social level, leaving, for instance, historical period, time of day, and season unstated" (135).

Setting in a drama portrays the time (temporal) and location (spatial) where the drama takes place. It leads the readers to create visibility and atmosphere by reflecting time, period and sense of place that provide space to make action and movement for necessary characters. It also helps to reveal the background of character like caste, class, education by highlighting contrasts between characters. Though setting is very important for some plots, it might not be equally relevant for others.

Kari K. Pitkanen believes that setting can "either focus on (1) characters and/or action or (2) space" (62). So, depending on the nature of setting – whether they focus on characters or action or the space, he categorizes the setting into (1) space-oriented settings, (2) character and action-oriented settings, (3) prototypical separate setting and (4) integrated setting (62). Based on its relevance to the plot of the story, setting can be categorized into two variants: Integral Setting and Backdrop Setting.

Integral setting is a type of setting which is of utmost importance to the plot of the story. This type of setting controls the characters. The dramatist describes a character by confining him/her to a particular setting. The story cannot take place at different settings. Dramatists describe such settings in detail and is often referred throughout the whole story. On the other hand, backdrop setting is a setting that is not significant to the plot of the drama. The plot of the story could happen anywhere and anytime, thus making location and time irrelevant. This setting is used in dramas, Neupane 8 which are character and events driven. Therefore, backdrop settings are used only to illustrate a plot in drama.

Multiple aspects have been considered in this thesis to evaluate how settings have contributed to the overall story in each drama. The evaluation parameters that has been used for this purpose are as following:

A. Place: Focuses on geographic location where the action of the plot is taking place

B. Time: Focuses on period, time of the day, year, historical point where the story is

taking place

C. Weather Conditions: Focuses on weather (rainy, cloudy, gloomy, stormy, sunny

etc.)

D. Social Conditions: Focuses on daily lifestyle of the character. Also, reveals the

speech, dress, manners, customs, status, caste etc. of a particular character

E. Atmosphere and mood: Focuses on type of feeling created in the story. It also

encompasses the music and sounds used to create particular environment.

Drama has many ways to communicate meaning up to readers. According to

Jon Whitmore, drama has five communication systems to derive meaning that can be categorized into two- The primary system and the secondary systems (4). According to him the primary systems consists of language, visual, and aural (music and Sound), whereas the secondary systems are olfactoral (smell), and tactile (touch) (4).

Therefore, to understand the meaning of the drama communicated by dramatists, the readers need to understand the spoken words by characters, facial expressions, gestures, and movement of characters, visuals like space, settings, properties, light, color and costumes, music and sound, smell and touch as composed by dramatists.

The readers who could approach to all systems of communication can derive more complex and detailed meaning from the text. Therefore, it will be useful to look at Neupane 9 those dramas from semiotics to study communication systems of performance. Martin

Esslin highlights multiple communicative mechanisms of drama:

All the elements of dramatic performance – the language of the dialogue, the

setting, the gestures, costumes, make-up, and voice inflections of the actors, as

well as a multitude of other signs – each in their own way contribute to the

creation of the meaning of the performance. (16)

The meaning of drama can be understood through different elements of drama.

However, most of the time, the focus is on theme, language, psychology, gestures of characters in drama. A large part of drama equally important, setting also contribute in communicating meaning of drama to readers. Other numbers of researchers and theorists have developed insights about drama from semilogical perspective to study how meaning is communicated by setting. In the book The Semiotics of Theatre and

Drama, Keir Elam has done systematic study of theatre semiotics. According to him semiotic study of drama and theatre helps to generate and exchange meaning. He writes:

Semiotics can be defined as a science dedicated to study of the production of

meaning in a society. As such it is equally concerned with processes of

signification and with those of communication, i.e. the means whereby

meanings are both generated and exchanged. Its objects are thus at once the

different sign-systems and codes at work in society and actual messages and

texts produced thereby. (1)

Elam argues that meaning of setting has connotation and denotation ranges to generate and exchange communication. Drama has different systems like culture, society, and ideology to understand signs and codes of setting. He said, "The theatre sign inevitably acquires secondary meanings for the audience, relating it to the social, Neupane 10 moral and ideological values operating in the community" (7) of which characters and readers are part. He further borrows ideas from Russian folklorist Petr Bogatyrev to show the scope of theatrical sign for transporting meaning:

What exactly is a theatrical costume or a set that represents a house on stage?

When used in a play, both the theatrical costume and the house set are often

signs that point to one of the signs characterizing the costume or the house in

the play. In fact, each is a sign of a sign and not the sign of a material things.

(Qtd. in Keir 7)

Likewise, borrowing ideas of Elam, Mark Fortier in Theory/ Theatre An Introduction writes, "Elam displays the strong structuralist bent of much semiological analysis, attempting to provide coherent system capable of accounting for all significant activity of theatre and drama: smiles, gestures, tones of voice, blocking, music, light, character development and so forth" (22). So, the totality of drama should not be avoided while communicating meaning, which can be achieved through study of dialogues and setting of a drama. Ronald Barthes believes that costume is one type of social sign, which should be studied to aid the reading of social meaning (Qtd. in

Fortier 24). To reflect his insight on setting of drama, Umberto Eco shows the language of theatre and language of general life. He writes:

[. . . ] Semiotics can be conceived of either as a unified theatrical approach in

the great variety of systems of signification and communication, and in this

sense it constitutes a metalinguistic discourse dealing with any of its objects

by means of homogeneous categories or it can be conceived as a description of

those various systems insisting on their mutual differences, the specific

structural properties, their idiosyncracies – from verbal language to gestures,

from visual images to body position, from musical sounds to fashions. (280) Neupane 11

The setting of drama supports the roles of characters. However, it also can be understood that sometime, the functions of setting is possible only when characters perform in drama. In this regard, Jindrich Honzl in "Dynamics of the Sign in the

Theatre" argues that settings have very concrete tasks and function only when actors perform. He writes, "Indeterminate in shape and colour, [setting] became signs only when used for actor's actions. It can be said that a representative function was not expressed by means of form or colour, but by the actor's actions on the stage construction" (272).

Researchers of drama and theatre like Stephanie Arnold, Stanley L. Glenn,

Katharine Anne Ommaney, Edwin Wilson and others must be studied to see their insights on setting and design of drama. These researchers believe that setting generates atmosphere and situation for readers and performers to realize the meaning of the drama. In that sense, setting gives real picture of the place and time, through the concept of set and scenery, where characters of the drama exist. Edwin Wilson, in the book The Theatre Experience, lists the objective setting, which will be useful to apply in Nepali modern drama:

1. Creating an environment for the performers and for the performance

2. Helping to set the mood and style of the production

3. Helping to distinguish realistic from nonrealistic theatre

4. Establishing the locale and period in which the play takes place

5. Evolving a design concept in concert with the director and other designers

6. Where appropriate, providing a central image or visual metaphor for the

production

7. Ensuring that the scenery is coordinated with other production elements

8. Solving practical design problems. (16) Neupane 12

Wilson has described the role of setting in the context of theatre or performance. But it can be applied equally to study setting of drama. Therefore, setting creates environment and atmosphere for characters to do or not to do something in certain spatiotemporal state and mood. The setting reflects concept of the drama's design either to make it realistic and non-realistic, which in fact helps readers to understand image or metaphor and performers to set design for performance. Likewise, in The

Creative Spirit An Introduction to Theatre, Stephanie Arnold writes that setting

"reflects time period, gives sense of place, creates appropriate atmosphere, creates space that provides for necessary character action and movement, creates space that allows appropriate physical relationship between characters" (116). Setting creates the atmosphere to engage readers with the ideas and situation of character in drama. She also believes that setting with the presence of actors create a world apart from our real life to produce foundation for the actor's work (281).

The setting of drama can involve a number of elements like the physical location, time, the social status and changes that take place either over time or suddenly. However, dramatists have their own different and unique way to create setting in their drama. It is also believed that setting, like other component of drama, is important while playwrights invent a story for drama. It not only influences dramatists or story's characters and events, but also develops the reader's skills to visualize those characters and events created by dramatists. In fact, setting allows readers to know what type of imaginary world they are entering into. The dramatists spend time and words to create well-developed settings. Taking reference of

American writer Eudora Welty, LitCharts studies setting from Waiting for Godot to illustrate how setting can be meaningful even in few details:

. . . Beckett writes only two line: A country road. A tree. / Evening. Neupane 13

The playwright's spare description of setting isn't underdeveloped – rather, it's

quite carefully considered. In this case, Beckett chooses to create a sense of

"nowhere" or "no-place" because he feels this will best complement the

absurd, existentialist mood of his play. This sense of being "nowhere in

particular" is just as effective and important to Waiting for Godot as a highly

specific description can be to a work of historical fiction. (Welty)

The statement mentioned above by Welty justifies the remarkable function of setting in drama. Even with few details in the setting, such drama provides readers creative liberty to think more about setting in reference to characters and plot. LitCharts again quotes her, "Every story would be another story, and unrecognizable as art, if it took up its characters and plot and happened somewhere else" (Welty).

It is setting that gives strength and meaning to drama. Setting reflects or emphasizes certain traits belonging to people who inhabit certain setting. In the same way, setting gives physical form to a theme that runs throughout the narrative. It indicates the social and economic positions of the characters, as well as how those characters do or do not adapt to those statuses. Setting also creates a source of pressure or stress that causes characters to act in certain way. Likewise, Benabu in his

Shakespeare's Openings in Action: A Study of Four Plays from the Period 1591- c.

1602 illustrates function of setting:

. . . launched stage action, introduced main characters, presented the principal

themes and motifs of the play in a minor key, and disseminated a wide array of

expository information perhaps not always easily assimilable by an early

modern audience at the outset. More significantly, the combination of all these

components in an opening had to aim at engaging the audience quickly and

effectively. (2) Neupane 14

The importance of setting is proven by the way directors of the plays engage to visualize the setting in the production. Stanley L. Glenn writes the way director involves in finding meaning from setting. He writes in his book a director prepares,

"The director must work through the entire play several times with the sole purpose of determining its functional or practical demands of set, properties, costume, lighting and sound" (129).

The most important role of drama is to convey ideas and emotion to readers.

For this, dramatists use dialogue delivered through characters and description of stage setting. Modern dramatists make widespread use of elaborate scenery, lighting, costumes and masks, props, special effects, makeup, and visual effect through multimedia. Such visual aspects of drama in descriptive or directing lines, targeted to director, designer and readers, is also called didascaliae. The use of didascaliae or setting description stops characters commenting or describing physical appearances of their surroundings. Erin Nelson elaborates:

A script consists of many components (plot, setting, character, music,

atmosphere, action, etc.) conveyed by two means: dialogues and didascaliae.

