And Other Tish Stone Mon Umen Ts

AND OT HE R

T ISH ST O N E MON UM E N T S

Astro n o mica lly Co n side red

L KYE R R S SIR N OR M AN C F . O . P , . DIRECTO R O F THE SOLAR PHYSICS O BSER V ATORY

N . . . G L AS G O\V N S B G S HO LL D , ; HO . C . D . , CA M RID E ; CORRESPONDENT OF THE IN TITUTE OF FRA NCE ; CORRESPONDIN G M EM B ER OF THE I M PERIAL ACADE M Y OF SCIENCES B OF ST . PETERS URG ; THE SOCIETY FOR THE PRO M OTION OF NATIONAL INDUSTRY ; S G T G ; K OF FRANCE THE ROYAL ACADEM Y OF CIENCE , O TIN EN THE FRAN LIN NS ; S B SS I TITUTE , PHILADELPHIA THE ROYAL M EDICAL OCIETY OF RU ELS ; SOCIETY OF ITALIAN SPE CT ROSC OI’ IST S ; THE ROYAL ACADE MY OF PALER M O ; THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF G ENEV A ; OF THE ASTRONOM ICAL X B L Y NC E I T M ; M M R T R AL A AD M , SOCIE Y OF E ICO E E OF HE OYS C E Y OF RO M E AND THE A M ERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL OCIETY , PHILADELPHIA ; HONORARY M E M B ER OF THE ACADE MY OF NATURAL SCIENCE OF CATANIA ; PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF YOR K ; LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF M ANCHESTER ; ROYAL CORN W ALL POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION AND LEI-I IG H UNI V ERSITY

iLo n D un

M A M L L A N A N D L u C O . m m o C I ,

1 9 0 6

PR E FAC E

IN continuation of my work on the astronomical uses

m l s of the Egyptian Te p e , I have from time to time , w hen leisure has permitted , given attention to some of i the stone c rcles and other stone monuments erected , as I i d eve . On e , for similar uses in this country reason for

n g so was that in consequence of the supinen ess of

sive Governments , and the neglect and wanton

tion by individuals , the British monuments are i l p d y disappearing .

Alth ou h g , and indeed because , these inquiries are

till incomplete , I now bring together some of the

I have collected , as they may induce other

r rs So m e to go on with the work . e of the results obtained have been communicated to the Royal and others have appeared in articles published

i tu r c mon u , but only a small percentage of the

available has so far been examined . Further s are required in order that t h e hypothesis

this book may be rej ected or conﬁrmed . at io n s made at Stonehenge referred to I had the inestimable advantage of obligations . \Vith regard to the other monuments besides Stone

‘ n t o t e n de r n n he ge , I have my tha ks to the followi g ge n tlemen for most valuable local assistan ce '

— Britta n y Lieut . de Vaisseau Devoir . — n . St en n ess Mr . Spe ce

— L n n . w Stanto Drew Professor loyd Morga , Mr Morro ,

and Mr . Dymond .

an d n — h H n o . The Hurlers , the Merry Maide s the Rig t H n . n Me o rt o n Viscou t Falmouth , Capt enderso ,

IValli . Bolitho an d Mr . s

— Mr H l . an T re asea d . g orton Bolitho Mr Thomas . f Av n u —Mr “ s . The Dartmoor e e orth .

n The followi g have helped me in many ways , amo ng

an d — them with advice criticism Principal Rhys ,

W . . . . . L allis Budge , Dr J G Frazer , and Mr A . Lewis .

The assi stan ce so gen erously afforded in t he case investigated till his retirement . To his R E Colonel R . C . Hellard , , I am already

deep obligations . the use of some of the Illustrations my thanks A due to the Royal Society , the Society of ntiquaries ,

t he . Royal Institute of British Architects , Messrs Mac millan , and Mr . John Murray .

I have to thank Mr . Rolston , one of my

in . staff, for assistance the computations involved

NORMAN LOCKYER .

R PH YS I S OBSE RV T R Y SOLA C A O ,

1 th a 1906 7 M y , .

C ONT ENT S

INTRODUCTORY

THE ASTRONO M ICAL D I V ISIONS OF THE YEAR

THE AGRICULTURAL D I V ISIONS OF THE YEAR

THE V ARIOUS NEW - YEAR D AYS

CONDITIONS AN D TRADITI ONS AT STONEHENGE G ENERAL ARCHITECTURE OF STONEHENGE

ASTRONOMICAL O BSERV ATIONS AT STONEHENGE IN 1901

A E IC O B RV I S 1901 RCH OLOG AL SE AT ON AT STONEHENGE ,

‘ W AS THERE AN E ARLIER CIRCLE Z

THE MAY AN D JUNE W ORSHIPS IN B RITTANY

ASTRONOMICAL HINTS FOR ARCHE OLOG ISTS

ASTRONO M ICAL H INTS FOR AR CH fEOLOG IST S (Co n tin u ed)

° ST E NN E SS Lat 59 N ( . . )

° ’ H R RS Lat 5 0 31 N . THE U LE ( . ) ° ’

M M ID CI C 5 0 4 N . THE ERRY A ENS R LE (Lat . )

THE T R EG ASE AL CIRCLES

SOME OTHER CORNISH MONUMENTS

THE CLOCK- STARS IN E GYPT AND BRITAIN

A SHORT HISTORY OF S UN - TEMPLES

L F F A R M - PR E XXX . THE I E O THE ST ONO ER I STS

APPE ND IC E S .

1. D ETAILS OF THE THEODOLITE O B SERV ATI ONS AT STONEHENGE II . SUGGESTIONS ON FIELD O BSERV ATIONS

INDE X LIST OF ILLU ST R AT IONS

Prese n t Sun W o rs hip in Japan

Th e Cel e st al h r Co n d t o n s at t h e No rt h Pole i Sp e e , i i

Th e Cel e st al h r Co n d t o n s at t h e E u at o r i Sp e e , i i q

T h e Cel e st al h r Co n d t o n s in a Middl e Lat t u de i Sp e e , i i i T he Fo u r Ast ro n o mical D ivi s i o n s o f t h e Ye ar

n i lat T h e V ar io us Be arin g s o f t h e Su n R is in g s an d Set t i gs n N . i ° t ude 5 1

Th e Ast ro n omi cal an d V ege t at io n D ivi s i o n s o f t h e Ye ar Or igin al T o o lin g o f t h e St o n es at St o n e h e n ge Vi ew o f St o n e h en ge fro m t h e W e st ’ Co o f Ho are s Plan o f St o n e h en e 1810 py g , T h e Lean i n g St o n e in 1901 Th e Axis o f t h e Templ e o f Karn ak

Plan o f t h e m l o f R ams s II in t h e Me mn o n a at h b s Te p e e . i T e e On e o f t h e remain in g T r ilit h o n s at St o n e h en ge G en e ral Plan o f St o n e h en ge Th e Arran ge men t s fo r rai sin g t h e St on e Th e Cradle an d Su ppo rt s

T h e Frame u s ed t o lo cat e t h e Fi n ds

S o me o f t h e Fli n t Impl e men t s Sh o win g t he care ful T o o l in g o f t h e Sar sen s Face o f R o ck again st w h i c h a St o n e was made t o re s t T he Lean i n g St o n e Upr ight 1905

St o n es made b y t h e Ordn an ce Sur v ey in t h e Co mmo n Axis o f t h e Cir cl e an d Aven u e

at Le Mén e c

en hir an d Cro ml e c h xii L I ST OF I LLU STRATI O NS

Alig n me n t at Lagatjar (pho t o graph) Al ign me n t s at Lagatjar (plan ) Mcn hirs o n So lst it ial an d May Al ign me n t s

m l t u de s o r Azi D iagram fo r ﬁ n di n g D ecli n at io n fro m give n A p i mut h s In Brit ish Lat it u de s

D t o 2 15 0 B . c . D e clinat io n s o f No r t h ern Stars fro m25 0 A . .

D t o 2 15 0 B . C . D e clin at io n s o f So u t h e rn Stars fro m2 5 0 A . .

5 9 N . T h e C o n dit io n s o f Sun r is e at t h e Su mme r Sol s t ice in Lat .

mme r Th e Azimu t hs o f t h e Su nr ise (u pp er limb) at t h e Su 9°—4 ° Lat s . N . 5 So l st ice . 7

Maes h o w e an d t h e Sto n e s o f Ste n n e ss

Chie f Sight - Lin es fro mt h e Sto n e s Of St e nn e ss — 4 B . C . D . 000 V ariat io n o f t h e Obiq uit y o f t h e E clipt ic 100 A .

T h e Sight - Lin e s at t h e H ur le rs

Th e So u t h ern Av n u at Me rr ale l o o k n ast e e iv , i g E

A e n u e s C r cl e an d St o n e s at M rr ale w t h t h e r Az mu t h s v , i e iv , i i i

CIII 'SIJS at Sto n e h e n e n earl arall el t o t h e Me rr al e Av n u g , y p iv e e Th e r e main s o f t h e Chall aco mbe Aven u e

T h e Sight - Lin e s at T ro wl e sw o rt hy T h e Circl e s an d Ave n u e s at Stan t o n D re w

Th e Carro lo re n ce , F

Cre sset St o n e Le wan n c , i k Fi rst App e aran ce o f May Sun In Br it ish Lat it ude s Azimu t hs o f t h e May Su n rise T h e Me rry Maide n s 2 5 i n ch Ordn an ce Map o f Me rry Maide n s Sh o w in g Align me n t s

T h e ast e rn Circl e at T re aseal E g .

Pho t o ra h o f Ordn an ce Ma h o wm S ht lin es g p p S g ig .

Plan o f t h e Me n an - T OI

Ph o to graph o f t h e Mé n - an - T ol

T h e Mén - a - n T o l . F ro n t Vi e w an d Sect io n

Ph o t o graph o f t h e Ordn an ce Map o f Bo scawen - u n

D a ram S ho w n Az mut h s o f Su n r se 168 B d 0 . C an 1 5 . 90 A . D i g i g i i .

Arct uru s an d Cap ella as Cloc k - Stars in B r itain

A Night - D ial

’ La yard s Plan o f t h e Palac e o f Senn ac h er ib ’ Layard s Plan o f t h e Mo un d at Nimro od

T h e T empl e s at Ch ic h e n It za ST O N E HEN G E

C H A PT E R I

INTROD UCTORY

“ IN n Th e the book I published ten years ago , e titled ” aw n Of of Astronomy , I gave a pretty full account the principles and the methods Of Observation which e n able us to trace the ideas which were in the min ds of the ancient Egyptians when they set out the lin e of a temple they proposed to build . Numerous references to the ceremonial of layin g the

—' - Of undation stones temples exist , and we learn from 1 D iimich en an d works of Chabas , Brugsch , others , t the foundation of an Egyptian temple was asso d with a series of ceremonies which are repeatedly

n ed with great minuteness . Amo gst these cere

ies , one especially refers to the fixing of the temple “ it n is called , technically , the stretchi g of the and is n ot only illustrated by i n scription s on the Edfu of the temples of Karnak , Denderah and — — en t ion the best known cases but is referred to

ere .

1 1 ” - l 18 7 7 . Baugeschi c ht e des D en de ra T empe s . B t h Durin g the ceremon y the king proceeded to where the temple was to be built , accompanied ll Se shet a ica y by the goddess , who is styled ”

- mistress of the layin g of the foundation stone .

Each was armed w ith a stake . The two stakes were N n conn ected by a cord . ext the cord was alig ed to

u n . wards the s on some day of the year , or a star , as the case might be ; when the align me n t was perfect t he two stakes were driven in to the ground by mean s of a

n wooden mallet . One boundary wall parallel to the mai axis of the temple was built along the line marked out . by this stretched cord . If the momen t of the risi n g or setting of the sun

n e or star were chose , as we have every reason to believ

s O e was the ca e , seeing that all the early bservations wer

o n s made the horizon , it is obviou that the light from the body towards which the temple was thus aligned would penetrate the axis Of the temple from o n e end

n n to the other in the origi al directio of the cord . T “ e learn from Chabas that the Egyptian word which expresses the idea of foun din g or layin g the foundation — sto n e o f a temple is S emi a word which still exists in

. in Old Pe t - ser Coptic But the language another word ,

s in h as which no longer remain Coptic , been traced .

n s ct n s an d It has bee e tablished that p mea s to tretch , scr means cord , so that that part of the ceremon ial which co n sisted in stretchi n g a cord in the direction a star w as con sidered of so great an importance that

n n gave its ame to the whole ceremo ial . Dealin g with the existing remains of Egyptian temple it may be said that the most maj estic amon g t

Am n - Ri that of e at Karnak , dedicated to the C H A P.

zo f r1s1n g or Setting . Stars at the same distance from the celestial pole or equator will ri se or set at

n the same point of the horizo , and if a star does not cha nge i ts place in the heavens it will always rise or set in t he same place .

‘

The sun as. it changes its position each day , in its

n an d S N. a d . wing S of the equator , will rise set on any day in the same place as a star which permanently

, has the same distance from t he eq uator as that tem porarily occupied by the sun . Here it will be convenient to introduc e o n e or two

’ technical terms : we gen erally deﬁn e a star s place by

n as n in givi g , one ordinate , its dista ce degrees from the

is declin a tion e qua tor : this distance called its .

n d n o n n Further , we ge erally eﬁ e points the horizo by dividing its whole circumference into so that

° we can have a zimu ths up to 90 from the north and south

° l Ve a points to the east and west points . lso have a mp litu des fromthe east and west points towards the

n W e n north and south poi ts . can say , the , that a

su n star of a certain declination , or the when it occupies that declination , will rise or set at such an

an azimuth , or at such amplitude . This will apply to both north and south declinations .

° n 9 Then supposi g the azimuth to be 3 in the NE .

N . 39 . q uadrant , it is written E For the other quad

° ° °

We N. 39 IV . 39 E . . 8 9 W . rants have A S , and S , respectively . The followin g table gives the amplitudes of risin g or settin g (north or south) of celestial bodies having ° declinations from 0 to at Thebes and Stonehen ge e r spectively . the equator to the horizon as well as the elevation of ‘ t the pole will vary , there will be a s rict relationship betwe en the in clin ation of the equator at each place an d the elevation of the pole . Except at the poles themselves the equator will cut the horizon due east an d due west ; therefore every celestial body to the north of the celestial equator which rises and sets will cut the horizon between the east an d west poin t and t he north point ; those bodies which do not rise will of cours e n o t cut the horizon at all .

n an d su n The stars ear the equator , the , in such a latitude as that of Thebes , will appear to rise or set at n o very considerable angle from the vertical but when we deal with stars very near to the n orth or south points of the horizon they will seem to skim

n n along the horizo instead of risi g directly .

W w n e n o pass on to Sto ehenge . TO represent the new condition the axis of the globe will now require

° n n 5 1 n to be i cli ed to the horizo . The number o f northern stars which do not set and of s outhern stars which do n o t rise will be much greater than at

s Thebes . The mo t northern an d southern stars visibl e will in their movemen t hug the horizon more closely

n w as O n n tha bserved u der the Thebes co dition .

an d n n . The sun , both at Thebes Sto ehe ge , since it —1 0 f 2 3 N - . 2 3 moves among the stars rom 2 to 5 S . each year , will change its place of risin g and setting at different

Of h times t e year . No w it will at once be obvious that there must be a strict law con necting the position of a star with it s C H A P.

b glo e is turned round , we can get a very concrete idea

’ f O of the . di ferent relations of the bserver s horizon to f the apparent paths of the stars in dif erent latitudes . W e have next to deal with the astronomical relations of the horizon of any place , in connection with the observation of the sun and Stars at the times Of rising

n or setting , whe of course they are on or near the horizon ; and in order to brin g this matter nearer to

n -s the ancient mo ument , we will study this question for

n IV both Thebes and Stonehe ge . e may take the lati tude of Thebes as Stonehenge as and we will begin with Thebes . To consider an observer on the Nile at Thebes and to adjust things properly we must rectify a celestial 2 5 ° N globe to the latitude of . , or , in other words , inclin e the axis of the globe at that angle to the wooden horizon . Since all the stars which pass between the North t Pole and the horizon cannot set , all their apparen

w All t h e movements ill take place above the horizon . stars between the horizon and the South Pole will

° H n 2 . 5 never rise e ce , stars within the distance of from the North Pole will never set at Thebes an d

° those stars within 2 5 of the South Pole will never be

an d t h e visible there . At any place the latitude eleva m tion Of the pole are the sa e . It so happens that many Of those places with which arch aeologists have to do in

— a studying the history of early peoples Chald ea , Egypt , — &c . Babylonia , are in low middle latitudes , therefore we have to deal with bodies in the skies which do se t

n o t and bodies which do , and the elevation of the pole is neither very great nor very small . But t he half of the stars in visible to the Observer at northern one . h If the Observer be o n the e quat or, t e movements of the stars will appear to be as indicated in this diagram — 3 , (Fig . ) that is , all the stars will rise and set and

w ill , e ach star be , in turn , twelve hours above the horizon

n and the same time below it . But if we co sider the position of an Observer in a middle latitude , say at

n n Sto ehe ge , we ﬁnd that some stars will always be — a bove the horizon , some always below that is , they

All s will neither rise nor set . other tars will both rise

set and , but some of them will be above the horizon

n an d S for a lo g time below for a hort time , whereas o thers will be a very short time above the horizon an d a w in long time belo it , each star completing a circle a day (Fig . W herever we are upon the earth we always imagine

n b that we are o the top of it . The idea held y all the early peoples w as that the surface Of the earth n ear them w as an exten ded plain : they imagined that the land that they kn ew an d j ust the surrou n din g lands

n n were really in the ce tre of the exte ded plain . Plato ,

s n n n n n n for in ta ce , was co te t to thi k the Mediterra ea and

n n n Greece upo the top of a cube , and A axima der placed

n the same regio at the top Of a cylin der . By the use of a terrestrial globe we can best study

O s the conditions of bservation at the pole of the earth ,

in the equator and some place middle latitude . The w ooden horizon of the globe is parallel to the horizon

o f w e of a place at the top the globe , which horizon can represent by a wafer . By inclining t he axis of t h e globe and watc hing the movement of the wafer as t h e

in a an . I —Pre sen t sun w ors l . F G . hip J p

verse in which he methods were avail found himself before any scientiﬁc able to him ; before he had any idea of the origins or

him . the conditionings of the things around I NTR ODU CTO RY 5

bOok be well , however , in the present to the underlying astronomical principles in the possible manner ; and this is the more easily

cause , in the absence of measuring instruments , the horizon was the only circle which the ancient peoples

f an d could employ ef ectively , we need only therefore con sider it .

n - I deed , whether we regard the Rig Veda or the Egyptian monuments from an astronomical point of

View , we are struck by the fact that the early worship

I — S e re c o n d t o n s at t h e No rt 2 T h e c e est a , Po e . A ara e F G . . l i l ph i i h l p ll l No rt cel e st Ial Po e N o s t o n P . of o se r er . re . N . ; sph e , h l , p i i b v

O n and all the early bservatio s related to the horizon .

This was true not only for the sun , but for all the stars which studded the general expanse of sky . W e have therefore chieﬂy to consider the relatio n of e horizon of any place to the apparent movemen ts

celestial bodies at that place .

W e now know that the earth rotates on its axis , but w as of course qu ite u n known to these early

Since the earth rotates , with stars inﬁnitely

n o n n surroundi g it all sides , the appare t ts of the stars will depend very much upon r t s ere . at t h e E u at o r . A IG —T h e c ele st ial sp e re co n dit ion s q ig p F . 3. h , h h n s s t a o e s E W e ast an d w e st o i t . n dpo in t o f o b ser ver PP t h e ce l e i l p l , p sta , Q , would see the stars moving round in circles parallel to

No the horizon (Fig . star could therefore either

— An T h e ce in m dd e at t u de . 4 . e s n d t o n s a FIG . t a S e re c o l i l ph , i i i l l i ’ e r In o f a s ph e . t hi s w o o dc u t D D Sho w s t h e appare n t pat h ' ” st a r B B B t h e at an d r s n an d s e t t n o n t s o f an e u at o r a s t ar ; , p h i i g i g p i q i l ; ’ ” ' " CC C an d AA A t o se o f s t ars o f mid dec n at o n o n e n o r t an d t h e , h , li i , h o t e r so ut f O se r r 0 st an d o n t o e . h h , p i b v — or set one half of the heave n s would be always

his n i above horizo , and the other half inv sible Observer at the South Pole would R ND AM PLITUDES AT THE ES A STONEHENGE .

Am t ude . Amplit u de . pli D ec li n a

T e es . St o n e e n e . T h eb e s . h b h g

The amplitude is always the c omplement of the azi t muth , so tha Later on I q s hall give amplitudes for latitudes higher than that of

n Stonehenge , so that still more northerly mo uments

c an n be co sidered . CHAPTER II

T HE ASTRONOMICAL D IV ISIONS OF T HE Y EAR

IT is next importa n t to deal with the yearly path

s n t h e of the sun , with a View of tudyi g the relation of variou s poin ts of the horizon occupied by the sun at

In t h e O differen t times in the year . very early bserva

m ae , n tio s that were ade in Egypt , Chald a and elsewhere when the su n was con sidered to be a god who every

S morn in g got into his boat and ﬂoated across pace , h there was n o particular reason for considerin g t e

. amplitude at which the boat left , or came to , shore But a few centuries Showed that this rising or settin g Of the s u n in widely varying amplitudes at different times of the year at the same place obeyed a very defin ite law . In its northward passage it reache s the highest point

s n s at our ummer solstice , and the goe down again till

it s s it reaches greate t southern declination , as it

A a in our winter . t both these points the sun pp ea

tan n s d still in its orth or south movement , and

L n s ati word olstice exactly expresses that idea . cha n ge o f declination brought about by these

’ men ts will affect the place of the sun s risin g an ting ; this is why the sun sets most to the — L U I V I D I IV D U I‘ I L A U 1 1 1 11. E A K I 3

and most to the south in winter . At the

0 . s the sun has always Decl , so it rises and

due east and west all over the world . But at solstices it has its greatest declination of 2 3; h or S. ; it will rise and set t erefore furthest from

east and west points ; how far , will depend upon the latitude of the place , as will have been gathered from the preceding t able (p . These solstices an d their accompaniments are among

n n the striki g things in the atural world . In the e winter solstic we have the depth of winter , in the summer solstice we have the height of summer , while at the equinoxes we have bu t transitional changes ; in w other ords , while the solstices point out for us the conditions of greatest heat and greatest cold , the equinoxes point out for u s those two times of the year at which the temperature conditions are very nearly equal , although of course in the one case we are say

- in g good bye to summer and in the other to wi n ter . Did the a n cients know an ything about these solstices an d these equinoxes ? Dealing with the monumental e w vidence in Egypt alone , the ans er is absolutely over

n whelming . Many thousand years ago the Egyptia s were perfectly familiar with the solstices , and there f ore with the yearly path of the sun .

’ This fundamental division of the sun s apparent re wolut io n an d course which deﬁne our year into four 5 parts may be indicated as in Fig . , the int reached by the sun in our northern

being represented at t h e top . order better to consider th e problem as it was pre ted to the early astro n omers who built observatories I 4

deal (temples) to mark these points , we may with bearings Of the p oin ts occupied by the sun on

Ju n e .

D ec . s ice Win t er s ol t . — h e ear . I 5 . T h e o u r As r n c a D s o n s o f t F G . f t o o mi l ivi i y horizon (either at risin g or settin g) at the times in

dicat ed. These points are deﬁned , as we have seen ,

u mmer 8 01“ S min er s ol s t ice

s e t t in . n g ri s i g .

E u in o x es E q u in o x e s E q n sm . s e t t n g i g .

Win t er s ol s t ic s e t t in g .

— h s un FIG . 6 . T e var i o u s b ear in gs o f t h e r isi n g s an d se t t i n gs in aplace w it h at t ude of a N . l i their “ amplitude or their distance in degrees from W . . h e E or points of the horizon . In t diagram (Fig

I 6

S S o pposite o n e . I hall how later on that this me nt requires a Slight modiﬁcation . mo But temples so built i n terfered with the c ere w hich required that the light should illuminate a naos

— is n H that , the Sa ctuary or oly of Holies , only entered b H t an d . , y the igh Pries , generally kept dark Usually

therefore , two temples were built back to back , with a

c n . ommo axis , as at Karnak An d here a very important point comes in ; which time of the year an d day of the year are most easy to ? ﬁx by astro n omical Obser vation As a matter of fact the s ummer solstice , the position of the sun on the longest

n . day , is a poi t easily ﬁxed All we have to do is to observe the sun risin g more and more to the n orth as s n the summer approache , u til at the very height of the summer we have the extreme north - easterly point W o f n . e the horizo reached , and the sun stands still

IVe n have the solstice . can the put a row of stakes

an d n . up , so ﬁx the solstitial li e Of course we ﬁnd , a s n n n ma ki d has found ge erally , that the sun comes back n ext year to that same solstitial place of risin g

n n n o r setti g . So that whe we have o ce got such an a n t s n su n lig men for the ri i g of the at midsummer , we

n n s can determi e the le gth of the year in day , and

be in n in c f n therefore the g g each year as it comes rou d .

n So much , the , for the chief points in what we may

’ n at term the astro omical year , those which the sun s n W decli ation is greatest and least . e see that the

- — approximately ninety on e days apart s CHAPTER III

T HE AG RICULTURAL D IV ISIONS OF T HE YEAR

THE early peoples have been very much misrep re

n n n se ted , and held to have bee uni structed , by several writers who have not cq n sidered what they were really

n driving at . It was absolutely esse tial for early man , including the i n habitants Of Britain as it was the n

— n townless , uncivilised that the people should k ow something about the proper time for performing their

W e n ow agricultural operations . go into a shop and for a penny buy an almanack which gives us every thing we want to know about the year , the month

SO and the day , and that is the reason why few of us care about astro n omy : we can get all we wan t from

y astronomy for a penn or twopence . But these poor

n an d people , unless they fou d out the time of the year

e month and the day for themselves , or got some one — tell them an d their priests were the men who — e w T , and they were priests because they knew had ely no means of determining when their various

u l ural t operations Should take place . So that we all over the world temples erected in the very ﬁrst

O f civilisation . this a point comes in of very considerable C s interest . If we study the civilisation in

n ﬁnd that , so far as we k ow , one of the who used this prin ciple of orientation for purposes was some tribe that came down the Nile

B C . , 6 4 00 years . They used the star Canopus and w c determination was that of the autumnal equinox , hi h practically was the time when the Nile began to go

e d n n . ow , and when their sowing might begi Ther

n was another race who , i stead of being interested

su n in the , and therefore in agriculture , at the time of the autumnal equinox , were interested in the year about the time Of Easter as well . This race built the

Pyramids about four thousand years B . C . There was an interval of about two or three thousan d years between

AS S these races . we hall see there were others , who at — Thebes started the solstitial worship that is to say , — the worship of the sun at midsummer an d at Memphis in o n May , so as to enable them to go with their

n W e agricultural operations with greater certai ty . must not forget that ﬁrst of all the farmers tried to plough W and sow by the moon . e can see how hopeless

n n h agriculture must have been u der such conditio s . T e

n mo th , indeed , was the only unit of time employed ,

n IVe eve of human life . hear of people who lived — 12 00 years , that means 12 00 months there is no

s n que tio whatever about that now . W hen we study the history of our own country— when we come back from Egypt to Britain , leaving alone — Greece and Rome w e ﬁnd that in various times in our

’ n cou try we have had a year , a farmer s year , beginning

’ in the month of May ; we have had another farmer s DIV ISI ONS OF T H E YEAR 1 9

i n the month of August ; we have had s year beginning at the longest day ; it appears that t h e ' year beginning at the longest

was really the last year to be introduced . So that — c we have in Stonehe n ge a solstitial temple that is to say , a temple to make observations of the length of the year by Observing the rise of the sun on the lon gest — day of the year in other parts of England there were

2 1st other temples observing the sun , not on the of

June , but early in May and early in August .

Now n - , as I have i dicated , the priest astronomers in these temples could only have won and kept the respect of the agricultural population with whom alone they

n were surrou ded in early times , and by whom they were supported , by being useful to them in some way or another . This could only have been in connection with what we may term generally the far min g opera

n ff tio s necessary at di erent times of the year , whether in the shape of preparing the ground or gathering the produce . For this they must have watched the stars . A very large part of mythology has sprung out of

n the temple cults , prayer , sacriﬁces and thanksgivi g connected with these farmin g operations in differen t

n lands a d ages . I wish to Show next that by studying the orientation of temples erected to watch the stars and sunrise an d t sunset at imes other than the solstices or equinoxes , an immense amount of information may be gained if we endeavour to find the way in which the problem must have been attacked before the year was thoroughly established , and when it was still a question of grass C 2 n again on It s ret ur . The first difficulty of the in quiry in the direction I have in dicated arise s from the fact that the products o f

n n n different cou tries vary , and that ide tical farmi g opera tion s have to be carried o n at different times in these

IVe o n e countries . must , then , begin with some

an d as country , the record is fullest for Greece I will begin with it . The ﬁrst thi n g we ﬁ n d is that the chief points in t he

’ farmer s year in Greece are about as far from the ﬁxed

in n as can poin t s the astro omical vear they well be . In the Greek information so admirably collated by

o n D are m M . Ruelle in the article the calendar in be rg

’ “ ’ an d Saglio s monume n tal Diction n aire des An tiq u it e s

G re u es et n q Romai es , the earlier Gregorian dates on w hich the sea son s were reckoned to commence in anc i ent Greece were as follows

m Su me r . A u t umn (cpﬁzvo w wp o v) VVu ne r Sp ri n g

I may al so add from the same source that In calendars o f th e Latin s the dates become AL D I V I SI ONS O F T H E YEAR 2 1

Ma 9 y . 8 A u gu st .

No vembe r 9 .

Fe bruary 7 .

ow we see at once that these dates are , roughly ,

- n n half way betwee the solstices and equi oxes .

n n This , then , at once bri gs us back to the orientatio

m Of in problem , which was to ﬁx by eans a temple the o rdinary way dates n earer to these turnin g- points in ’ the local farmer s years than those ﬁxed by the sol stitial an d equin octial temples . It must be borne in mind that it is not merely a question of stately piles such as Karnak an d the Par

n n thenon in populous ce tres , but of the humblest dolme o r n sto e circle , in scattered agricultural communities , w n hich was as certai ly used for orientation purposes ,

n n t n that is , for recordi g the lapse of time at ight or re ur

Of some season important to the tiller of the soil . The advent of the season thus determin ed could be an n ounced

n to outlyin g districts by ﬁre Sig als at night .

o ut an n I have already pointed that y temple , dolme or cromlech orie n ted t o a su n rise or sunset at any dates between the solstices will receive the sunlight twice a year . If the temple is poin ted nearly solstitially the two dates at which the su n appears in it will be near - the solstice ; similarly , for a temple pointed nearly equinoctially the dates will be near the equin ox but if the ancients wished

’ to divide the ninety - one days in terval bet w een the

n n t solstice and equi ox , a convenie t method of doing his

o O - t would be t bserve the sun at the half ime interval , that the same temple would serve on both 9 1 days 2 2 from March , we have in

V - - I ha n o n t then , are the equinoctial , non solstitial ? days of the year when the sun has this declination

’

They are , in the sun s j ourney from the vernal

n an d equi ox to the summer solstice back again ,

’ ° cl N 16 May 6 an d A u g ust 8 Su n s d e . .