Dialogue is all of the words spoken aloud by the characters. Didascaliae is

written text that is not dialogue: any expository prefaces or epilogues not

spoken; qualities, appearance, or background of characters; descriptions (or

proscriptions) of the setting, mood, atmosphere, or emotions which the play

should convey. (3)

The dramatists who could balance between these two means of communication – didascaliae and dialogue can justify the link between setting and meaning of the plot in drama. In the beginning, both dramatists and readers ignored the setting for various reasons. But in modern time, setting is given equal importance in creating and reading Neupane 15 drama. Marvin Carlson elaborates:

Didascaliae did not become widely used as integral part of dramatic texts until

the introduction of a director as the primary creative force in modern theatre,

and the rise of new dramatic forms from expressionist, absurdist, dadaist, post-

modernist, feminist, naturalist, and gay and lesbian movements that de-

emphasized dialogue by focusing on the unconscious world; individual spirit,

and fractured surface reality. (Carlson, 350)

Setting of drama serves readers with many purposes. The keen readers can get support to imagine the scenario of the drama while reading setting. Their sensory perceptions function strongly while setting conveys meaning of the text. Sometime, since the characters cannot express their thoughts and feelings in details, the physical setting in the drama must convey meaning to readers. dramatists describe feelings and thoughts in setting that dialogue cannot. Joel M. Benabu explains that the role of setting is to convey instruction to readers or directors about the staging of the drama. Erin Nelson illustrates it by showing function of didascaliae as such:

Didascaliae often functions like an author talking directly to a reader without

the filter of a character's voice; it complements dialogue by conveying

unspoken information and helps a reader visually imagine or understand the

scenario. Literary didascaliae functions as narrative, architectural didascaliae

acts as a blueprint for a play, a reference and guide to interpreting and

translating the script. (5)

Not only spoken text is the part of the action in the drama, therefore, the readers pay equal curiosity to instructions about how those dialogues should be spoken by characters, which reflect the intonation and attitude of the characters. The setting of the drama reflects that intonation and attitude. The mood and atmosphere described in Neupane 16 the form of setting intensifies the situation. Therefore, readers can also derive meaning from such setting of the drama. Pascala Aebischer in her essay argues, "The term "didascalia", which loosely corresponds to what is commonly referred to as

"stage directions," will in the course of the article be defined as encompassing not only direction to the actors, but all textual components of a play text that are not spoken on-stage" (25). She further states that the term didascalia "exceeds the scope of references implied by the term "stage direction""(28). Such stage direction or didascalia or whatever names are given to non-verbal text contribute in carrying meaning of drama.

Non-verbal text like setting, or stage direction or didascaliae carry message of dramatists for readers. Romanian lecturer, Raluca Levonian justifies the selection of a drama for study based on rich stage directions. She writes:

... the analysis of the non-verbal messages mentioned in the stage directions,

paying attention to several types of non-verbal communication: proxemies –

the study of the individuals' positions in space, kinesics – the study of gestures.

Paralinguistic details and elements regarding facial expressions will also prove

their significance for the understanding of the text. (26)

Levonian believes that not only dialogues but also non-verbal text, which indicates setting, gestures of characters, position of characters, are also important to understand the text. The lack of analysis of setting cannot be a complete study of drama. So, she shows the importance of non-verbal details in the drama as they depict, "the playwright's concern regarding the performability of the literary text" (34). Likewise,

W. Oren Parker and R. Craig Wolf believe "the modern theatre is concerned with the total visual effect of a dramatic production"(12) for which setting is essential to understand. They argue that setting Neupane 17

. . . supports the spoken word of the dramatic form. The designing of a

setting, however, is not confined to creating the color and shape of framed

pieces of scenery alone. It also includes the planning of the quality and

intensity of the lights that reveal the scene; the selection and styling of the

furniture and set-dressings; the careful consideration of the actors' costumes to

blend or contrast with the background; and, because a dramatic production is

not a static form, the easy movement of actors. The combination of all these

visual elements represents the total visual effect. (12)

The setting of drama prove their significance for deriving meaning of the drama. The lack of the analysis of setting by putting focus only on dialogues cannot make a detailed study of drama. However, setting assists dialogues by bringing context for credibility of character's speech. As a reader, actor and director, look for total visual effects from setting of the drama.

There is no long history of emergence of director as a leader of production of drama to control all aspects of a theatrical production. Previously, dramatists have been directly involved in the staging of their plays in different roles as actors, managers, producers. Wilson and Goldforb state that up to and through "the eighteenth century playwrights or leading actors like David Garrick, William

Davenant and Moliere directed stage" (306) doubting director could distort their drama. The directors, on the other side, do not want to remain as an agent of the dramatists. They want to have creative liberty to express their vision and understanding differently. This modern practice of distancing the dramatists from the process of actual production makes both dramatists and director confused. On such creative misunderstanding and struggle for existence between director and dramatists, setting in the drama became very important instrument for dramatists. Nelson writes Neupane 18 about role of dramatists and director:

The playwrights want to be familiar with all workings of the theatrical

process in order that they might better inform his ideas and writings, but he

also wants to distance himself from the theatre as it might impair his

"originality of vision" or his individuality of method" (Archer 7). He may feel

compelled to control production of his scripts in order to guarantee adherence

to his creative vision, but he also wants to stand back and see what a talented

director can create from the script. (1-2)

Historically, the dramatists in past had an integral role in the production of their dramas. The dramatists of the Greek tragedies were high-ranking citizens, military officers, priests, rewarded person and highly valued people of the community.

Therefore, they had control over the production of their dramas. Nelson illustrates,

"Greek tragedians wrote scripts, composed the music, choreographed the dancing, acted a principal role, and instructed and directed the rest of the cast. They have complete control over each play from inception to performance (7)." This made the dramatists spend much time on concept and ideas expressed through dialogue then writing elaborated setting or stage direction.

The medieval period of Europe stayed as Dark Age both historically and dramatically because the church condemned theatre as a source of immortality.

Staging of biblical or moral stories were based on improvisation. Hence, there were no professional dramatists and directors. During the Elizabethan period, there was lack of descriptive setting or stage direction as dramatists limited it to entrances, exits, location and basic movements of characters. It was because like Shakespeare, dramatists of this period, were actor or manager in the theatre company. Therefore, powerfully involved dramatists did not fear of losing the essence of their play by Neupane 19 actors. Moreover, the dramatists used to write knowing who would play certain roles and what props are available in the theatre companies. According to Nelson,

Elizabethan period's dramatists:

. . . had no need to describe the setting, costumes, or properties in a play

because the company would use what was available. The playwright was more

likely to match to play to supplies than to ask designers to create new supplies

for the play. There was no need to describe the appearances of props,

costumes, or set pieces because the playwright usually knew exactly what was

available. (8)

In many cases, Elizabethan dramas expressed stage direction and setting through dialogue instead of setting or stage direction. The character of drama describes surroundings and behaviors, actions and physical setting through dialogue. Dramatists made their characters describe their emotional state of mind as well as their physical action. Later, the Puritan Commonwealth closed the theatres in the Mid-Seventeenth century. During restoration period, dramatists were not in-charge of production.

Company managers and trainers conducted training and rehearsal for the plays.

Therefore, this forced dramatists to make extra labour writing notes on setting and stage direction in the play scripts.

At the end of the nineteenth century, suddenly dramatists were discouraged from participating in the production of drama with the introduction of powerful directors. Dramatists now responsible only for generating a script in the privacy of their own room started to spend enough time on writing stage direction, setting or didascaliae to stop distancing themselves from the actual production. Such detailed stage direction, setting, didascaliae as non-verbal text indirectly stopped readers and directors not to deviate from the original meaning the text. Neupane 20

With the invention of modern technologies, especially the printing press various theatre companies started to have access to printed version of play. So, they started to produce plays without consulting or meeting the dramatists. Then dramatists included description of setting and stage direction to guide actors and directors to produce plays. Patricia A Suchy quotes Pierre Corneille, a contemporary of Moliere, who advised all dramatists to use margin notes, "Printing puts our plays in the hands of actors who tour the provinces and whom we can inform of what they ought to do, for they would do some very odd things if we did not help them by these notes" (74).

Likewise, the early twentieth-century leading theatre scholar Harley Granville- Barker argues that the problem for his contemporary dramatist is "how to write [a character] so that he may prevent it – his character – from perishing in the process" of an actor's interpretation" (Qtd. in Nelson 10).

In the same way, the use of modern technology, lavish costume, complicated machinery, electric lighting, larger than life scenery, rich stage, improvisation skills of artists, and other made productions of drama a complete process. So, directors started to see overall aspects of drama resulting dramatists limited inside their private room.

Dramatists were not included in the team of production after they submit their scripts and received their payments. Stage direction or setting provided by dramatists was ignored as the directors would stage the drama as they saw suitable. According to

Gordon Craig in On the Art of the Theatre, stage direction by dramatists can be useful only to readers and an "offense to the man of theatre" (Qtd. in Chinoy 78). In these development of theatre and relationship between dramatists and director, there provoked debate occasionally. Pascale Aebischer takes references of Gerald Rabkin,

Patricia Suchy and Marvin Carlson to say, ". . . In 1984, both Arthur Miller and

Samuel Beckett took legal action against theatre companies that ignored their stage Neupane 21 direction" (30).

The director, however, in course of time acted like bridge between actor and dramatists. Now, dramatists is not involved in the rehearsal and production process until invited to see final rehearsal. The director of the play interprets the vision and ideas of play to create a theatrical production. Therefore, the dramatists spend enough time to create stage direction, setting or didascaliae to control the director from deviating the play away. Nelson writes, "Recognizing this shift in authorial control over theatrical production, many playwrights began to take control within the dramatic text itself, asserting their intention through increased use of didascaliae"

(13). For an example, O'Neill, an American dramatist focused on every details of action, setting, characterization and even lighting in his dramas while writing dialogues of character. G.B Shaw was also known for insisting his dramas be produced exactly as written because he emphasizes on scene design and setting of his dramas. He provided long introductory essays that contain practical stage directions, physical setting, and other details to help readers visualize his dramas.

The meaning in dramas of Samuel Beckett can be focused more by details of action and setting than dialogue. Nelson argues, "Beckett describes action within didascaliae, while Shakespeare describes action through dialogue" (19). This briefly shows differences between dramatists of Elizabethan and modern period. Not only

Beckett, many other absurdist dramatists like Joyce, Jonesco, Genet and Pinter gave either equal or more importance to stage direction than dialogues. Unlike them,

Antonin Artaud and the Theatre of Cruelty believed on live performance rather than dramatic writing that includes setting in details.

When dramatists use stage direction, setting and didascaliae properly with dialogue, there is less chance of directors taking great liberties. Nelson illustrates; Neupane 22

Didascaliae presents itself as the only way a dramatist can have any control

over the performance of a play without being directly involved in rehearsals.

We say that a picture is worth a thousand words, and recognize that a stage

picture and the physical relationship between characters can be just as

important as the spoken words in a play. (23)

A dramatists composes how certain moment should look or feel on the stage and how or where things should be on the stage. The stage direction or setting conveys images, as dialogue alone is incapable of creating the same image within a certain time.

Wilma Gallagher McCague argues, "Every producer of plays must know that the action and stage business of the play are often a more effective source of comedy and tragedy than is the dialogue, and that an objective representation is often less tedious than dialogue" (48). So, setting can portray meaning and emotion by creating images which dialogue may not collect successfully. The stage direction or setting included in the drama help reader to visualize whereas assist director of drama to stage drama accurately. They can co-exist with dialogue to instruct actor, director and reader to achieve the dramatists' desired effect. If the dramatists can successfully use setting, stage direction or didascaliae to demonstrate meaning clearly in coherence with plot and dialogue, they can transfer message to readers appropriately.

The readers ignore setting thinking it as a side text and less important than dialogue of major characters. It is believed that dialogue and plotline possess theme of the play. Pascale Aebischer in her essay "Didascalia and Speech in Dramatic Text" shows importance of non-verbal text, "narratology might be productively employed to explain certain features of the dramatic text" (26). She further expresses her idea:

. . . and it would be futile to seek for different levels of "authority" in this text

or to try to dismiss its didascalia as a mere side text with little or no bearing on Neupane 23

the meaning of the dialogue. We are closer to a real understanding of this

intriguing volume if we accept its didascalia as the commentatorial metatext

that complements and provides an interpretative framework for both film and

screenplay in the stereophonic medium of drama. (48)

To ignore setting of dramas is like avoiding dialogue while reading novels. In fact, both plays and novels include of two components – setting and dialogue. So, to avoid reading of setting of dramas is to lack charm of narration from dramatic text. Does this mean, one can avoid dialogue saying fiction can be understood by reading narrative? But dialogue are important in novel which carry important discourse. In the same way, in the dramas, skipping setting or stage direction or didascaliae can cost readers of missing important theme. Kay Unruh Des Roches believes that, "Given the semiotic richness of dramatic text, it is curious that so many critics of drama privilege the dialogue of playscript, even to the point of erasing the stage instruction" (49). Not only critics or readers, but in many cases, even playwrights give less effort to stage setting as the secondary text. There are lots of drama, which lack detailed setting, are misunderstood.

Raluca Levonian also states, "Didascalia have been traditionally regarded as a less meaningful discourse compared to dialogue, which formed "the core of the play" or "the main text". These stage directions usually have a negative definition. They are text fragments that cannot be verbalized during the performance" (25). While reading the various dramas of different periods, we can see that stage directions or settings have less space on the drama, which easily reflect how dramatists can marginalize the status of setting in comparison to dialogues. Pascale quotes Roman Ingarden's division of the drama into main text and side text to show how he wrongly blames the non-verbal texts like stage direction or setting "cannot constitute even the skeleton of Neupane 24 a work"(28-29). She argues that Ingarden ignores the fact that medieval religious drama has allocated more space to stage direction than dialogues as well as modern dramatists like Beckett, Shaw, Brecht, Ionesco, and other reflected independence of setting or stage direction (28).

G.B Shaw encouraged dramatists to express in the non-dialogic component of drama- setting and stage direction. Quoting Shaw from article of E.A. Levenson's

"Shaw's Stage Direction" Pasal writes, "To make play readable [Playwright] substituted readable descriptions for technical stage directions, and showed how to make the volumes as attractive in appearances as novels" (31). Notions of

"faithfulness" and dismissive attitudes towards didascalia because of their multiple authorship are unable to account for such an extract, and it would be futile to seek for different levels of "authority" in this text or to try to dismiss its didascalia as a mere side text with little or no bearing on the meaning of the dialogue. We are closer to a real understanding of this intriguing volume if we accept its didascalia as the commentarial metatext that complements and provides an interpretative framework for both film and screenplay in the stereophonic medium of drama.

Dialogue and setting are two common components of drama and novel. Since we have a tendency to read drama like novels, those who ignore the setting are essentially removing the narrative from dramatic texts completely. "Given the semiotic richness of a dramatic text, it is curious that so many critics of drama privilege the dialogue of a playscript, even to the point of erasing the stage instructions" (Des Roches 49). Inversely, how would a novel read with no dialogue?

Dialogue is necessary; fiction cannot be written solely as narrative. We recognize that many novels absolutely require dialogue to reveal the nuances and rhythm for human discourse or differences in local inflection or dialect. Just as dialogue can be an Neupane 25 essential feature of a novel, setting can be an essential feature of the dramatic text.

Therefore, setting is the author's description of some aspects of the drama.

While directors tend to agree on the importance of maintaining the dialogue as written, they often consider the setting to be suggestions rather than requirements.

Some critics and theorists believe that the setting are mostly irrelevant, useful only as an expedient until the director comes along to give the script life. Parvis, for example, argues that

Stage directions concerning the circumstances of utterances are not the

ultimate truth of a text, a formal command to produce the text in such a

manner, or even an indispensable shifter between text and performance. Their

textual status is uncertain. Do they constitute an optional extratext? A metatext

that determines the dramatic text? Or a pretext that suggests one solution

before the director decides on another? (89)

Nelson illustrates it as "Performers argue for complete creative license with staging, but seldom alter the dialogue. It is interesting that theatre professionals and students alike can read a script and dismiss half of the narrative (who reads a novel and ignores all of the dialogue?)" (22). But for the good reading of the drama one cannot ignore setting. In the same way, the dramatists cannot ignore on putting detailed setting in their drama.

There are different opinions regarding the importance of setting and dialogue in drama. Therefore, there is debate over the use of setting and dialogue in drama.

Setting and dialogue are equally important to understand the meaning of the drama. In isolation of one of these cannot bring complete understanding of the drama. In many cases, setting has not been clearly acknowledged by dramatists, directors and readers.

Some researchers argue there is no relation between performance and setting. Drama Neupane 26 is not all about the dialogue but also about setting. Actor is needed for performances but setting is equally important. As setting provides the spatio-temporal frame to the text, it is crucial part of the drama and so cannot be ignored. Setting helps to develop artistic vision for transforming text into stage. However, setting cannot be limited to design of stage. It also includes properties, placement, costumes, light, make up, sound, visual, stage management, and others.

The forms of setting has changed with the time more advance technologies is involved. The setting has become realistic and flexible. Some of the researchers analyze drama through the semoilogical perspective to derive meaning from setting.

They focus on study of non-verbal texts like gestures, tones, music, blocking, voice, costumes, and setting to understand the drama. By analyzing setting of any drama, one can perceive the mood, style, scene, characters, place, time and other aspects of the drama. It gives visual metaphor to the readers by allowing readers to enter into the imaginary world of the dramatist. The readers can understand the emotion and ideas of the characters effectively through setting. Setting adds elements for sensory perception included in drama.

Setting is the crucial for developing artistic vision of the drama and therefore it cannot be abandoned while reading or transferring the text into the stage. Setting in drama depicts the time, space, mood, social condition and weather of story in the visual form. Such setting can be integral to control character and plot or it can be backdrop where setting are less significant. Jon Whitmore, Edwin Wilson, Kari K.

Pitkanen, Stephanie Arnold reflect the visual form of setting where as Martin Esslin,

Keir Elam, Jindrich Honzl, Umberto Eco show how setting helps to draw meaning.

Description of setting, in drama in other context, by different researchers and theorists have named as didascaliae, stage direction and non-verbal text. All of them convey Neupane 27 ideas and emotions for readers in visual forms. Erin Nelson, Marvin Carlson, Pascala

Aebischer believe setting fulfills the gap that dialogue or characters cannot do. In the course of time, from Medieval ``period to modern time, various dramatists and directors used setting in different ways – to bridge gap between actors/readers and dramatists, to support original meaning of the text, to provide visual effects in drama.

Dramatists used to be involved in the production of drama, so settings were less elaborated in Medieval and Elizabethan drama. But with restoration period, dramatists started to write detail setting as they were not in charge of theatrical production. In modern time, as dramatists may not be consulted or available for suggestion, the detailed setting is included in drama. Although there is debate over the importance of setting and dialogue, one cannot ignore the fact that both setting and dialogue cannot bring complete meaning in isolation. To sum up, the proper observation of setting helps to perceive the insights on time, space, mood, social condition, weather, and other aspects of drama. Setting, mainly for visual creation of drama's atmosphere, is also full of ideas and emotion, which should be understood, simultaneously with theme of the drama. Neupane 28

Chapter II

Evaluation of Settings in Nepali Modern Drama

Before the modern era of Nepali drama, the development of Nepali drama in comparison to other genres endured struggling phase. From the origin of Nepali drama, its development process struggled due to high influence of Parsi and Hindi drama. Abhi Subedi in Nepali Theatre as I See It, writes how the Parsi drama was established in Nepal, "When Parsi theatre came to Nepal it acquired a status of power and prestige as it was the exclusive means of entertainment for the ruling families of

Nepal" (76). In the same way, Shiva Rijal in "Modern Theatre in Nepal" writes about this influence, "This form of theatre of the Ranas did not have any local, political, and intellectual colours: it was a Hindi-Urdu form of art. And the artists and audience did not dare to break this canon" (27). However, the originality of Nepali drama existed in the form of indigenous tradition of performance. In this context, Subedi writes,

"During the Rana regime when groups took the Parsi plays inside the court, the indigenous subaltern groups continued to perform the people's theatre" (2006, 109).

The dramatists before modern period could not break the canon because they were not allowed to write freely; they had to please the rulers. Their works used to be censored.

With the departure of influence of Parsi drama, in slow pace realistic and original dramas were written in Nepali context and language. Rijal marks the publication and stage of Mukunda Indira (1994 B.S.) by Balkrishan Sama as the beginning of Nepali modern drama (33). Therefore this dissertation picks six representative dramas written by six dramatists after 1994 B.S. to study about the setting in Nepali modern drama.

While studying the setting of those six dramas, we can figure out the evolution of setting in Nepali modern drama from Sama to Subedi.

Different researchers and historians have divided Nepali drama in various Neupane 29 ways. In Nepali Naatak: Sidhanta Ra Samikshya. Ramchandra Pokharel categorizes history of Nepali drama into four phases: First Phase (until B.S. 1943), Second Phase

(B.S.1944-1985 ), Third Phase (B.S.1986-2036), and Fourth Phase (B.S. 2038-till date) (150). His third and fourth phase can be included as Nepali drama of modern period. On the basis of the publication of drama, Keshav Prasad Upadhaya in his book

Naatak Ko Adhyan divides Nepali modern drama into four phases: First Phase (B.S.

1986-2002), Second Phase (B.S. 2003-2015), Third Phase (B.S. 2016-2029) and

Fourth Phase (B.S. 2030-till date) (36-37:2059).

The six dramas, selected for analysis of setting in Nepali modern drama, represent from each phases as divided by Keshav Prasad Upadhaya. Three dramas represent first half of modern Nepali drama whereas other three represent second half of the modern Nepali drama. By choosing three drama from the first half of Nepali modern drama and three from the second half of Nepali modern drama, the analysis seeks to evaluate how setting of Nepali drama can help to derive meaning. This division can be illustrated in the table as such:

First Half of Nepali Modern Drama Second Half of Nepali Modern Drama

Phase Dates Selected Drama Phase Dates (B.S.) Selected Drama

(B.S.)

I 1986-2002 Sahanshila Sushila IV 2030-till Dreams of Peach

(1995) date Blossoms (2058)

II 2003-2015 Bhimsen Ko Antya Sirumaraani

(2012) (2063)

III 2016-2029 Bhus Ko Aago Sakuni Pasaharu

(2018) (2068)

Table 1 : Division of Nepali Modern Drama Neupane 30

Shiva Rijal praises the contribution of the dramatists of the first half of modern Nepali drama:

Balkrishna Sama, Gopal Prasad Rimal (1918-1973), Bhimnidhi Tiwari, Vijay

Malla (1925-1999), Gobinda Bahadur Malla ("Gothale") (b.1922) – the

pioneers of modern theatre in Nepali – worked in an important phase of the

nation's art and culture. They have successfully established the genre of

modern drama in Nepali and popularized the dramaturgy. (50)

The foundation of Nepali modern drama set by greatest dramatists like Balkrishna

Sama, Bhimnidhi Tiwari, Gopal Prasad Rimal, Govinda Bahadur Malla "Gothale",

Vijay Malla and others was followed by dramatists of second phase of Nepali modern drama like Ashesh Malla, Sarubhakta, Satyamohan Joshi and Abhi Subedi.