S n imilarly , for the j our ey to the winter solstice and return we have

’ 6 ° cl S. 1 No ve mbe r 8 an d Febr uary 4 Su n s de .

IVe a get , then , a year symmetric l with the astro n omical year , which can be indicated with it as in

Fig . 7 ; a year roughly halving the intervals between the chief dates of the astronomical year . W ith regard to the dates Shown I have already poin ted out that farming operati o n s would not occur at the same time in differen t la n ds ; that ploughing and Seed time and harv est would vary with crops latitudes ; an d I must now add that i n dicat ed by such variable dates as these . Hence in what follows I Shall o n ly deal with t he mon ths in volved ; these amply sufﬁce for a general

n s n stateme t , but a discu sio as to exact dates may come later .

n n - 1 To sum up , the , the astro omer priests had ( ) to watch the time at n ight by Observing a star rising near

n i s the north poi t of the hor zon . Thi star would act as a

s Of warn er of sunri e at some time the year . (2 ) To watch for the rising or settin g of other stars in various azimuths warn i n g sunris e at the other critical times Of the May or Solstitial years .

n (3) To watch the sunrise and su set . (4) TO mark all risin g or setting places of the warn i ng

- stars and sun by sight lines from the circle . CHAPTER IV

T HE V ARIOUS NEW - YEAR D AYS

W ITH regard to the astronomical year it may be stated t hat each solstice and equinox has in turn in some country or another , and even in the same country at

ff t t n n o f . di eren imes , been taken as the begi ni g the year

W e n have , then , to begin with , the followi g which may be called a str on omical years

Solst i t ial Ju n e D e cembe r ar ece m r u n ye . D be J e

E qu i n o c t ial M arch Sept embe r a S ye r . e p t e mbe r Marc h

N n e ext , if we treat the i termediat points we have

ve e t a found in the same way , we have the following g years 1

Flo w e r May ar No m r a ye . ve be M y

H ar vest A ug ust Fe bru ary a r ru ar A u t ye . Feb y g u s

It will have been gathered from Fig . 7 that the es or cromlechs erected to watch the ﬁrst sun rise of also perform the same In a in November No w to those who know an yt hing of the

n s contributio s of Grimm , Rhys , Frazer , and many other

n we might name , to our k owledge of the mythology ,

in worships , and customs the Mediterranean basin and

an t h e western Europe , inspection of the ﬁrst columns in

‘ above tables will Show that here we have a common

n - l meeti g ground for temp e orientation , vegetation and customs depending on it , religious festivals , and mythology . From the Egyptian times at ‘least to our o w n a generic sun - god has been speciﬁcally commemorated in each of

n the named mont hs . Ge eric customs with speciﬁc differ en ces are as easily traced in the same months ; while generic vegetation with speciﬁc representatives proper to the season of the year has been so carefully regarded that t f A even December , though withou May lowers or ugust

n o t n f n harvests , to be outdone , bri gs forward its of eri g in

S Of the hape the berries of the mistletoe and holly .

A ff In n um r bout the mistletoe there is this di iculty . e a ble traditions associate it w ith worship an d the oak

Un tree . doubtedly the year in question was the sol st it ial y SO ear , that so far as this goes the association is justiﬁed . But as a rule the mistletoe does not grow

n on oaks . This point has been frequently i quired into ,

H n J ou r n a l o B o ta n v o l especially by Dr . e ry Ball ( f y , . f . 3 1 1 in t O n . 6 8 6 4 ii p , ) relation to the grow h the pla t in

H in ua r t er l R evie w erefordshire , and by a writer the Q y “ (vol . who spoke of the mistletoe deserting the “ Oak e in modern times and stated , it is now so rar ly V - AR IOU S NE W YEAR DAYS 2 7

that tree as to have led to the suggestion that

h e look for the mistletoe of t Druids , not in the

bu m bu t of our own trees and orchards , in the thu s E u r op a eu s which is frequently found on oaks

south of Europe . On this point I consulted two emin ent botanical

‘

n . frie ds , Mr Murray , of the British Museum , and Prof. m Far er , from whom I have learned that the distribution

V a lbu m in of . is Europe universal except n orth o f Norway and north Of Russia ; in India in the temperate

H K Ne au l 3000 imalayas from ashmir to p , altitude to

7000 feet .

Viscum a u r eu m w Lor an thus The , other ise called

E ur o aeu s p , is a near relation of the familiar mistletoe , and in Italy grows on the oak almost exclusively . There

n f bu t are ﬁfty species of Loranthus in the I dian lora ,

L E u r o a eu s . . p does not occur “ Viscu m a u r eu m l n In the we have the go de bough ,

' the oak - borne Au r u m fr on den s an d R a mu s a u r eu s Of Virgil ; and it can easily be imagined that when the Druids reached our shores from a country which had

Visc um a ur eu m b e supplied them with the , this would

V a lbum n replaced by the . growi g chiefly on apple

n . trees and not on oaks ; i deed , Mr . Davies , in his “ t h e Celtic Researches , tells us that the apple was

o sacred tree to the oak , and that apple rchards

Th e planted in the vicinity Of the sacred groves . planting of the mistletoe from the apple to t h e

re the mystic ceremonies began was n ot .

resources Of priestcraft . not be forgotten that these ceremonie s took

t h — n w as solstices once in Ju e , when the oak 2 8

f an d n in n in full lea , agai December , whe pla n t w as better visible in the light of the

“

n . . Mr . Frazer , in his Golde Bough (iii p

-out that at the summer s olstice not on ly “ gathered , but many other magic plants , whose evan escen t virtue can be secured at this mystic season alone . It is the ripenin g Of the berries at the winter solstice which secured for the mistletoe the paramou n t import an ce the ceremo n ials connected with it possessed at

t h e t hat time , when rest of the vegetable world was d orma n t .

~ With regard e specially to the particular time of the

year chosen for su n - worship an d the worship of the gods and solar heroes connected with the years to

which I have referred , I may add that the vague year in Egyptian chro n ology makes it a very difﬁ cult matter to det ermine the exact Gregoria n dates for the ancient

s is n t Egyptian fe tivals , but , fortunately , there a o her

n . n way of getti g at them Mr . Roland Mitchell , whe

“ c ompili n g his valuable Egyptia n Calendar (Luzac and

\ K i CO . t o t c , found tha the p calendar really pre

“ s Old n ents to us the Egyptia year , which has been in

h as use for thousands of years , and survived all the ” n s revolutio .

n s Of the ma y festival included in the calendar , the

n s great Ta ta fair , which is al o a Mohammedan feast ,

s is the mo t important of all held in Egypt . Religion ,

an d Off As commerce , pleasure er combined attractions . many as or Often atten d this great f “ air , no doubt the survival of one of the ancient ” Egyptian national festivals . sowing , going on . ’ n A cursory examinatio of Prof. Rhys book

H L 18 8 6 in the ibbert ectures of , the light of these years , used as clues , suggests that in Ireland the — sequence was May November (Fomori and Fir

— Lu an d T uat h a D é D an an n August February ( g the ) , — an d u . , lastly , June December (C chulainn) Should this be conﬁrmed we see that the farmers ’ years were the

ﬁrst to be established , and it is interesting to note that the agricultural ren t year in many parts of Ireland still run s from May to November . It is well also to bear in n mi d , if it be established that the solstitial year did really arrive last , that the facts recorded by Mr . “ ” Frazer in his Golden Bough indicate that the custom o f lighting ﬁres on hills has been in historic times most prevale n t at the summer solstice ; evidently

s maps howing the geographical distribution of the May ,

an d A June , ugust ﬁres would be of great value . Some customs of the May and August years are

n commo to the solstitial and equinoctial years . Each was ushered in by ﬁres on hills and the like ; flowers in May and the fruits of the earth in August are associated with them ; there are also special c ustoms N . in the case of ovember In western Europe , however , it doe s not seem that such traditions exist over such a

1 In Ba lon a t h by i e sp r i n g e qu i n o x w as t h e c ri t i cal t ime o f t he year e cau se t h e T r s an d E u rat es t en e an t r b ig i ph h b g o i se .

Offering . m W ith regard to the equinoctial year , the ost d plet e account of the temple arrangemen ts is to be foun e in Josephu s touchin g that at Jerusalem . The templ

' had to be so erected that at the spring equinox the

o n t h e sunrise light should fall , and be reflected to ,

’ worshippers by the sardonyx stones on the high priest s

n At garme t . this festival the ﬁrst barley was laid upon the altar . But this worship was in full swing in Egypt for thousan ds of years before w e hear of it in con n ection

t . wi h the Jews It has left its temples at Ephesus ,

s an d an d n Of Athen , other places , with the openi g this year as well as of the solstitial one the custom o f lighting ﬁres is associated , not only on hills , but also in churches.

H t W e . ere the sequence of cul cannot be mistaken . begi n with Isis and the young Su n - god Horus at the “ s an d en d L t Pyramid , we with ady Day , a Bri ish legal

’ date ; while St . Peter s at Rome is as truly oriented

n so to the equi ox as the Pyramids themselves , that we have a distinct chan ge of cult with no chan ge o f orien tatio n .

If such co n sideration s as these help us to con n ect Egyptian with British worships we may hope that they

s will be no le s useful when we go further aﬁeld . I

’ gather from a study of Mr . Maudslay s admirable plans o f Palen que an d Chichen - Itza that the 5 33

e wer provided for there . How associated temples with naos Egypt to Yucatan ? The more avel the more w e are con vinced

was coastwise , that is , from one point of Visible f to the next . Are the cults as old as di ferences in the coast - lines which would most easily explain their wide distribution ?

1 A t Plat fac n 18 2 f r t h l n f See aw n s r on om . o e es o D of y, e i g p , i a Karn ak sphin x es t . CHAPTER V

COND ITIONS AND TRAD ITIONS AT STONEHENG E

A TER t F Mr . Penrose , by his admirable observa ions in

S n t h e Greece , had how that orientation theory accounted as satisfactorily fer the directions in which the chief temples in Greece had been built as I had shown it did

s for ome in Egypt , it seemed important to apply the same methods of inquiry with all available accuracy t o s n s ome example , at all events , of the various sto e circle in Britain which have so far escaped destruction . Many

b u t attempts had been previously made to secure data , the in struments and methods employed did not seem t o

ffi n be su cie t .

Much time has , indeed , been lost in the investigation

n of a great ma y of these circles , for the reason that in many cases the relations of the monuments to the chief points of the horizon have n o t been considered ; and

O when they were , the bservations were made only with reference to the magnetic north , which is different

ff is fe w i di erent places , and besides always varying ; deed have tried to get at the astronomical conditions the problem .

NG 36 STONEH E E eludes that they may be divided into differe n t each of which has its centre in a different locality .

W n a types are the ester Scottish type , consisting of rather irregular single ring or sometimes of two con

n 2 n centric ri gs ; ( ) the Inverness type , co sisting of a

- S n s more regular ring of better haped sto es , urrounding a

n l - u tumulus with a retai ing wal , containing a built p

an d s n chamber pas age leadi g to it , or a kist without a

3 n n passage ; ( ) the Aberdee type , consisti g of a similar — “ ” rin g with the addition of a so callec altar - sto n e and usually havi n g traces of a tumulus an d kis t in the

In middle . addition to these three types of circles ,

n L there are in Britain ge erally what Mr . ewis calls sun an d n star circles , with their alig ments of stones , and

n H apparen tly proportio ed measurements . e has Shown that there is a great preponderance of outlyi n g ston es

- n s an d hill tops lyi g between the circle and the N E . quarter of the horizo n . From what has been stated in Chapter III with regard to the n ightly observation s of stars it will be gathered that these may have been used for this purpose . The following list gives some of the bearings of outlying stones and other circles from the centres of the n amed circle s

— - K R o ll r c O o n . n st o n e i h , x i g St ri l e St o n e s Co rn w all—Bast k pp , io n o n ban Lo n M e C um erlan —Sm ll g g , b d a T h H u rle rs Co rn w all—T w e , o o u tl in c i rcles — y g T rippe t St o n es Leaze c i rcle

’ If th ese align ments mean anything they must of course

fen t o t he r isi f a re n o st r asn t h e sit io g sn po n on the horizon TRADI TI ONS 37

in Cornwall have been dealt with by

Lukis Mr . in a volume published by the Society of Antiquaries in A carefully prepared list of

’ circles will be found in Mr . W indle s recently published work entitled “ Remains of the Prehistoric Age in ” England . t It may be useful here to s ate , with regard to mega lithic remains generally , that they may be classed as

o n follows ; some details will be discussed later .

a . ( ) Circles These may be single , double , or multiple and either concentric or not .

b n ( ) Menhirs , large si gle stones , used to mark sight lines from circles .

i e c n . . n ( ) Alig ments , , lines of stones in si gle , double , or in many parallel lines . If these align ments are short they are termed avenues .

d H - O n ( ) oled stones , doubtless used for bservi g sight

over . lines , sometimes a circle

(6 ) Coves . A term applied by Dr . Stukeley and others to w hat they considered Shrin es formed by three u p right stones , thus leaving one side open . I take them to be partially protected observing places . There are

- well marked examples at Avebury , Stanton Drew and

’ Kit s Coity House .

(f) Cromlechs . This term generally means a grouping of upright stones ; it is applied to irregular circles in

Brittany . It also applies to a stone or stones raised on the summits of three or more pillar stones forming the end and Sides of an irregular vault generally open “ ” ' at . one end ( Dolmens of Ireland , Borlase , p

‘1 “ Th e Prehi st o r i c St on e M on u men t s Of t he B r it i sh I sle s or cairns .

. (g) Dolmens , from Dol Men , a table stone consist of stones , resting on two or more upright sto n es forming a more or less complete chamber , some of which are of great length . I note the “ following subdivisions : Dolmen a galerie havin g an ” fﬁ S entrance way of su cient height , and Galgal , imilar “ a ’ e ” but smaller . In the Dolmen l all e couverte there is a covered passage way to the centre . It is a more elaborate cove . For the relation between it l c . a oc . cromlechs and dolmens , see Borl se ( and

4 2 4 e t se . p . q )

W do lmen s I n ith regard to , give the followi g quota 12 N a t r v l . n . n u e o . tio from Mr Pe rose ( , lxiv , September 1901) Near Locmariaquer in the estuary named Riviere

’ ’ d Au ra n G avr n y , there is an island amed I is , or Goat

n Island , which contai s a good specimen of the kind of

’ n n dolmen w hich has bee amed Galgal .

“ At the entra n ce our attention is at once arrested by the profusion of tracery which covers the walls . From the e n tra n ce to the wall faci n g us the distance is b e

n 5 0 an d twee 6 0 feet . The square chamber to which

S the gallery leads is composed of two huge labs , the Sides of the room an d gallery being composed Of upright

n S . stones , about a doze on each ide The mys tic lines and hieroglyphics similar to those above mentioned appear to have a decorative character .

’ An interesting feature of G avr Inis is its remark

New able resemblance to the Grange tumulus at Meath .

n n e Car ac , the custom still prevails of lighti g a larg bonﬁre on its summit at the time of the summer sol

n stice ; others , kindled on promi ent eminences for a

n . distance of twenty or thirty miles rou d , reply to it “ ” H an d These ﬁres are locally called Tan eol , also by a

w as later use , Tan St . Jean . In Scotland there a similar custom in the ﬁrst week in May under the name

’ Tan n of Bel , or Baal s Fire ; the syno ym for summer used by Sir W alter Scott in the “ Lady of the Lake

Ou rs is n o sa l n c an ce - so w n b t h e fo u n t a n p i g h y i , w Bloo mi n g at B e lt an e in i n t er t o fade .

At Kerle scan t the winter solstice is celebrated by a

Men e c holiday , whilst greets the summer solstice , and

Kermario n . the equi oxes , with festivals Concerning

’ these ﬁres and the associated customs Mr . Frazer s

“ Golden Bough is a perfec t min e of information and should be consulted . It may Simply be said here that the N May and ovember , and June and December ﬁres seem

n to be the most a cient . It is stated that the Balder bale fires on Mayday E v e were recognised by the primi tive race , and I shall prove this in the sequel when

On n n British customs are referred to . the i troductio of Christianity the various customs were either trans ferred to or reorganised in association with church festivals ; but as some of these , such as Easter , are f movable feasts , it is di ﬁcult to follow the dates . Regarding both circles and alignments in the light

Of n the orientation theory , we may co sider simple 4 1

cen t ral stone as a collection of sight central stone to one or more of the

r o in dicat oute nes , or the interval between any two ; in g t he place of the rise or settin g of either the sun

e a or a star on som particular day of the ye r , which

’ s day , in the case of the sun , will be a new year day .

Alignments , on the other hand , will play the same

- i part as the sight l nes in the circles .

Sometimes the Sight - line may be indicated by a

e menhir outside , and even at a considerable distanc from , the circle ; later on tumuli replaced menhirs .

n The dolmens have , I am convinced , been in ma y

n cases not graves originally , but darkened observi g places whence to observe alon g a Sight - line this would

a llée c o uver te be best done by means of an , the pre decessor of the darkened naos at Stonehenge , shielded by its covered trilithons . In order to obtain some measurements to test the

n orientation theory in Britain , I found that Sto ehenge is the ancient monument in this country which lends itself to accurate theodolite work better than any

’ other . Mr . Spence s excellent work on astronomical

St en n ess . lines at , where the stones , till some years ago at all events , have been more respected than further south , suggested a beginning there , but the distance from London made it impossible .

Avebury and Stanton Drew are well known to a . great many archaeologists ; there are also other very wonderful stone circles near Keswick and in other parts of England ; but unfortunately it is very much more difﬁcult to get astronomical data from these 4 2 f a ncient monuments than it is in the case O Stone h enge , one reason being that Stonehenge itself lies h s igh , and the horizon round it in all direction is o pretty nearly the same height , so that the imp rtant i q uestion of the heights of the h lls along the sight — line a matter which is fundamental from an astro

n Of omical point view , although it has been neglected ,

o s far as I can make out , by most who have made — Observation s on these ancient monuments is quite a

‘

- H n simple on e at Ston ehenge . e ce it was much easier to determin e a date there than by workin g at any of

t h e other an cient remains to which I have referred . — In orientation gen erally such orie n tation as has

b een dealt with by Mr . Penrose and myself in Egypt — a n d in Greece the question frequently was a change

i n n direction in the axis of a temple , or the layi g

n Of O dow of the axis a temple , by means of bservations

o f s . Un ae n ot tars fortunately for us as arch ologists ,

a s astronomers , the changes of position of the stars ,

o w n n i g to certai causes , chieﬂy the precessional move

m n s e t , are very con iderable ; so that if a temple

n s poi ted to a tar in one year , in two or three hun

dred years it would no longer point to the same star ,

b ut to another .

~ "These star observations were requisite in order to warn the priests about an hour before sunrise so that t hey might prepare for the mornin g sacriﬁce which a l ways took place at the ﬁrst appearance of the sun . H ence the morning star to be visible in the da wn h must be a bright one , and the furt er north or south ’ o f n the su s rising place it rose , the more easily it w ould be seen . Some stars so chosen rose not far ‘ Th a t h e north point of the horizon . e lign me n t s with small azimuths referred to in the British circles 6 b (p . 3 ) I elieve to be connected with the Egyptian and Greek practice .

o ld Acting on a very tradition , some people from Salisbury and other surrounding places go to Observe the sunrise on the lon gest day of the year at Stone

W e henge . therefore are perfectly j ustiﬁed in assum ing that it was a solar temple used for observation in

Bu n in the height of midsummer . t at daw midsummer in thes e latitudes the sky is so brigh t that it is not e asy to see stars even if W e get up in the morn ing to o lo k for them ; stars , therefore , were not in question , so that some other principle had to be adopted , and that was to point the temple directly to the position on the horizon at which the su n rose On that particular day of the year , and no other .

t Of Now , if there were no change in the posi ion the sun , that , of course , would go on for ever and ever ;

ae but , fortunately for arch ologists , there is a slight

t su n change in the posi ion of the , as there is in the

but case of a star , for a different reason ; the planes of the ecliptic and of the equa tor undergo a slight change in the angle included between them . So far l as we know , that ang e has been gradually getting less for many thousands of years , so that , in the case of

n Stonehenge , if we wish to determine the date, havi g

n no stars to help us , the only thi g that we can hope to get any information from is the very Slow change of this angle ; that , therefore , was the special point which Mr . Penrose and I were anxious to study at

in Stonehenge , for the reason that we seemed a position C H A P. STONEH ENG E

’ on of t rot ect ed rom t h e act n o f t h e st on e p f i I - T h e o r n a t oo g 8 . F G . igi l li w eat her . m than anywhere else to do it there ore conveniently in Britai n . are better at But while the astronomical conditions O N ONS AND RA S C DITI T DITION 4 5

St-On h en e g than elsewhere , the ruined state Of the

monument makes accurate measurements very difﬁcult . Great age and the action of weather are resp o n sible for much havoc , so that very many of the stones

n o w are recumbent , as will be gathered from an article

— e w o f St o n e en e ro m t h i 1 9 . e w e on e w c e n 9 I . st A st 00 F G Vi h g f . , hi h f ll ;

B B st o n e s w c e in 1797 . R e ro du c ed ro m an ar t c e o n t h e a e n , hi h f ll ( p f i l f ll

n e b Mr . Lew s in M s t o s y i an . )

. d Of by Mr Lewis , who described the con ition the

in 19 M n 01 a . monument , in

n n Professor Gowla d in his excavations at Stonehe ge ,

S to which I hall refer in the sequel , found the original tooled surface near the bottom of o n e of the large sarsens which had been protected from the action of

n n the weather by havi g been buried in the grou d . It enables us to imagine the appearan ce of the monument as it left the hands of the builders (Fig . ’ 4 6 STONEH ENG E

But the real destructive agent has been man sel f ; savages could not have played more havoc with

— ’ . IO. Co I y o f H oare s an o f 18 10 s o w n F G p pl , h i g t h e un bro k en Vallu man d it s re at on w t t h e A en l i i h v u e . the monument than the English who have visited it at f different times for dif erent purposes . It is said t he

— Fm. l l T he nin e in 1 1. . Lea g Sh in 90

t he and supported impost , now lie prostrate across

, altar stone . This piece of work was carried out with consummate mark their progress , besides much indecent are things of the past .

o r If Stonehenge had been built in Italy , or France ,

n e Germa y , it would have been in charge of the Stat long ago .

I now pass from the monument itself to a reference to some Of the traditions and historical statements concerning it . Those who are in terested in these matters Should thank the VVilt shire Archae ological and Natural History

n it s Society , which is to be warmly co gratulated on persisten t and admirable efforts to do all in its power t o en able the whole nation to learn about the venerable monume n ts of an tiquity which it has practically taken under its scien tiﬁc charge . It has p ublished two most 1 h important volumes dealing specially with Stone enge ,

n an d i cluding both its traditions history .

’

W . L ith regard to Mr ong s memoir , it may be stated tha t it includes importan t extracts from n otices of Stonehenge from the time of He n ry of Huntingdon (twelfth cen tury) to Hoare and that all extant information is given touchi n g o n the questio n s by

n whom the sto es were erected , whence they came , and what was the obj ect of the structure .

’ H s From Mr . arri on s more rece n tly published biblio

n o n n n graphy , refere ce to Sto ehe ge by any ancient

n o Times author , letter to the for the last twenty

1 The Wil tshir e Ar h o c ae logical a n d N a t u r a l His tory Mag azin e ” Sto n e en an d it s B e arro w s . B W lli amLo n M . A . F . S . 1 . A 8 7 6 h g y i g , , . The Wil tshi r e Ar chae olo i g ca l a n d N a t u ra l H is to ry Mag azin e St o n e ” en e B l o ra Num r B W e . J r m . e o e H arr so n 19 2 h g ib i g phy b y i . 0 . ’ s ad is very to read , both in Mr . Long s volume

e the bibliography , of the d vastation which has been allowed to go on for so many years and of the various forms it has taken .

As almost the whole of the notes which follo w deal with the assumption of Stonehenge having been a solar temple , a short reference to the earliest statements con

n a cerni g this view is desirable ; and , again , as the p proximate date arrived at by Mr . Penros e and myself 1901 in is an early one , a few words may be added in dicat in g the presence in Britain at that time of a race

men of capable of designing and executing such work .

I quote from the paper communicated by Mr . Penrose and myself to the Royal Society .

D i d r Sic l u o o us u s . 47 . As to the ﬁrst point , (ii , , ed 1 1 . 6 Hecat ae u s Didot , p ) has preserved a statement of in which Stonehenge alone can by any probability be referred to .

‘ W e think that no one will consider it foreign to our subj ect to say a word respecting the Hyperboreans . Amo n gst the writers who have occupied themselves

Hecat ae us with the mythology of the ancients , and some

’ others tell us that opposite the land of the Celts [e v 7 o

’ ci vr wrep a u 7 779 Kek n xﬁs' T er ms] there exists in the Ocean an island not smaller than Sicily , and which , situated under the constellation of The Bear , is inhabited by the Hyperboreans ; so called because they live beyond the point from which the North wind blows . If one may believe the same mythology , Latona was born in E 2 Apollo more than any other deity .

[uﬁa o v] is dedicated to him in the island , a magniﬁcent circular temple adorned with man y H offerin gs . The yperboreans are in general very friendly to the Greeks .

“ The Hecat aeu s above referred to was probably

c a aeu s He t of Abdera , in Thrace , fourth century

Hecat aeu s a friend of Alexander the Great . This is said to have written a history of the Hyperboreans '

Hecat ee us an that it was of Miletus , historian of the

t B . C . . six h century , is less likely

“ n n As to the seco d poi t , although we cannot go so far back in eviden ce of the power and civilisation of

an u the Britons , there is arg ment of some value to be drawn from the ﬁ n e character of the coinage issued

B . C . by British kings early in the second century , and

‘ ’ ae from the statement of Julius C sar ( De Bello Gallico , 14 vi . , c . ) that in the schools of the Druids the subj ects

n n taught i cluded the moveme ts of the stars , the size

an d rae t erea of the earth , the nature of things (multa p

sideribus e t eorum de motu , de mundi magnitudine ,

deo ru m immo rt alium vi de rerum natura , de ac potes

s n e u v e n u i radu n tate di puta t t j t t t t ) . “ Studies of such a character seem quite consistent ' w it h an d n n , to dema d , a lo g antecedent period of civilisation . Hen ry of Huntingdon is the ﬁrst E n glish writer to

St an en es . refer to Stonehenge , which he calls g Geoffrey

1138 Giraldu am r n i of Monmouth ( ) and s G b e s s come next . 1 1 “ 7 7 . In , Dr John Smith , in a work entitled Choir

G aw r , the Grand Orrery of the Ancient Druids , called

ST ONE H ENGE

— o o n so u t - eas t ro m o ut s de T h e a s o f t h e T e m e o f Karn a , , FIG . 12 . xi pl k l ki g h f i

- h e au t o r t h e n o rt h w est pylo n (fro m a pho t o graph by t h ) . and to carry it to the other extremity of the semple

- e r r into the sanctuary , where the high priest p fo med U L U I ‘ L L l L LV U L C H A P .

h i . T e his funct ons sanctuary was always blocked . There is no case in which the beam of light can pass 12 absolutely through a temple (Figs . and f In Britain the case was dif erent , there was neither

s ﬁ kill nor workers suf cient to erect such stately piles , an d as a consequence one structure had to do the work of several and it had to be done in the most

e conomical way . Hence the circle with the observer at the centre and practically a temple axis in every

direction among which could be chosen the chief direc '

n n tions required , each alignment being deﬁ ed by sto es ,

more or less distant , or openings in the circle itself. Now for some particulars with regard to those parts

n o f Stonehenge which lend themselves to the i quiry . The main architecture of Stonehenge consisted of an 100 ternal circle of about feet in diameter , composed

o f n thirty large upright stones , named sarsens , co nected

n by continuous lintels . The upright sto es formerly

s tood 14 feet above the surface of the ground . They have nobs or tenon s o n the top which ﬁt into mortice W holes in the lintels . ithin this peristyle there was o riginally an inner structure of ten still larger upright

\stones , arranged in the shape of a horseshoe , formed ve isolated trilithons which rose progressively N E . n 2 . to the loftiest stones bei g 5 feet

- the ground . About one half of these uprights

l an d fa len , a still greater number of the imposts

they originally carried .

also another circle of smaller upright stones , which the on ly point requiring notice now is e of them would have in terrupted the line of

s o of the avenue . The circular temple was al

G E NE RAL ARC H IT ECT URE

“

. 15 0 surroun ded by the earthen bank , shown in Fig ,

' d t h eiur about 300 feet in diameter , interrupte towards red

b an ks fo rmin q f x north - east by receiving into itself the which is about 5 0 feet acrﬁ aven ue before mentioned , S — 15 e n e ra1 an t h e o u t er c rc e n aos an d a en u e o f St o n e en e . . G pl ; i l , v h g ’ H r ar s e e R . F i H l .