Bhimsen Ko Antya

Balkrishna Sama holds a special place in the history of Nepali drama as a multidimensional talent - he who can act, direct, design, paint and write. When there was monopoly of Hindi and Urdu plays in courts of Nepal, Sama wrote and directed dramas in Nepali language and identity. His dramas has timeless and insightful interpretation of Nepali political and social situation. Abhi Subedi praises Sama's dramas, ". . . are exclusively written for the stage but the stage was visualized by him because he wrote as director, poet, actor and stage designer" (117:2006). According to

Keshav Prasad Upadhaya, Sama developed dramatic style and skills by learning from dramaturgy of song and dance based Parasi theatrical tradition, song oriented Sanskrit drama and blank verse oriented Shakespearean drama (179: 2056). He also argues that

Sama was influenced by romanticism of Shakespeare, realism of G.B Shaw and Ibsen, and imaginative experimental style of Strindberg and Eugene O'Neil (38:2059).

One of the historical dramas of Sama, Bhimsen Ko Antya (Fall of Bhimsen) is Neupane 31 about the first prime minister of Nepal, Bhimsen Thapa. Play starts with Runajang and Kularaj, the heir of the Pandes, who look for the favour of the senior queen to restore their family honors ruined by Bhimsen Thapa. The king Rajendra orders

Bhimsen to call the physician Ekdev as his youngest son is ill. Bhimsen and another physician Bhajuman visit the house of Ekdev and bring him to the royal palace. The king's youngest son dies after medication and so the rumor spreads that Bhimsen poisoned the child. Runajang is appointed as prime minister and he avenges Bhimsen into prison. Later, King Rajendra releases him from prison. However, Runajang again charges Bhimsen of poisoning widow of the late king. In his home arrest, Bhimsen is given false information that his wife paraded naked through the city. Out of collected humiliation and pain, Bhimsen slits his throat but he dies struggling with a wound in his throat after many days. The king knows about the trap upon Bhimsen little ahead of his last breath. This tragic end of Bhimsen Thapa hints the rise of Mathbar Singh

Thapa as the King realizes that only Mathbar's ability can save the nation.

The drama published in 2012 B.S. reflects the dark age of Nepali society when

Bhimsen Thapa, the honest prime minister, was jailed for different charges. In the same way, many politicians were jailed during struggle to end Rana regime. So, the use of historical setting gives a contemporary relevance during the publication of the drama. In this regard, Hermann Hetter in Das modern Drama writes, "Historical drama must draw its strength from the very heart's blood of its own times and yet at the same time it must strike with assurance the distinctive note of the historical hero"

(Qtd. in McFarlane, 15). Sama has shown both interest and respect for history for bringing clear poetic vision of what is inspiring in the contemporary society. After establishment of democracy, there was trend of making hero. Sama created national heroes by writing drama about Bhimsen Thapa, Bhanubhakta Acharya and others. Neupane 32

Lots of new politicians and leaders were raising with establishment of democracy in

Nepal, this drama set in Dark Age establishes Bhimsen Thapa as role model for them.

The starting of Nepali modern theatre, famously recognized period of theatrical activity started from Balkrishna Sama, which is marked by gradual transition of theatre activities from private halls of court of noble families to a commercial form of entertainment for the public. The theatre started as a copy of

English or Hindi literature, looked for originality in subject matter and form. Drama lacked information about detailed setting as dramatists included little information about time, location, visual and sound effects and details of characters. However,

Sama's dramas were composed with a view to perform, and the dramatic materials they contain have theatrical effect. Lots of energy have been put in his dramas to create credible and impressive setting.

In historical drama like this, the dramatists create authentic settings to persuade readers about the appropriate time and location of story. The drama is set in variety of locations in Kathmandu, over the course of 1894 to 1896. For an example,

Sama in the beginning of act fourth describes setting of drama as such:

Afternoon, Srawan 12, 1894 B.S. Sundarichowk of Hanumandhoka. Rajendra

Bikram Shah wipes tear with handkerchief sitting on big sofa. Prostrating on

his lap out of grief, Surendra Bikram Shah is also weeping. Runajang,

Rangnath, Kulraj and other are regularly wiping their tear in deep dejection.

Kanak Singh Mahat is standing with papers in his hands. All are wearing

white clothes and white Bhaktapurey Topi. Sometime there is sun, at times

shade. (My Translation 66)

This setting in the drama "describes the starting point and surrounding" (Pitkanen 1) for the readers to understand the situation of scene. Narrative of this setting allows Neupane 33 readers to know about the tragic situation in advance. It also reflects the relationship between characters by showing their social and political power. It shows the Nepali culture where people wear white dress while attending death ceremony. The weather in the drama is partial sunshine that means that human beings have to expect tragedy as the part of life. In a Nepali modern drama, Sama started to give more concern on writing setting of a drama by including stage action, introduction of characters, time and space setting on words. The drama Bhimsen ko Antya has included such information in the beginning of the drama which helps readers to engage quickly and effectively. Setting description kept in the opening of each act helps to gather reader's energy and interest in the action about to unfold by characters.

Setting, in Sama's this drama, engages readers to activate their willingness to believe the content of the drama. It also helps to sustain the reader's interest in the onstage action and dialogues. In the same way, the setting gives Sama opportunity to provide his readers foreknowledge of how characters come with different situation towards conflict. Setting is filled with expectations of the ways in which conflict will unfold. Not only to readers, setting in Sama's drama would have offered actors ample opportunity to exploit their skills as performer on a stage by assisting to create visual.

Setting motivates the characters of a drama to speak and behave the way he or she does, and this is how the actor can bring a character to life.

Setting contains textual element that could enable a reader to understand the context in which the action evolves, as well as the kind of characters who appear in it.

Setting also provided Sama with the means to communicate to his actors/readers how certain part should be imagined or performed under certain place and time. Sama is able to construct physical presence of actors on the stage, stage movement, use of props, pacing of action, costumes, sound and visual effects of theatrical production of Neupane 34

Bhimsen Ko Antya by putting such details in the setting. As Whitman argues that setting convey details about historical period, geographical location, exact place, mood and visual style (135), we can see such details in this drama.

After a while, a part of well-decorated sitting room in the palace. There are

doors around the room. The royal knights are not seen due to tall pillars. There

is a big throne just below velvet clothes. Next to it, there are two small chairs

for reputed persons. On right of those chairs, Samrajyalaxmi Devi is sitting.

Just below her place, there is Runajung standing in front of Kanaksing Mahat

(holds few papers in his hands and arms whereas other papers are scattered on

the floor). Kularaj is also standing there. In the left side, Rajyalaxmi Devi is

siting whereas Ranganath is standing just below her chair. On the right side,

there is chair for high ranked person where Surendra Bikram Shaha is sitting.

All eyes are centered towards backstage, which is lower part of the sitting

room. (My translation 105)

In this way, Sama, who himself directed and acted this drama, focuses on elaborated setting. He may have composed the first draft in isolation and imagination but the draft could have undergone multiple changes while he directed or performed on the stage. The lack of detailed description of setting confuses readers about character's positioning on stage, appearances, and manner of entry. Sama provides his direction skill on written text by keeping descriptive and informative setting of royal palace, which he has seen from his childhood. He knows the hierarchy of different characters as well as their dress and position to sit. So, those real portrayals is reflected in the drama through elaborated setting.

Sama uses 'integral setting' in the drama where setting is described in details throughout the whole story. The setting of this drama taken place at different locations Neupane 35 and time than this will not give same impression as the original setting. All characters of the drama are controlled by setting. They act, wear dress, think the way that suits the contemporary society of Bhimsen Thapa. Borrowing words of Edwin Wilson, we can say that Sama's this drama creates "an environment for the performers and for the performance" 16) to set mood and style of that society. For this, he gives real date and places which can be categorized in the table as such:

Act Time Setting Place Setting

Act I 1894 Srawan 09 Hanumandhoka Durbar, Kathmandu

Act II 1894 Srawan 10, Night Ekdev's House, Singhsatta

Act III 1894 Srawan 10, Night Hanumandhoka Durbar, Kathmandu

Act IV 1894 Srawan 12, Afternoon Sundarchowk of Hanumandhoka Durbar

Act V 1896 Srawan 04 Hanumandhoka Durbar

Act VI 1896 Srawan 04 Hanumandhoka Durbar

Act VII 1896 Srawan 05 Room in Bhimsen Thapa's house

Act VIII 1896 Srawan 14, Afternoon Room in Bhimsen Thapa's house

Table 2: Time and place setting in Bhimsen Ko Antya

Sama uses prologue to invite his readers' interest by presenting central theme and conflict of the drama, which is based on the life of Bhimsen Thapa. Prologue, in such history drama, enable the dramatist to suspend disbelief of readers on the life of

Bhimsen Thapa by "establishing the locale and period in which the play takes place"

(Wilson 16). In the early modern period, collective rehearsal time was not assigned too much in comparison to modern contemporary Nepali theatre. This also compelled

Sama and his contemporaries to convey as much stage information as possible in form of setting. Neupane 36

Sahanshila Sushila

The traditional play writing in Nepal before Bhimnidi Tiwari was based on the idealism. Therefore, it lacked description about what was happening in the society and how people had felt during those days. Nepali dramas written before his time preached what society should be like rather than reflecting on what society was.

However, Tiwari, a dramatist who started writing on social themes, has reflected his contemporary society, social incidents, culture and natural surroundings in his dramas. He advocates social change and reforms powerfully in his dramas to motivate his readers. According to Ramchandra Pokharel, Tiwari's drama writing skill and style was influenced from traditional culture, Gai Jatra, training from his father and his contact with high-class people. So, characters in his drama are common people of his contemporary time, historical and mythical person. Keshav Prasad Upadhaya believes that writing of Tiwari has consciousness about the division of drama into different act and scenes so that it would be easier to stage (145: 2056). He further argues that unlike dramas of Sama, Tiwari's drama are written in simple language that all readers could understand easily (39:2059). Abhi Subedi comments that Sahanshila Sushila, ".

. . has not been able to overcome the prejudice of the feudal society where the upper woman is virtuous and the lower class woman is fallen" (138:2006).

Sahanshila Sushila (Tolerating Sushila) is an example of Tiwari's social drama that tells the social tradition and cultural practices of the contemporary society.

Sushila, daughter of Colonel, lives with her husband in the house funded by her father. But her gambler husband scolds and beats her brutally. Her helpless parents cannot rescue her because of social restriction. Her husband asks her to leave the house forever. The devoted Sushila easily accepts order of husband and struggles on road until working as servant in the house of a Brahmin. The social restrictions do not Neupane 37 allow her to return her parents' house. Sushila's husband regrets his behaviors only when a sex worker betrays him. The supporting character, Sete luckily finds Sushila and conveys about remorseful situation of her husband. As an ideal wife of the contemporary time, Sushila returns home. The drama ends with harmonious atmosphere in the house of Sushila.

The drama written in the atmosphere of Rana Regime reflects how Nepali society was traditionally highly patriarchal during Rana regime. Even in upper class and caste, most women in Nepal were considered to be beneath their husbands and fathers. They were avoided from social, political, and economic freedom – rather they endured all kind of violence and harassment. Women were hegemonized in such a way that they were blindfolded about all kinds of violence against women. This setting and context is presented in this drama to show how women were supposed to tolerate adversity.

This drama depicts the story of aristocrat family where inefficient husband, involved in addiction of gambling, drinks and sex-worker, tortures his innocent wife,

Sushila. The playwright, Bhimnidi Tiwari, through the title character Sushila conveys message that tolerance and forgetfulness are the ideal feature of devoted wife. The setting also gives a lot of information about the meaning of a drama and logic behind character's activities. Setting justifies the actions of characters in a play. The time setting of the play is 1991 to 1996 that justifies Sushila's submissive nature, as it was not socially acceptable for her to revolt against domination of her husband in the then society. The setting of drama reflects the dramatist, Tiwari's own time where women did not have a lot of power. Location, date, day and time are mentioned in each scene in the drama, which takes readers back to atmosphere of Nepali traditional society where women did not have a lot of power to argue with their husband. As Edwin Neupane 38

Wilson said such details of setting "helps to solve practical decision problem" (16) by establishing "locale and period in which the play takes place" (16). The central character of the drama, Sushila depicts character of submissive wife. This is justified by the setting of the drama. For an example, in the first scene of first act, Tiwari depicts the luxury of high class male.

First Act

First Scene

Location – A Chamber of Colonel

Day – 1991, Bhadra 1, Friday

Time – Evening

(Colonel, leaning back, is making house of playing cards with his younger

son). (My Translation 1)

One of the main characters, Colonel stays in luxury room with his younger son to make house of playing cards whereas his servant serves hookah (Shisha) for him. The working class two female servants in fifth scene of same act are picking fallen flowers from their master's garden. So, the setting of both scenes demonstrates nature of the action that colonel and the working class women have. Setting here works as narrative to convey "unspoken information and helps readers visually imagine or understand the scenario" (Nelson, 15).

Likewise, the living room of Colonel and his Son-in-Law that frequently appears as setting of the drama helps us to show that family living in the house is from rich family. Unlike them, the setting of Sete's house in Nuwakot is not rich, and it hints that there could be crisis of money. In the sixth scene of act first, the setting of the drama shows the lifestyle of woman who lives in village as such:

Downstairs, house of Sete. Baatuli puts the lamp and goes out to drag the bed. Neupane 39

She manages bedding. She looks her face in the mirror of small box and

organizes her hair. She wipes teeth with a cloth. She applies collyrium to her

eyes. (My translation 16)

The setting of the drama is important in a sense that it sets the situation. It also gives readers a chance to determine more information about the drama. For an example,

Sushila remains at home almost throughout the drama, which reflects the contemporary time of the dramatist, where home become the center of virtue and life of women. It would have been socially unacceptable for her to do work outside home.

The reader is able to make assumption about the probable forthcoming event and situation by reading description of setting. For an example, the way the house of

Sete and Colonel's Son-in-Laws is described makes us know about Sete's dependency upon Son-in-Law of Colonel. The setting helps to set the mood for the drama. The time and place setting is mentioned in every beginning of acts and scenes that can be summarized in the table as such:

Act/ Setting

Scene Place Date Time

Act 1 1 Colonel's Bedroom 1991 Bhadra 1 Evening

2 Door of Colonel's house Bhadra 2 Morning

3 Garden of Colonel's Son-in-Law Bhadra 2 Morning

4 Living Room of Son-in-Law Bhadra 2 Afternoon

5 Garden (beneath Parijat's tree) Bhadra 17 Dawn

6 Sete's house, Nuwakot Bhadra 17 Morning/Day/Night

7 Living Room of Son-in-Law Kartik 6 Afternoon

Act II 1 Colonel's Living Room 1991 Kartik 7 Afternoon

2 Road Kartik 8 Evening Neupane 40

3 Living Room of Son-in-Law Magh 5 Evening

4 Veranda of Sete's house, Nuwakot Magh 8 Evening

5 Living Room of Colonel's Son-in- Magh 21 Evening

Law, Crossroad, Road

6 Living Room of Colonel's Son-in- Magh 21 Rainy Evening

Law, Crossroad, Road

7 Sitting Room of Chiniya-champa Magh 21 Midnight

8 House Made of Straw Magh 22 Dawn

Act III 1 Colonel's Bed Room 1991 Magh 22 Morning

2 Road, House Made of Straw Chaitra 1 Afternoon

3 Living Room of Son-in-Law 1992 Magh 15 Evening

4 House Made of Straw Falgun 14 Morning

5 Garden Falgun 14 Evening

6 Veranda of Village House, Nuwakot Chaitra 29 Dusk

7 Living Room of Son-in-Law 1996 Falgun 24 Afternoon

Table 3: Time and place setting in Sahanshila Sushila

Without above mentioned setting clues and historical context of the drama, it would be hard to relate with the character and their motives. The drama portraits the time setting of 1991 to 1996, which justifies what it might have been to be like Sushila – the title character who lived restricted life being dependent upon a man. Gender roles are described to be more confined – women were expected to be submissive to their husband and devoted to raise of children, and men were expected to dominate their wives. Nobody, even daughter of Colonel could challenge such trend of society fearing serious consequences. Therefore, she rather left the house instead of fighting for her rights. We can see the differences between working class and aristocrat family Neupane 41 by observing the setting as such:

Setting

S.N Working Class Aristocrat

1 Veranda of Sete's House, Nuwakot Colonel's bedroom & sitting room,

Kathmandu

2 Veranda of Villager, Nuwakot Living room & Garden of Colonel,

Kathmandu

3 Sitting Room of Chiniya-Champa

4 House Made of Straw, Village

Table 4: Setting of Working Class and Aristocrat in Sahanshila Sushila

The sitting room of Colonel's Son-in-Law in three different situations reflects different meaning. Son-in-Law playing musical instruments with his friend Bimal

Bikram in scene three of act 2 shows his detachment with Sushila. In the scene three of act 3, Son-in-Law's room is messed up that shows tragic separation with his wife in advance. The drama ends in this room after almost 5 years, where Son-in-Law is relaxed and Sushila is knitting. It depicts happy union between them. This is described as in act three's seventh scene as such:

Location: Decorated sitting room

Day: 1996 Falgun 24, Thursday

Time: Day

Son-in-law is lying in the small bedding down to luxurious bed. Sushila sitting

towards his feet is knitting sweater. Sete is sitting taking support at wall. Dogs

are barking. (My Translation 63)

This part of the drama reflects the domination of patriarchy mindset, which enforces females, are supposed to serve their husband being very submissive and obedient. Neupane 42

Females are hegemonized that they are slave of their husband. This is the reason behind tolerating nature of Sushila in this drama. Unlike her, Colonel and his son-in- law as representatives of males are powerful to order their wife.

Colonel's room, where all three acts begin, is rich and sophisticated as the room has Hukka, playing cards, clove, and cardamom. Colonel has servant to serve

Hukka and other facilities in first scene of both first and second act. Therefore, unlike previous acts, in the act three, Colonel's luxury is not shown to mean how he is victimized by mental torture of losing his daughter, Sushila.

Bhus Ko Aago

Govinda Bahadur Malla, popularly known by his pen name 'Gothale' has given a new dimension to psychoanalytical presentation of characters in his drama. He shows conflict between desires and morality through his various characters. He has less number of dramas but they have highly influenced Nepali literature as they have natural dialogue, everyday used simple language, style and skill (175, Upadhaya,

2056). Abhi subedi says, "Gothale's plays are realistic in nature. The focus of his plays is woman. Bhusko Agao and Chyatieko Parda, the two most well-known dramas of Gothale dramatise the predicament of women" (131:2006). Ramchandra Pokharel also appreciate him saying that Gothale wrote drama by including psychoanalysis and satire upon social evils (165).

His drama, Bhus Ko Aago (Fire of Chaff) presents psychological dimension of a married woman, Urmila. She is not allowed to go her house as her parents-in-laws want to abandon her. So, they force her husband to marry another girl. Urmila, chooses to live independently after separation from her husband, joins a college. On the other side, Urmila's husband is fed up with his illiterate second wife. He wants to rearrange his relation with Urmila. However, Urmila, who had sense of freedom and Neupane 43 independence, refuses to go with him. The protagonist, Urmila seeks more from life and starts to refuse the standard of society. Although she had hard times to decide, she finally determines not to return to her husband's house.

This drama published in 2018 B.S. mark the period when the king Mahendra took power in his hands to imposed autocratic single party ruling system named,

Panchayat. The revolution activities were not seen in surface in early phase but the idea of protest against the king's act was underlying in deep of people's heart. They were looking for right opportunity to express that underneath desire for transformation. In the same time, liberal feminism started to realize oppression by patriarchal domination and alienation from the power in public life. Some educated middle class women proposed that gender roles were socially constructed and could be changed only after a revolutionary restructuring of the power. But that desire and goal for transformation could not be manifested in the public place. It remain in edge that could blast anytime. This drama reflects the desire for transformation, which cannot be expressed powerfully and clearly in direct rule of the king. The political environment was quite tight and was not easy to show revolutionary activities on surface. Therefore, the revolution for transformation was underneath. The drama presents this setting of Nepali society where women were devoid of their rights.

The setting or the home in which the characters are depicted in this drama is symbolic. The setting of all four acts of the drama is rooms in the house of Urmila's parents. This drama has integral setting as it represents the post-dramatic era of Nepal when voice for rights of women started to raise. The setting of the drama supports

"the spoken word of the dramatic form" (Parker and Wolf 12). The though and ideas of characters are justified by the society. All the characters presented on the stage are females and they are always seen inside room, which depict a symbol of domination Neupane 44 upon women in the then Nepali society. For an example, the setting of the first act is the kitchen of a middle class family, which is elaborately described as such:

[In a kitchen of a middle class, the kitchen utensils are scattered everywhere.

There are two small windows on right side and a balcony on left side.

A time just a moment before evening.

Radha, who is around 30 years old, is blowing the grate to fire. A part of her

back is seen. Her braided hair with a black thread clarifies that she is widow.

On the other side, Rita, a ten years old girl nearby window, is dressing her doll

with sari.] (My Translation 1)

This messy scene depicts an underlying tone of disgust by women who traditionally should complete work within home. It also includes the historical moment in the time and geographic location of Nepal where a woman was assigned to kitchen and girl to play with dolls. Even a little girl is assigned with the task to dress her doll with sari.

Such setting description of setting frame the story of Bhus ko Aago in fixed time and space with clear action. It also controls the activities and thinking of characters that suit the then society.

(Room of Radha and Shanti. It is little different from room of Urmila. There is

a box made of tin and a typical vessel for water [Karuwa] on the big wooden

box. There are books and copies in different places. There are two windows

and curtains. Few portraits and traditional clothes for female are hanged on the

wall. The room is clean.

Shanti is reading lying on the bed. The time is about three pm. The sound of

door being knocked is heard.) (My Translation 24)

This description of setting in the act three depicts the middle class family of

Kathmandu after establishment of democracy where women of certain caste and class Neupane 45 were allowed to read and write. Shanti and Urmila belong to such family, so they date to challenge the established norms. In all four acts, there are no male characters presented on stage rather their voice is heard. Women's alienation in repression is expressed through only presence of female characters, as there is no presence of males. This setting reflects the alienation created by the distinction between the real women and the women perceived by male-dominated society. There are three male characters whose voice or letters are heard by female characters. Despite their absence, they leave powerful affect upon female characters. Shyam, son of Radha, a widow, continuously disturbs her mother and aunt. Likewise, the letter of Urmila's husband nearly convinced her to return to him. The setting and name of the characters in this drama can be presented as such:

Act Setting Characters

Place Time

Act I Kitchen of Middle class house Dusk Radha, Rita, Bajai, Shanti,

Nanichoori, Urmila,

Act II Urmila's Room Day Radha, Rita, Shanti, Nanichoori,

Urmila, Saradha

Act III Room of Radha and Shanti 3 pm Radha, Sarita, Shanti, Rita,

Nanichoori, Urmila

Act IV Urmila's Room (like Act II) 4 pm Radha, Bajai, Nanichoori,

Urmila, Saradha, Rita, Shanti,

Table 5: Time and place setting and characters in Bhus Ko Aago

Despite portraying women as powerful, they still are victimized to patriarchal construction of stereotypes and ideology. Urmila is shown as disobedience, rebellion and resistance from the beginning. But she presented in the domestic setting like Neupane 46 kitchen and bedroom denies the opportunity for her growth and change. It does not allow her to reject the hierarchical and patriarchy mindset. By making setting of the drama in the house especially bedroom and kitchen, the dramatist justifies the setting with the theme of the drama. At the same time, all women gathered from four generations show that revolution against the domination is sure to happen.