I e axis passes very nearly cen t rallv through an r o lu mn iat io n (so to call it) between two uprights external circle an d between the uprights of the

ﬁn ms n as n h o t trilitho it origi ally stood . Of t is on the southernmost upright with the lin tel ie 16 2 0 u t he fell in , but the companion s rvived as 6 1

a co n spicuous and pict ur

years , but happily now restored to it s Original more digniﬁed and safer condition of

verticality . The inclination of this stone , however , took

place in the direction of the axis of the avenue , and as t he distanc e between it and its original companion is known both by the analogy of the two perfect tri lit h on s and by the measure of the mortice holes on

bisec the lintel they formerly supported , we obtain by 1 1 tion the distance , inches , from its edge , of a point in the continuation of the central axis of the avenue

and temple . The banks which form the avenue have suffered much H ’ degradation . It appears from Sir Richard Colt oare s account that at the begin n in g of the last century they were distinguishable for a much greater distance than at present , but they are still discernible , especially on 1300 the northern side , for more than feet from the centre of the temple , and particularly the line of the bottom of the ditch from which the earth was taken ” t h e it P to form bank , and which runs parallel to j CHAPTER VII

1 AST RONOMICAL OBSERV ATIONS AT ST ONE H E NGE IN 1901

AN in vestigation was undertake n by Mr . Penrose and

n 1901 o myself in the spri g of , as a sequel to anal gous work in Egypt and Greece , with a view to determine whether the orie n tation theory could throw any light

n d en e upo the ate of the foundation of Stoneh g , con cern in g which authorities vary in their estimates by

n o t some thousands of years . Ours was the ﬁrst atte to obtain the date of Ston ehe n ge by mea n s of astro ’ 2 n mi al n o c n In . H s co sideratio s . Mr Godfrey iggin work he refers to a method of attack connected with pre

n cessio . This furn ished him with the date 4000 3 n W e More rece tly , Prof. . M . Flinders Petrie , whos plan of the s to n es is a valuable co n tribution to t h e

n n study of Sto ehe ge , was led by his measures of the orie n tation to a date very greatly in the opposite

n directio , but , owing to an error in his application of

i . the change of obliquity , clearly a m staken one The chief astronomical evide n ce in favour of t he

1 x T hi s c h apt e r an d t h e e n d o f t h e p re vi o u s o n e are ma i n ly based t h e a e r co mmu n cat e b M r Pe n ro s a R al p p i d y . e n d myse lf t o t h e oy e t se e Pr oceedin s R o a l o i t v y ( S c e o l . 6 9 . 137 et se [ 8 g , y y , , p q) The Celtic r u ids . 4t L o . o n o n . 18 D d 2 7 . Vton hen e e déc. 1 8 g , 8 0.

must be based upon i en Further evidence will be g v , however ,

the direction of the axis of the temple , so far

n f c an now be determi ed , is su ﬁciently accordant

the direction of the aven ue . The orientation of this avenue may be examined upon the same principles that have bee n found successful in

n — o n the case of Greek and Egyptia temples that is ,

the assumption that Stonehenge was a solar temple , and

n n , that the greatest functio took place at su rise on the T lon gest day of the year . his not only had a religious

motive ; it had also the econ omic value of marking ofﬁcially and distinctly that time of the year an d the

begin n in g of an an n ual period .

is n It , i deed , possible that the present structure may

have had other capabilities , such as being connected

n wi th the May year , the equi oxes or the winter solstice but it is with its uses at the summer solstice alone

that we n o w deal . There is a differe n ce in treatment between the obse r vat io n s required for Stonehenge and those which are

a vailable for Greek or Egyptian solar temples . In the f case of the latter , the e fect of the precession of the

e n n s n qui oxes upo the star , which as warni g clock stars

n n were almost i variably co nected with those temples , o ffers the be st measure of the dates of foun dation ; but

n in Britain , owi g to the brightness of the dawn at the

s s ummer solstice , such a tar could not have been

e mployed , so that we can rely only on the secular c hange of the obliquity as affecting the azimuth of the great precision , and as the azimuth

n su rise varies with the latitude , and as a datum point o n the horizon in a known position was

n R E also required , Colonel Johnsto , , the . Director

an d General of the Ordnance Survey , was asked for obligingly supplied the following particulars :

L t 42 a . Cen t re o f st o n c rcle St on e en e i , h ge L o n W . 1 49 2 9 g . ° ' 2 ” Lat . 5 1 3 5 C n t re o f s r Sal s u r i , i b e p e y 1 4 45 Lo n g . 7

The real poin t was to determine the direction of

- n so called avenue . Measureme ts taken from the line of the bottom of the ditch assisted materially those

n s taken from the crown of the ba k itself. W ith thi help and by u sing the southern ba n k an d ditch when

it n ever admitted of recognitio , a fair estimate of the central line could be arrived at . To verify this , two pegs were placed at points 140 feet apart alon g the

n n n li e near the comme ceme t of the avenue , and four others at dista n ces averaging 100 feet apart nearer

direc the further recognisable extremity , and their

n n tions were measured with the theodolite , i depende tly

n by two observers , the reference point bei g Salisbury

n Spire , of which the exact bearing had bee com mu n icat ed by Colonel Johnston . This bearing was also measured locally by o h servat ion s an d n of the Sun of Polaris , the mea of which differed Joy less than 2 0 from the Ord n ance value . The resulting observatio n s gave for the axis of th e avenue n eare st the commencement an azimuth of 38 ’ and for that of the more d t part C A P 66 ST ONEH E NG E H .

° ’ 4 9 32 5 4 . The mean of these two lines drawn from

n re the central interval of the great trilitho , already ferred to , passes between two of the sarsens of the 4 exterior circle , which have an opening of about feet ,

n f w withi a e inches of their middle point , the devia tion being northwards . This may be considered to prove the close coincidence of the original axis of the temple with the direction of the avenue . h This value of the azimuth , the mean of whic is ° ' 4 9 35 n is co ﬁrmed by the information , also

‘ lied p p from the Ordnance Survey , that from the N i E . tre of the temple , the bearing to the of the 8 principal bench mark on a hill , about miles distant , the ben ch mark being very near a well - kn own ancient

n n Silbu r fortiﬁed British encampme t amed y or Sidbury , is 49° 34’ 18 and that the same line continued through

n - Stonehe ge , to the south west , strikes another ancient

n 6 fortiﬁcatio , namely , Grovely Castle , about miles

° an d viz. 49 distant at practically the same azimuth , , ’ 1 ° ’ ” 35 5 . For the above reasons 49 34 18 has been adopted for the azimuth of the avenue . The summer solstice sunrise in 1901 was also watched H . ﬁ ve for by Mr oward Payn on successive mornings , 2 1 viz. 2 5 , June to , and was successfully observed on

’ n the last occasio . As soon as the Sun s limb was sufﬁcien tly above the horizon for its bisection to be ’ ” n 8 40 well measured , it was fou d to be northwards ’ o f H the peak of the Friar s eel , which was used as the refere n ce point ; the altitude of the horizon being 35 ’ The azimuth of this peak from the point of observation had been previously ascertained to be 5 0° ’ 39 5 0° giving for that of the Sun when measured , years more or less ; this gives us a date of

C . lyl n g between say 1900 an d 15 00 B . ’ In this in vestigation the so - called Friar s Heel was only as a convenie n t point for reference an d veri

an d n o it in measurement , theory was formed as to s purpose . It is placed at some distance , as before mentioned , to the south of the axis of the avenue , so that at the date arrived at for the erection of the temple t h e Sun must have completely risen before it was vertically

. over the summit of the stone It may be remarked , 5 00 further , that more than years must yet elapse before such a coi n cidence can take place at the beginning

n of su rise .

In an Appendix certai n details of the observations are

n give .

In n the ext chapter I propose to show that an in

n ae a depe dent arch ological inquiry carried out , in most

an d complete admirable way , j ust after Mr . Penrose an d n myself had obtained our conclusio , entirely corrobor at w d ates the date hich we had arrive . CHAPTER VIII

A ROHAEZOLOG ICAL O BSERV ATIONS AT ST ONE N E 1901 HE G ,

SOON after Mr . Penrose and myself had made our a 1901 arch aeo stronomical survey of Stonehenge in , some logical results o f the highest importance were obtain ed

n by Professor Gowland . The operatio s which secured them were designed and carried out in order to re - erect

n w n w the leani g stone hich threate ed to fall , a piece of ork recommended to Sir Edmun d Antrobus by the Society o f n an d A tiquaries of London other learned bodies , and c onducted at his desire and expense .

o n They were necessarily a large scale , for the great ” m n n n n o olith , the leani g stone , is the largest in E gla d ,

h n the Rudston monolit excepted . It stood behi d the a n 6 5 s ltar stone , over which it leant at an a gle of degree , H restin g at o n e point again st a small sto n e of sye n ite . alf — way u p it had a fracture one third across it ; the weight o f n stone above this fracture was a dangerous strai on it , so that both powerful machi n ery an d great care an d precautions had to be used . Professor Gowland was c harged by the Society of Antiquaries with the con duct

n n of the excavations necessary in the work . The e gi eer

an d in s . g operation were planned by Mr Carruthers , D et mar Blow was respo n sible for the local super H A P T O NEH N E C . 7 0 S E G

A strong cradle of 12 - inch square baulks

n f was bolted rou d the stone , with packing and elt , to preven t any marking of the stone . To the cradle were

' ﬁxed two 1 - in ch steel eyebolts to receive the blocks for

- - two six folds of 6 inch ropes . These were secured and

n n wound o n to two stro g wi ches ﬁfty feet away , with four

n W n men at each wi ch . he the ropes were thoroughly

n n tight , the ﬁrst excavatio was made as the sto e was ” raised o n its west Side . The method employed by Professor Gowland in the excavation should be a model for all future work of the

n ki d . Above each space to be excavated was placed a frame

n n to of wood , beari g on its lo g sides the letters A H , an d o n s S s L its hort ide the letters R M , each letter being

n o n a lin e one foot dista t from the next . By this means the area to be excavated was divided i n to squares each havi n g the dimension of a square foot . A long rod

6 - n 1 16 divided into i ch spaces , numbered from to , was also provided fo r indicating the depth from the datum

In n n lin e of a n ythin g fou n d . this way a letter o the lo g

S s a o n e ide of the fr me , together with on the short sides ,

n o n ro d n n and a umber the vertical , i dicated the positio

an in an n of y obj ect found y part of the excavatio . Excavatio n s were necessary because to secure the stone for the future the whole of the adjacent soil had to be removed down to the rock level , so that it could be replaced by concrete . All results were registered by Professor Gowland in

n 337 4 relation to a datum li e feet above sea level . The material was removed in buckets , and carefully sifted

1 - - - through a series of sieves inch , inch , i inch , and Z v m ARCH I EOLOG ICAL OBS ERV AT IONS IN 1 90 1 7 3 ‘—i O Es nch mesh , in order that the smallest bj ect not be overlooked . From the exhaustive account of his work given by Professor Gowland to the Society of Antiquaries (Ar chaeo lo ia im g , I gather three results of the highest portan ce from the point of view I am considerin g . These

n Of im le were , ﬁrst , the ﬁndi g of an enormous number p

n n t s ments ; seco dly , the dispositio and rela ive quantitie of the chippings of the sarsen an d blue stones ; and d thirdly , the discovery of the metho by which the stones were originally erected .

I will take the implements ﬁrst . This , in a con den sed form , is what Professor Gowland says about them

n m More tha a hundred ﬂint imple ents were found , an d the greater n umber occurred in t h e stratum of chalk rubble which either directly overlaid or was o n a level

n with the bed rock . They may all be arranged ge erally in the followin g classe s — Cla ss I Axe s rou ghly chipped and of rude forms

- n deﬁ n e d o S . but havi g well , m re or less harp cutting edges

la ss II —H n C . ammersto es , with more or less well chipped , sharp curved edges . Most may be correctly — termed hammer axes . They are chipped t o an edge at o n e en d , but at the other are broad and thick , and in man y examples termin ated there by a more or less ﬂa t surface . In some the natural coatin g of the ﬂint is left

n untouched at the thick e d. III — H Cla ss . . ammerstones , more or less rounded Some specimens appear to have once had distin ct work ing edges , but they are now much blunted and battered by use . is not a sin gle grou them . T his , at ﬁrst a n n n tio , might be take to i dica

in n n n s n n age . But this co ectio it mu t be bor e in mi d that in the buildin g of such a stupe n dous structure as

n Stonehe ge , the tools required must have been num bered by thousands . The work , too , was of the

an d n roughest character , for such o ly rude tools were

n s required . The highly ﬁ i hed and polished implements

n an d which we are accustomed to co sider , rightly so ,

N man n o as characteristic of eolithic , would ﬁnd place i n s uch work . They required too much labour and time

n an d n n o t for their ma ufacture , , whe made , could have been more effective tha n the hammer - axes an d hammer s n n in to es fou d the excavations , which could be so easily fashion ed by merely r u dely shapi n g the natural

n fli ts , with which the district abounds , by a few well d f ” irected blows o a sarsen pebble .

On is n . n n th grou d Prof Gowla d is of opi ion that , n n le it i otwithstandi g their rudeness , they may be g

N an d mately ascribed to the eolithic age , , it may be , n n n t is n ear its termi atio , tha , before the Bro ze age , the

n o f 14 commenceme t which has been placed at 00 R C .

n s fo r n is by Sir John Eva Britai , though he inclined

n s an d 2 000 B . C . to thi k that e timate too low , by

Mo n t eliu s fo r Italy . f Pro . Gowla n d guardedly writes : The occurrence o f ston e tool s does not alo n e prove with absolute certai n ty that Ston ehenge belongs to the ° N ff eolithic age , although it a ords a strong presumpt ion in . favour of that view But , and this is important , had bron ze been in ge n eral or eve n moderately exten VIII ARCH ZEOLOG ICAL OBSE RVAT IONS IN 1 90 1 7 7 ‘ h is s ive use when t e stones were set up , it highest degree probable that some implement metal would have bee n lost within the area of e xcavations , and if so lost , it would certainly have

n . been found together with the sto e tools Further , the

’ e mploymen t of deer s horn picks for the extensive ex c avat io n s made in the chalk around the base of the monoliths also tends to support the view that bronze implements cannot have been in common use . If they had it would seem n o t unreasonable to assume that they would have been employed , as they would have been so much more effective for such work than the

’ picks of deer s horn . “ n n Agai , the chippi gs of the stones of Stonehenge in 1 t wo of the Bronze age barrows in its neighbourhood ” Show that it is of earlier date than they . And ﬁnally

n III my opi ion , the date when copper or bronze

n in was ﬁrst know Britain is a very remote one , as no country in t he world presented greater facilities for

n their discovery . The beginning of their applicatio to

n fa practical uses should , I thi k , be placed at least as r

1 . an d 8 00 B C . n back as , that date I am i clined to give , until further evidence is forthcoming , as the approximate ” n n date of the erectio of Stonehe ge .

No w n the date arrived at by Mr . Pe rose and myself

n on astro omical grounds was about 17 00 B . C . It is not a little remarkable that independe n t astronomical and archaeological inquiries conducted in the same year

1 Sir R c ar Colt H o ar An ci t l en Histo r Sou th Wi tshir e . i h d e, y of , p L n o n 12 7 . o W . St uk el n (L n n 46 . o o e Sto ehen e . ( d , y, g , p d , 1740)

o n the spectator , who standing the brow of

n n hills ear Clatford , sees stretchi g for miles

n n cou tless umbers of these enormous stones ,

an d n the middle of the valley , wi ding like a might y stream towards the south .

n These stones , the , may be regarded as closely associated with the local geology . “ The exact nature of the stones , called blue stones , “ N ” can best be gathered from a valuable ote by Prof.

’ Judd which accompanies Prof. Gowland s paper . These blue stones are entirely unconnected with the local

t he geology ; they must , therefore , represent boulders of

d or Glacial rift , they must have been brought by man ,

n from distant localities . Prof. Judd i clines to the ﬁrst

n n opi io . The distinction betwee n these two kinds of stone are

n well shown by Prof. Gowla d

n s c an d t he The large mo olith of the outer ircle ,

n s - S trilitho s of the hor e hoe are all sarsens . [See general

n 1 . 5 are pla , Fig ] These sarsens in their composition s n n n s n - n ﬁ n e o r a dsto es , co si ti g of quartz sa d , either

s an d coar e , occasionally mixed with pebbles angular

o f fl n t r bits i , all more or less ﬁrmly cemented togethe

S with ilica . They are the relics of the concretionary ma sses which had become con solidated in the sa n dston e

n o f beds that o ce overlaid the chalk the district , and had re sisted the destructive agen cies by which the softer parts of the beds were removed in geological times . They range in structure from a granular rock re sembli n g loaf sugar in in tern al appearan ce to one o f OBSE RVAT IONS IN 1 90 1 8 1 similar to and sometimes passing into

monoliths and trilithons all consist of the

rock . The examples of the compact quartzite

t n s y , of which many were fou d in the excavation , were almost without exception either hammersto n es that h a n n d been used in shapi g and dressing the mo oliths , or fragments which had been broken from off them in these operations .

“ ‘ ’ so - The small monoliths , the called blue stones ,

n - which form the inner circle and the in er horse shoe , are , with the undermentioned exceptions , all of diabase more or less porphyritic . Two are porphyrite (formerly

n w k o n as felstone or hornstone) . Two are argillaceous sandstone . “

. W Mr illiam Cunnington , in his valuable paper ,

’ s Stonehenge , Notes , records the discovery of two stump

‘ ’ of blue stones now covered by the turf. One of these

, 1 6 2 No s . 6 lies in the inner horseshoe between and , and 9 feet distant from the latter . It is diabase . The

n N o s . 32 33 other is in the inner circle betwee and , 10 t feet from the former , and consists of a sof calcareous ff t altered tu , af erwards designated for the sake of brevity

ﬁssile rock .

The altar stone is of micaceous sandstone .

S I now come to the second point , to which I hall return in the next chapter . In studying the material obtained from the excava tions , it was found in almost every case that the number of chippings and fragments of blue stone largely e xceeded that of the sarsens ; more than this , diabase H H A 8 2 ST ONE ENGE C P.

(blue stone) and sarsen were found together in the layer overlying the solid chalk (p . Chippings of diabase were the most abundant , but there were few large

n pieces of it . Sarse , on the other hand , occurred most abundantly in lumps (p . very few small chips of

— . 2 0. S o w n t h e care u n f n FIG h i g f l t oo li g o t h e Sarse s .

n . H sarsen were fou d (p ence Prof. Gowland is of opinion that the sarsen blocks were roughly hewn where they were found (p . the local tooling , executed t with the small quar zite hammers and mauls , would produce not chips but dust . had already bee n dressed was slid until its base o n the ledge . (2 ) It was the n gradually ral sed into a verti cal

s an tion by mean s first of lever d afterwards of ropes .

The levers would be long trunks of trees , to one end of which a n umber of ropes was attached (this method is still employed in Japa n ) ; so that the weights an d pullin g force of many men might be exerted on them .

n The stro ger ropes were probably of hide or hair , but

s other of straw , or of withes of hazel or willow , may have bee n in use for minor purposes .

3 s n ( ) As the to e was raised , it was packed up with logs of timber an d probably also with blocks Of stone placed beneath it . (4) After its upper en d had reached a certain eleva t tion , ropes were attached to i , and it was then hauled

s o tha t it s by numerous men into a vertical position , ba ck r ested ag a in st the p erp en dicu la r face of the cha lk w hich ha ol been r e a red or it p p f . During this part

n b b e of the operatio , struts of tim er would probably

n S S placed agai st its ides to guard against lip , a pre caution taken whe n the lean in g stone ‘ was raised an d

n n u til the fou dation was properly set .

n As regards the raisi g of the lintels , and imposts , an d the placing of them on the tops of the uprights , there would be even less difficulty than in the erection of the uprights themselves . It could be easily effected by the Simple method practised in Japan for placin g heavy blocks of stone in

. n n position The sto e , when lying on the grou d , would be raised a little at one end by mean s of long wooden levers . A packing of logs would then be placed under AR H ZEOL ICA VIII C OG L OBSERVAT IONS IN 1 90 1 8 5

— mo ed. . 2 2 T h e ean n st o n e u r t e o re t h e st ru t s w ere re FIG . l i g p igh b f v

t he the end so raised , other extremity of the stone

be would similarly raised and packed , and the raising and packing at alternate ends would be continued A ST ONEH ENGE C H P.

CHAPTER IX

? W AS T HER E AN E ARLIE R CIR CLE

WHE N we come to examine Stonehenge carefully in

n n relatio to the orientatio theory , it soon becomes clear

it s an d that outer circle of upright stones with lintels ,

n n the i er naos , built of trilithons , oriented in the line

“ o f the avenue and the summer solstice sunrise , are

n o t n . the only things to be co sidered These stones ,

n all composed of sarse , which , be it remarked , have

n an d in . bee trimmed tooled , are not alone question W e have :

1 An n ( ) i terior circle broken in many places , and “ s n n other tones ear the aos , composed of stones , blue ’ 7 n s sto es , which , as we have een , are of an entirely

f n an d di fere t origin composition . (2 ) Two smaller u n tr immed sarsen ston es lying near

n o t s n the vallum , at the ame dista ce from it , the line

n n n j oini g them passi g early , but not quite , through

n o f n f the ce tre the sarse circle . The amplitude o the

° n is 2 6 li e j oining them approximately S . of E . and 2 ° V N. W 6 . n V N. . of Of these sto es , the stump of the one is situated 2 2 feet from the top of the vallum

n according to the Ord ance plan . The S . E . stone has

l n fa len , but accordi g to E RE AN A L ? E R IER CIRCLE 89 ments by Mr . Penrose , whemn erect its centre was from the top of the vallu . The centre of the

—Ma 1 . 2 4 . o f t h e St o n es made b t h e Ordn an ce u r e S . A W n . s o FIG p y v y , N. t e ; B E ’ S. . st o n e 0 r ar s e e D S au t e r st o n e . , ; , F i H l ; , l gh lin e j oining the stones is therefore about 4 feet to the

S E . of the axis of the present circles , which , it may be

1 l &c b Co lo n e l Si H n r P an s an d ot o ra s o f St o n e en . r ph g ph h ge, , y e y

a E - n ral f t h Or n an c Su r 18 6 7 J me s R . . re ct o r G e e o e , , Di d e vey, . \ V . s s 3 t N. tated , pa ses fee to the of

’ o f the Friar s Heel (se e Fig . There are besides these two large u n tr immed

n o n e v sto es , standing some distance outside the

n n b ut one recumbe t lying on the vallum ; both early , n o t S n quite , in the u rise line as viewed from the centre “ ’ of the s arse n circle . These are termed the Friar s ” ” Heel an d Slaughter Ston e respectively .

d t 1 an d r I will eal wi h ( ) ﬁrst , begin by anothe

n . n n n quotatio from Mr Cu ni gto , who displayed great

n acume in dealing with the smaller stones not sarsens .

“ The most importan t con sideration con nected with

n an d ae the smaller sto es , one which in its arch ological

n n o f beari g has bee too much overlooked , is the fact

n their having bee brought from a great distance . I expressed an opi n io n o n this subj ect in a lecture

n an d delivered at Devizes more than eightee years ago ,

n n I have been i creasi gly impressed with it since . I believe tha t the se ston es would not have bee n brought from such a dis tan ce to a spot where an abundance o f buildi n g stones equally suitable in every respect already

s n exi ted , u less some special or religious value had been attached to them . This goes far to prove that Stone ~

n or i in a ll a tem le an d he ge was g y p , neither a monu

n s me t rai ed to the memory of the dead , nor an astro n o mical n cale dar or almanac . “ has b n D an ams r It ee suggested that they were , o n o f W the offeri gs successive votaries . ould there in

s such case have been uch uniformity of design , or would they have been all alike of foreign materials ? I would make o n e remark about the small impost of a trilithon

, n n of syenite now lyi g prostrate withi the circle . One be en

in wa t er a n d over hills an d va lle s . On , y the other hand , t he glacial drift , which once probably thinly covered

d n the istrict , the glacial deposits dyi g out very gradu ally as we proceed southwards , we have a source from which such stones might probably have been derived .

It is quite a well - kn own peculiarity of the glacial drift to exhibit con siderable assemblages of stones of a par t icu lar n character at certai spots , each of these assem blages havi n g probably been derived from the same source . “ I would therefore suggest as probable that when the early inhabita n ts of this island commenced the erection of Stonehenge , Salisbury Plain was sprinkled over thickly with the grea t white masses of the sarsen

‘ stones ( grey an d much more sparingly

‘ with darker coloured boulders (the so - called blue

the last relics of the glacial drift , which have

n n n bee early de uded away . From these two kinds of materials the ston es suitable for the co n templated temple were selected . It is even possible that the abun dance and association of these two ki n ds of materials

s n n so triki gly co trasted in colour and appearance , at a

n S particular spot , may not o ly have decided the ite , but to some extent have s uggested the architectural

features of the noble structure of Stonehenge .

s If we grant everything that Prof. Judd tates , the — question remains why did the same men in the same place at the same time treat the sarsen and blue ston es so differently ? A L ? E R IER CIRCL E 93.

I Shall Show subsequently that there is a deﬁnite

answer to the question on one assumption . I next come to The importan t point about these

n n stones is that with the amplitude at Sto ehe ge , N W . a line from the centre of the circle over the . stone would mark the sunset place in the ﬁrst week in

an d S E . May , a line over the stone would similarly

deal with the November sunrise . W e are thus brought

- N in presence of the May ovember year . Another point about these sto n es is that they are n o t at the same distance from the centre of the sarse n

n sto e circle , which itself is concentric with the temenos mou n d ; this is why they lie at different distances from

n the mou d . Further , a line drawn from the point of

’ the Friar s Heel over the now recumben t Slaughter

n Stone with the amplitude determi ed by Mr . Penrose and myself for the summer solstice sun rise in 16 8 0‘

B . C . cuts the line j oining the stones at the middle point , suggestin g that the four untrimmed sarsen ston es pro v ided align men ts both for the May an d Ju n e years at about that date .

No r is this all ; the so - called tumuli within t h e 10 n vallum (Fig . ) may have been observatio mounds , for t h e lines passing from the northern tumulus over

W n s the N. . stone and from the souther tumulu over E S . the one are parallel to the avenue , and therefore represent the solstitial orientation .

W e « So much , then , for the stones . see that , deal

n s n t h e ing o ly with the untrimmed sar ens that remai , places of the May sunset an d June an d November sun rises were marked from the same cen tral point . Statements have been made t hat there was the stump H N C H A P. 9 4 ST ONE E GE

W . S. «of another stone near the vallum to the , in the

’ line of the Friar s Heel and Slaughter Stone , produced d backwards , at the same istance from the old centre n ot S E . . W . as the N. and stones This stone was

n . found in an exploration by Sir Edmu d Antrobus , Mr

2 —T h e rod o n t h e re c u m en t st o n e is ace d in an d a o n t h e co mmo n a s i . 5 F g . b pl l g xi ’ h he r iar s ee t h e t o o f o f t e re sen t c rc e an d a e n u e . It is see n t at t p i l v h F H l , p w c is s o w n in t h e d s t an ce w o u d h de t h e s un r se ace t h e a s w e re hi h h i , l i i pl if xi

a lit t le fu rt he r t o t he S E .

n an d H n Pe rose Mr . oward Pay by means of a sword a n d - an auger . But the question will not be settled “ n until surface diggi g is permitted , as a road about w hich there is a present conte n tion passes near the s pot But even this is n o t the only evidence we have for

CHAPTER X

T HE MAY AND JUNE \V ORSHIPS IN BR I T T ANY

I PUR POSE next to in quire whether in the won derful

n series of Megalithic remai s in Brittany , remains more

an w n extensive than y in Britain , any light is thro on the s uggestion I have made that the May W orship preceded T “ hi a n n the Solstitial o rs p t Sto ehe ge . It has lon g bee n k n own that the stones which compose the prehistoric remai n s in Brittan y are generally similar

s an d n in ize shape to those at Sto ehenge , but , as I have f o n e f n . already stated , in respect there is a vast di ere ce

d in n w Instea of a few , arranged circles as at Sto ehenge , e have an en ormous multitude of the so - called menhirs

in n arranged ma y parallel lines for great distances . Some

’ n H of these are unhew like the Friar s eel , some have as

n certai ly been trimmed . The literature which has bee n devoted to them is very

s e con id rable , but the authors of it for the most part , have taken little or n o pain s to master the few eleme n tary astronomical pri nci ples which are n ecessary to regard the

n n f n mo ume ts rom the poi t of view of orientation . It is con soling to kn ow that this cannot be said of the last published contribution to our knowledge of this

, . mm region which we owe to Monsieur F Gaillard , a e ber T H E M AY AND JU NE W ORSH IPS 97 Paris Anthropological Society and of the Poly h 1 Society of Morbihan at Plou arnel .

M . Gaillard is a ﬁrm believer in the orientation theory , an d accepts the View that a very considerable number of the alignments are solstitial . But although he gives the correct azimuths for the solstitial poin ts and also ﬁgures showing the values of the obliquity of the ecliptic as far

2 2 B 00 . C . ffi as , his observations are not su ciently precise t o b n ena le a final conclusion to be draw , and his method of fixing the alignments and the selection of the in dex men hir are difficult to gather from his memoir and the

a " sm ll plans which accompany it , which , alas deal with compass bearings only . h All the same , those interested in suc researches owe a debt of gratitude to M . Gaillard for his laborious efforts to w increase our knowledge , and will sympathise ith him at the manner in which his conclusions were treated by the

Paris anthropologists . One of them , apparently thinking that the place of sun rising is affected by the precession “ n a of the equi oxes , used this convincing argument Si ,

’ l o ri in e é é le g les alignments taient orient s , comme pense

n e le e au M . Gaillard , ils pourraient plus tre auj ourdhui

’ ’ n s ilS le u ils co traire , sont actuellement , on peut affirmer q ’ n e l ét aien t pas alors l

M . Gaillard is not only convinced of the solstitial t he orientation of the avenues , but ﬁnds same result in

Of the case the dolmens . I cannot ﬁnd any reference in the text to any orienta

’ tions dealing with the farmers years , that is with ampli

I 1 ’ “ L A st rc n omie Pr ehist ri u Pu l s in Le s Sc n c s Fo u o q e . b i hed ie e p ' ” la re s re ue m n su elle n t ern at on al an d ssu e s arat l b t h e i , v e i i e, i d ep e y y a m “ ” n st rat o n des Sc e n ces o u la r s 15 R ue Le ru n Par s . d i i i i p p i e , b , i H °

N an d . . tudes of about 2 5 . S of the E and

8 an d 12 in the diagrams on pp . 7 7 I ﬁn

n n and dolmen alignme ts , which withi accuracy apparently employed may perhaps with j ustice be referred to them but observations of greater accuracy

t h e ‘ h ei h t s must be made , and details of g of the horizon

variOu s n at the poi ts given , before anything certain can be said about them .

’ n I appe d a reproduction of one of M . Gaillard s plans ,

an which will give idea of his use of the index menhir . It

o n n Mén e c 4 . 7 . shows the alig me ts at Le , lat § (Fig — The lin e A Soleil runs across the stone alignments and

n is ﬁxed from A by the me hir B , but there does not seem an y good reason for selecting B except that it appears to

in fall the line of the solstitial azimuth accordin g to M .

. 5 4 E . Gaillard But if we take this azimuth as N . , then we ﬁnd the alignmen ts to have an azimuth roughly of N. 6 ° E ° 6 . u s 2 4 N. , which gives the amplitude of marking the place of sunrise at the begin n ing of the May and

N an d n t ovember years , the alignme ts may have deal principally with those times of the year . I esteem it a most fortunate thin g that while I have been casting about as t o the best way of getting more

L n N accurate data , ieute ant Devoir , of the French avy an d therefore fully equipped with all the astronomical knowledge necessary ; who resides at Brest and has been studying the prehistoric monume n ts in his neighbourhood

n u for many years , has been good e o gh to give me the

his results of work in that region , in which the problems seem to be simpler than further south ; for w hile in the vicin ity of Carnac the menhirs were erected in groups

numbering ﬁve or six thousand , near Brest , lat . they

A ST ONEH E NGE C H P .

t alignments . I give the following ex racts from his letter : “ It is about twelve years ago that I remarked in the west part of the Department of Morbihan (near Lorient) the parallelism of the lines marked out by monuments of h N E , all sorts , and frequently oriented to the or rat er

— 2 Me n r A o n Me on s an d. FIG . 7 . hi ( ) l I l

° ° I i . N 5 0 . 5 between E and 5 E . had ascerta ned moreover , the existence of lines perpendicular to the ﬁrst

n named , the right a gle being very well measured . “ n w n n Plo u dal The pla s , hich refer to the ca to s of

a mé ze u and of St . Renan (district of Brest) and of Crozon

- (district of Chateaulin) , have been made on a plane table the orientations are exact to one or two degrees . “

e . In the cantons of Ploudalm zeau and of St Renan , T H E MAY AND JU NE W ORSH IPS 1 9 1

the monumen ts are generally simple ; seven menhirs are v isible of enormous dimensions , remarkable by the polish of their surface and the regularity of their

section . The roughnesses hardly ever reach a centi

metre ; the sections are more often ovals , sometimes rectangles with t h e angles rounded or terminated by

semicircles . In the canton of Crozon the monuments

are , on the contrary , complex ; we ﬁnd a cromlech with

— 2 M n s n M r . 8 . e o a d s o w n e A an n d Cro me c B an d C . FIG l I l , h i g hi ( ) l h ( )

800 an avenue leading to it of a length of metres ,

300 . another of metres Unfortunately , the rocks em ployed (sandstone and schist from Plun gast el and Crozon) have resisted less well than the granulite from the north part of the Department . The monuments are for the most part in a very bad condition ; t h e whole must , nevertheless , formerly have been comparable

— mari r with that of Carnac Leo aqu e . “ For the two regions , granitic and schistose , the results of the Observations are identical . “ 4° W 5 . The monuments lie along lines oriented S . ST ONEH ENGE C H A P.