Shakuni Pasaharu

The playwright, director and founder of Sarwanam Theatre, Ashesh Malla has raised the suppressed and scared voices of people to revolt against the repressive political system of the country in his drama. The pioneer of street theatre in Nepal,

Malla has raised issues of democracy, good governance and freedom in his dramas.

Ramchandra Pokharel believes that dramas of Malla have sensitive perspective, past oriented subject matter, modern use of characters, natural and credible dialogues to depict human life in details (172). According to Brataraj Acharya, Ashesh Malla, from beginning of his writing, has presented political and social evils as the main plot of his drama (49).

One of Ashesh Malla's dramas, Sakuni Pasaharu (Sakuni's Dice) twists an old epic The Mahabharata as the playwright Malla adopts the epic with contemporary political scenario. In The Mahabharata, Yudhisthira is defeated in the game of dice because of Sakuni's trick. But in this play, Yudhisthira is cunning enough to propose

Duryodhana to solve conflict between them by an election instead of a battle. After the declaration of election, Yudhisthira and Arjun convince Sakuni to join their camp by promising to give him powerful post and other benefits. Sakuni accepts the proposal, which makes the party of Yudhisthira win the election. By dismantaling the myth of The Mahabharata, Malla shows unpredictable political setting of Nepal where politicians are greedy of money and power. Neupane 47

With aim to convert Nepal into a federal state with inclusive democracy and empowerment of ordinary people, Nepal abolished monarchy. In new system, the election was essential to select the ruler instead of offering responsibility by the desire of king. Nepal had two constituent assembly elections in the period of six years. The leaders wanted to win the election at any cost by offering food posts and money to influencing people who could create winning atmosphere for them. So, the drama brings the characters and setting of the Mahabharata to represent such situation of modern Nepal.

Simultaneous actions in the drama help to establish dualities by placing them side by side for immediate contrast and compare. Ashesh Malla, in his drama Shakuni

Pasaharu, brings two actions together on stage to show multiple perspective of truth; version of Kauravs and Pandavas. However, simultaneous staging is not new or unique. It was common practice in English Medieval plays" (Fitzhenry, 1). This method of simultaneous action is used in the drama to show how both actions coexist in same time. Again Fitzhenry states that simultaneous action, "manipulate stage time by taking two distinct happenings and playing them concurrently. Whether these happenings are two scenes, author images or director images, the duality allows the play to emerge with a heightened awareness for actor and audience" (Fitzhenry, 2).

Cohen and Harrop argues, "Simultaneous sets. . . allow 'dormant' characters to remain on stage, their mute behaviors observable by the audience" (74). Another example can be seen in the introduction of Sakuni in the drama. When a character named Sakuni was being described in dialogue of a character, he was on stage in the secondary scene doing something and uttering words to introduce himself to link with character speaking in the primary scene (Malla, 3). He introduces himself and disappears. The same primary scene follows his exit. The readers are made realize Neupane 48 that there are two sets existing in the same stage. Such simultaneous action having scenes must exist with appropriate place to start from and the place to return.

Throughout the drama, there are many occasions where Malla continues with duality of scenes on the same stage, which draw meaning of the drama – duality of politics, and internal duality of characters. Sakuni like characters, the opportunities, can go to any camps to fulfill the greed of power. They can exist on multiple camps at the same time. So, dramatist Malla shows Sakuni's duality by presenting him in simultaneous action. In many occasions, there are two distinct scenes happening in different location, which is shown in same stage with use of shifting lights. The characters remain on stage and their freeze behavior is either seen or shadowed in two different places but at the same time. Certain authors and certain scenes do not provide a way into duality. Simultaneous action would most likely lose some of its impact if used non-stop; it is not desirable. So, Malla breaks the scenes and presents differently as there is lack of physical relationship between two scenes.

While simultaneous action directly affect the audience's perception of the drama, the simultaneous action also affect the actor's awareness. It means not doing action and remaining freeze, also brings different meaning. Audience/ readers will bounce their attention from one to the other seeing if and when someone will move. In one context, Dhritarashtra, the blind king of Hastinapur, asks his advisor Sanjaya about the situation of Kurukshetra, the war between Kaurava clan and Pandava clan.

Sanjaya replies that Duryodhana is playing Pasa (gambling) against Pandavas. At this point, the light focuses on the other side of the stage where Kaurava and Pandava are engaged on gambling in presence of Sakuni. They have a debate after Duryodhana asks Pandava to put Draupati as stake in gambling. Pandavas are aggressive this time.

As Duryodhana shouts, "Peace! Peace!" (9), characters in this part of stage freeze Neupane 49 whereas light focuses back to Dhritarashtra and Sanjaya. They start to evaluate activities of Kaurava and Pandavas who are now unseen on the stage. Now, curious

Dhritarashtra asks, "What is the opinion of Duryodhana?" (10) and with this dialogue

Dhritarashtra and Sanjaya freezing. With this, previously freezing Sakuni, Kauravas and Pandavas, on the other side, of stage start to act.

In simultaneous arrangement, the actor is hearing and seeing things on the stage that his character is not, acting according to what he is not seeing and not hearing as punctuation. In the play, Kaurava and Pandava decide to go for election.

Pandavas' campaign aims to attract Sakuni so that they can defeat Kaurava.

Yudhishthira, the eldest of the Pandava brothers, orders Arjun, one of the Pandavas brothers, to negotiate with Sakuni (20). In the meantime, light focuses on the other side of the stage where Sakuni and Duryodhana, the eldest of the Kaurava, are talking to each other (21). Audience can realize that both scenes are happening at the same time in different location whereas artists hear and see all these things happening on the stage but they pretend of not hearing and seeing those events.

In the beginning of the drama, Malla uses the group song to enhance the intensity of probable problem – "Mahabharat is to be repeated seemingly/

Kurukshetra is seemingly awaken/ oh God, stop this torment/ Lets end the war/ lets avoid the trouble." (5). Action takes place while singers sing such song. In multiple occasion, Sutradhaar (stage-manager) appears to guide, direct, and narrate the events in the drama. Likewise, youths enchant sacred verses of the Vedas especially in the beginning and the end of the drama. During such occasions, simultaneous action takes place on the stage.

While observing the process of stage direction in the drama, Tea and

Sympathy by Robert Anderson, Fitzhenry highlights the necessity of studying Neupane 50 simultaneous action. She writes, "If one were to further the idea that overlapping dialogue is too much for the observer's ear, the limits and uses of music and other audible as simultaneous action must be explored" (15). Music is probably the oldest form of simultaneity in dramatic action, dating back to the Greek chorus. Both presence of sound and its absence can be powerful in different occasions. Silence must also be considered as a kind of music. G. Brockett Oscar writes, "In the beginning, the musical accompaniment was probably subordinated to ensure that words would be understood. . . the Greeks believed that much has ethnical qualities.

This suggests that they associated particular kinds of music with particular emotions or ideas" (30). Malla has used music to emphasis on simultaneity of dramatic action by including songs, poetic lines by Sutradhar, song and dances for celebration, prayers, music, sound, pause and sacred verses of Vedas with actions of different characters.

Throughout the drama, there are many occasions where Malla continues with duality of scenes on the same stage, which draws meaning of the play – duality of politics, or internal duality of characters. The setting supports such duality of issues as theme of the drama.

Sirumaraani

Sarubhakta, the pen name of Bhakta Raj Shrestha, is a novelist, songwriter, poet and playwright. Honored by Madan Puraskar, the reputed literary award of

Nepal, Sarubhakta is a former chancellor of Nepal Academy of Music and Drama. His drama are written for performance as he has practiced theatre being actor, director and playwright. Abhi Subedi writes about him, "He wants theatre therefore to be not a means of entertainment but a medium of conscious interaction between the audience and the theatre where it is produced" (137:2006). Keshav Prasad Upadhaya believes Neupane 51 that most of the dramas of Sarubhakta are experimental whereas only few are written in traditional way; and his dramas are based on social issues, history and science

(71:2059). Ramchandra Pokharel argues that Sarubhakta established himself as experimental and science based playwright (504).

One of his dramas, Sirumaraani is written in a folklore style based on the

Western part of Nepal. It tells the story of a woman, Sirumaraani who struggles to secure her existence among her relationship with other characters and responsibilities.

In a village, a fisherman happens to trap a golden fish in his fishing-net which converts into beautiful woman. He marries her and they have a daughter – Siru. The woman leaves the fisherman and their daughter to go back into her own world. A blind fortuneteller forecast that Siru will become the queen. But Siru falls in love with a poor porter. She is forcefully married with a powerful king. The drama intensifies conflict when Siru knows that she married to the old king in the body of his son. Now, she is in dilemma to identify her genuine husband. The royal palace is collapsed as both King and his son commit suicide with frequent endevour of Siru to find out answer of the riddle. Siru leaves the palace, meets Gorey, her childhood friend in the hermitage of a sage, gives birth to baby, handover responsibility of her child to Gorey and dies.

The drama was published in 2061 B.S. when Nepal was getting into the phase of political transition as it was transforming into a full-fledged democratic state with mandate of Jana Andolan II. The shifting power of the king and Nepal Army into representative of people changed mindset of Nepalese in positive way expecting for the stability and progress. The drama also reflect the situation where kingdom has no king or prince rather a common people seem to come in the power. The failure of authoritarian and totalitarian regime looked for democratic system in the country. Neupane 52

There is no clear act and scene division in the drama Sirumaraani. However, the setting of the play can be categorized into three parts. The first part happens in the river, village and house of fisherman-the father of Siru. The entire second part occurs in the Royal Palace. In the same way, the third part, the shortest one, happens in the hermitage of a sage. The dramatist, Sarubhakta has used chorus in this play to illustrate the setting from all major acts and scenes from beginning to end. In the drama, dancers and singer who are led by a blind old couple form the chorus. They sing, dance, play music, and act to describe the setting and major actions of the play.

So, the chorus, through songs, music, dance, act and other movement helps to tell the story of the protagonist – Siru from prior her birth till death. While doing so the chorus travel same journey with the suffering protagonist.

The chorus help to link between the story of the drama and the audience by highlighting important aspects of scenes. In the beginning of the drama, the chorus sings and dances whereas their leaders, a blind old couple, play music and sing to describe appearance, work and lifestyle of fisherman. According to them, the house of fisherman is in the jungle with no houses nearby. The chorus also reveal that fisherman in the beginning of the drama is alone and happy doing fishing each day. In the beginning of the drama, the setting of the drama is describes as such:

Either city or village - It can be any place.