° 5 4° 5 4 . azimuth at the solstices for L N . E ( ° ° ° ° ’ 5 4 . W . 5 4 . N. 48 30 and i 2 3 and S E Some of them determine lines perpendicular to the

n meridia . “ 2 0 90 9m. 6 m. One menhir (A) , in height and in

m n circu fere ce , erected in the small island of Melon

D F

— o u rzal D E Me n rs o f t . D . 2 9 . S FIG . hi , , , F

e 4 8 ° 2 9’ 05 (canton of Ploudalm zeau , latitude ) a few metres from a tumulus surrou n ded by the ruins of a cromlech (B and C) , has the section such that the faces , d ° an 4 . . 5 parallel remarkably plane , are oriented N E

s 2 an d (Fig . 7 “ At 1300 metres in the same azimuth there is a line

of three large menhirs (D , E , F) , of which one (E) is

overthrown . The direction of the line passes exactly

’ ‘ pierre du Conseil (a bro n ze it ) give s with a dolmen situated near Camaret the tion of the sun rise o n Ju n e 2 1 (Fig . “ I have j ust spoken of the li n es perpendicular t o the solstitial one ; there exists more especially In the complex mon uments an other particularity which meri ts

—A n n h n n d h e d r c o n . 3l . men t s at La at ar s o w t e e rre du Co se a t e t FIG lig g j , h i g pi il i i o f t h e do me n ro m t h e e rre du Co n se t h e do men mar s t h e su n r se l . F pi il l k i ’ ’ ac e at t h e su mme r so st ce an d t h e a e n u e H t h e sun se t ace pl l i , v G G H pl o n t he same da y .

n n . n N atte tio Betwee two monuments , M and , on a

s n n n t he sol titial li e , sometimes other me hirs are oticed ,

° li n e j oin ing them bein g in clined 12 to the solstitial ” line , always towards the east (Fig I must call particular attention to this importan t

t h e observation of Lieutenant Devoir , for it gives us 2 4° N . i amplitude , the direct on of sunrise at the begin ning of the May and August years . It shows , moreover ,

Le Mé n ec t h e that , as at according to M . Gaillard , solstitial and May - August directions were both provided e Lieut nant Devoir . points out the wonderful regularity

o f polish of many the menhirs . It ered from his account that those most carefully trimmed and tooled belong to the solstitial

Kerloas 11 i alignments . The one at metres h gh) heads

2 —Men n 2 o n men t . Me h rs . 3 . rs M N o n E so s t t a a n N . FIG hi , . l i i l lig i l , ,

- - - Ma A u ust e ars a n me n t sun r se Ma Au u s t s un se t No ve mb e r e ru ar . y g y lig , i y g , F b y the list in point of size ; others in the island of Melon

7 Ker adion 8 10 m ( metres) , at g ( metres etres) , ' and He Keren n eur Kervao n Kermabio n f . , and ollow suit considers them to have been erected at the time of the

He highest civilisation of the Megalithic peoples . also s tates that these regularly formed menhirs do not exist

’ t n l Abbé a Carnac , or in the region of Po t , so rich in which certainly refer chieﬂy to the May

It n seems , the , that in these localities ments were erected subsequently .

e Finally , then , the appeal to Brittany is entir ly favour of the May - November year worship preceded the solstitial one . I have already stated the evidence at Stonehenge that the su n rise at the beginning of the May and August years was observed in an earlier temple which W existed before the present structure existed . ere this so we have another point common to the British and

Breton monuments . I therefore think that I may j ustly claim the Brittany evidence as entirely in favour of the suggestion put forward in Chap . IX with regard to Stone

n he ge .

n o f solar co ditions observations , the Simpler I will begin with them is no question whatever that the rising an d setting of were provided for .

n my 18 9 1 an d In co tinuation of work in Egypt in ,

’ n in 18 92 Mr . Pe rose s in Greece , I have recently endeavoured to see whether there are any traces in Britain

v n n of star obser atio s , includi g those connected with the

W e worship o f the su n at certain times of the year .

' ’ St s far o u t o f n both discovered that ar , the su s course ,

in especially Egypt , were observed in the dawn as heralds ” - — of sunrise warning stars so that the priests might

n have time to prepare the su rise sacriﬁce . To do this properly the star should rise while the sun is still about 1 ° n 0 below the horizo . There is also reason to believe that stars risin g not far from the n orth poin t were also used as clock- stars to enable the time to be estimated during the night in the same way as the time during the day could

s n be estimated by the position of the u .

I st at ed D a w n o Ast r o n om 319 w . as ( f y , p ) that Spica the star the heliacal risin g of which heralded the sun o n

- 32 00 B . C . May day in the temple of Menu at Thebes . Siriu s was associated with the summer solstice at about the same time .

- Mr . Penrose found this May day worship con tinued at

n o n n in 14 9 R 2 2 0 B . C . 5 C . 0 Athe s foundatio s built and , on which the Hecatompedon and older Erechtheum respectively

n n n n were subseque tly built , the war i g star bei g now no

n longer Spica , but the cluster of the Pleiades risi g , or

Antares setting , in the dawn . It is generally known that Stonehenge is associated with

s the olstitial year , and I have suggested that it was H INT S I O9 the May year but the probable

16 . 8 0 B . C , was determined by

myself by the change of obliquity . Stoneh enge or any other British stone circle c ould be proved to have used observations of warning s tars , the determination of the date when such observa tions were made would be enormously facilitated . Mr . Penrose and myself were content to think that our

m be 2 00 date ight within years of the truth , whereas if we could use the rapid movement of stars in declina

a tion brought bout by the precession of the equinoxes , instead of the slow change of the sun ’ s declination brought about by the change of the value of the 2 00 obliquity , a possible error of years would be reduced to one of 10 years .

SO In spite of this enormous advantage , no one far as I know has yet made any inquiry to conn ect star observations with any of the British circles . I have recently obtained clear evidence that some circles in different parts of Britain were used for night

an d work also in relation to the May year , which we know was general over the whole of Europe in

a n d - early times , which still determines the quarter days in Scotland . If the Egyptian and Greek practice were continued

ﬁ n d here , we should expect then to some Indications of the star observations utilised at the temple of Min and at

H n the ecatompedon for the begi ning , or the other chief months , of the May year .

d S I have foun them , and I will now how the method employed .

a To begin with , if we ass that the astronomer priests here did attempt such the most likely way in which they would to work ? The easiest way for the astronomer- priests to conduct such observations in a stone circle would be to erect a stone or barrow indicating the direction of the place on the horizon at which the st ar would rise as seen from t h e centre of the circle . If the dawn the star was to

in herald occurred the summer , the stone or barrow itself might be visible if not too far away , but there was a reason why they Should not be too close ; in a solemn

n ceremonial the less see of the machinery the better . Doubtless such stones an d barrows would be rendered obvious in the dark by a light placed on or near them . Cups which could hold Oil or grease are known in

n an d u con ection with such stones , a light thus fed wo ld sufﬁce in the ope n if there were no wind ; but in windy weather a cromlech or some similar Shelter must have been provided for it . Now if thes e stan ding stones or barrows were ever m — erected and still re ain , accurate plans not the slovenly pla n s with which Ferguson and too man y others have pro v ided n n us , givi g us either no i dication of the north or any

n m other poi t , or else a rough co pass bearing without taking the trouble t o state the variation at the time an d — place will help us . I have already pointed out that much time has been lost in the investigation of our stone circles , for the reason

in that many cases the exact relations of the monuments

f n t h e to the chie poi ts of horizon , and therefore to the

ff e n o t place of sunrise at di er nt times of the year , have

x h en w been considered ; and they ere , the observations circle will enable us to determin e t h e star at the time when it was observed . I give a diagram which enables this (1 to be made with the greatest ease for any

’ ’ h e between Land s End and John o Groats , whether t direction is recorded by amplitude or azimuth the

n decli ation is read at the side from the value of either,

at . indicated , say , by a dot , the proper latitude

f . This , of course , only gives us a irst approximation The angular height of the point on the horizon to which the alignment or sight - line is directed by the stone or barrow from the centre of the circle must be most accurately

n determi ed , otherwise the declinations may be one or two degrees out . In the absence of measurements it is convenient to assume, in the ﬁrst instance , that the horizon is half a degree high , as with this elevation refraction is

S ’ compensated , as the following table will how

’ E le vat i o n o f act ual Be sse l s

o r zo n . re ract o n . Co m n e d e ff h i f i bi e ct .

2 2 49” 2 0’ 305 2 " ’ ” 30 ' 5 ‘ 5 ' " ” 40 2 7 2 2 7 ‘3 ' ” 5 0 ‘ 8 ‘ 2 ” ‘ 6 ‘ 4 In the absence of theodolite observations the actual elevation of the horizon can be roughly found by a studyof

n 1 ~ the co tour lines on the inch map . The following heights

° will agree with the previous assu mpt l o n of hills 9 high

Di st an ce 1 mile Height : 46 fee t 2 mile s 9 2 4 - 18 4 8 368 10 46 0

1 1 4

I also give other diagrams showin g the

n tio s of the brightest stars , those w 2 1 0 n a s 15 0 A D . 5 be observed , betwee the ye r and These have been plotted from th e calculations of authori ties I have n amed . N 34 . Fig . deals with the orthern stars The stars n umbered as follows

m me o f ar Nu e r . Na Nam f s st . e r e o t ar . Numb . b 4 1 a Co r o n ae . 1 B Ursae Mi n o r i s .

n P r 1 a e m n s o 5 o ru m Ca t r . 2 a Ur sae Mi o ri s ( o la i s) . G i ( ) 1 6 em n o ru m Po u . 3 a D raco n is . B G i ( ll x) 1 r s a r s D u e a Bo Ot es Arc t u r u s . 4 a U ae M j o i ( bh ) . 7 ( ) U r Ma r s 18 Le o n s . 5 7 sae j o i . B i 1 a n e . 6 1; U rsae M j o ri s (Be t n asch ) 9 a Le o n is (R egu l us ) .

D raco n s . 2 0 a n r m d 7 7 i A d o e ae . 8 a 2 1 e au r c o n e . B Cass io p i e . n T i (Al y ) 9 ass o e ae n 2 2 a a de ara . a C i p i . T ur i (Al b ) 2 10 Pe rse i . a 3 a Can i s Min o r i s (Pro c y o n ) . 11 Au r ae a a 2 4 e a A u ae . a ig (C p ll ) . q il 2 2 5 1 a. C n . a Or o ni s Be t e e u se yg i i ( lg ) .

1 L rae e 2 6 a r a n s ca . 3 y (V ga) . Vi g i i (Spi )

. 35 On Fig , dealing with the Southern stars , the names

l n are given a o g the curves .

No w suppo sin g that we have our plans ; that we have determi n ed the azimuth of the sight li n es ; and have foun d the declin ation of the star observed we may

ﬁ n d more than one star occupying that decli n ation at various dates . W ? hich of these stars , then , must we consider Obviously those most co n veniently situated for enabling w the time to be estimated during the night , or those hich

n could have been used as warni g stars . The warn in g stars can be con veniently picked up by s u ing a precessional globe . From it we gather that about 1900 1400 8 00 , and they were as follows for the critical

— . 35 . D e n c at on s o f 2 D . t o 2 15 0 B . C . FIG li i So u t hern St ars from 5 0 A .

a Ce t a A uar Or on s a an s Ma or s a co r i , q ii , B i i , Capr ico rn i , a C i j i , S pii , a Co u m ae P a sc es Au st r . Ar us a Ce n t auri a Ar il s l b , i , n g , , g . a Cruc s a ru s an d a. r dan i , G i , E i i . I I

14 B 00 . . C 8 B . 00 . C

° An t are s risin 1 g . N . 7 E . ° i ° n t ar e t in . 75 . s et t n S . 2 A es s t g S W g 7 W .

Siriu s

° risin 3 g . S. 6 E .

t e 2 B . Da . . 170 C . N E

2 9 B . C . 0 0 N . E

1900 B . C: N . E .

Bet elgeu s e ° s et t in 87 . g N . W

° ° °

Fe b r ar i i 3 a e 2 8 Ca e a 2 1 . u a e a r s n 6 C a . . . y C p ll g N . E . p ll N E p ll N E risin g h For the solstices , t at is , June and December , the following stars might be used as warn ers

4 B B 90 B . C 1 00 . C . 800 . C . 1 0 .

° u mm s i mi n o rum S er So t ce . e t u r sin et el e u se e B e e se . B G 87 . l lg i g N . E g y ° ° risin 90 . r si n . 8 6 . g N . E i g N E ° “ Arct u rus set t in ct u r us se t t in A h en a ma 18 . Ar . g N . W g ( l g ° ° w it h b i l hi h at e 1 3 . 6 l g (l ) N W . r e n is a. Se p t °

s e t ti n 5 3 . g N . W ° int r o i in s r Ca rico rn i e S st c e h eat r s e ar 2 a t o a. S . 7 . C W l i g ( ly ) . N E p ° i ° s e t t n 3 r Is n S 66 . i g N . 7 W . g E ° Mark ab o u x 8 . P (lat e) S. 9 E ll ° s et t in 42 g N . W .

It is obvious that a star used all the year round for night work will warn the sunrise at some one of the yearly festivals . W hen the stars having the same declination s are con side red n d from this poi t of view , the star actually use , ? ther e or e the da te o its u se and f f , may generally be

S gathered . I shall how su bsequently that some of the stars in the above lists were actually observed in British as well as in Grecian temples . CHAPTER XII — AST RONOMICAL HINT S FOR AR CHE OLOGIST S Con tin ued.

I NEXT come to the sun observations . First we must con sider the astronomical differences

n n s un betwee the risi g of a star and of the , by

’ which we ge n erally mean that small part of the sun s limb first visible It is freque n tly imagined that for determining the exact place of sunrise or su n set in connection with these a n cie n t monume n ts we have to deal with the

’

n n . su s ce tre , as we should do with the sun half risen

As a matter of fact , we must consider that part of

’ the s un s limb which ﬁrst makes its appearance above the horizon ; the first glimpse of the upper limb of the ' sun in n 2 is questio , say , when the visible limb is high ; and we must carefully take the height of the hills

s s n t over which it ri e i o account . The accompa n yi n g diagram will at once Show the differen ce between the rising conditions we have now

n . s to co sider It deals with the ummer solstice , as

° n s La N 5 9 . t . bei g the most preci e case , in

tha t is o the At this time the position of the sun , f

’ “ su n s cen t r e n in N , as give the autical Almanac , is

r represented by the double ci cle o n the sea horizon . is the equivalent of the decli n ation of will be seen that the real azimuths very different . The dotted circles represe position Of the su n with regard to the contin uous circles the apparent positions caused by t h e

n - u ff IVe s lifti g p e ect of refraction . have the position in azimuth of the apparent sun as it appears on a sea

u t o horizon , and when the horizon is formed by hills p 1 ° 5 in vertical height . To make this quite clear I give a table which h as ’ o f s been computed by Mr . Rolston , the Solar Physic

° n 1 Observatory , showi g azimuths with hills up to 9

° °

. 5 9 N 5 1 N. high for lat . , and nearly the latitude of

’ n n r Sto ehenge , of the su s upper limb for the summe solstice

SUMME R S L T I E O S C .

’ Su n s c en t re u n c o rre ct ed se a h o r izo n Sun 8 u ppe r l i mb c o r ° (hill 5 high - r ec t ed fo r se m d am t o i i e e r l an d re r f act io n 9 1 1£

W INT E R SOLe CE

’ Su n s c en t re ; u n c o rre ct e d

’ Sun s u ppe r limb ; c o r re c t e d fo r se mi - diamet e r an d ref rac t i o n

The ﬁrst important thing we learn from the table is that although at both solstices the azimuths of the

’ rising and setting of the sun s centre are the same , these azimuths of the upper limb at the summer and win ter solstices differ in a high n orthern latitude by

u t h e some The difference arises , of co rse , from AST RONO M ICAL H INT S I 2 ] n ﬁxed decli ation , at rising the limb appears

n it . centre , and at setti g lags behind it It will also be seen that at sunrise hills increase azimuth from N and refraction reduces it ; while at

n . setti g , hills reduce the azimuth from S and refraction in creases it .

This diagram , and table hould fully explain the variation of azimuth at sunrise caused by the fact that from our present point of view we do not deal with

sun the as a star . To make the foregoing ap plicable for monuments in

n n an d all latitudes betwee Britta y the Orkneys , I give

. 37 still another diagram , Fig , also prepared for me by

R n Mr . olsto which will enable any archaeologist to

n or the r esen t time determi e approximately , f p , the azimuth of sunrise at the summer solstice , without waitin g for the 2 1st of June in any year actually to

Observe it .

AS before stated , I have dealt with the solstice in this chapter because it affords us the most precise case . I hope to be able to deal with the May year sun in the same way later on .

C H A P. 2 ST ONEH N E 1 4. E G ST E NNESS I 2 5

n Stonehe ge , so I have gone over the old papers , plot h t ing t e results on the Ordnance map . No w that the inquiry is as complete as I can make it without spending some time in Orkney with a w theodolite , I ill begin my reference to other circles besides Stonehenge by stating the conclusions at which

I have arrived with regard to the ston es of St en n ess . In the ﬁrst place I may state that although many of the alignments to which Mr . Spence refers in his pamphlet on Maesh ow e prove to be very different from those he supposed and drew on the map which aecom

an ies n p his paper , the main point of his co tention is a mply conﬁrmed . I give a copy of the Ordnance map showing the true orien tation of these and of other Sight - lines I have made out .

The alignments on which Mr . Spence chieﬂy depended

n were two , one running from the sto e circle past the entrance of Maesh o w e to the place of su n rise at Hallow e ’ en (November another from the same circle by the Barnhouse standing stone to the mid - win ter sunrise at the solstice .

- n S Although the map gives these sight li es , I shall how that they had not the use Mr . Spence attributes to them ; but still observations of the sun were provided for on u the days in question , and the circles and o tstanding stones were undoubtedly set up to guide astronomical observations relating to the different times of the year .

n Of course , as I have shown elsewhere , such astro omical Observations were always associated with religious cele brat io n s n of one kind or another , as the astro omer and the priest were one . ST ONE H ENG E suggest that the 5 feet from the priest to view the sunrise in November over

s n in house to e one direction , and the sunset in h the circle in the ot er . I hope to be able to return to this question s ubseque n tly . There is a n other echo of this fu n damental lin e ; that j oining the Ri n g of Bo o kan and the Sto n es of Via has the same azimuth an d doubtless served the same purpose for the May year .

n n n N But this li e , givi g us the May su set and ovember

n n ot s n . su rise , the December sol titial su rise as Mr

n S n ot n n Spe ce hows it , is the only orie tatio connected with

s n n s N the May year at the tones of St e e s . The ovem

' — ber sunset is provided for by a sight line from the c ircle to a ston e across the Loch of St en n ess with an ° ’ a W zimuth of S . 5 3 30 . 12 0 To apply the table , given on p . , to the solstitial

n an d s St en n ess - risi gs ettings at , and the sight lines

o n which I have plotted the map , it will be seen that the table Shows us that t h e lines marked

4 1° ' N . 16 E . are solstitial lin es ; to get exact agreement with the table the heights of the hills must be found and allowed for .

I have roughly determined this height from the 1 - inch

- Ma sh w map in the case of the Barnstone e o e alignment .

On N E . Bu rrien H the horizon are the ills , four miles 6 00 away , feet high at the sunrise place , gradually ° ’ as E : . n 1 36 cending to the , vertical a gle The 1 2 9

Maesh w on and over the centre of o e .

- n Johnston , the Director General of the Ord ance has informed me that the true azimuth of this ° ’

E . Is N. 4 1 16 , and in all probability it represen ts the place of sunrise as seen from the B arn W Stone when Maesh ow e was erected . hat is most required in Orkney now is that some o n e with a good

’ 6 - inch theodolite should Observe the sun s place of rising and the angular height of the hills at the n ext summer solstice in order t o determine the date of the h Maes w . e erection of o e . Mr Spence and others mad an attempt to determine this value with a sextant in

1 n 8 99 . , but not from the Barnsto e In the absence of this observation we may use the

On . 12 1 W diagram given p . ith the height of hill pre vio usly given the sun Should rise according to calculation ° ’

4 1 5 0 . at about the azimu th N . E The difference between the new and old azimuth 1° ’ z 4 1 . n a . . 6 the , on the assumption that N E really

Maesh o w e u s t h e represents an observation over , gives f dif erence of date . Treating these ﬁgures then as we have don e in the

n in case of Stonehe ge Chapter VII , the result is as — follows . The Barnhouse Maesh ow e line was established 2 3° 4 8 ’ 00 B . 7 . C about , when the obliquity had a value of ’ according to Stockwell s tables . (Fig .

I confess the late date does not surprise me . The maso n ry of Maesh ow e differs widely from that of other similar structures in that the Sides of the gallery an d

n n n chamber , i stead of bei g composed of upright sto es , are built in regular courses . I do not believe that the Mae sh o w e structure w as K 1 30 ST ONEH E NGE built to obser ve a win ter sunrise twenty days from by someone who had o n ly dealt with a high sun and

n n su n a sea horizon , and imagi ed that the su rise and set points were exactly opposite to each other . It was ’ a priest s house , and the alignment of the passage to the

b i u it . Years O l q y .

AO BC

— - 1 A . D 4000 B . C. t c 00 . 40. ar at o n o f t h u t o f t h e c . e O FIG V i i bliq i y E lip i , ’ (St o ck w e ll s V al u es . )

n n h S Bar sto e was for the exc ange of ignals , probably by

Mae h w lights in s o e itself .

n &c . The Ordnance maps give no indicatio of stones , , by which the direction of the midsummer setting or the midwinter rising and setting might have been indicated from either the Maesh o w e or the Barnstone .

To sum up the solar alignments from the circle . point is CHAPTER XIV

° ’ T H E URL R S 5 0 . 31 N H E (Lat . )

T H E Sight - lines to which I have drawn attention in relation to the stones of St en n ess had to do with the places of su n rise and sun set in the May and Solstitial h years . I now pass to another group of circles in whic

- - we deal chieﬂy with the places of star rise and star set , some of the stars being used as warn ers for sunrise at the critical times of the two years in question . Following the clue given me in the case of the

Egyptian temples , such as Luxor , by successive small changes of the axis necessit ated by the chan ge in a

’ n star s place due to precessio , I began this stellar

' branch of the inquiry by looking out fo r t his peculiarity

n n in an examinatio of many maps and pla s of circles . I very soon came across two examples in which the

- n sight line had been changed in the Egyptian man er . c The ﬁrst is the three cir les of the Hurlers , some

5 L n miles to the north of iskeard , a pla of which is given in “ Prehistoric Stone Monuments of the British ” Lukis IVat h : . Isles Cornwall , C , Rector of ,

e u shire , publish d by the Society of Antiq aries , who

as n an d so good to fur ish me with a copy , also accurately drawn an d their azimuths determined . anxious to express my obligations to th e coun ofﬁcers of the society for the help thus afforded The three circles are thus referred to by Lu kis in the valuable monograph which I have already

n n me tio ed .

“ On t h e the moor , about a mile to the south of

S l u ingu ar pile of granite slabs , which rest pon and overlap each other , and is vulgarly called the Cheese w n ri g , there are three large circles of granite stones

- - placed in a nearly straight line in a north north east , an d - - south south west direction , of which the middle on e 135 is the largest , being feet in diameter, the north 1 10 S 105 . feet , and the outh feet

9 8 an d 8 2 The north Circle is feet , the south feet

n n from the ce tral one . If a li e be drawn uniting

o f t h e the centres of the extreme Circles , the centre middle rin g is found to b e 12 feet 6 i n ches to the west of it . “ Th e These Circles have been greatly inj ured . largest consists of 9 erect and 5 prostrate stones ; t h e

6 an d 6 n t north Circle has erect prostrate , and a fragme

n of a seve th ; and the south has 3 erect and 8 prostrate .

’ In Dr . Borlase s time they were in a Slightly better

- - . S him condition A pen and ink ketch made by , which

’ in o n e S uk el e n is extant of Dr . t y s volumes of origi al drawings , represents the middle Circle as consisting of 7 erect and 10 prostrate ston es ; the north of 10 erect and 6 prostrate ; and the south of 3 erect and 9 prostrate . The stone to the east of that marked C in the plan of the middle Circle is the highest , and is

1 36

- o 1 S In Fig . 4 I show the sight lines from the uth and north Circles as determined by the stones and barrows

- marked on th e map . The sight lines on Arcturus are from

—h e S t - n e s at t h e ur ers . 4 1. T FIG . igh li H l

S the centres of the three circles in succession . I hall point out later the signiﬁcance of the fact that the

November alignments are from the south , the solstitial

ones from the north Circle . in the ﬁrst instance , and which

t he h to ot ers , are approximately, reading the

to the nearest degree ,

° 1’ N Lat . 5 0 3 .

c rcle t o ce n t ral c rcle S. i i

al N c rcle Cen t r t o . i

N c rcle t o t u mu l u s . i

a preliminary inquiry in anticipat ion of the

O necessary local bservations with a theodolite , I assumed i 112 . h lls half a degree high , for the reason given on p . W e have the following declinations approximately '

Here , then , we have declinations to work on but declin ations of what star ? To endeavour to answer this question I stu died the declination s of the three

n n a brightest stars in the northern heave s , havi g p proximately the declinations in questio n some time or

C . other during the period 0 to 2 5 00 B .

wa Vega is ruled out as its declin ation s too high . The remaining stars Capella and Arcturus may have been observed so far as the declinations go . For time limits we have

D ec . . N

36 °

Now th ere is no qu estion as to which of these two

to deal with , for the northern circle is those in the S . circle .

n a This bei g so , the p proximate dates of the

a H the three circles t the urlers can be derived . They are n , with the above assumptio

So u t h ern c i rcle al ign i n g A rct u ru s o ver cen t re Of ce n t ral circle 1600

l N c rcl 15 00 C e n t ra . i e No r t hern t u mul u s 1300

O n o f The next step was to btai , by means a large

n circular protractor , more accurate readi gs of the

n n n Ord a ce Map . This I could do , but the all importa t

n n questio of the a gular height of the horizon remained . As it was impossible for me to leave London when the

S n o ut ig iﬁcance of the alignments was made , I appealed to the authorities of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic

fo r in n n Society aid obtai i g the necessary angles , and as n H a result , Captai J . S . enderson , of Falmouth , an

v n accomplished sur eyor , volu teered his aid and shortly se n t me the a n gular heights alon g some of the align

n s t h e s n O n me t , mean of eight readi gs btai ed with a

6 - n l i ch theodo ite , both verniers and reversed telescopes

n bei g employed . Other students of science besides myself will , I am sure , feel their indebtedness for such

n opportu e help . The combin ation of the large protractor and theo dolite work gives the following ﬁnal values . The difference between them and the provisional ones given above speaks volumes as to the necessity of a local study of the height of the horizon , a point I

n n believe i variably eglected by archaeologists .

an d a to SS . Justin Cl ire are r A . ugust It seems , then , that at the Hurle s really a questio n of a clock - star also used as a 1 s tar for the August festival . think we have r then , run to earth the origin of some of the northe ly align me n ts referred to on pages 36 and 43.

It will have been noted that the last sight - line on

w H n Arcturus was marked by a barro . Captain enderso

' n s an d fo u n d n i pected it it much rui ed by explorers ,

n remains of a chamber i side being visible .

In s H a sub equent visit , in which Captain enderson w as . H accompanied by Mr orton Bolitho , my wife and m f n ysel , we not o ly visited this barrow , but found that the whole hill had bee n honeycombed to such an e xtent by mining operations that it was very difﬁcult “ ” t o discriminate between investigated barrows an d

an d S other heaps holes , unless the barrow howed the

s remain of a chamber .

n n o s Our examinatio was t limited to barrow . Captain Henderson had spent a lon g bleak day in ex amin in g an d measuring the ston es marked on the

n e Ordna ce Map , to which I had call d his special T n n . “ e n him atte tio we t over part of the ground with , and came to the conclusion that the whole question of ” the Corn ish treatment of a n cient stones would

n n —an have to be go e i to inquiry which Mr . Bolitho is

i n now carry g on . It must be remembered that an y stone or barrow used in the sight - lines we are n o w con sidering must

have been put up nearly years ago , so long ago , in ‘ fact , that many of the chief barrows have been

S reduced to the keletons of their former selves , the c , n alo n e hamber built of mighty sto es ,

Cromlechs and standing stones then formed important points in the landscape long before ecclesiastical h divisions were t ought of, or any attempt was made

n to i dicate the boundaries of private property . T “ e Should expect then to ﬁnd these an cient monuments freely made use of to mark what we n o w

( C ” term parish boundaries . This is so . Four parishes have thus used one of the larger cromlechs , and it is more than probable that something beside the de n u n ciat io n c ult u s la idu m of the p , which we have

n seen at work in Brittany (p . has bee responsible f for the many stone crosses in Cornwall . Of some o them near circles I have gathered the astronomical use ,

“ the while now they mark bounds , as do some of the stone rows in Dartmoor . I believe that in later times this practice of the Church was followed by those among whom the land

t e was distributed , and this has gone on till at las ther are many ancient stones trimmed on one side an d

n bearing initials and so having a modern appeara ce .

“ ae The astronomer , and even the arch ologist , may regret

but t o this practice , as the habit in Cornwall appears be for anybody to use the nearest un crossecl and n u ’ i i . n tialled stone for a wall or a pigsty , Mr Bolitho s

S n s inquiry may how that in some cases , at all eve t , it has been a blessing in disguise , for the stones are still there .

In o f the case of a long chambered barrow , the top e which nearly touches the horizon , as seen from a circl

it a n m . near , there is less d nger of bei g isled In my n otes I poin ted out that the chambered Cairns at an d Mae sh o we suggested that such structures we m variants of the more an cient standing stones . So e barrows at the Hurlers lend further con ﬁrmatio n of this view . I will deal with them ﬁrst . Of one the data ° ’ W 2 4 9 . N. . 7 are Az. from Circle S , height of horizon ’ 12 (Capt . Henderson) . The resulting declination is

11 t 172 0 B . C . S . the declination of An ares But ? why Should Antares be thus singled out The table

n o page 117 shows the reason . At the date involved the setting of Antares in the dawn was the warner of t h e n n su rise on May morni g , the greatest day in all the year . ? IS there an y precedent for this u se of An tares

. 10 I have already pointed out (p 8) that Mr . Penrose foun d the warning s tars for May morning at the dates H of foundation of the ecatompedon , and the older m Erechtheu , to be the group of the Pleiades rising an d An ta r es setting . As the foundations of the Hecatompedon were built only some few years after the H stones of the central circle of the urlers were used . we ought to ﬁ n d traces of the observations of the

- same May morning stars .

W e have , then , now a third term in the astronomical use of stars to herald the sunrise on May morning .

T em le o f Min T e 32 B s C . p h be 00 . T m l at t h e p e e H u rlers Li sk e ard 172 0 Ol er E r d echt he u m A t hen s 1070

— The next barrow to be referred to it is shown to be a long o n e on the Ordnance Map—is situated

Azimuth , S .

the May year in November and February . There is another ston e marked on the Ordnance

° ‘ r m N. . e z N. 8 8 . A . E from the circle It been ‘has so I may fairly assume that it was really an ancient H ’ stone . Captain enderson s value for the height of ’ 1 the horizon is 1 1 The table on p . 1 7 will Show that in this direction we have to deal with Th Betelgeuse as a warner for the summer solstice . e

C . resulting date is 17 30 B . It would appear that possibly this is not the only stone dealing with (later) solstitial alignments . Lukis gives two stones o n the west side of the circles which on the Ord n ance Map are classed as boundary stones t o hey lie on a boundary beyond all question , but als beyond all question they are as ancient as the stones N of the circles themselves . From the . circle they are

l in t h e a most but not quite a line , and the azimuth of

° s 4 9 W south tone is S . . This is a solstitial azimuth .

r I think , therefore , that we may accept this as anothe eviden ce of the worship of the setting sun at the

r om the N cir cle in w e winter solstice , f . , and this have still further evidence t hat to the worship o f the May year in t h e south circle was added later o n e dealin g with the solstitial year which was chieﬂy carried on in the N. circle . CHAPTER XV

T HE D ART MOOR AVENUES

IN Chapter XI . I referred to the very numerous

an d alignments of stones in Brittany, I was allowed by L N ieutenant Devoir , of the French avy , to give some of his theodolite observations of the directions alon g which the stones had been set up . The conclusion was that we were really dealing with monuments connected with the worship of the sun of

Ma ear the y y , a year which the recent evidence has shown to have been the ﬁrst used after the len gth of the year had been determined ; thus replacin g the

“ in an d lunar unit of time which was vogue previously , the use of which is brought home to us by the reputed ages of Methuselah and other biblical personages , who knew no other measurer of time than the moon . There was also eviden ce to the effect that in later

i n n times solstitial al gnme ts had bee added , so that the idea tha t we were dealin g with astronomically orien ted

n o t rows of stones was greatly strengthened , to say established . So lon g as the Brittany alignments were things of

n w ell mystery , their origi , as as that of the more or less i ; similar monuments in Brita n , was variously explained n s light o thi point .

' The equivalents of the Brittan y alignments are n o t commo n in Britain ; they exist in the greatest n umber o n Dartmoor, whither I went recently to study them The con ditions on high Dartmoor are peculiar ; dense

an d blinding mists are common , , moreover , sometimes

n o come o almost without warning . From its c nformation the land is full of streams . There are stones everywhere .

W n hat I fou d , therefore , as had others before me , was that as a consequence of the conditions to which I have

n referred , directions had been indicated by rows of sto es H for quite other than ceremonial purposes . ere , then , was another possible origin . It was a matter of great importance to discriminate most carefully between these a lignments , and to endeavour to sort them out . My special inquiry , of course , was to see if they , like their a pparent equivalents in Brittany , could have had an

. n astronomical origin The ﬁrst thi g to do , then , was to see which might have been erected for worship or which for practical purposes .

It is

t can in arise , but the verdic , a great many

t an events , be settled wi hout y very great especially where practical or astron omical uselessness

can i . be establ shed But even here care is necessary , as

I shall Show .

n n are The sto es now in questio , originally upright , variously called avenues , rows , alignments or paralleli

n u 1 2 . 8 7 tho s Their st dy dates from , when Rowe and Colon el Hamilton Smith examined those at Merrivale

0 . it c . . (Rowe , p , p Their number has increased r with every careful study of any part of the moo , and 1

s n . . . doubtles many are still u mapped The late Mr . R N T \Vo rt h an d “ o r h H . t , of Plymouth , his son , Mr . , have

n n give great atte tion to these monuments , and the former communicated a paper o n them to the Devonshire Association for the Advancement of Science in 18 92

T ra n s . . 38 ( , xxv pp 7

A word of caution must be said before I proceed . — \Ve must not take for granted that the stone rows are now as they left the hands of the builders . The disastrous carele ssness of the Government in the matter

n of our national a tiquities is , I am locally informed , admirably imitated by the Devonshire County and other '

n l an d n lesser cou ci s , , i deed , by anybody who has a road

. On to mend or a wall to build this account , any of the rows may once have been much longer and with an obvious practical use ; and those which now appear

1 On Jun e 15 1905 t at e cell e n t u e of t h e C a fo r , , h x g id h g d art of t h e mo o r Mr S . P rr w . e o t t s o me an a e n u e Az mu t N . p , , h ed v ( i h °

2 - 0 E . t r u e ) n ear H u rst o n R idge w hi c h is n o t give n in t he l in ch ma p . I

r removed from circles may once have bee n used fo r sacred processions at shrines which have dis

Again , the rows of stones we are now considering ” must not be con founded with the track lines or “ boundary banks ” which are so numerous on Dart W moor , and are represented in iltshire according to Sir H R . C . oare these serve for bounds and pathways , and for connecting and enclosing ﬁelds or houses .

Dealing , then , with stone rows or avenues , which may be single , double , or multiple ; any which are very

an d long crooked , following several directions , are cer t ain ly not astronomical ; and it is easy to see in some cases that they might have been useful guides at night

diﬂicu lt or in mist in country with streams to cross . This possible utility must not be j udged wholly by the present conformation of the ground or the present beds of streams . For multiple avenues it is hard to ﬁnd practical uses such as the above , and we know how such avenues

. a were used in Brittany for sun worship Mr . B ring Gould considers there were eight rows in an avenue on Challacombe Down 5 2 8 feet long ; of these only three rows remain , the others being represented by

. S single stones here and there , (Rowe , p I hall

have something to say about this avenue further on .

Although , as I have said , long rows bending in various directions are not likely to have had an astro

n o mical n o t all origin , it must be assumed that astro l n omical v exa c t . a enues must be y straight This , of

course , would be true for level ground , but if the

avenue has to pass over ridges and furrows , the varying alon g it . I thin k it possible that in the St alldo n we have the mixture of religious an d pra ctical tion at which I have before hinted . Both Mr . Lukis W and Mr . Hansford orth have studied this monument , which is two miles an d a quarter long . There is a 6 0 t circle at the south end about fee in diameter , while at it s northern end there is a cairn . W here the line starts from the circle the direction of

- the row is parallel to many sight lines in Cornwall ,

in n and Arcturus would rise the azimuth i dicated . But this directio n is afterwards given up for one which

an b ut leads towards important collection of circles , and it crosses the Erme , no doubt at the most convenient spot . More to the north it crosses another stream and the bog of Red Lake . All this is surely practical

n e ough , although the way indicated might have been followed by the priests of the hut circles to the stone circle ' to prepare the morning sacriﬁce and go through the ritual .

n But there is still a other method of discrimination . If an y of these avenues w ere used at all for purposes of worship , their azimuths should agree with those already found in con n ection with circles in other parts

n o t of Britain , for we need postulate a special race with a special cult limited to Dartmoor ; and in my inquiries what I have to do is to con sider the general ques t ion

n of orientatio wherever traces of it can be found . The more the eviden ces coi n cide the better it is for the

n f argument , while variatio s af ord valuable tests .

an d menhirs without circles , so that the a

- n . eh o f the avenues alo e remain to give us any , ance dating the mon uments if they were used in connection with star worship . The case is far different in Corn

r wall , where both ci cles and menhirs have in many cases been spared .

On Dartmoor , where in some cases the menhirs still

n remai , they have been annexed as crosses and perhaps

n as boundary stones , and squared and initialed ; he ce the Ordnance surveyors have been misled , and they

n are n ot shown as ancie t stones on the map . In some cases the azimuth of the stones suggest s that this has been the sequence of events . It will be seen from the above that I have not tackled a question full of pitfalls without due caution , an d this care was all the more necessary as the avenues have for lon g been the meeting ground of the friends ” an d foes of what Rowe calls Druidical speculations ; even yet the war rages , and my writing and Lieut .

’ Devoir s observing touchin g the similar but grander avenues of Brittan y have so far been all in vain ;

n chieﬂy , I thi k , because no discrimination has been

s considered possible between different uses of avenue , an d because t h e statements made by archaeologists as to their direction have been quite useless to anybody in consequence of their vagueness , and last of all because the recent work on the Brittany remains is little known . I began my acquain tance with the Dartmoor monu ments by visiting Merrivale , and the result of my inquiries there left absolutely no doubt whatever on my

. mind I was armed , thanks to the kindness of Colonel

, Johnston the Director of the Ordnance Survey , with the

T ON H NGE 1 5 4 S E E

w th e To Simplify matters we may deal ith Ordnance values and neglect the small change of direction in

W e n s the southern avenue . have , the , the two date Th . e 142 0 B . C . C . 15 80 B . and for the two avenues argument for the Pleiades is stren gthened by the fact that at Athe n s the Hecatompedon was oriented to ’

. s C . these stars in 149 5 B . according to Mr Penrose determination of the azimuth . Now this is not t h e ﬁrst time I have referred to

c ‘ q u rv u cu v

o ﬂ l n ol ﬂ b

4 — n n h e a e n ue s circ e an d st o n e s . 3. P a ro m t h e Ordn an c e Ma s o w t FIG l , f p , h i g v , l

at Merr a e w t t e r az mut s . iv l , i h h i i h

in s avenues the e notes . The azimuth of one at Stone he n ge was used t o ﬁx the date at which sun worship

n . n k r we t on there That avenue , u li e the Dartmoo

o f is ones , was built earth , and it is not alone . There

n n o a other early two miles long called the Cursus . S

n n o far , I have fou d solstitial worship on Dartmoor , so there are n o avenues parallel to the one at Sto n e NE henge leading . from the temple . But how about ? the other It is r oughly p a r a llel t o the a ven ues a t

° ’ h n 2 4 2 5 E . N. , and the eight of the horizo

s 18 6 0 B. C . This gives us Arcturu at the date ,

clOck that , as at the Hurlers , Arcturus was used as a

a s tr o n omica l star . Hence a possible use is evident , t while this row , like the o hers , could have been of no i p r actica l use to anybody . It is interest ng to note that this sin gle row of stones is older than the double ones ; this seems natural . It is worth while to say a word as to the different treatment of the e n ds of the south avenue now that it seems probable that it was used to watch the rising of

A arch o the Pleiades . t the east end there is what ae “ logist s term a blockin g stone these observations s si htin uggest that it was really a g g stone . At the west end such a stone is absent , but the ﬁnal stones in the avenue are longer than the rest . This may help us in the true direction of the sight - lin es in other

S avenues ; and , indeed , I shall how in the sequel that this consideration affords a criterion which , in the cases I have come across , is entirely in harmony with others . CHAPTER . XVI

T HE D ART MOOR AVENUES (con tin u ed)

MY inquiries began at Merrivale because there is a circle associated with the aven u es a little to the

n n south of the west end of the lo gest ; and agai nearly ,

ﬁ n e or quite , south of this there is a menhir , possibly

- n used to give a north south li e . There is another men ° ’ E n n N 0 30 . . 7 hir given on the Ord a ce map , azimuth ,

' ° w hich w it h 3 t , hills high , poin s out roughly the place of sunrise from the circle in May (April Although

an d n n this stone has been squared i itialed , I thi k I am j ustiﬁed in claiming it as an ancient monumen t .

E . N. 8 3 There is still another , azimuth , giving a line from the circle almost parallel to the aven ue . I

ae n hope some local arch ologist will exami e it , for if

: e ancient it will tell us whether the N. av nue or the ffi circle was built ﬁrst , a point of which it is di cult to

o n overrate the imp rta ce , as it will show the strict relationship between the astronomy of the avenues

n and that of the circle , and we can now , I thi k , deal with the astron omical use of circles after the results

O t St en n ess Hu s btained a Stonehenge , and the rler as NVi h s fact . t the above approximate value h h e 17 5 0 B . C . t e t date comes out ,

° n N 6 Pleiades bei g . I n o w pass on from Merrivale as an example those avenues the direction of which lies somewhere

- VV . i n t he E . . direction Others which I have not

Assacombe D rizzlecombe seen , given by Rowe , are at , W H and Tro w lesw o rt hy ; to these Mr . orth adds arter o r Har Tor (or Black Tor) .

The avenues which lie nearly N. and S . are more

t h e - Fern w o rt h numerous . Rowe gives following y ,

C T ro w lesw o rt h St alldo n hallacombe , y , Moor , Batten d do n H an . , ook Lake , Tristis Rock Of these I have visited the ﬁrst two , as well as one on Shovel Down n ot n e am d by Rowe , and the next two I have studied o n 6 - a the inch Ordn nce map .

° F er wo r th — n . 5 0 H y (lat ere are two avenues , ° ' ° o n e E . 1 N. 15 4 5 with azimuth , hills There is a s W ighting stone at the N. end . e appear to be dealing

A s — 1 1 B C . with rcturu as clock star 6 0 . This is about the

N. date of the erection of the avenue at Merrivale . The secon d ave n ue has its sightin g stone built into a w en d. t h e all at the south Looking south along avenue , ° ’ ° n . 8 4 2 V 3 the conditio s are azimuth S I , hills

Both these avenues are aligned on points within ,

n ot n but at the ce tre of, the circle .

° Challa combe — (lat . 5 0 This is a case of a

n ‘ triple ave ue , probably the remains of eight rows , in a h depression between two ills , Challacombe Down an d W n arri gton . There is no circle . The azimuth is 2 3° 3 ’ N 7 . W . . . n or S E , accordi g to direction . The northern end has been destroyed by an old stream work ; there is no blocking stone to the south on located their monum which were so useful to them

In of some an gular height . lines would be available for a longer period of time , for near the north point the change of azimuth with change in the declination of the star Observed is very rapid . ° ’ — A Shove l D own Bat w o rt h . 5 0 39 , near y (lat

s group of ﬁve row of stones , four double , one single , with two sets of azimuths .

One set give s az. and They seem to

an d . be associated . I will call them A , B , C A is i h directed to the circle on G o dle g Common . Its ends

n . are free . B is a single li e of stones to the E of the

n ot triple circle , about which more presently . It is marked on the Ord n an ce map ; its ends are also free .

en d k C has its south blocked , I thin in later times ,

n n by a kistvae . The astro omical direction may be , IV N. W ﬁ n d . e therefore , either or S . E . a probable use N W f . n in the quadra t , as at Challacombe , Arcturus

n n setti g at daybreak as a war er of the summer solstice . The height of hills is 4 6 ’ we have then

Az. D e c N . t ar . S . N 2 2 ° W ° ' . . 36 19 4 0 A r ct u ru s

° ° ' ”

N . 2 5 W . 35 2 3 2 0 N ° W ° , . 2 8 . 34 19 30

A n Adjacent to , B , C , is a other avenue , which I

. Un will call D like the others , its northern end points 2 ° E . of N. Its southern end is blocked by a remarkable l triple circ e , the end of the avenue close to it being m . W e deﬁned by two tall ter inal stones are j ustiﬁed ,

n in n the , thi king that its orientation was towards the north ; the height of the horizon I measured as It D ART MO OR AV ENU ES I 6 I

a N ttempt to mark the . point of the

circle to which I have referred is not an

e . I believe it to be a later added , much t embellished , cairn . According to Ormerod , the diame ers 2 6 2 0 3 are , , and feet , and there are three small stones at the centre . All the above avenues are on the slope of the hill to the north . On the south slope we ﬁnd the longest of all , as sho wn 011 the Ordnance map survey of 18 8 5 . There “ in an d n is a long stone its centre , at the souther ” end was formerly a cromlech , the three boys . Part of

“ ” an d this avenue , two of the three boys , have been

n taken to build a wall . The long sto e remains , because it is a boundary stone " ° ’

2 W . . The azimuth is 30 . of north or E of south

N. Looking from the long stone , the height of the

° horizon is 2 I think this avenue was an attempt to mark the S . point .

° Tr owle r th 5 0 2 — swo y (lat . 7 The remains here are

n most i teresting . This is the only monument on Dart moor in which I have so far traced attempt _ any to locate the sun ’ s place at rising either for the May

- N. S. or solstitial year . But I will deal with :the

n ave ue ﬁrst , as it is this feature which associates it

F rn o with e w rt hy and Challacombe . “ As at Merrivale the avenue has a de cide c kin k

o r c h an n . ge of directio . The facts as gathered from the

6 - inch map are as follows

D ec N . St ar . D at e . Az s . . . Hill ° ° ' °

N E 2 5 2 4 1 A rc t u ru s 2 130 B . C . S. art of A en u e 7 . p v . ° ° ' ° , ”

4 2 2 08 0 B . C 2 5 2 1 6 0 . N 12 E . . M ST ONE H E NGE

This date is very nearly that of the use of the S. circle at the Hurlers , and it is early for Dartmoor ; but it is quite possible that local observations on an associated avenue a little to the west of the circle

N S . which terminates the avenue will j ustify it .

— - W 46 T h e s t n e s a t T rO Ie sw o r t h s o w n h h n o rt he rn az mut hs . FIG . . igh li y , h i g ig i r m n m F o t h e Ord an ce ap .

This is not far from parallel to that at Merrivale , but

n its norther azimuth is greater , so that if it turns out to have been aligned o n the Pleiades its date will be some

e 15 8 0 B . C . time before that of Merrivale , that is , befor

- I can say nothing more about it till I have visitcd it . The new features to which I have referred are two

1 64 avenue at Stonehenge undoubtedly aligned on of the circle , but there the naos was on an so that t h e procession in the avenue was always below the level of the horizon , and so did not block the view . (3) Do all the cairns and cists in the avenues r e present later additions , so late , indeed , that they may have been added after the avenues had ceased to b e used for ceremonial purposes ? The cairn at ne arly

w as the central point of the S . avenue at Merrivale certainly not there as a part of the structure when the avenue was ﬁrst used as a via sa cr a for observing the rising of the Pleiades . I have always held that these

n a cient temples , and even their attendant long and

‘ t h e chambered barrows , were for the living and not for dead , and this View has been strengthened by what I have observed on Dartmoor . There was good reason for burials after the sacred n S ature of the pot had been established , and they may have taken place at any time Si nce ; the most probabl e

n C . u as a time bei g after 1000 B . p to a date recent s

a arch eologists may consider probable .

. W t o n Mr or h , whose long labours the Dartmoor

n n s ave ues give such importance to his opi ions , obj ect t o the astron omical use of those avenues because there are so many of them ; he informs me that he knows of 5 0 ; I thin k this obj ection may be considered less valid if the avenues Show that they were dedicated

s to different uses , ome practical and others sacred , at ff di erent times of the year . For instance , Challacombe

t he is not a duplicate of Merrivale ; one is solstitial , other deals with the May year ; and a complete o n ly worked on the fringe

“ fav our of the astronomical view it must be born e mind that the results obtained in Devon an d Corn wall are remarkably similar , and the dates are roughly the same . Among the whole host of heaven from which obj ectors urge it is free for me to select an y

t n star I choose , at presen only six stars have bee con sidered t w o , of which were certainly used , as in Egypt , as clock - stars as they j ust dipped below the northern w horizon , and other two after ards at Athens ; and these six stars are shown by nothin g more recondite than an inspection of a precessional g lobe to have been precisely “ n n the stars , the mor ing stars , wa ted by the priest astronomers who wished to be prepared for the in stan t of sunrise at the critical points of the May or solstitial year . CHAPTER XVII

° ’ N D R E W La 1 10 . ST ANT ON ( t . 5 )

O T H E R circles to which I have given some at tention are at Stanton Drew in Somerset . I regret to say that I have n o t as yet had an opportunity of visit ing them . But a cursory in spection on the Ordn ance map of the possible s ight - lines from circle to circle, fo r

n there are three , suggested at o ce that we were dealing

s with the ame problem as that worked out , if some f n at H . what di fere tly , the urlers

t w o The three circles , two avenues leading from

o u t of the circles towards the river , and some stan din g sto n es were most carefully surveyed by

Mr . . . H C E Dymond some years ago . e was good e n ough to se n d me copies of his plans and levelling

n sectio s . I have not had the advan tage of perusin g

d n his memoir , but I have stu ied the monume ts as well as I could by means of the 2 5 - inch Ordnance

. w an n map This , combined ith azimuth which Colo el

- n Johnston , the Director Ge eral of the Ordnance Survey ,

i me n s was k nd enough to send , should give me beari g within a degree . circles themselves . It is pointed to by the fact that a line from it passes n early through the centre of the great

an If the observation line then , meant astro n omically , it can only have had to do with the rising of a star far to the north , in a position far more northerly than the sun ever reaches .

The quoit , lying in an orchard by the roadside , — has n othin g very impressive about its appearance a recumbe n t mass of greyish sandston e ; b u t it seems to be a brick in the Stanton Drew building . By some

IVilt shire regarded as a sarsen block from , it is , in

’

. L O n Prof loyd Morgan s pi ion , more probably derived from the Old Red Sandstone of Mendip . In any case

n ot S n in sit u it is , geologically peaki g , ; nor has it reached its prese n t position by natural agen cy . \ Vith regard to two of the megalithic circles , at ﬁrst Sight the constituent ston es seem irregularly dotted about the ﬁeld ; but as we approach them the u n

s evenly paced stones group themselves . The material of which the greater number of the rude blocks is composed is peculiar and worthy of careful examination . It is a much altered rock con

-in n an sist g , in most of the sto es , of extremely hard siliceou s breccia with angular fragmen ts embedded in a

an d red or deep brown matrix , with numerous cavities

Sla which give it a rough gg appearance . Many of these hollows are coated internally with a j asper - like

n material , the central cavity bei g lined with gleaming

- quartz crystals . The maj ority of the stones were probably brought

H n from arptree Ridge on Me dip , distant some six D re w

o t o ra o f 2 5 - n c an t o n D re w . P —T h e Circles an d Aven u e s at St g p i h i 4 . h h F . g 7 - e azimut s of s t n e s . c e ma s ew in appro ximat h ig li Ordn an p , h g h “f miles . eathered blocks of

siliciﬁ cat io n various stages of , there lie on an d there probably lay the weathered mon im= have bee n tran sported to Stan ton Drew . It is portant to note that they were erected unhewn and

ne u n touched by the tool . A few sto s are of other — “ ” material sandstone , like the quoit , or oolite from

Dundry .

In the great circle , of the visible stones some retain

n their erect positio , others are recumbent , several are

- partially covered by accumulation of grass grown soil .

re Others are completely buried , their position being vealed in dry seasons by the withering of the grass above them .

To the east of this circle a short avenue leads out , there bein g three visible stones and one buried block .

o n e n an d i . on the ha d , two vis ble stones on the other

’ But one s atte n tion is apt to be diverted from these to

an d E . the very large massive megaliths of the small N. circle . This is composed of eight weathered masses , o n e of which (if indeed it do not represent more than o n e L . an d ) , Prof loyd Morgan tells us , is recumbent

n shattered . From this circle , all the sto es of which are of the siliceous breccia , a short avenue of small stones also opens out eastwards . The third or circle lies at some little distance from the others . The average size of the stones is s smaller than in either of the other circle , and not all are composed of the same material . “ ” The Cove , which has been variously regarded as a dolmen , a druidical chair of state , and a shelter for

is ' clo se sacriﬁcial ﬁre , to the church . originally the southern line of sto n es form i ng avenue was directed towards the centre of the s o n din 0 p g circle , and that the avenue was then plet ed by the erection of a parallel line of stones . difference of a few degrees may thus * be accounted for in t he azimuth supposed to have been originally ” marked out . ’ About Mr . Morrow s azimuths there can be no

He w s : question . rite

“ n 6 The i struments used were , ﬁrst , a theodolite ,

" a n d 6 . second , a transit theodolite The ﬁnal results w n ere obtai ed with the latter . It cannot be reversed

n n n whe measuri g elevatio s . I tested it very carefully for the adj ustme n ts of (a ) lin e of collimation at right

n n s b n a gles to the horizo tal axi , ( ) horizo tal axis per

en dicu lar v 0 n p to ertical axis , and ( ) li e of collimation an d n n spirit level parallel to each other . The i strume t

ﬁ rst - was in rate order , the error in elevation , for e n n xample , bei g withi that corresponding to a slope of 1 in that is well within the limit of 2 0" to w hich vertical angles can be read . The meridian was obtained by two different methods a pplied several times , the results agreeing very closely . Readin gs of azimuths an d altitude of sun were taken

n between three and four hours after noo , corrected

- &c . n for semi diameter , , and the true bearing obtai ed with the aid of the latit ude and the declination given N in autical Almanac (corrected for time) . “ \ th e Vith regard to the elevations of the horizon , existen ce of trees on or j ust below the sky - lin e renders ° In all readings to the nearest minute uncertain . cases

- Th e as a clock star . facts are

AZ .

° ° ' " ° ' 38 5 9 0 2 2 3 A rc t u rus 16 90 1 E . N . 7

, ° , 2 0° 37 ° 2 6 5 0 1 44 14 10

One of the greatest differe n ces between Mr . local observation an d my readin g of the 2 5 - inch

Ordnan ce map occurs in the case of the direction of the avenue from the great circle . It may be suggested that the use of this avenue was to Observe the May an d August s unrises of the May year . If we take the ’ ° ’ 2 2 n n n 16 2 0 N. . su s decli atio at , see p , the azimuth

° °

an d. 4 E . 1 Should be about N. 6 ; this is from my value

5 . from that given by Mr Morrow , but it must not be forgotten that the choice of a day in May and August Slightly differin g from the normal date might easily produce such a variation . It seems probable that the great circle was one of the ﬁrst erected , and the fact that , like Stonehenge ,

an n it had ave ue , but that , unlike Stonehenge , the avenue was directed towards the May and not the June (solstitial) sunrise further , I think , suggests that the May worship was considered the most import ﬁ ant and was the rst provided for . There is reason for suppos in g that the great circle

NV . was at all events built before the S one . The

S. W great circle is situated at a lower le vel than the . one . The angular elevation of the hills over which A rcturus rose would appear , therefore , to be higher

m IV r fro the great than from the S. . circle . A cturus has been reducing its declin ation for centuries in co n

sequence of the precessional movement . It would

: large circle , the data are as follows

D e . N. H e t Of s . c Az. igh Hill

Mo rro w . Mo rro w . w Lo c er . Mo r ro . ky ' ° ’ ° ° 1° 5 ’ 2 2 ° 43 5 0 2 3 48 46 5 1 E . N . 5 3 E . N .

Of t he AS Mr . Morrow states , the choice centre of circle may alter the azimuth obtained by as much as

“ t h e a few degrees , but the value obtained from

E . . n . 5 1 Ord ance map is , deﬁnitely , N , and with the height of hills determin ed by Mr . Morrow this would suggest.

t h e that the N E . circle was really erected to provide m alignment , from the centre of the great circle , or fro

r the Cove , to the summer solstitial sun , about the yea

’

0 B. C . . 8 7 , Stockwell s values for the obliquity being taken This result is the more striking as it gives a date for the substitution of the June for the May worship at,

n in t Stanto Drew , which is full accordance with tha obtained for the similar change at St en n ess .

n There is other evide ce , to which I attach importance , as it deals with a method and policy found in many

in h n n t temple ﬁelds Egypt , t at of blocking the alig me

- of an older star or sun cult , which the astronomer priests replaced by their own . The stones of the avenue.

N. E of the solstitial . circle I expect once blocked the May sunrise line from the great circle ; j udging from t h e

n n n s Ord a ce map , and remembering the number of sto e

n that have disappeared , this is probable if not certai .

s SO NE t o If thi were , then the . circle was the last be erected , and this suggestion is strengthened by Mr . Lewis ’ s statement that it is the most perfect of the three . L Prof. loyd Morgan concludes his interesting account I 7 7

so much use with the followin g

Order the circles were co n structed we do W N E . hether the small . circle with its more megaliths preceded or succeeded the great circle

v its more numerous but , on the average , less massi e stones , is a matter of mere conj ecture . They may have been contemporaneous : b ut it is more likely that so large a work took a long time in execution ; nor does the unity of plan of the ﬁnal product preclude a gradual process of development . Finally as to t h e

n purpose of the erection , and its hidden astro omical ,

n mythological , or social meani g (if it have one) , we are once more at the mercy of more or less plausible eo n ject u re . There stand the circles in a quiet Somersetshire

n valley , sile t memorials of a race concerning whose modes of life , of labour , and of thought we can but speculate. It is to be hoped that before the monument has dis

so m appeared like any of its fellows , some student with more knowledge and time to devote to the inquiry than myself will endea vour to answer more of the questio n s raised by it . CHAPTER XVIII

FOLK LORE AND T RAD IT ION

NVE have so far considered the circles at Stonehenge ,

St en n ess H w , the urlers and Stanton Dre , and the avenues

o in Brittan y and on Dartmoor . Before I refer t my later work in the south - west of E n gland or attempt to present a summary of the results of the inquiry , I think it will

n n Of be co venie t to turn for a time to another branch it , for that there is another closely connected series of facts to be considered in relation to the monuments folklore and

n traditio abundantly prove . — So far in this book I have dealt chieﬂy with stones as

I hold , associated with , or themselves composing , sanc

u ari W t e s . e n have become acquai ted with circles , men hirs n s a ae , dolme s , altar , vi e saer , various structures built up of stones . Barrows and eart he rn banks represented them later . The view which I have been led to bring forward so far is that these structures had in one way or an other to do with the worship of the sun and stars ; that they had for the most part an astro n omical use in connection with

n religious ceremo ials . The next question which concerns us in an which we are at pres ent concern tion s we must look for is that chief afﬁrmation with regard to that they were used for ceremonial purposes at certain

n s n a ricu l seaso s , tho e seaso s being based ﬁrst upon the g ’ an d n ast ro n omical divisio n s tural , later upo the of the year ,

n n in r to which I drew atte tio Chapter III . In Chapte IV . , when referring to the agricultural an d astronomical new ’ l years days , I indicated a possible re ation between the

n temple worship and the ﬂoral celebratio s of that time , an d n in n n s later o (p . connection with the mo ume t in a n s Britt ny , I poi ted out the coincidence of ﬁre custom at the same time of the year . But in a matter of this kind it will not do to depen d upon isolated cases ; the ge n eral trend of all the facts available alon g several lin es of inquiry must be found and

y n i n t er se studied , ﬁrst separatel and the , if any ﬁnal

n co clusion is to be reached . This is what I now propose to do in a very summary manner . It is not my task to arrange the facts of folk

an d lore tradition , but simply to cull from the available source s precise stateme n ts which bear upon the question s

. as before us These statements , I think , may be accepted trustworthy , and all the more so as many of the various reco rd ers have had no idea either of the existence of a May year at all or of the connection between the differen t classes of t he phenomena which ought t o exist if my theory of their common origin in con n ection with an cient worship and the monuments is anywhere near the truth . This question of time relation s is surrounded by diﬂti l i c u t es .