Either curtain down or not (If it is open space theatre like Dabali of city and

Chautari of village). When drama starts, an old blind couple, with sticks in

their hand, appears supporting each other.

They seem like beggars, but they are not beggars. They look like bards, but

they are not bards.

Then – Who are they? (My Translation 1) Neupane 53

The chorus gives details of time setting by making readers realize the time span of different characters. It narrates the event, makes analytical commentary, and conversation about the event and characters of the drama. In the beginning of the drama, to introduce the fisherman, the chorus sings, "Once in a Country/ in the time of Kaliyug/ in the appearance of fisherman." In the same way, the old blind man, the leader of chorus says that it took one year to reach the house of fisherman. It reveals audience that the time setting is one year later than the previous scene. In another occasion, the chorus sing song in the Royal Palace as the King ignores the royal task and spends time only with Siru. This time, the chorus reveals that it has been already four months that the king had ignored to response the call of his chief minister and commander-in-chief. At the end of the drama, the dramatist uses conversation in the form between male and female chorus. The male chorus asks the age of Siru's son and female reveals his age in form of song. In this way, the chorus reveals that 16 months passed in between two scenes.

Instead of describing the setting in words, the dramatist uses many songs presented by the chorus in different events of the play. While doing so, the chorus in some instances make direct conversation with characters and participates in the events of the drama whereas in other instances just give reactions. Once, Siru goes out of her house towards jungle. The chorus covers the stage by singing and dancing whereas the blind old couple play music. The chorus makes audience curious about where Siru has gone. As she returns, the chorus tells the purpose of her visit to jungle. She returns with yam and other food to cook. In other occasion, Siru waits for arrival of her friend, Gorey. Chorus describes the activities of Siru, her impatient wait, and changes on her face after arrival of Gorey. Towards the end of the drama, curious sage frequently asks the introduction of shattered and sad Siru. But she does not reply. This Neupane 54 time, Chorus describes the setting of the place while introducing Siru. In this transition, Gorey arrives, recognizes and introduces her to sage.

The chorus is used in the drama as practical necessity to organize the setting.

It helped to mark and observe the moments of transition in different parts of the drama. The use of chorus gives characters and scenes enough time to enter and leave the stage. So, the chorus frequently reappears when the setting is to be changed. For this, the chorus as spectator of the action influences the reader to view the event and character to develop perspective in every transition of the drama.

The king exits from his royal chamber followed by his slave, Radhadaasi.

They get down from the stairs. Radhadaasi holds hand of the king to assist him

get down. The chorus singing song and dancing sees them getting down from

stairs. [. . . ] King, fisherman, Siru, and Prince starts to talk collectively. [. . . ]

The song and dance is over. The chorus return to their respective place.

Fisherman is furious. As the song ends, he shouts at his daughter. (My

Translation 135-136)

The chorus describes setting and situation of characters. They fill the gap between different scenes. For an example, the chorus plays simple music while the scene changes from fisherman's house to the setting of Royal Palace whereas melancholy music is played when scene changes from the Royal Palace to the hermitage of Sage.

Chorus in the drama also assist the setting by performing as river in the opening scene when the fisherman goes to riverside.

The chorus dance and turn into river. Fisherman throws net into that river. He

holds bamboo stick on his mouth while throwing fishing net into river. After a

while, he starts to pull net slowly in very experienced way. [...... ] After

that, he walks towards backstage throwing net in the current of the dancing Neupane 55

river formed by the chorus. Time changes. The chorus dances in high speed.

(My Translation 4-5)

The chorus dance like wave of river so that the fisherman could pretend of catching fish. It is not possible to bring a real river on the stage, so the dramatist makes the use of the chorus to make river. In the drama, as soon as fisherman returns back home, the chorus stops to act like river to return back to its leaders. In this way, the dramatist makes the use of the chorus to depict the backdrop setting in this drama, which readers should not ignore.

Dreams of Peach Blossoms

Abhi Subedi, a well-known scholar, poet, essayist, and folklorist, writes drama in both Nepali and English language. His dramas attract readers with unique verse, paradox, myth, mystery, figurative language, intellectual elements, religious and philosophy of life. He believes, "poetic plays emerge when one feels inspired to explore the mytho-poetic world or when the universe of the folklore combine memories and desires" (146:2006). Sangita Rayamajhi in "The Forbidden Dreams of

Peach Blossoms" writes about Subedi and his drama The Dream of Peach Blossoms

"The poet-playwright reconstructs time and locale, transporting the past into the present so that the whole saga of Bhaktapur's culture wealth swims past the audience in a slow deliberate pace, as reminders of a heritage that is no more" (110). She also argues that Subedi reflects on how cultural heritage "remain as dreams, dreams that are transfigured into the little curio artifacts sold to tourists in the Bhaktapur courtyard or Thamel lanes by the tourist guides. . . (110).

One of his dramas, The Dreams of Peach Blossoms tells the story of Maiju, a young women who is about to be getting married and send from her parent's house.

She is compared with the historical character Bhrikuti who was married off to a Neupane 56

Tibetan king to keep good relation of Nepal and China. An old guard who looks after the palace tells the story of women who speaks of their agonies and pain. Time in this drama moves back and forth as poet interpret the various movements of time by experimenting with his poetry. He travels across the time and wears the dress of king who forced Maiju to get married and leave the house of her parents. He cannot bear to see the pain of women and returns back to the character of poet. While Maiju leaves her birthplace, her friends escort her up to Bagmati River. She holds the clean water of Bagmati in her palm and identifies herself with the river. After she crosses the river, the poet arrives back in modern time and holds water in his palms from the same river. However, water is dirty and the poet feels that dream of Maiju is the fate of Bagmati.

Maoist insurgency (1999), Royal Massacre (2001) and hijack of Indian Airline from Nepa (1999) affected tourism negatively. But at the same time, Nepal celebrated

Visit Nepal 98 to strengthen tourism. Nepal was reaching to world and Nepalese were accessing goods from all parts of words. So, with open-market there was cultural transformation. Traditional dress, typical food, and simple lifestyle were replaced by influencing modernity. However, foreigners were coming Nepal to see original cultural heritage and lifestyle which in fact were demolishing. The drama by Subedi reflects setting of that cultural transformation of Nepal in 1999/2000 with arrival of tourist and flourishing of tourism.

The most notable quality of Abhi Subedi's writing is that his language has a dramatic quality, which describes the vivid picture of setting and energizes the plot.

He has knowledge of stage vocabulary and refinement of knowledge to make readers see and experience the setting. He is also appreciated for his emphasis on realistic and detailed setting description that relates with plots, characters and themes of drama. He Neupane 57 describes the setting in the beginning of his drama The Dreams of Peach Blossoms as such:

The scene is the palace in Bhaktapur, the old town in Kathmandu valley

famous for its wooden architecture and pagoda temples. The scene shows the

entrance to the palace with wooden cot where the guard sleeps. The old hiti or

water place with stone spouts, images of the 'pote' deties and slabs appear in

the background. One tree with few leaves stands against the eastern skyline.

As the scene opens musical sound is heard from inside the courtyard. The

musicians can not be seen, only the soft music is heard. (59)

Setting is not merely nice portrayal of scenery or descriptive passage in drama kept before different character's turn to speak. It is about environment in which characters live and act. In the above extract of the drama, setting is used as significant details of characters and action. Setting also helps to enhance credibility that things are happening in Kathmandu valley. The detailed descriptions of courtyard with 'old hiti',

'images of the pote deties', 'pagoda temples' and others make us believe that actions are happening in the real place. More than dialogues of characters, such setting helps to provide readers about information about where, when and how the action takes place. In the drama, Subedi not only refers to real place and action but also provides how action should happen. He writes:

At this time the guard of the old palace stands there frozen with a gesture of

pointing at something. He wears an expression of awe. At this suddenly many

young women come on the stage making swift movements as they scatter

themselves around the stage. They walk across the stage and then stand around

the frozen guard in similar position. They are dressed in the costumes

preferably those worn by Newar women of Bhaktapur in earlier times. (60-61) Neupane 58

The music and dance provide opportunity for rewarding union of poetry and drama in a drama. The setting of this drama has both musicians and dancers on the stage in many occasions. For an instance, Subedi writes, "The musicians appear on the stage.

They take their seats and start playing with the music slowly rising in pitch. The guard and the poet freeze while the young women make slow movements round the stage as the music is played on" (61). He makes uses of his theatrical knowledge so let readers know when and how different characters perform. For this, he even makes some of his characters remain pause where other performs. He writes in the setting of the drama about how the music and should be synchronized, "A soft flute takes over followed by a sitar melody. Women sing a melody that is not clear at first, one by one and then sing the following in the chorus" (66). He selects the song and music precisely for some scenes. For example, he refers to famous folk song of Newari culture, "The music of Rajamati rises loudly. Here people may even sing the song, but the music should clearly depict the song. Music subsides as the Guard speaks" (70). He mentions the folksong in other occasion, "The curtain drops. The guard comes out and speaks. The music depicting typical Newari folk melody is being played behind the curtain" (78).

Subedi has used elaborated and detailed setting in many occasions to sustain the interest of his readers and to build background of character's action. Such setting engages the readers quickly by providing the information about what they are about to read. He details the gestures, movement, rhythms of character. He composes:

At this point does the story actually enter the stage. We can see the story in the

movements of the characters, their gestures, rhythms, and gaits. On the stage

come the girls and their lovers, the artists. They talk more by gestures than by

words accompanied by music and movements. People repeat the process of Neupane 59

coming and going. One girl and her lover return and communicate through

gesture and dance. They perform the Mahakal tantric dance. The boy performs

the dance of Bhairaba, and the girl that of Kali, the goddess of power. They

sometimes form a semi-circle dancing and sometimes fall into each other's

arms. The dances emulate the classical dance of Mahakala. At this time they

begin to talk. (62)

The dramatist gives full description of action and dresses worn by artists and background setting. Such details help reader to understand the psychology, background and situation of characters by developing insight about lifestyle of people in the society reflected by the drama. Subedi writes:

The poet wears the dress of a king. People bring various items of the dress and

help him wear like crown, gown, and put fathers on the crown and hold a

stick. Someone brings a chair rushing. The poet sits for a while and again

stands up. He repeats this process many times, until he begins to speak and

address Maiju. (72)

The poet plays the role of king and for this; he wears the dress and uses other royal things to act like a king. The dramatist controls the movement of the king and generates curiosity until he speaks to Maiju. Not only the dramatists but sometime characters also reveal the setting of the drama. In the drama, the character named poet speaks, "Nyatapol breaks the sky/ In five resplendent layers/ In the sun and rainbow/

Eros spoke on carvings/ On the struts/ Shapes of sounds" (60). In this way, the poet gives detail of the location, atmosphere and mood of the action happening the drama.

Evolution of Setting in Selected Six Nepali Dramas

After analyzing setting of six drama by different dramatists, it is clear that setting in a drama portrays the time and location where the drama takes place. Setting Neupane 60 is exteriority of the interiority as it carries core meaning of the text being away from central focus of readers. In fact, it leads the readers to create visibility and atmosphere by reflecting time, period and sense of place that provide space to make action and movement for necessary characters. For an example, setting of Bhimsen Ko Antya replicates Nepali political scenario of 1894-1896 whereas setting of Bhus Ko Ago depicts social situation of middle class family and revolution of women in post- democracy period of Nepal. Knowingly or unknowingly, it also helps to reveal the background of character like caste, class, education by highlighting contrasts between characters. For example, setting of the house of different characters in Sahanshila

Sushila reflects the life standard of aristocrat and proletariats. The aristocrat characters like Colonel and his Son-in-law perform in rich living room and garden whereas the working-class characters like Sete and Chiniya-Champa act in poorhouse and veranda. So, caste, class, education and psychology of different characters are highlighted in the setting of the different scenes in this drama.