I gave in Fig . 7 the Gregorian dates of the beginning T RAD IT ION 1

’ if nothin g but the su n s ’

2 . 0 S. N or , four times in its yearly

be considered . These were

En d o f W i n t er B egi n n i n g o f Spr i n g l E n d o f Su mmer

Begin n i n g of A u t u mn W i n t er

In the table I also give , for comparison , the dates in the

G n reek and Roma calendars (p . There is no question that o n or about the above days festivals were anciently celebrated in these isla n ds possibly

o n e s not all at all holy places , but some at and ome at h another ; this , per aps , may help to explain the varia tion in the local traditions and eve n some of the group

ings of orientations . The earliest information on this point comes from

Ireland .

AI’ Cll blSll O in Cormac , p of Cashel the tenth century , “ V allan ce states , according to y , that in his time four great ﬁres were lighted up on the four great festivals

viz A of the Druids , . , in February , May , ugust and N ” 1 ovember . I am not aware of an y such general statement as early as this in relation to the four festivals of the May year

S n in Great Britain , but in pite of its abse ce the fact

an d n is undoubted that festivals were held , ma y various

. o f n o . f rms celebration used , during those mo ths

1 H azl t t icti on ar Fai ths a n d Folklor e u n e r G u le of A u u st . i , D y of , d g n mo th .

W n ff o f he Easter became a movable feast , the e orts w the priests were greatly facilitated , and indeed it ould seem as if this result of su ch a change was not absent from the minds of those who favoured it .

n The cha ge of style was , as I have before stated , a

n n an d s r fruitful source of co fusio , thi was still furthe f 1 complicated by another di ﬁculty . Piers tells us that con sequent upon the change the Roman Catholics light their ﬁres by the new style , as the correction originated from a pope ; and for that very same reason t h e

Protestants adhere to the old . I will refer to each of the festivals an d their changes of date .

Fe br u a r y 4 . Before the movable Easter the February festival had been transformed into Ash W ednesday (February

eve an d The of the festival was Shrove Tuesday , it is

1 Su r ve o the So u th ( l r elan d 2 2 3 . y f gf , p . those days occur in February or under the impressio n that they are doing homage

an d church festival , the pagan origin is entirely gotten not on ly by them b u t even by those who ” 1 c hronicle the practice s as Lent customs .

n n Fi ally , after the i troduction of the movable Easter , ” t he n priests at Rome , i stead of using the pagan ashes p roduced on the eve of the ﬁrst Sunday in Lent or Ash

W n in ed esday each year , utilised those derived from t h e burn in g of the palms used on Palm Sunday of the year before . Further step s were take n to conceal from future “ ” ge n eratio n s the origin of the pagan custom due on 4 “ ” 3 . February . February was dedicated to St Blaze . Ho w well this a n swered is shown by the following

2 “

. Blaze us quotation from Percy The anniversary of St .

3rd n in is the February , whe it is still the custom many parts o f England to light up ﬁres on the hill s on

Bla t St . yse nigh t : a c u s om a n t ien tly ta ken up p er hap s j br n o bet ter r ea son th an the jinglin g r esembla n ce of ” his n a me t o the w r o d B la ze .

n n o t suﬂi c A This eve did e . great candle church festival

s was e tablished on February 2 . This was called Ca n dle ” an d n mas , Ca dlemas is still the common name of the

n n n In begi i g of the Scotch legal year . the Cathedral of Durham whe n Co sen s was bishop he busied himself from

clo cke in aft ern o o n e two of the the till foure , in climbing lon g ladders to stick up wax can dles in the said Cathedral

Church the number of all the ca n dles burn t that eve n in g

1 Frazer Go lden B ou h 2 3 . 8 et se . , g , iii , q 2 f o tes to N or thu mbe r la n d H ou seho ld B ook 1 3 7 7 0 . 33. , , p torches ; 6 0 of those burn ing tapers ” 1 U n t he po and near high altar . There is eviden ce that the pagan ﬁres at other times of the year were also gradually replaced by candles in the

Ma y 6 . The May festival has been treated by the Church in the s W Sun ame way as the February one . ith a ﬁxed Easter da 2 2 4 6 y on March , days after brought us to a Thursday H 2 W (May hence oly Thursday and Ascension Day . ith W Easter movable there of course was more confusion . hit

n n Sunday , the Feast of Pe tecost , was o ly nine days after

an d Holy Thursday , it occurred , in some years , on the

n In s ame day of the month as Ascensio Day in others .

W n Scotland the festival now is ascribed to hit Su day . It is possibly in consequence of this that the festival before even the chan ge of style was held on the 1st of the month . W In Cornwall , here the celebrations still survive , the da y chosen is May 8 .

A u t ug s 8 . For the migrations of the dates of the pagan festival in n 12 h 1st . t the begi ning of August from the to the , I migrations complicated by the old and new style , refer to

1 u o t e b H azl t t Q d y i . 2 Mu ch con fus i o n h as ar i se n w it h re gard t o t h e H oly T hu rsday in R ogat ion w e ek because t here is an o t he r H o ly o r Mau n dy T h u rsday i n E ast er w ek A rc l a al n ft n m sl b t h e e . haeo ogi st s h ve so bee o e i ed y p rac t i ce o f man y w r it e rs o f desc r ibi n g t h e May fe st ivals as midsu mmer fe st al f s . h e rst o f Ma o f cou rse mark t h e e n n n o iv T ﬁ y, , ed b gi i g Su mm e r . ’ 4 1 H . 8 Prof. Rhys ibbert Lectures , p accou n t of the former practices i n

n n give . The old festival in Irela d

Lu - w as g , a form of the Sun God ; the most celebrated one — — il in Lu n assad n d held at Ta et . This feast g was cha ge

’ s hl afm . . %sse into the church celebration Lamma , from A S

— - s - o r that is loaf ma s or bread mass , so named as a mass

n feast of thanksgivi g for the ﬁrst fruits of the corn harvest . The old customs in W ales an d the Isle of Man included

as e . the cent of hills in the early morning , but so far I hav 1 found no record of ﬁres in connection with this date .

N m er ove b 8 .

N 11 t The facts that ovember is quarter day in Sco land , that mayors are elected on or about that date , show , I think , pretty clearly that we are here dealing with the old ” pagan date . The fact that the Church anticipated it by the feast of ’

’ All Souls o n November 1 remin ds us of what happened in the case of the February celebration ; later I give a . reference to the cha n ge of date ; and perhaps this date was also determined by the natural gravitation to the ﬁrst .

n as in of the mo th , the case of May , and because it marked .

n at one time the begi ning of the Celtic year . But what seems quite certain is that the feast which should have been held on November 8 on astronomical grou n ds was ﬁr st con verted by t h e Church into the

z . n N E n c clo cedia feast of St Marti on ovember 1 1 . The y p

B rita n n ica tells us : The feast of St . Martin

(Martinmas) took the place of an old pagan festival , .

1 ’ M razer nf r . F i o rms me t h at t h e 13t h A u gust w as Dian a s day at :

Nemi an d t er w as a ﬁre f st al h e e iv . another refere n ce to Rhys by statin g had progressed from the 1l t h to the

n cha ge of style brought it back , N 2 4 “ ovember , being one of the best recognised old E ” “ ” nglish holidays , old Candlemas being another , at the other end of the May year ; this last had slipped from February 2 to February 15 before it was put back again . “rith regard to the Isle of Man Rhys writes 1 that

s H n the fea t is there called olla tide , and is kept on

N 12 n ovember , a recko ing which he states is according ” n to the old style . The questio is , are we not dealing here with the Mart in mas festival n ot antedated to N 1 ? “ ovember He adds , that is the day when the t n n n e ure of land termi ates , and when servi g men go to their places In other words it is the beginning o f in a new year . This is exactly what happens

an d Scotland , the day is still called Martinmas .

There is a custom in mid - En gland which strikingly remin ds us of the importance of Martinmas in relat ion

n to old tenures , if eve the custom does not carry us still further back . This is the curious and in teresting

n n i ceremo y of collecti g the wroth s lver , due and payable t o his Grace th e Duke of Buccleuch and ‘ “ n o n n m Quee sbury Marti mas Eve . The pay ent is made on an an cie n t mound on the summit of Kn ight lo w

H s ill , about ﬁve mile out of Coventry , and in the

n - o n - n n parish of Ryto Du smore . O e feature about this singular ceremonial is that it must take place before s u n - rising . 1 Celtic Folk o r l e . 315 . , p CHAPTER XIX

SACRED FIRES

THE magniﬁcent collection of facts bearing on this

n subj ect which has bee brought together by Mr . Frazer in T he G olden B ough ren ders it u n n ecessary for me to deal with the details of this part of my subj ect at any great length . W e have these records of ﬁres

1 In N ( ) February , May , August and ovember of the original May year . (2 ) In June and December on the longest an d short est days of the solstitial year , concerning which there could not be , and has not been , any such change of date as has occurred in relation to the May year festivals .

3 in ) A ﬁre at Easter , all probability added not long

n o before or at the introduction of Christianity . I find traces of a fire festival at th e corresponding equinox in September . W e learn from Cormac that the fires w ere generally

u do ble and that cattle w ere driven between them . o C ncerning this question of ﬁre , both Mr . Frazer and 1 R - ev . G S . Baring ould suggest that we are j ustiﬁed

1 1 et . Str an e Su r vivals . 2 0 se g , p q in co n sid

fi re as a survival of pagan times . writes as follows W he n Christianity became a n t n , it was ecessary to dissociate the ideas of the p eople from the central fire as mixed up with the old g ods ; at the same time the central fire was an a bsolute need . Accordingly the Church was converted ” into the sacred depository of the perpetual fire . He further points out that there still remain in some o f in Y our churches ( Cornwall , ork , and Dorset) the — — - con trivances now called cresset stones used . They are blocks of stone with cups hollowed out . Some are

- placed in lamp niches furnished with fiues . On these h e remarks (p . “ No w although these lamps and cressets had their r eligious signification , yet this religious signification was an afterthought . The origin of them lay in the necessity of there being in every place a central light , from which light could at an y time be borrowed ; and the reason why this cen tral light was put in the church was to dissociate it from the heathen ideas attached

. As formerly to it it was , the good people of the Middle Ages were n ot quite satisﬁed with the central church ﬁre , and they had recourse in times of emer

en c an d g y to other , as the Church deemed them

n u holy ﬁres . t en a plague and murrain appeared

n —ﬁ res among cattle , the they lighted need from two

an d pieces of dry wood , drove the cattle between the f n lames , believi g that this new ﬂame was wholesome

n to the purging away of the disease . For kindli g the

- fi r need es the employment of flint an d s teel was for bidden . The fire w as o n ly efficacious when extracted

n an o n ﬁre kept burni g , d this

n n st ru agai . i quire whether such

St en n ess u a t the circle , the Fougo

n ns Maidens , and i deed chambered barrows and cair

n ot n t generally , were used for these purposes amo gs others ; whether in deed they were n ot primarily built

n w h et h er v t his for the livi g and not for the dead , and will explain the ﬁ n din g of traces of ﬁres an d of hollowed

s . tones in them , as well as some points in their structure 1 MacRi chie Mr . t has brought together several of these

n n m fi ues n poi ts , amo g the fireplaces and for carryi g away smoke . At both solstices it would appear that a special fi re

w as rite practised . This consisted of tying straw on a

n n wheel and rolli g it whe lighted down a hill . There is much evidence for the wheel at the summer , but

n less at the wi ter , solstice ; still , we learn from the old

“ Ru n ic fa s ti that a wheel was used to denote the

s W fe tival of Christmas . ith regard to the summer solst ice I quote the following from Hazlitt (unde r John

D uran dus n , speaki g of the rites of the Feast of

. n u s St Joh Baptist , informs of this curious circum

in s stance , that ome places they roll a wheel about to

n sun n sig ify that the , then occupyi g the highest place

‘ Z n in the odiac , is beginni g to descend . Rotam quoque

uibu sdam volv un t si n iﬁ can dum hoc die in q locis , ad g

t u n e m Coelo occu et et quod Sol altissimum locu in p , ’ de scen dere in i ia c t Z . . 2 4 5 p in odiaco Harl MSS . 3 (on 1 Art . 00 vellum) , , is an account of the rites of St . John ’ Eve Baptist s , in which the wheel is also mentioned .

1 The T estimon o T r aditi y f on . I 9 account of these ceremonies given by we read that this wheel Was taken up to of a mountain and rolled down thence ; and that , as it had previously been covered with straw , a twisted about it and set on ﬁre , it ppeared at a distance as if the sun had been falling from the sky .

h e And further observes , that the people imagine that all their ill - luck rolls away from them together with

NorW 1ch . Cu r r en t N ot es this wheel At , says a writer in

18 5 4 . w for March , , the rites of St John the Baptist ere

‘ n o r anciently observed , when it was the custom to tur

’ n n roll a wheel about , in sig iﬁcation of the sun s an ual

n course , or the sun , the occupying the highest place in

Z n n . the odiac , was about desce di g

At Magdalen College , Oxford , the May and June years are clearly differentiated . There is a vocal service

n at sunrise on May morning , followed by boys blowi g

' At horns . the summer solstice there is a sermon preached during the day in the quadrangle . One of the most picturesque survivals of this ancient

n custom takes place at Flore ce each year at Easter .

n — This is fully described by Bari g Gould . The momen t the sacred ﬁre is produced at the high altar a dove (in plaster) carries it along a rope about 2 00 yards long to a car in the square outside the west door of the cathedral and sets ﬁre to a fuse , thus causing the

n explosio of fireworks . The car with its explosives is the survival of the ancient bonfire . It would appear that the lighting of these fires on a

n lar ge s cale lingered longest in Ireland and Britta y . ’ A correspon de n t of the G en tlema n s Mag azin e

0 17 9 5 t h (February , ) thus describes 2 “ in 17 8 , the most singular sight in Ireland

n , Exactly at mid ight , the ﬁres began to appear and takin g the advantage of going up to the leads of

, the house , which had a widely extended view I saw on a radius of thirty miles , all around , the ﬁres burning o n every emin ence which the country afforded . I had a farther sat isfac

u n tion in learning , from

doubted authority , that the people danced round

the ﬁres , and at the close

went through these ﬁres , and made their son s and

daughters , together with

their cattle , pass through the ﬁre ; and the whole was conducted with re ” ligio u s solemnity . It will have been oh served with reference to these ﬁre festivals that although there were u n — m 48 T h e Carro o ren c e . ro I G . F . , Fl F ’ - l n d s Str a n e Sur vivals. Bar in g Go u l g doubtedly four , May , A ugust , November and

in N February , those May and ovember were more

n importa t than the others . This no doubt arose from t h e fact that at differe n t times the May and November c N e W elebrations were w Yea r festivals . ith regard to t h e New N in Year in ovember Celtic and later times , 5 14 H ibber t L ectu r es . Rhys writes as follows ( , p ) The Celts were in the habit formerly of counting

an d property of the parish , the centre of this ﬁeld stand

On - six or seven feet high . May morning ,

e break , the young men of the village used to assembl there , and then proceed to the moor , where they

n selected a ram lamb , and after running it dow ,

in brought it triumph to the Ploy Field , fastened it

an d to the pillar , cut its throat then roasted it whole ,

n & c . at ski , wool , At midday a struggle took place , the risk of cut hands , for a slice , it being supposed to con fer luck for the en suin g year on the fortunate

an men devourer . As act of gallantry the young sometimes fou ght their way t hrough the crowd t o

n s get a slice for the chosen amo g t the young women ,

in Ram all of whom , their best dresses , attended the

. r Feast , as it was called Dancing , wrestling , and othe

t he games , assisted by copious libations of cider during ”

n n . afternoon , prolo ged the festivity till mid ight ’ “ In n T ei n t o n a the parish of Ki g s g , Devonshire ,

’ lamb is drawn about t h e parish on W hitsun Monday in an d a cart covered with garlands of lilac , laburnum

n e other ﬂowers , whe persons are requested to giv somethin g towards the animal an d attendant expenses ; on Tuesday it is then killed and roasted whole in t he

l in middle of the vil age . The lamb is then sold slices to the poor at a cheap rate . The popular legend con cern i n g the origin of this — custom in troduces two important elements a reference to “ heathen days and the title of “ sacriﬁce ascribed i to the kill ng of the lamb (p . P ’ . e At St eter s , Athlone , every family of a villag ’ on St . Martin s Day kills an an imal of some kind o r I 97

those who are rich kill a cow or sheep , others

e or turkey , while those who are poor kill a hen or cock ; with the blood of the animal they sprin kle

t h e threshold and also the four corners of the house , an d this performance is done to exclude every kind o f evil spirit from the dwellin g where the sacriﬁce is made till the return of the same day the following l ’ ” y ear (p . Other traditions indicate that human sacriﬁces were

in question , and that lots were drawn , or some other

method of the choice of a victim was adopted . I quote 4 i. 4 from Hazlitt ( , ) the following report of the Minister o f Callender in 17 94 “ m The people of this district have two custo s , which

are fast wearing out , not only here , but all over the

Highlands , and therefore ought to be taken notice of,

t n . while hey remai Upon the ﬁrst day of May , which — Belt an Bal - in is called , or tein day , all the boys a

t ownship or hamlet meet in the moors . They cut a

t n ﬁ able in the green sod , of a rou d gure , by casting a trench in the ground of such a circumference as to hold w the hole company . They kindle a ﬁre , and dress a

repast of eggs and milk in t h e con sisten ce of a custard .

They knead a cake of oatmeal , which is toasted at the

e n mbers against a stone . After the custard is eate

u n p , they divide the cake into so ma y portions , as

s r imila as possible to one another in size and shape ,

as there are persons in the company . They daub one

o f w n these portions all over ith charcoal , u til it be

p erfectly black . They put all the bits of the cake

n i to a bonnet . Everyone , blindfold , draws out a

n portion . He who holds the bon et is entitled to the W last bit . hoever draws the black person , who is to be sacrificed to they mean to implore in rendering the year of the sustenance of man and beast . There is doubt of these inhuman sacrifices having been once offered in this country as well as in the East , although they now pass from the act of sacrificing , and only compel the devoted person to leap three times through . the flames with which the ceremonies of the festival . are closed . I may conclude this chapter by referring to similar 1 — so « practices in Brittany , where Baring Gould has s uccessfully studied them .

The present remnants of the old cult in the different . “ ” 2 parishes are now called pardons ; they are still: n umerous . I give those for the May and August festivals

(p .

lf a J y .

A sc n mn D a e s . Bo il s Pen ars S ezet at t he w ell of y d i , h , p (

S. G o uzen o u Lan e en n c Plow ) , d v e ,

gon n ec .

Su n a aft e r A scen s on D a T é at . r o S. . d y i y g , Divy ’ W t Su n a hi d y . Ke rn il i s Plo u ider E de rn Co ray

S e ze t C a l f ran p ( h pe o C ) . NVhit Mo n a d y . Q u imperle (Pardo n des Oi seaux ) Po n t ’ l Abbé (Pardon de s E n fan t s) E rgue

A rmel La Fo rét Lan u al Plo n e s , , d d i , .

La l a Car n e e u an t e . d , c

W t T u r s a . G o u ezec Les Fo n t a n hi h d y ( i es) .

1 A B ook o B r i tta n f y . 2 T “ “ he se pardo n s r u n st ran gely parallel w it h t h e Feast D ays in E . an d W P . n r t in Co rn w all w r of 2 6 feast s 13 o ccu r e i h , , he e , ar o u n t h e c ef a s o f t h e Ma ear d hi d y y y .

C HAP T E R XX

SACRE D T RE ES

THE - subj ect of tree worship is a vast one , as anyone

B u h may gather who will read the G olde n o g . Fortunately for my readers it is not necessary to discuss the whole or even any great part of it in connection with the

n sa i quiry which now concerns us . I may y that only rarely is the old tree - worship considered with its con

n - comita t of temple worship , so that I now have to brin g together in formation widely separated because the con n ection which I have to Show was intimate has not

n n bee e larged upon ; indeed , in many cases it has not been suspected .

n W e There is a other limitation of the inquiry . have o n ly to deal chiefly w ith those plants and trees recorded as worshipped at the chief festival times of the year , which have already been marked out for us by the fire ceremonials . These fires were like the ch ro n o fer installed

n in modern days at the Ge eral Post Ofﬁce , their practical fu n ction being to give the time they announ ced the begin ning of a new season . SACRE D T REES

In Chapter IV . I referred to the association of

Mistletoe with the Solstitial worship . W hen we deal with the May year we meet constantly with references to the Rowan and the Hawthorn in the folklore con W n ect ed . e with it seem in presence , then , not only o f tree cult generally , but of sacred trees special to each

n of the two worships we have bee considering . I propose now , therefore , to bring together some of the information to be gathered from a very cursory reference to the vast literature which exists on the subj ect .

In the ﬁrst instance I begged my friend , Professor

’ at Bayley Balfour , Keeper of the King s Garden Edin burgh , to give me some particulars of the Rowan Tree , which I imagined (1) to have been chosen on account of its ﬂ owers being prominent about May Day (Beltane) and its berries in early November and (2 ) to have a different habitat from the Mistletoe . I have to thank my friend for much valuable informat ion .

Ash P r u s The Rowan Tree , called also the Mountain ( g

. A ucu a r ia p ) , seems to grow pretty freely all over the

— ° N r ther n o parts of Europe . Professor Balfour tells me “ — Rowan is essentially a Northern plant an immigrant

N \V —an d to Europe from . . Asia now is spread all over N orth and Central Europe in abundance , with only some

‘ ’ feelers passing south into the Mediterranean Basin .

in n It does not go south of Cappadocia Asia Mi or .

It does not reach Greece . In Italy it occurs on the

n N . n E . Easter Apen ines , and also in Sicily In Spain it runs over the higher regio n s in the N:and into the c s in entre , pas ing j ust into Portugal . Its occurrence Madeira is not certainly established as a natural pheno menon ; perhaps it is only introduced there . In all these Southern outruns the tree ca n not be said

an d any dominance , and its area abundance are

1 IS s less than in the North . Scandinav a one of its be t

w n homes . Every here it is fou d right north to

n . there becomi g a bush only , but yet ripening seed It Al l ac n c . re hes Icela d , where trees of some size o cur

n ra over Great Britai and Ireland it is gen e lly spread .

Yo u may certainly say there is much in Norway , and ”

a . there is equally certainly less , even little , in It ly

’ Flower in Pla n ts o G r ea t B r itain vo l 2 In Pratt s g f ( . ,

“ 2 6 0 T h e p . ) it is stated , ﬂowers , which grow in dense

n - clusters , and are gree ish white , appear in May .

n u In autum , however , the tree is more beautif l than in

n summer , for at that seaso the rich cluster of red fruits

n gleams among the foliage , each berry havi g the form of

an d a tiny apple , containing a little core and seeds

n withi .

’ At Christiania the mea n of ten years flowering is 1 n Schubeler —fi rst 19 give by Professor as flowers , June

n 30. n general ﬂoweri g , June This , then , is later tha

n n in Britai . O high grounds the fruit is conspicuous here on November 1 on lower levels the birds attack

n b it and reduce its striking appeara ce efore that date . Associated with the Ro wan in the folklore connected with V “ V hit e t ho rn temple worship is the Hawthorn , or May

Cr a te us ox oca n tha ( g y ) , which also ﬂowers at the begin ” ning of Mav while its berries or haws , like those of the

N W e Rowan , are conspicuous in ovember . see , then , that there is a most obvious reason in this for the association 2 . A of the two trees ccording to Rhys , the Eng lish

1 Sch u be le r - , D ie P a n zen w elt Nor w e en s C r s t an ia . 18 7 3 75 ﬂ g , h i i , , 4 2 39 . . Hibber t L t r 8 ec u es . 35 . p , p

S e . hakspere , Milton , Bourn , Herrick and others writes

F t oe t al t h e Cou rt o t most an d l st o u r h g h b h e ,

T fe t c t h e ﬂou ris fr s an d ran c an d l o m o h e h b he b e,

when not the courtiers only , but lowliest of men maidens sallied forth

v m rn o f Ma T o do ob se r au n ce t o a o y .

There is a vast literat ure co n nected with May Day

c n - elebratio s , among it references to Celtic customs and N I may add that , besides May Day , August , ovember and

February had their ﬂower festivals also . I shall , however ,

d in eal chieﬂy with May this book to keep it within bounds .

May Day in -Manx was termed Shen n Laa B oaldyn ;

‘ ’ bellt ain e G lossa r it is the of Cormac s y , the Scotch

b ltu i nn Gaelic equivalent of which is ea . The traditions an d customs connected with May Day in Great Britain have survived longest in the W est

o f n E gland ; even now , as will be seen by the account

o f n H recent celebratio s at elston in Cornwall , given

n below , they are still co tinued .

t n Al ogether the customs , ancient and moder , of which

t h e ﬂower worship formed a part , may be summed up as follows

1 1 . L n b on fi res n ighti g of , and , in the eveni g , houses W 1 T h e w o rd o n re ac co r n t o t he Cen tu r i ctio n ar c o mes b fi , di g y D y , “ fro m t h e e arl mo rn E n l s b oo n fi re b o n dfi re b o u n fi re lat e r y de g i h , , , , b u rn fi re Sco t c b a ; , n e fi re t h e e arl es t k n o w n n st an c is b an e f re h i i e y , ‘ ’ n s o ss um in t h e Ca th o licon An li cu m A D f g , . . 148 3 r m i i i g , ; o bo n e Sco t c an ” ( , M l E n l s o n b n , o an e &c fi re . h b e idd e g i h , b e, , b , . ) H e n ce t h e w o r se ms f d e o rme rly t o h a ve me an t a fi re o f bo n es ; a fun eral l a re . A n d it h a pi e, py s g rad ually develo ped i n t o a fi re o u t i n t h e o e n w at e e r it s b p , h v o jecu an d torches carried about ,

Man and beast passed through the ﬁre or between

W 3. Going out at daybreak to gather hitethorn or w May (Sycamore in Corn all) , and making whistles of

- - the branches for the May music and merry making .

Blowing of tin horns at daybreak by boys , and from

n money received getti g breakfast at a farmhouse .

- 4 . Flower bedecked girls dance round a Maypole , and “ ” one chosen as Queen of the May .

5 . In Cornwall the custom prevailed till lately o f going out with buckets or any available vessels full of water and thoroughly wetting anyone who was not . wearing a piece of May “

6 . The Furry Dance (in Cornwall) , which consists in dancing through the town and also through as many

e f houses as desired . If resistanc is o fered it is per mit t ed to break open the door , and no penalty can be imposed .

. 7 . Sacriﬁces made (Isle of Man) at a very ancient date , and probably human ones still earlier (Scotland) .

8 . Special worship at holy wells .

D a s Flowers are public property on Flora y , and thi custom of dancing through the houses is supposed to have originated probably for the purpose of pickin g the ﬂowers in the gardens behind . The following is a short abstract of a very interest in The Wester n W eekl N ews g account given in y , 13t 1905 “ H May h, , of the Flora Day at elston ,

o . u s C rnwall , which took place this year It gives o ut The Furry Dance is always the feature of t h The ﬁrst part took place at seven o ’ clock in the i n g , at which hour two couples started out and danced through the streets and through some houses of residents .

at The great dance was noon , and those taking part in it assembled in the Corn Exchange . W hen all was ready the whole company , headed by a band playing the old Furry Dance , started out and

n an danced through the tow d through many houses .

' The rest of the day was give n over to a Horse S how

- a n d to much merry making . Excursions had been run from all parts .

The Ro wan T ree an d W itchcr a . II . ft There is little doubt that in the constant association o f the Rowa n with the May worship and the holy wells which were adj acent to the stone circles where the worship w as conducted , we ﬁnd the reason of the selection of t h e wood of the Rowan Tree as an antidote to all the ills which witchcraft was supposed to bring about . “ Rhys tell s us that The tree has also the old names of

« - Ro ddo n W - Quicken tree , , and itchen tree .

it vol o . c 2 . . . 2 6 1 To quote again from Pratt ( p , p )

The old notion that the Mountain Ash , or Rowan Tree ,

N eﬂi cac io us s as it is called in the orth , was again t

an d witchcraft the evil eye , still prevails in the North o f n an d H . E gland the Scottish ighlands Pennant remarks ,

Tou r o Scotla nd s u in his f , that the farmer caref lly pre s erve their cattle against witchcraft by placing branches

2 0 8 which would better become atheists and pagans ” Christians . 1 “ L n Rhys also te lls us that in incol shire , a

- w n ff e of the rowan tree , or icke , as it is called , was e ectiv

. 1s l against all evil things , including witches It usefu in many ways to guard the welfare of the household , an d to preserve both the live stock and the crops ; whil e placed o n the churn it prevents any malign ” inﬂuence from retarding the coming of the butter . l “ “ e . bu t also read (p Not only the Celts ,

o f some also of the Teutons , have been in the habit

n attachi g great importance to the rowan or roan tree , an d regarding it as a preservative against the malignant inﬂuence of witches and all things uncanny .

t h e Moreover , the Swede of modern times believes

w n e ro a a safeguard against witchcraft , and likes to hav on board his ship something or other made of it s

s wood , to protect him against tempests and the demon ” of the water world .

In H t 18 8 6 the ibber Lectures , , we have another interest

n ing refere ce to this tree . Rhys ﬁrst relate s an old Irish

s fairy story , the cene of which is supposed to have “ bee n on the plai n near the Lake of Lein of t he

” . L Crooked Teeth that is to say , the ake of Killarney .

In - it we are told that the scarlet quicken berries were “ L ” ﬁrst brought from the and of Promise , that o n e

“ an d was accidentally dropped took root , and from the berry there grew up a tree which had the virtues of

- - the quicken tree growing in fairy land , for all the berries ” on it had many virtues . Then we learn (page 35 8) “ that these berries formed part of the sustenance of t h e 1 C elti c Folklor e vol 32 5 , . i . p . . 2 0 9

t o Goidelic notions ; and the description n quoted of the berries makes them a

counterpart to the soma - plant of Hindu

This suggests that at the November Celebration a decoction or brew of Rowan berries was u sed for

curative or superstitious purposes .

I have thought it desirable to enter at some length into the use of the Rowan as a protection against witch craft and as the basis of a brew used for differe n t purposes , because the Mistletoe has been dealt with in

exactly the same manner ; indeed , it was to the later Solstitial worship what the Rowan and Maythorn were

to the earlier May worship . 1 Mr . Frazer has collected in his Golden B ough much

information bearing on these points .

In Sweden , on Midsummer Eve , Mistletoe is sought “ after , the people believing it to be , in a high degree , possessed of mystic qualities ; and that if a sprig of

- it be attached to the ceiling of the dwelling house ,

. ’ ’ ‘ ’ the horse s stall , or the cow s crib , the Troll will then be powerless to inj ure either man or beast . The “ Oak Mistletoe , we are told , is held in the highest w repute in S eden , and is commonly seen in farmhouses hanging from the ceiling to protect the dwellin g from f all harm , but especially from ﬁre ; and persons af licted with the falling Sickness think they can ward o ff attacks of the malady by carrying about with them a knife which has a handle of Oak Mistletoe .

1 l 343 et se . Secon E t on vo . . . d di i , iii pp q A Swedish remedy fo ’ t e o r sprig of Mistletoe round h sufferer s neck , him wear o n his ﬁ n ger a ring made frOm the

’ n It would appear from Mr . Frazer s i quiries Mistletoe was en eviden ce at both the su winter solstice— precisely as the Rowan and Hawthorn

n f s iVals w ere associated with the May a d November e t . He writes “ The sacred mistletoe may have acquired , in the eyes of the Druids , a double portion of its mystic qualities at the solstice in June , and accordingly they may have regularly cut it with solemn ceremony on

Midsummer Eve . The conj ecture is conﬁrmed when we ﬁ n d it to be still a rule of folklore that the

s s c u t s mi tletoe hould be on thi day . Further , the peasants of Piedmont an d Lombardy still go out on

Midsummer - mo rn mg to search the oak - leaves for the

‘ ’ oil of St . John , which is supposed to heal all wounds

n n . made with cutti g instrume ts Originally , perhaps , the

‘ ’

. l oil of St John was simp y the mistletoe , or a

in H decoction made from it . For olstein the mistletoe ,

- especially oak mistletoe , is still regarded as a panacea

‘ ’ en n s - for gre wou d ; and if, as is alleged , all healer is the name of the plant in the modern Celtic speech of

W an d Brittany , ales , Ireland Scotland , this can be n n othi g but a survival of the name by which , as we d have seen , the Druids addresse the oak , or rather , t . L perhaps , the mis letoe At acaune , in France , the old Druidical belief in the mistletoe as an antidote to all poisons still survives among the people ; they apply f i the plant to the stomach of the suf erer , or g ve him a decoction of it to drink . and that the different seasons were The putting on of a world at each season in turn would be d e things to be manifeste , and the clos it with the stars an d the sun in their yearly course would cause the representatives of it to be worshipped

an d s together with them , it would appear from the record that the astron omer priests did not neglect those magical arts which were practised by man in the early stages of civilisation .

n s I deed , the e magical practices seem to have taken such ﬁrm root that it was diﬂicult to get rid of them N 1 “ even in much later times . ewton writes I once knew a foolish cock - brai n ed priest which ministered to a

n t certaine young man the ashes of boxe , bei g (forsoo h)

n s hallowed on Palme Su day , according to the superstitiou

n h s order and doctri e of the Romish Churc , which ashe he min gled with their u n h o lie h o lie water using to the same a ki n d of exorci sme ; which medicin e (as he persuaded the stan ders by) had vertue to drive ” an away y ague . Among the virtues attributed to the May t horn was that of preserving the beauty of those maidens w h o at daybreak on May morn ing each year would wash

in n themselves hawthor dew . As late as 15 15 it w as

A n recorded that Catherine of rago , accompanied by

- ﬁ ve n twenty of her ladies , sallied out on May morni g for this purpose .

1 Her ba l or the B i ble 2 0 . 7 . f , p CHAPTE R XXI

HOLY W ELLS AND ST R EAMS

I HAVE thought it most importa n t to look up this subj ect with a view of seeing whether any cl ues were available which could help us to associate the introduction o f the well ceremonials with the worshippers of the

S May or of the Solstitial year . For hortness I will ” t he “ call ceremonial baptism , not necessarily baptism . in the modern sense , but as implying the use of water for purifying or other religious purpose .

That baptism was pre - Christian is shown by John the Baptist using the Jordan for this purpose before ’

3. Christ s ministration began . (Matt . 1 There is a tremendous literature dealing with the folklore of holy wells and streams The number of

1 T h e l it erat u re t hat I h a ve c hi e ﬂy con sult ed is as follo w s R H . C o H ol Wells their Le en ds a n T r a ition . pe y g d d s

R L ll - . . u er Cou c An c ien t a n H o l s o n ll Q i h d ly We l f Cor w a .

W G W - . . o o Ma r d rt in T a ces of the E lder Fa iths of I rela n d. L G . mm . G o e E thn olo i n Fo klor gy l e . holy wells and streams in Britain

in Ireland alone , and the strikes us in a casual study of the folklore is association of the wells with sacred trees . equally distinctly we gather that both were situated r near holy stones , and that the worship included ce e monials con n ected with all three . The folklore dealin g with holy wells and well- wor ship is so various that it will be useful for our present purpose to classify the portions we need under t h e

n following headi gs .

W - - 1 . ell worship outcome of pre Christian days and customs .

2 W S . ells generally ituated near circles , dolmens , cromlechs or cairns , or churches which have replaced t hem .

3. n Associatio with sacred trees .

4 W - . ell worship and offerings .

5 . Time of the chief festivals .

Pa a — 1 . g n o rigin It seems to be accepted now that well- worship in Britain origin ated long before t h e Christian era ; that it was not introduced by the

s s e Christian mi sionarie , but rather they found it in vogu

an d on their arrival , tolerated it at ﬁrst and utilized

n it afterwards , as they did a great many other Paga customs . f 1 W - ith regard to this poi n t “ ood Martin writes “ s In many Iri h MSS . there are allusions to this pre

. Tirehan Christian worship For example , , relates that

1 T r aces o the E lder Fai ths o I r elan d 2 1 o l ketch f f , F lk or e S , 4 p . 7 .

There can be no doubt that in t he times magical practices . were carried on the religious centre of which the well st it u en t part . Local practices of witchcraft 8 . 7 a natural survival of these . Gomme (p ) thus refers

Aelian Ab er ele to the well of St . , not far from Bettws g y , in Denbighshire . “ Near the well resided a woman who ofﬁciated a s a

A n - kind of priestess . nyo e who wished to inﬂict a curse

n upo an enemy resorted to this priestess , and for a

n She in triﬂi g sum registered , a book kept for the pur

o f n pose , the name the perso on whom the curse was

in wished to fall . A p was then dropped into the well in the name of the victim , and the curse was complete . The magical associations with wells appear in the

- 1 4 n . 3 followi g extract (given by Quiller Couch , p ) of a

’ O Co n n or letter from Dr . , the author of the letters of

lum an h Co b u s . , to his brot er “ n n n n I have ofte i quired of your te a ts what they , themselves thought of their pil grimages to the wells of

Kill - Ar a cht Tc hba r B r i hde Tc hbar Mu ir , g , , near Elphin ,

Moor n Castle rea h n , ear g , where multitudes an ually

n assembled to celebrate what they , in broken E glish ,

’ termed Pa tter n s (Patro n s days) ; and when I pressed

man w H a very old , O en ester , to state what possible advantage he expected to derive from the Singular cu stom of frequentin g in particular such wells as were

or a n u r i ht hew n contiguous to an old blasted oak , p g ston e an d , what the meaning was of the yet more Singular custom of s tickin g r ag s on the branches of

his n such trees and spitting on them , a swer , and the

s answer of the olde t men , was that their ancestors plished : but amongst sacred

n ﬁnd certain circles , occupyi g in the religious cult of their t é rule , in close proximity sun and

n t o Tillie Beltane , in Aberdee shire , in close proximity

' the remains of a larger and smaller circle , is a well which was held sacred by the people . According t o

Col . Leslie , on Beltane and Midsummer days , those on

n e whom the dire hand of disease had falle , or thos

w s desirous of averting that calamity , ent seven time 1 round the sacred wells sunwise (deasil) and then p ro ce eded to the circles , where a like ceremony was per formed . In St en n ess we ﬁnd the same association of the well

in an d the circles . But harmony with the unrivalled completen ess of these mo n uments we ﬁnd t h e sacred well here in a closer and deeper connection with ” the circles than elsewhere . “ In the parish of St en n ess there is a district called

Bi sw ell in g , the centre of which is a sacred well , an d n Bi w s ell . from which the district takes its ame , g( )

n Be that as it may , we k ow from tradition that down to the time when the Stone of Odin was de molish ed n o n , pare ts came to the well with children ,

n Belta e and Midsummer , passed round it sunwise , and

h n having bathed t eir little o es (a healthy ordeal) ,

n n carried them the ce to the Sto e of Odin , and passed them through the hole as a divine protection against ” n v n the maligna t inﬂuences of the e il o e . Borlase records an instance of a well n ear a stone o f ancient worship within the Rhys gives us ma n y in stances of wells near a n d here it may be useful to add that the w ell is n n n o n .

n n o n Fa lan n n g is described as bei g near a church ,

- a f n n on . lso F y Fair , a wishing well Criccieth Church is supposed to have had a well near it at one time .

n n n o n a Agai , n Beris is near the p rish church of

an Llanberis (p . d Ffyn n o n Elian n ear to the church f L ’ o . T lanelian , Denbighshire hen there are St . Teilo s

C an d W Llw dart h hurch ell at Llandeilo y , near Maen

Clo cho N g , orth Pembrokeshire . 2 W ood - Martin refers to the rites at the well of

T u bber at rick p , part of the ceremony taking place in

ch u rch the near by .

3. Assoc ia t io n o sa cr ed wells w ith t r f sa cr ed ees .

Rhys , and many other authors , give us several 3 n s S o f insta ce of a tree by the ide a well . W hen we come to deal with well offerings we shall ﬁ n d , in fact that in almost every case a tree has been a n n ff ecessary compa ion of the well , as the well o erings

n were hu g on them .

In many cases , of course , the kind of tree is not T . “ speciﬁed hen it is , it is almost invariably the rowan

“ or hawthorn . Rhys tells us : The tree to expect by a ” 4 sacred well is doubtless some kind of thorn .

1 R s Celti F y , c olklore a nd We h ls . 36 3 h , . , p 2 Pa a n I r ela n d 1 . 6 g , p 0. 3 R s Celtic y , Folklo re Ma n ic a nd Welsh i , . 35 4 35 6 h , , pp . , , 35 7 &c 1‘ , . R s ibi d. 3 . 32 hy , , p .

’ W n W Tegla s ell , ear rexham but of late years the well spirits have had to — c on tent with m uch smaller tributes such t riﬂes ” ’

an d small . pins , rags , coloured pebbles coins In con sequence of this dwin dlin g down of the offerin g

n we have chieﬂy to do with rags , but I think we may lear from the traditions that originally it was an offering of a

n n garme t , and to the ofﬁciati g priest , at the well , or temple

n with which the well was connected . It is also a questio whether the almost un iversal association of pins with the garment or part of it might n o t have originated at a time — when such an offerin g it was probably origin ally a skin — to a priest without a pin (of bon e) to fasten it on would

’ In not have been complete . Kent s cavern pins of bone have bee n found associated with bones of palaeolithic m ammals .

s “ . u s Mr Gomme tells , In the case of some wells , e s in n o n e pecially Scotla d , at time the whole garment

an was put down as offering . Gradually these offerings

. of clothes became less and less till they came down to ”

. He n n rags also poi ts out , as we have already see , that the geographical distribution of rag - offerings ” c n an n oi cides with the existence of monoliths d dolme s .

n n o f As has bee oted , almost invariably by the side e “ ” very well there grows the sacred tree , a rowan or

o n n thorn for the most part this tree the rags are hu g , t n he the bent pin is dropped in . If there happens to n o be tree , or if it is so old that only the stump is

1 2 S k es : B r itish Go bli ns 35 . 1 . Sik i m. 32 9 . i es de . , p , , p 3 Folklor e 18 92 8 9. , , p . ping the old presiding spirit of the place . 1 Rhys gives us a grea t deal of information o n

The ritual varies at some of them . People came far and near ; it is the custom to make some sort of offer

“ in n g , rags and pins bei g the most modern , and about these we have most information as a matter of course . Rhys quotes statements he has received about thre e

1 . wells in the county of Glamorgan (Vol . , p At

“ th e ﬁrst it was the custom that the person who wishes his health to be be n eﬁted should wash in the water of ” w the well , and thro a pin into it afterwards . At “ another the custom prevails of tying rags to t he bran ches of a tree growin g close at hand and at t h e “ third , it is the custom for those who are healed in it to tie a shred of linen or cotton to th e bran ches of a tre e t hat stan ds close by ; and there the shreds are almost as numerous as the leaves .

3 a lan . 6 3 n n o n F Further (p ) we read of another n g , “ an d o f this Rhys says , One told me his mother used to take him to it when he was a child for sore eyes ,

in The bathe them with the water , and then drop in a p .

man n n fo r rh eu mat other , whe he was you g , bathed in it ” ism . Of this well it is recorded that when it was clea n ed out about ﬁfty years ago two basinfuls of pins

n s were take out , which were all bent , but no coin

n in were fou d it . 2 W - ood Martin also gives an interesting account of f the rite per ormed at a certai n well in Ireland ; it is a

1 Celtic Folklor e M n , a s: a n d Welsh . 2 Pa a n I r ela d 1 n . 60. g , p walls of which I found t o be oriented so that the priest ofﬁciating at the

- 13 . 7 sunrise . Quiller Couch (p ) thus refers to happen ed there . Children used to be taken to this well o n t h r t hree Sunday mornings in May to be dipped in the wate , e that they might be cured of the rickets , or any oth r T r disorder with which they were troubled . h ee times

n they were plu ged into the water , after having been

n n s . tripped naked ; the pare t , or person dippi g them , stan ding facing the su n ; after the dippin g they were passed nine times round the well from east to west then

’ Madern they were dressed and laid on St . s bed ; should h t ey sleep , and the water in the well bubble , it was

n co n sidered a good ome . Strict silence had to be kept

n n . duri g the entire performa ce , or the spell was broken At the present time the people go to the well in crowds V V esle an S on the ﬁrst Sunday in May , when the y hold a

an d service there , a sermon is preached ; after which the

in people throw two pins or pebbles to consult the spirit , or try for sweethearts ; if the two articles sink together , they will soon be married . Here divin ation is performed on May morning by rustic maiden s anxious to know when they are to be married . Two pieces of straw about an inch long are crossed and transﬁxed with a pin . This , ﬂoated on the waters , elicits bubbles , the number of which , carefully

n counted , de otes the years before the happy day .

E un Bart in n é Chapel y in Cornwall , near the circle , has w w a ishing (lucky) ell near it . It was used on one of

h W n f the t ree ﬁrst ed esdays in May . Children suf er in g from mesenteric disease are dipped three times

n e an d a i ches across , sweetened , spic d , m rked

cross , and they were supposed to bring good ” kept .

- 5 5 The legen d given by Quiller Couch (p . ) r ’ N “ St . Cuthbe t s well in orth Cornwall is that in olden times mothers o n Ascen sion Day brought their deformed

y e or sickl children here , and dipped them in , at the sam time passin g them through the aperture connecting t h e

n an d o f two cister s ; thus , it is said , they became healed

s their diseas e or deformity . It would seem that other classe also believed virtue to reside in its water ; for it is said that the cripples were accustomed to leave their crutches in the hole at the head of the well .

l n At the vil age of Tissington , ear Ashbourne , in Derby

- ﬂo w erin is shire , the custom of well g still observed on

n n H every a iversary of the Ascension ( ope , p . W e may gather from these associated Observances at different places that the wells themselves were s n s ituated ear circles , for the wor hippers would not

is be distributed at such a time . This argumen t

“ ” strengthened by the cu stom of waking the well

’ o n t n which took place the pa ron sai t s day . “T ith regard to the time of the day or night at which

- well worship took place , there seems little doubt that for

a n the most part it was c rried on at ight . The practices “ connected with the wakin g of the well indicate this

is clearly , and when it remembered that these ancie n t

’ pagan rituals savoured of sensualism as we should now think and call it . 2 2

times when it was considered most sick to visit the wells appear anciently

n have bee at daybreak or sunrise .

At the well at Farr , in Sutherlandshire , it is held that

the patient , after undergoing his plunge , drinking of the

n w water , and maki g his offering , must be a ay from the banks so as to be fairly out of Sight of the water before 1 f ” the sun rises , else no cure is ef ected . At Roche Holy

well , in Cornwall , before sunrise on holy Thursday was

n t h e appoi ted time .

Sometimes the moment of sunrise is chosen . To bathe

Vi o n shir . t e in the well of St Medan , at Kirkmaiden in X g , a s the sun rose on the ﬁrst Sun day in May was con sidered

n an an i fallible cure for almost y disease .

’ Madr n s . o On the other hand , in some cases , as at St

n On well , noon is chose the ﬁrst three Sundays in May , not believing that these waters have any virtue if

s an resorted to on any other day of the year , or at y other ” hour of the day . NVit h regard to the August festival , there is a holy well

at . o n St Cleer , near the Hurlers ; the festival is held 1 h n w August 9t . I have o special references to August ells 2 bu t n n in Ireland , there is evide ce give by Piers that at

that time cattle were bathed .

viz On the ﬁrst Sunday in harvest , . , in August , they will be sure to drive their cattle into some pool or river an d therein swim them this they observe as inviolable as

e n n n o if it wer a point of religio , for they thi k beast will

’ live the whole year thro unless they be thus drenched .

1 t l e r ar t h e m f S . C e e St . l T h ar s o C e r St Cl o d A . D 48 2 . e . e d . e ,

S u n in it l r s g o y . 2 e scr t o n o f W e st m at 16 8 2 uo t b V alle n ce i . 12 1. D ip i e h , , q ed y y, , n t seaso of the year , is heal hful unto hath observed

”

r i r . Balan te mqu e g regem ﬂ uvio mersare sal ub i . V g

’ l n h l at n ﬂ c k I n t h healt hful ﬂ o o d t o p u ge t e b e i g o .

o n I but precisely to do this the ﬁrst Sunday in harvest , ” look on as n o t on ly superstitious but profane .

I n ext come to the solstice in June . There is evidence concernin g wells quite akin to that

n furnished by the astro omical use of the circles , that the May year festivals were subsequently chan ged to sols titial

w s n o dates . The well or hip does t appear to have been — c arried on in the cold weather hence the absence o f referen ces to February and November for the same reason we have only now to do with the summer solstice . Hazlitt quotes t h e followin g from the Irish Hudibras (16 89) concernin g Jun e worship at a well in the North o f Ireland H a e o u el w e n e o le ra v y beh d , h p p p y ’ A Jo n w ll o n Pat ro n - D a t St . s e h y,

B c arm o f r e s t an d m racl y h p i i e, T o c u re di sease s at t hi s w e ll

T he all s lle w t l n an d lame v ey ﬁ d i h b i d ,

A n d o as l m in as t cam ‘ g i p g hey e .

’ Beirn a- : At Barnwell ( well youths well) , near Cam ’ 1 o n n bridge the festival took place St . Joh s Day .

in N Brand , his history of ewcastle (ii . refers to a ’ W “ . as well still called Bede s ell , near Jarrow As late

. 17 40 it was a prevaili n g custom to bri n g childr en troubled with any disease or inﬁrmity a crooked pin w as

an d n put in , the well laved dry betwee each dipping .

1 H zl t a t . 6 16 i , ii , .

CHAPTER XX II

\VH E RE D ID T HE BR IT ISH W ORSHI P ORIGINAT E ?

THE t recen chapters have , I think , established , by the evidence derived from folklore and tradition , that there

n was in the long past a combi ed worship of trees , wells and streams in the n eighbourhood of sacred places , the sacred place being a stone circle or some other monument built up of stones . \Ve have gathered also that the chief times of worship were on or near t h e most important dates

n u s t he deﬁ ed for by the May year , original year marked out by the various agricultural and other

t n opera ions proper to the various seaso s . It is again imperative that I should point out that if the basis of this worship was not utility it must have been started by men sufﬁciently skilled to in dicate by their astro n omical knowledge the p roper times for the various operations to which I have referred . In this we see the reason for the local combination of the worship in the neighbourhood of the stones , for the stones were really the instruments which enabled the astronomer - priest

It was natural that when suggested that there was a the worship carried on in

an d l ments , sacred trees , sacred wel s an have been made to see whether these three cults h ad

1 been associated out of Britain with the ceremonial-s of any of the early peoples for which complete and trustworthy information is available . On t his point the traditions of widely sundered countries is amazingly strong .

The folklore of the Pyrenees , France , Spain and Portugal regarding sacred wells is very similar to that

° 1 of Ireland . Borlase writes — It is in teresting to notice that the pre Christian

dessil custom called , or circuit around a venerated spot , which is practised in Ireland in the case of one dolmen at least , as well as at wells and Churches innumerable ,

n in is fou d also Portu gal .

e In the Pyr nees , too , fairies and spirits are thought 2 “ o f in n u s : much this con ection . Borlase tells They ” n n s * are the presidi g ge ii o f certain wells . He add “ It is not in Ireland alone that dolmens are asso ciat ed n with the otion of wells and water springs . The

An o n t ao n . Portuguese names , ta do F , Fonte Coberta , A ta

n - Mo urat ao n n e do Fo te de , and the Fre ch names , Fo t

Ro u rre le de , and Fonte nay Marmion , show this to be ” 3 s the ca e . W In Persia Sir m. Ou sel ey saw a tree covered with

s rag , and similar trees in the Himalayas are associated

s with large heaps of tones (Gomme , p .

1 olmen s I r ela 9 6 . n d . 6 D of , ii . , p 2 3 I bi . d . 5 8 , ii , p . 0. 7 7 2 .

Dr . A . Campbell speaks of it H r Limbe c s near Darj eeling in the imalaya , whe e a ss n ociated , as in Irela d , with large heaps of stones ; ” Hu c in his travels me n tion s it among the Tartars .

s n v The a tro omical facts gi en in this book , gathered

t in from a s udy of the monuments these islands , can o n ly give us in formatio n touching the i n troduction of t h e combi n ed worship here .

n n n My i vestigatio s have stro gly suggested , to say the

n least , that there were men here with k owledge enough to u s n su n s tili e the moveme ts of the and star for temple ,

n d n 2 0 B a o 00 . C . doubt practical purposes before , that is , a thousand years before Solomon was born , and at about the time that the Hecatompedon was founded at Athens .

is n If this a ywhere near the truth , these men must h n n ave bee represe tatives of a very old civilisatio n . No w the civilisation prin cipally considered by arch ec ologists in con nection with the buildin g of the monu

n s is A me ts which I have tudied the ryan , of which the C elts formed a branch . This view , however , is not u s ; n — niver ally held the late Ge eral Pitt Rivers , and I

n n o k ow of higher authority , stated his opinion that The megalithic monuments take us back to pre

an d Aryan people , suggest the spread of this people o ” 1 ver the area covered by their remains .

. 2 Mr Gomme is of the same opinion (p . 7 ) “ Ceremo n ies which are demonstrably non - Aryan in n , n in s A I dia eve the pre ence of ryan people , must i n n - the origin have bee non Aryan in Europe , though 1 J ou r n . e a . Soc N S. i . 4 , , . , 6 .

C . about 1800 B . (a

n ui of bro ze) , of a brachycephalic folk who b lt

’ diﬂereﬁ t s barrows , in these re pects from the

- . folk , who were long skulled and built long barrows

n Now , in relatio to the stone structures to which this n book especially refers , the question arises , are we the dealin g with this swarm or the people whom they found on the soil ? There are some indications in the t raditions which imply that we are really dealing with an early stone

” a e n ﬂin t s n g , whe were the o ly weapons , and there were no clothes to speak of. I will give one or two examples

5 3 n of these traditions . Gomme (p . ) refers to a si gular fact preserved among the ceremonies of witchcraft in Scotland “ In order to i nj ure the waxe n image of the

‘ n inte ded victim , the implements used in some cases

- by the witches were stone arrowheads , or elf shots , as t h e y were called , and their use was accompanied by an n n n H . in i ca tatio ere we have , the undoubted form o f n t h e a prehistoric impleme t , oldest unto uched detail

n of early life which has bee preserved by witchcraft .

Gomme (p . 39) also tells us that one of the May practices at Stirlin g is for boys of ten and twelve years

h a d old to divest t emselves of their clothing , n in a state of n udity to run round certain natural or artiﬁcial

“ ' . o f D em at circles Formerly the rounded summit y ,

in an eminence the Ochil range , was a favourite scene of this strange pastime , but for many years it has

’ n been performed at the Ki g s Knot , in Stirling , an octagonal mound in the Royal Gardens . The per

2 4 0

e an d universally recognis d , whose records observations have come dow n to us .

Now n t h e , while we k ow nothing of as

2 n - the Aryans generally , or that of the Celts in partie

n e a s lar , the astronomical k owledg of the Babyloni n t an d Egyptians is one of the wonders of the ancien world .

Hence Babylonia and Egypt are at once suggested , and the suggestion is not rendered a less probabl e o n e when we remember that both these peoples studied and utilised astron omy at least some years ago . is But here we are dealing with two peoples . It more than probable that they both were associated more

s w o n e or le s near the origin ith race , the ideas of which permeated both civilisatio n s .

I have it on the highest authority , that of Dr . Budge , that in Babylon ia there were originally the Sumerian s

n an d the Semites . The primitive race which co quered the Egyptians seems to have been con n ected with t h e

as s n as former regards civili atio , and with the latter

s regards some aspect of the Egyptian language .

an d s l t This race was Semitic , as the pyramid , bui some years ago , are a proof of the interaction of the two civilisations at that time , for the Easter festival celebrated o n the banks of the Nile came from t h e

t h e valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates , we may omit

- pre Semites from our consideration .

There is other evide n ce that the conn ection between

t n the Semites and Egyptians was close as ro omically , so that any Semitic inﬂuence in later time s or in other lands would be sure t o Show traces of this

2 4 2 sea con nection between Babylonia and explain the similarity of the British and folklore . Some facts w ith regard to long distance

a - n travel are the following . Our st rt poi t may be that

n 2 5 00 G udea , a Babylonian ki n g who reig ed about

n Melukhkha B . C . , brought sto es from and Makan , that

H isto r o E t is , Egypt and Sinai (Budge , y f gyp , ii No w these stones were taken coastwise from

n Si ai to Eridu , at the head of the Persian Gulf,

n a dista ce of miles , and it is also said that

n n was - the , or eve before then , there a coast wise

an d trafﬁc to from Malabar , where teak was got to

- be used in house and boat building . The distance

s from Eridu coa twise to Malabar , say the present

n n Ca na ore , is miles . Al The distance , coastwise , from exandria to Sand

n e wich , where we lear that Pho nicians and others

S hipped the tin extracted from the mines in Cornwall ,

n is o ly miles , so that a voyage of this length w as quite within the powers of the compassless navi

t s o f 2 5 00 B . ga or C . The old idea that the ancient merchants could m ake a course from Ushant to , say , Falmouth or Penzan ce need no longer be entertained ; the cross in g from Africa to Gibraltar and from Cape G risn e z

n i e . to Sa dwich were both to visible land , . . coastwise The cliffs on the opposite land are easily seen on a c lear day . H ence it wo uld have been easier before the days o f astronomical knowledge and compasses to have reached England , and therefore Ireland and the Orkneys , fertile lands o f Mediterranean

also e mbrac e Iran an d Arme n ia . They . the of the great Arabian peninsula , which is have bee n the centre of dispersion . The ordin ary artiﬁcial mark of a Semitic sanctuary

w as n . 18 3 the sacriﬁcial pillar , cair , or rude altar (p )

n it was a ﬁxed poi t where , according to primitive rule , t he blood of the offering was applied to the sacred s n s to e ; or where a sacred tree , as we shall see presently , was hun g with gifts ; the stones and tree being symbol s of the God (p .

is Further , it certain that the original altar among 1 t h e n n n n orther Semites was a great u hewn sto e , or a

n 18 . 5 cair , at which the blood of the victim was shed (p ) Mo n olithic pillars or cairns of stones are frequently mention ed in the more an cie n t parts of the Old Testament as n n G marki g sa ctuaries Shechem , Bethel , Gilead , ilgal ,

- n an d E n . Mi ah , Gibeo , Rogel are referred to (p There is evidence that in very early times the sanctuary was a cave (p . The obvious successors of a natural

1 an m i ave are , ( ) artiﬁcial cave ade in the earth l ke

n o n e 2 n the atural , and ( ) a model or representatio of a

o f n cave built sto e , with a small entrance which would w h be barred , and covered over ith eart , thus protecting

s n an d the prie ts from wild a imals the weather . The dolme n s and cromlech s which are found in t he Semitic area where there are stones doubtless had this origin .

1 A n d if t o u w lt mak me an altar o f st o n e t o u s alt n o t u il h i e , h h b d it o f w n st o n e : fo r if t o u l ft u t h t oo l u o n it t o u as t he h i p y p , h h o llu i — te t . E o u s 2 5 p d x d , xx . , . 2

use of a cave was probably borrowed both by the

an s an d Greeks (there is a cave , for instance , at

from the Semites .

i In later t mes , when caves or their equivalents were

n no lo ger in vogue and temples were erected , they n - - el e closed a Bit ili or Beth , an upright stone , consecrated 1 by 0i1.

W e n 1 0 1 next lear (pp . 7 and 8 3) that no Canaanite high place was complete without its sacred tree standing beside the altar .

In - tree worship pure and simple as in Arabia , the tree is adored at an annual feast May) , when it is ’ hung with clothes and women s ornaments (p . The tree at Mecca to which offerings are made is “ ” n o n spoken of as a tree to hang thi gs . ” The references to groves given in the Bible as asso “ ” ciat e d with temple worship are misleading , groves

’ n n s bei g a wro g translation of the word A herah , which was apole made of wood w hich the Je ws adopted from the

Canaanites . It was ornamented and perhaps draped , and was most probably originally a tree . It may have been ” used in the high places because single trees would n o t grow there in the East any more than o n t he moors in Devon and Cornwall . The antiquity of this emblem is proved by Smith ’ s

n 1 1 stateme t (p . 7 ) that in an Assyrian monument from

1 A n d Jac o ro se u earl in t h e mo rn n an d t o ok t h e s t o n e t at b p y i g , h

h ad u t fo rhis llo w s an d set it u fo r a llar an d o u r o il he p pi , p pi , p ed f it u po n t h e t op o . ’ A n d t s st o n w c I a se t fo r a llar s all b e G o s o u s hi e, hi h h ve pi , h d h e an d of all t h at t h o u shal t g ive me I w ill su rely g ive t h e t en t h u n t o — t e G en s s 18 2 2 e . . h e i , xxviii , , Kho rsabad an orname n tal pole is “ portable altar . Priests stand before act of worship and touch the pole w i

n perhaps an oin t it with some liquid substa ce . The draping of the tree seems to be proved by the pas

' sage which suggested the mistranslation to me before I wrote to some Hebrew scholar s among my friends w h o allowed me to consult them . The passage is as follows 6 n . 7 (II . Ki gs , xxiii , , ) And he bro u ght out the grove from the house of L the ord , without Jerusalem , unto the brook Kidron , it and burned it at the brook Kidron , and stamped small to powder , and cast the powder thereof upon the graves of the children of the people .

n And he brake dow the houses of the Sodomites , that

e were by the house of the Lord , where the women wov ” n ha gings for the grove . To Show how little variation there was in the Semitic practices to those recorded in British folklore I may — st ate that o n e of my friends one of the revision committee— informed me that his impression was that

b ooks the Asherah was furnished with pegs or , so that n & c . the garme ts , , might be easily hung on it .