The dramas like Bhimsen Ko Antya, Sahanshila Shushila, Bhus Ko Aago, and

Dreams of Peach Blossom have integral settings. Therefore, we cannot derive meaning if we make changes in settings of these dramas. For an example, the setting of Bhimsen Ko Antya looks for the Nepali political and social scenario of late nineteenth century. The change in the setting of this drama cannot bring authentic and relevant context in deriving its meaning. Likewise, the change in setting of Bhus Ko

Aago from that post-democratic Kathmandu into other parts of Nepal in contemporary time cannot be realistic. Even women of other cities away from Kathmandu were not that much aware and revolutionary. The settings of Shakuni Pasaharu and

Sirumaraani have backdrop setting as they are based on epic and folktale respectively Neupane 61 which makes location and time of the drama less important. The plot of these two drama could happen anywhere and anytime but still give meaning. The evaluation parameters like place, time, weather, social conditions, and mood of the selected dramas have been used for observing setting.

Drama Place Time Social Condition Mood

Bhimsen Ko Antya Royal Palace, 1894-1896 Political Instability Betrayal

Kathmandu Tragic

Sahanshila Sushila Kathmandu 1991-1996 Social Restriction Comedy

Nuwakot

Bhus Ko Aago Middle-Class 2018 Voice of Tragic-

Family-Room Revolution Comedy

Shakuni Pasaharu Backdrop Setting – plot could Corrupt Political Satire

happen anywhere & anytime State Comedy

Sirumaraani Backdrop Setting– plot could Misuse of Power Tragic

happen anywhere & anytime

Dreams of Peach Bhaktapur Ancient and Transfigure of Tragic

Blossoms Modern Culture & Heritage

Table 6: Setting reflected in the selected six dramas

In this way, setting in modern Nepali drama started from royal palace to higher class and middle class to common people's life. Sama sets his dramas in the royal palaces and places related to kings, queen, knights, and royal members. Bhimsen Ko Antya is a representative drama of such setting. After establishment of democracy in Nepal, this setting shifted from royal palaces to higher-class society. The dramatists started to write dramas of higher-class people that shifted the setting to house of rich people. Neupane 62

Bhimnidi Tiwari's Sahanshila Sushila is an example of such drama. In the meantime, the dramatists also started to write about domestic problem and personal life of middle class family. Bhus ko Aago by Govinda Bahadur Malla 'Gothale' is such drama which tells the story of women from middle class family. Ashesh Malla in Sakuni

Pasaharu brings setting of his drama on the street and public places where common people have easy access. Sarubhakta's Sirumaraani makes setting of lower class fisherman as well as fall of royal palace to show down of autocratic kingship and raise of republic society. The cultural heritage of Bhaktapur is glorifed in the form of setting in Abhi Subedi's drama The Dream of Peach Blossoms. Therefore, while reading setting of these representative drama of modern time, we can say that setting shifted from royal palaces to upper class house to common people's access.

Nepali drama came into practice in the ruling amidst the dominance of Hindi and Parsi drama. Before this Nepali drama was limited to indigenous traditional practice. The Parsi and Hindi drama did not depict the reality of Nepalese society because it was lacking the local political and intellectual colors. These six Nepali drama from various timeline has been analyzed in this dissertation to show how from

Balkrishna Sama to Abhi Subedi, Nepali modern drama got its own dramaturgy and identity in the monopoly of Hindi or Urdu dramas.

Balkrishna Sama is the dramatist who introduced Nepali dramas outside the courtrooms of Nepali ruling-class family. His plays portrayed political and social situation of Nepal. He did not only focus on text of the play but stage design, song, costumes and properties as well. In Bhimsen Ko Antya, Sama has depicted last two years of Bhimsen Thapa through setting relevant to those time. He used real date and places in this drama to give the visual details to show political instability. The prologue used in the drama gives the readers a detailed information on the central Neupane 63 theme of the drama through setting. Unlike the dramatists who used idealism in their dramas, Bhimnidhi Tiwari took departure from the idealism and wrote plays, which depicted the feelings of the society and local during that time. Tiwari uses common people as the characters of his drama. The dramatist describes six years of time span from 1991 to 1966 in Sahanshila Sushila. There is differences in the setting of aristocratic characters and proletariat characters. Aristocratic family is portrayed inside luxurious rooms whereas working class people are shown in the huts and gloomy environment. Social restriction and domination upon female is depicted with female lead character tolerating all kinds of misbehave. Govinda Bahadur Malla focuses on the psychoanalytical aspects of his characters especially of women. The setting of Bhus Ko Aago is symbolic where the women are always seen inside the room or kitchen. Unlike women, men are presented outside the house. It depicts the domination and control upon women by keeping them inside the house. The setting of this drama depicts the victimization of women in the patriarchal construct.

Unlike above-mentioned three dramas that have integral setting, the following dramas have Backdrop Setting – plot could happen anywhere and anytime. Ashesh

Malla in Sakuni Ka Pasaharu presents the social evils of the society. Malla adds a modern twist to the mythological story of Mahabharat. He has used unique setting of dual action on the stage that allows the audience to compare and contrast the situation.

The technique of simultaneous action gives the audience visual experience of the duality of characters. Malla compares the character with the dice of Sakuni that portrays truth as simultaneous and unpredictable as the character's dual nature.

Sharubhakta's drama Sirumarani symbolically represents the situation of Nepal where leaders use the energy and power of youths to remain in the power. He uses chorus, songs, music, dance to describe the setting of the drama. In the drama, the chorus Neupane 64 gives details of time and place setting in different occasion. It also narrates the event, makes analytical commentary, and conversation about the event and characters of the drama. Instead of describing the setting in words, the dramatist uses many songs presented by the chorus in different events of the play. Abhi subedi in Dreams of

Peach Blossoms describes mytho-poetic world through myth, paradox, mystery, philosophy and figurative language. He has used setting to create the environment that the characters are living in. He uses all the details of settings like music, songs, costume, and scene to show the time and space of drama.

In the drama, the setting works as artistic vision which helps to transform the text into the stage. Different Nepali dramatists have used setting to create artistic visions in their own ways. To make readers belief on the life of the legendry person,

Sama in his drama presents descriptive and informative setting. The setting of his drama boosts to highlight central theme and conflict. Likewise, Tiwari's drama presents setting in a way to take readers back to the atmosphere of Nepali traditional society where women did not have a lot of power to argue with patriarchal constructs.

Such vivid setting makes readers believe on the way characters behave in the drama.

In the same way, the setting of Gothale's drama is rooms of house where only female characters act and male characters are out of the house. This setting depicts the patriarchal construction of stereotypes and ideology where males dominate women even in their physical absence. By presenting simultaneous action, Malla's drama reflects dualities of truth as centre theme. The chorus used as extended setting in

Sarubhakta's drama functions multiple roles like alerting readers about time and space as well as acting in the moment of transits. Subedi's drama emphasizes on realistic and detailed setting description that relates with plots, characters and themes of drama. Neupane 65

Chapter III

Visual Communication between Dramatists and Readers

As a reader, when we look back at these six dramas of Balkrishna Sama,

Bhimnidi Tiwari, Govinda Bahadur Malla 'Gothale', Ashesh Malla, Sarubhakta, and

Abhi Subedi, we can perceive that dramatists give importance to create setting in their drama. The setting, as one of the communicative mechanisms of dramas, is significant for the existence of dramatist as it guides readers and directors not to deviate from the main theme of the drama. The impressive drama can sustain the interest of audience for longer time. Setting assists the playwright to collect and preserve the interest of readers in the action of the drama. First and foremost, the setting engages the readers quickly by providing information of what they are about to read. For theatre personalities, the setting offers multiple ways to bring meaningful and impressive act of artistic communication that dialogues cannot carry. It communicates how different characters need to speak and act realizing the time and space setting of the drama.

Through the setting, the dramatists convey instructions to readers and performers about the staging and acting. So, either in clear or hidden form, dramatists' such direction through setting helps them to interpret the drama.

In drama, understanding only the spoken words is not enough to understand the meaning. Visual communication, which results from the study of printed words that describe space, setting, costume, properties, lighting, color, actor's body and makeup, movements are also equally important. The analysis of the six selected dramas by six modern Nepali dramatists observes visual communication to derive meaning from study of setting. Sama's drama makes readers' belief on the life of the legendry person by presenting descriptive and informative setting based on central theme and conflict. Similarly, Tiwari's drama presents setting in a way to take readers Neupane 66 back to atmosphere of Nepali traditional society where women did not have a lot of power to argue with their husband. The setting of Gothale's drama is rooms of house where only female characters act and male characters are out of the house to depict to patriarchal construction of stereotypes and ideology. Malla's drama prepares setting to display simultaneous action, which reflects dualities of truth as center theme. The

Chorus used as extended setting in Sarubhakta's drama functions multiple roles like alerting readers about time and space as well as acting in the moment of transits.

Subedi's drama emphasizes on realistic and detailed setting description of cultural heritages of Bhaktapur that relates with plots, characters and themes of drama.

While reading setting of these six modern Nepali dramatist's dramas, we can see the shift of setting from high class to common people class. This shift in setting, therefore, reflects the Nepali society. The modern Nepali dramas were set in royal palaces to glorify the life and work of kings, royal personalities like queen, knights, and royal members. Bhimsen Ko Antya is a representative drama which has such setting. The setting of dramas shifted from royal palaces to higher-class society after the establishment of democracy in Nepal. Bhimnidi Tiwari's Sahanshila Sushila is an example of such drama, which has the setting of rich people's house. In the meantime, the dramatists also started to write about domestic problem and personal life of middle class family. Bhus ko Aago by Govinda Bahadur Malla 'Gothale' is such drama which tells the story of women from middle class family. Ashesh Malla in Sakuni

Pasaharu brings setting of his drama on the street and public places where common people have easy access. Sarubhakta's Sirumaraani makes setting of lower class fisherman as well as royal palace to show down of autocratic kingship and raise of republic society. The cultural heritage of Bhaktapur is glorifed in the form of setting in Abhi Subedi's drama The Dream of Peach Blossoms. Therefore, while reading Neupane 67 setting of these representatives drama of modern time, we can say that setting shifted from royal palaces to upper class house to common people's access.

Dramatists use dialogue to represent the psychology, background and situation of characters in their drama. Likewise, they use setting as indirect depiction of characters' mind. The comparative study of setting and characterization can be the potential direction for future work from here. Likewise, the reading of drama with a reader-oriented analysis to see how setting works on reader rather than of what setting means can be potential field of future study. Therefore, the new discourse can be created by questioning how setting of drama engages readers. How do dramatists manage setting to occupy concern of readers can be the area of future study that one can carry from this dissertation.

To sum up, in order to interpret the meaning from the drama, one must analyze the setting that underlines theatricality. Time, space, mood, atmosphere, and social condition portrayed by setting effect the action, character and meaning of the drama.

The dramatists need to spend time to create settings in the relation to subject matter of drama whereas readers need to observe them. Setting is one of the most significant ways by which dramatists can speak directly to their readers and practitioners. Neupane 68

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