I next come to the sacred waters . A sacred foun

n tai , as well as the sacred tree , was a common symbol at Semitic sanctuaries (p . Nevertheless , they

n n were sometimes abse t , the main place bei g given to altar worship . Further , Robertson Smith was of opinion that this altar worship did not originate with tree or water] worship (p . but still , sacred well s are among the oldest and most ineradicabl e

2 4 8 temple practices

n an d n o fferin of me beasts , bur t ﬁres; through which the children were made to

I give s ome referen ces to these ﬁre practices .

An d thou shalt n o t let any of thy seed pass — v . 2 1 through the ﬁre to Molech . Le iticus , xviii , .

“ There Shall not be found among you any o n e that maketh his so n o r his daughter to pass through t he

n ﬁre , or that useth divi ation , or an observer of times ,

an n or e chanter , or a witch ,

“ S Or a charmer , or a consulter with familiar pirits , — or a wizard , or a Deuteronomy , xviii . , 1 10 1 .

He t he n walked in way of the ki gs of Israel , yea , ” — ﬁ re . . and made his son to pass through the II Kings . 3 xvi . , . An d they caused their son s and their daughters to

s an d n n pa s through the ﬁre , used divi ation and e chant ” n — 1 . i . . 7 me ts II Kings , xvi , “ An d deﬁled he Topheth , which is in the valley of

n H n an the childre of i nom , that no m might make his son or his daughter to pass through the ﬁre to

- . . n s 1 . 0 4 Molech II Ki g , xxiii , . (See also and Fire sacriﬁces which were interpreted as offerings of fragrant smoke were prevalent among the settled Semites

. Sacriﬁ cial n (p fat was bur ed on the altar . Smith “ remarks : This could be don e without an y fundamental modiﬁcatio n of the old type of sacred stone or altar

pillar , simply by making a hollow on the top to

receive the grease , and there is some reason to think

ﬁ re - in n that altars of this simple kind , which certai

These high p laces were necessary because i vat ion s of the risings of the heavenly bod es

an d of the ceremonial , a clear horizon was

n imperative . That this was ge erally understood and acted o n is well evide n ced by the fact that in the Old Testamen t the mentio n of high places is nearly always associated with the references to the religion of t h e Canaanite s an d other Semitic nations as if the high places were among the most important points in it .

Other argumen ts may be founded u pon linguistic 1 n . co siderations . Prof. J Morris Jones ﬁnds that the syntax of W elsh an d Irish differs from that of

A n n in e . . other rya la guages many important respects , g

n f. the verb is put ﬁrst in every simple sente ce . Pro Rhys had suggested that these differences represented th e persistence in W els h and Irish of the syntax of a

- r pre A yan dialect , and as the anthropologists hold that the pre - Aryan populatio n of these islands came from N A . w as orth frica , it seemed to Prof Jones that that the obvious place to look for the origin of these syn

He tactical peculiarities . ﬁnds the similarities between

Old Egyptian and n eo - Celtic syntax to be astonishin g ; he sho w s that practically all the peculiarit ies of W elsh an d H Irish syntax are found in the amitic languages . This conclusio n practically implies that the bulk of the population of these islands , before the arrival of c the Celts , spoke diale ts allied to those of North f A rica . The syn tactical peculiarities must have rep re

1 — ” Pre Ar an S n t a in I ns ul ar Ce lt c in t h e Welsh Peo le b y y x i , p , y

R s an d B r nmo r- Jon e s 6 1 — . 4 7 6 1. hy y , pp

CHAPTER XXIII

“T H E SIMI LARIT Y OF T HE SE MI T I C AND BR IT I SH W ORSHIPS

I PROPOSE in this chapter to bring into j uxtaposition the variou s British and Semitic - Egyptian practices which we have so far con sidered . I co n fe ss I am amazed at the similarities we have c ome across in the ﬁrst cast of the net ; we have foun d so much that is common to both worships in c n n on ectio with all the points we considered separately .

I will , for convenience , deal with the various points s eriatim .

1 . The cult of sacred stones or cairns .

n The o ly obj ection which , so far as I can see , may be raised to these practices being absolutely common is the idea among many British archae ologists that

n s the cair s , in which term I include chambered barrow

an d s or dolmens their keletons , the cromlechs and stone passages , were set up for burial and not for worship . T his idea has arisen because some of them have been used for burials . But I cannot accept this argument , because since the burials might have taken any time subsequent to their — T ISI I W ORSH IPS 2 5 3

h e as to t reason of the erection ; and further ,

e. chambered cairns were meant for burials , ther

be burials in all of them , and yet there are

’ in a h M es o w e . none the most maj estic of them iall ,

Let us consider a few facts in relation to the Semitic . 2 44 use of cairns referred to on p . . That the cromlechs found both in Britain and Syria there are 7 8 0 in Ireland and 7 00 in Moab— are the remains of chambered cairns is pretty clear from the 1 evidence brought forward by Borlase .

Mr . John Bell , of Dundalk , disinterred over sixty All cromlechs from cairns in Ulster . dolmens were

. an Lu kis . covered by tumuli according to Mr Bell d Mr . Monuments called cairn s in the earliest Ord n a n c e

Sur vey have been marked dolmens in subsequent . i . n surveys (e g . Townland of Leana Clare) because the earth covering the ston es had disappeared in the

n mea time . Among the evidences of natural and artiﬁcial cave s precedin g cairns which replaced them are t h e twenty - fou r

it . o . c caves which have been explored in France ( p , p ;

Borlase points out with regard to the Irish dolmens .

1 D olmen s o I r el n 4 2 a d . 6 . f , p 2 Fran c n fu rn s e s u s w t a st n - s t o n as i t w e re e, i deed , i h i h eppi g e , , be t w een t h e n at u ral cave an d t h e d olmen in c er t ai n art iﬁc i al ca ve s w hi c h offe r c o mp ar i s o n bo t h w it h t h e forme r an d t h e lat t e r t h e n at u ral c ave w as sco o pe d ou t i n t o a large c h amber o r c hambe rs e i t he r by t h e sw i rli n g o f w at e r pen t u p in t h e lime st o n e o r o t h e r yieldi n g ro ck an w c c Th e ro u n d ﬁ n di n g it s w ay o u t t h rou gh some n arr o re vi e . g d

’ lan an d se ct o n t e re fo r is t at o f an a llee cou ver te w t a . p i , h e, h i h

e st u l t h e art c al c a e is mo elle o n t he n at u ral o n e an d v ib e iﬁ i v d d ,

e t e ar s a M Mo r ill n t s o u t a clo s r sem lan ce t o t h e s . t e t o y b , p i , e e b ” olm n d e . h n ecessary was that the walls of t e cell or be impervious to the el emen ts and to A creep or passage commu n icating with the edge of

n W moun d is common to Irela d , ales , Portugal and

i . t . n o . c Britta y ( p , p The facts that the cairns so often had their open

E th e e n s n NE . S d faci g the or , and that west end

n s at was ge erally higher , like the naos trilithon Stone henge , must be borne in mind . Most of what we kn ow of earliest man has been o n m btai ed fro their lives in caves ; what they ate , the c on temporary fau n a and their art are thus known to us , but caves have not been considered as tombs , though me n have died an d left their remains in them .

n In the case of a dolme , however , an artiﬁcial cave ,

S as we hall see , the possibility of people living in them a ppears never to have been considered seriously , and the tomb theory h as led to bad reasoning and forced a rgument . W he n burials are absent it has been suggested that

s owing to some peculiarity of the oil , the entire of

n the human remai s have become decomposed , only the imperishable stone implements entombed with the body ” 1 n remaini g .

Mr . Spe n ce has poin ted out the extreme improbability o f Maesho w e n being a ything but a temple , and I may n ow add on the Semitic model . There were a large c s r entral hall and ide rooms for sleeping , a stone doo

r om t he in side which could have been opened or shut f , an d l " a niche for a guard , j anitor or ha l porter So 1 W an le Rema i n s Pr ehis ic A n 4 tor 1 . e i n E n la d . 7 d , of g g , p

2 5 6

ancient times in Britain and Brittany . tells us 1 “ Formerly the menhir was beplastered with oil

n an d n ho ey wax , and this anointi g of the stones condemned by the bishops . In certain places the local clergy succeeded in diverting the practice to t h e

w e Churches . There are still some in Lower Brittany hos exterior walls are strung with wax lines arranged in

s n fe too s and patterns . “ In some places childless wome n still rub themselve s . a n n of gai st me hirs , expecting thereby to be cured

n n s barre ess , but in others , instead , they rub themselve ” n n agai st sto e images of saints . W hen I visited the Cave of Elephanta in 18 7 1 I was told that the barren women of Bombay visit the cave once a year an d anoin t the stan ding ston e in t h e

o n chief chamber . In Egypt they still rub their bodies the Colossi .

2 . r Sacred fi es . Among the Semites the sacrificial fat was burned on A “ the altar . n d we have seen that this could be don e without any fun dame n tal modification of the old type

s n w of sacred to e or altar pillar , simply by making a hollo on the top to receive the grease . 3 Baring - Gould has writte n on the question o f s an d a in n acriﬁcial s cred ﬁres in ancient times Britai , and poin ts out that there still remain in some of our

n Y churches (in Cor wall , ork and Dorset) the con

- — t rivan ce s - now called cresset stones used . They are

1 2 B oo k o B r ittan . 2 1 . tor o t mi 36 4 . H is he Se tes . f y, p y f , p 3 Str a n 12 2 e Su rvi vals . . g , p IPS 2

s tone with cups hollowed out precisely

by Robertson Smith . Some are placed

- ﬂu es lamp niches furnished with . 12 On these he remarks (p . 2 ) Now although these lamps and cressets had their religious sign i

ﬁ cat io n si n iﬁ , yet this religious g

an cation was afterthought . Th e origin of them lay in the necessity of there being in every place a

central light , from which light

e could at any tim be borrowed .

—Cres se t - st o n e 4 . Le w FIG . 9 , an n c ro m Bar n i k . F i g 3 ’ . t . Stran e S r The cul of the sacred tree Go u ld s g u vivals . I have shown that the sacred

trees in Britam , whether rowan thorn or mistletoe , were at their b est at the times of the festivals at

which they were chieﬂy worshipped . Mrs . J . H . “ t ” Philpot , in her valuable book on the sacred ree , gives us the names of some used in different countries ; it would be interesting to inquire whether the same con

sideration applies to them in the Semitic and other areas . There seems to be no doubt that the Semitic Asherah

t h e was precursor of the British Maypole , even to its

an d dressing of many coloured ribands , from the May pole customs we may infer somethin g of the Semitic

practices which have not come down to u s . Even ’ ” 0 , Jack the Green may eventually be traced to

- Al 2 9 . Khidr (p . ) of the old May festivals

4 . The cult of the sacred well .

Here we ﬁnd only triﬂing differences . The chief S disappear . It has been pointed out by several authors worship of wells and water would be most likely arise in a dry and thirsty land .

. 5 . The time of the chief festivals Here we ﬁnd beyond all question that the festival times were the same to begin with . May is the chief mon th both in “fest Asia an d W est Europe . It was not till a subsequent time that Jun e and

in December were added Egypt and Britain , and April an d September amon g the Jews .

. 6 . The characteristics of the festivals

Here again is precise agreemen t . The list I gave

2 05 can o n p . of what be gathered from British folk lore is ide n tical with the statements as to Semitic practices which I quoted from Robertson Smith in the last chapter .

in . 7 . The worship high places Absolute identity ; an d from this we can gather that the an cie n t conditio n of the high places wherever s elected for temple worship was as treeless as it is n o w ; otherwise the observations of sun and star - ri se an d - set would be greatly in terfered with

“ Of course , there may have been groves associated

n with , but away from , sa ctuaries in both Semitic and British areas ; but it is not impossible that much which has been written on this subj ect with regard to Britain with W hom the monuments lead on e to

n To ut at es Teu t at es also mentio of a god or ,

T o ut ius fﬁ , who might have been a public o cial

n of To u t at es) . Only Celtic or other later origi s of words are suggested ; it is not said whether

n possible Egyptian root has been co sidered .

W e may even , I think , go further and ask whether ﬁ E some of the constellations were not gured as in gypt , otherwise it is difﬁcult to accou nt for t h e horror of t he

’

195 H . black pig (p . ) at allowe en The whole Egyptian 1 story is told in my D awn of A s tr on omy in connection w ith the worship of Set , that is the stars visible at

be night , blotted out at dawn by the rising sun , or

n comi g predominant after sunset .

9 . The worship of the sun and stars .

H . ere also , as I have shown , is complete agreement The same astronomical methods have been employed for the same purpose . The chief difference lies in the fact that by lapse of time the precessional movement caused differen t stars to be observed as clock stars or to herald the sunrise on the chief ceremonial days .

1 P 1 . 46 2 15 a w n d e lse e re . p , , h CHAPTER XXIV

T HE MAY - YEAR IN SOUT H - W E ST CORNW ALL

TH E previous pages of this volume have apparently dealt with two distinct subj ects ; the use of the British t monuments on the orienta ion theory , and the folklore and tradition which enable us to get some glimpses into

in the lives , actions , habits and beliefs of the early habitants of these islands , and the region whence these early inhabitants had migrated . But a lthough these subj ects are apparently distinct I think my readers will agree that the study of each has led to an identical result , namely , that in early times it was a question of the May year , and that the solstitial year was introduced afterwards . This was the chief revelation of the monuments wh e n they were studied from the astronomical point of view . W ithout confirmation from some other sources this result might have been considered as doubtful , and the orientation theory might have been thought valueless . It w has , ho ever , been seen that folklore and tradition con it it firm up to the hilt . I think may be said , therefore , that the theory I put forward in this book touching t h e astronomical use of our ancient temples is so far j ustified . The British monuments I had considered before this appeal to tradition was made were the circles at Stone St en n ess H henge , , The urlers and the avenues on Dartmoor . These w the main special result bein g that to which I have ferred ; we not on ly foun d align ments to sunrise and

- s but su nset on the critical quarter days of the May year , we found align me n ts to the stars which should have be en observed either at rising or setting to control t he morn in g sacriﬁces.

' But this inquiry had left out o f account several circles

- s in south we t Cornwall , _ of which I had vaguely heard

W n s but never seen . he I had written the previou chapters sho win g how fully May - year practices are re

n ferred to in the folklore of that part of the cou try , I

n determined to visit the circles , deali g with them as test obj ects in regard t o this special bran ch of orienta

s tion . I had not time to make a complete survey ; thi I must leave to oth ers ; but with the help so readily

f n r af orded me , which I shall ack owledge in its prope

in see place , I thought it possible a brief visit to — whether or not there were any May year alignments . In the followin g chapters I will give an account of t h e

n in observatio s made , but before doing so , order to prove how solid the evide n ce afforded by the Cornish monumen ts

a n is , I will state the det ils of the local astro omical con

’ dit io n s depe n din g upon the latitude of the Land s End

n N. n as ro n o regio , In the chapter containi g some t m n ae 12 2 t h e ical hi ts to arch ologists I referred (p . ) to

’ ’ s s n n St e n n e ss 0 ol tice co ditio s for beyond John Groat s ,

n ff because those co ditions a orded a special case , the solstice bein g determi n ed by the arrival of the sun at its

n highest or lowest decli ation , which happens on particular

h e dates which recur each year . But w ith regard to t

CHAPTER XXV

° ’

T HE M RR R LE 0 4 N . E Y MAID ENS CI C (LAT . 5 )

ONE of the best preserved circles that I know of is 1 near Penzance . It is called the Merry Maidens (Dawns 2

Lukis . Maen) , and is thus described by (p “ 7 5 8 This very perfect Circle , which is feet inches in diameter , stands in a cultivated ﬁeld which slopes gently to the south . “ It consists of 19 granite stones placed at tolerably

n regular dista ces from each other , but there is a gap on the east side , where another stone was most probably once erected . “ Man y of the stones are rectangular in plan at the 3 3 4 ground level , vary from feet inches to feet in 10 12 height , and are separated by a space of from to

1 m I may h e re remark t h at 9 maiden s is very co mmo n as a n a e f Lu k is o r a c rcle in Corn w all It i rt t l f r 19 ma en s . i . s a sho t i e o id m l s t a - If all t he i p ie h t Daw n s Maen o n ce co n si st ed o f 2 0 st on es . c i rcle s fo llo w e d su it it w o uld b e i n t e rest i n g t o n o t e if t he p re sen t n umber o f 19 is alw ays asso c i at ed w i t h a gap o n t h e e ast ern s ide . “ T h e ers are o f co u rse t h e mu s c an s w h o k e t h e ma en s pip , , i i e p id “ ” m rr - l e as o e s t h e l n l r at Bo sco w en un C rc e . y, d b i d ﬁdd e i four of the ston es on the south side

“ In the vicin ity of this monumen t — lith s called the Pipers ; an other called Goon Rith holed stone (not lon g ago there were two others) ; ” n several [5 ] Cair s . “ Lu kis thus describes the Pipers

n 317 Two rude sto e pillars of granite stand erect ,

an d 4 00 - feet apart , about yards to the north east of

- N 4 n o . 1 15 the Circle of Dawns Mae . is feet high , f 6 eet inches in breadth , and has an average thickness

2 2 n 2 9 of i ches , and is feet inches out of the

n . n perpe dicular The stone is of a lami ated nature , and f a thin ragment has flaked off from the upper part .

No . 2 13 6 n an d is feet i ches high , is much split

n d n perpe icularly . At the grou d level its plan in ” n n sectio is early a square of about 3 feet .

“ n - s 3 Goo Rith is next de cribed : No . is naturally

n 10 6 of a rectangular form in pla , and is feet inches in height . The la n d on which it stands is called

n - n t h e Goo Rith , or Red Dow s . The upper part of ” s n to e is of irregular shape .

in H ist or o Cor n wa ll Borlase , his y f only I n “ N azn i' a me tions the circle , but . C . Borlase , in his Co r n u bice gives a very rough plan including f the stones be ore mentioned and several barrows , some

n of which have bee ploughed up . At varyi n g distances from the circle and in widely

f s n dif erent azimuth are other sta ding stones , ancient

s an d n h e crosse holed sto es , w ile som of the barrows s can till be traced . The descriptions of t h e loc ality given by Borlase

2 6 8

n n H Sta to Drew , the urlers ,

n e that is that there was more than o , the

2 7 . . running from to Mr Horton Bolitho , whose aid in local . in vestigations this chapter in all l probability wou d never have been written , in one

“ ” of his Visits came across the oldest inhabitant , “ He s who remembered a second circle . aid , It was ” c overed with furze and never shown to antiquarians ultimately the ﬁeld in which it stood was ploughed up an d the ston es removed . It is to prevent a similar “ ” fate happe n in g t o the Merry Maidens themselves that Lord Falmou t h will not allow the ﬁeld in t which hey stand to be ploughed , and all antiquarians certai n ly owe him a debt of gratit ude for this and o ther proofs of his interest in antiquities . Mr . Bolitho carefully marked the site thus indicated on a

h e 2 - n copy of t 5 inch map . I shall subseque tly show t hat the circle which formerly existed here , like the o s - an . ther named , was located on important sight line H Mr . orton Bolitho was good enough to make a careful examinatio n of the barrows A and B of 1 °

. In . 6 9 W Borlase A (S . ) he found a long stone s n in n till lyi g the barrow , suggesti g that the barrow h ad been built round it , and that the apex of the f barrow ormed a new alignment . In B there is either an other recumbent long stone or the capstone o f a dolmen . This suggests work for the local anti

uari an q s . I should state that there may be some doubt about barrow A , for there are two not far from each other i ° I ° . 6 IV 9 W an . d . 6 4 with approximate az muths S . S

1 Ncen ia 2 . 14 , p . T H E M R RY MA D NS 2 6 xxv E I E 1 9

Th e destruction of these and other barrows was probably the accompaniment of the reclamation of waste land s and the con sequen t interference with antiquities which in Cornwall has mostly taken place 1 since 800. But it did not begin then , nor has it been conﬁned to barrows . Dr . Bor lase , in his parochial memoran da under 2 9 date September , 17 5 2 , describes a monolith 2 0 feet above ground , and 4 planted feet in it , the “ Men Peru ” (stone of sorrow) in the parish of

Constantine . A far mer acknowledged that he had cut it up , and had made twenty gate—posts out of it . My wife and I visited the Merry e Maid ns at Easter , 1905 , for the pur an d Mr . Cornish were good enough to

On my return to Lon do n I began work on

- n n an d 2 5 in ch Ord a ce map , subsequently Colonel R

E . H R . ellard , , director of the Ordnance Survey , was kin d en ough to sen d me the true azimuths of the

H n 1905 . Pipers . In October , , Mr orto Bolitho and

H n n H Captain e derso , whose help at the urlers I have a lready had an opportunity of acknowledging , made a much more complete survey of the adj acent s tanding s to n es an d barrows . In this survey they not only made use of the

- W 2 5 n . . i ch map , but of the old plan given by C

Borlase dating from about 18 7 0. Although the out s n n n h n ta di g sto es s ow by Borlase remain , some of

h n t e barrows i dicated by him have disappeared .

In n 1906 Ja uary , , my wife and I paid other visits H to the monuments , and Mr . orton Bolitho was

n n agai good e ough to accompan y us . Thanks to him permission had been obtained to break an opening in t h e high wall - bou n dary which prevented any View

“ ” n - n alo g the Pipers sight li e . I may here add that u n fortunately in Cornwall the ﬁeld boundaries often c n n o sist of high sto e walls topped by furze , so that the outstan di n g ston es once visible from the circles c an n o w no longer be seen from them ; another trouble is that from this cause the angular height of the sky - line alon g the alignment cannot be measured i n n ma y cases .

I will n o w proceed to refer to the chief sight - lines seriatim . The ﬁrst is that connecting the circle which

s a still exist with the site of the nci ent o n e . On this

e direct observation had been possible . I therefor adopted the mean of the Ordnance values as the true azimuth

— ° ' ” N 3 5 8 36 E . r 1 . 7 Pipe . 38 5 2 36 Pipe r 2 .

38 2 5 36

The sky - line from the centre of the circle was deﬁned

t h e n by the site of va ished barrow , angular elevation and it is highly probable that the function of t h e barrow when built was to provide a new sight - line when the star- rise place was no longer exactly poin ted out by the piper line . W ith these data the star in question was Capella , dec . ° ’ 2 9 5 8 N n 2 16 0 B . . . C , heraldi g the February sunrise ,

n - Th e I ext come to the famous menhir Goon Rith . — ° ’ n s h Az . 8 1 35 conditio s are as follow from t e circle . S

IV - . Altitude of sky line

n n n n Co cer i g this alig ment from the circle , it may be s u n tated that it cuts across many ancient stones , incl di g o n e n resembli g a rock basin or laver , and another either

n n I sUs ect a holed sto e or the socket of a sto e cross . p T H E ME RRY MAID ENS 2 73 ence in old days of a holy well attached

circle , for there is a pool of water in a depression

2 5 - is shown in the inch map . I r egard it as quite possible that we are here in

t h e via sa cr a p resence of remains of a cursus , an old , for processions between the circle and the monolith . I have not been able to ﬁnd any astronomical u se for this stone from the circle or from the site of the old o n e h , but if we suppose it to ave been used like the Barnstone at St en n ess for observations over the circle its obj ect at once becomes obvious .

t h e d From the azimuth given , eclination of the star ° 2 ’ was 5 4 N . Now this was the position of the Pleiades 196 B. C . 0 , when they would have warned the rising of the May sun . So that it i s possible that the erection of the Pipers

- and of Goon Rith took place at about the same time , and represent the ﬁrst operations .

. 9 W The next alignment has an azimuth of S 6 . from the circle ; it would be the same within a degree from the site of the one which has disappeared altitude of sky - line this line is to a stone cross on rising 1 re - i ground , doubtless a dress ng of an old menhir , and on the line nearer the circle are the remains of a barrow . W ith these data the star in question was Antares ,

1 10 B C . 13 3 . dec . S . heralding the May sunrise

1 W t r ar t o t s Mr H o rt on Bol t o h as sen t me t he i h eg d hi . i h —“ ‘ fo llow i n g n o t e Th e r i s i n g g roun d here is called locally Lan in e ’ H ll s elt Lan o n an d ro n oun c Lan in e t s isw o rt n o t c n as i ( p y p ed ) hi h i i g , l s aw a from Boleit it is t he same n ame as th e dolme n six o r se ven mi e y ,

k dn an C rcle t o an d in t h e same di st r i ct as th e Men an T 61 an d Bos e i ,

f an t an Lan s n i es somet n sacre n t n L n on in Br t . o hi g o i i y ig ﬁ hi g d, ” lace of t he sa n t o r el on n t o t h e sa n t . p i , b gi g i ° ’

11 4 5 . N. E from the same as alon g se s house preven ts measurement . The value give us

° 38 referrin g to Arcturus warning the August

in 16 40 B . C . t h The three alignments already referred to , us the warnin g stars for three out of the four days of the May year . N ° ’ “L z. 2 5 A . 8 There is still another stone cross , , hills about This has no connection with the May

n year , but may refer to the equi octial one .

IV . . . C Borlase refers to several holed stones The

e n data for two of these , supplied by Capt . Hend rso , are as follows Al sk - n e Az. o f t . y li '

f r S. E o o a . 45 St o n e in h edge N . d

l a n 2 5 W 49 S n alf st l t n S . 9 t o e s 7 . , h i di g

Azimuths n ear these have been noted before at other

n o t circles , and it must be forgotten that as the holed s n v n to es on my view were used for obser atio , these

s s azimuths mu t be reversed , ince it is probable that the

s n ob ervatio s were made over the circle . If this were so ,

n the S . E . would be cha n ged in to and we should ° ’ 7 et N 5 . 0 “ 33 . n g indicati g the solstitial sunset . Simi

larl . S. IV . N E y , would become , and we should have ° ’

N. 7 9 2 5 E . , possibly a Pleiades alignment . I have brought together in the following table all

s - W the ight lines . so far referred to . here the alti tude of the sky - line h as bee n measured it is marked with a

NM T T ABLE OF ALIG EN S.

D e D ec . Su n o r St ar . at . Hill . l me n t

° ’ ' ° '

N. 11 45 . 2 0 38 46 N . E

° ' " ° ’ N . he P ers a d N 38 2 5 . 2 0 2 9 5 8 T . E ip n r w bar o .

° W 2 “ 1 ° 18’ S. 69 . 3 3 S.

° ’ ° ' S. 8 1 W 5 2 4 N 35 . .

N 4° W ’ ° 6 . 42 1 . 6 N . B u r a n S t . i hu rc h C . CHAPTER XXVI

° ’ T HE T RE EA G AS L CIRCLES LAT . 5 0 8 2 5 N . ( , ° ’ ”

LON . G 5 39 2 5 w . )

THER E are two circles situated on Tru thw all Com

Tre aseal mon near to g and not far from St . Just ; the one is nearly to the east of the other , and there are t outstanding stones , including four holed s ones ,

Th e and several barrows . eastern temple has a d 6 9 iameter of feet , and includes , at the present time , nine erect and four prostrate stones ; the original s tructure seems to have contained twenty - eight stones a L ki ccording to u s . 19 06 My wife and I visited the region in January , , but previously to our going Mr . Horton Bolitho , a ccompanied by Mr . Thomas , whose knowledge of the local antiquities is very great , had explored the region a n d taught us what to observe . N E The chief interest appears to lie on the . . quad rant , where , in addition to a famous longstone on a hill about a mile away , the nest of holed stones and

Ken id ack ral of the barrows are located . Carn j , a

s landmark , lies to the north .

the two circles , I conﬁned my attention almost

rn one , as the other is in a is hidden almost entirely from the a modern hedge .

Mr . Horton Bolitho , who accompanied us in

Mr . has again visited the spot , with Thomas ,

an d purpose of further exploration , determining angular height of the sky - line along the diffe

s 6 - n alignment , which I have plotted from the i ch and

- 2 5 inch maps . My readers will therefore see that my part of the work has been a small one , and that they

n are chiefly in debted to those I have amed . No theodolite survey has as yet been made for deter

Th e mi n in g the azimuths and the height of the hills . followin g approximate azimuths have been determined

2 5 - n by myself from a inch map , and the elevatio s by ’

H n n . Mr . orto Bolitho by mea s of a miner s dial

me n s e at on n . Alig t El v i .

° ' A e o f Car n 4 0 l . p x ’ Barro w 800 d st an t 3 5 0 2 . i ’ T w o ar ro w s 900 d st an t l 5 0 3. b i H l d st o n e s 1 15 4 . o e

5 Lo n s t o n e 2 10 . g

6 . St o n e

The carn referred to in the above table is Carn

“ ”

Ken id ack n . on j , called the hooti g cairn The rocks d the summit , in which there is a remarkable epression , are still by local superstition supposed to emit evil

n sounds by ight .

t he - Of sight lines studied so far , those to and from the Lon gst on e an d the holed ston es seem the most 1 . L n 1 N E important The ongsto e , 5 miles to the , is a mo n olith 10 feet high on the western side of a

1 I n Co rn w all s l n l t hi is t h e n ame gen e ra ly given t o a mo o i t h .

2 80

grown round and partly hidden it . as follows

2 ° ' " " A e o f Cam 4 33 0 Ar ct uru s Z p x ' N Barro w 800 di st an t ’ W T w o barr ow s 900 di st ant s g 9 P Ho led st o n e s n ‘ Ma sun P Lo n gst o n e a o y

1 c P e ad e s B . C Q St on e w l i .

Regarding the possible solstitial alignments , the declination s obtain ed may be neglected un til the azimuths and angular heights of the hills have been determined with a good theodolite . A change of ’ 10 an d in the angular elevation , hence about that in the resulting declination , would bring the date given by the barrows to about 2 000 R C . The position of the Longstone is well worthy of attention . Several very ﬁne monuments which mark the surrounding horizon are visible from it in azimuths with which other monuments have made us familiar .

They are as o fo llo w s

Al men t ign .

° ’ ' Lo n st o n e t o Mén - an - to l N g 5 0 30 E . N n e Ma den s Bo k d n s N . 5 4 0 . i i ( e n a ) . E W La . n o n u o t N 6 0 . y Q i . 7 E Lan on u o E t 2 45 . y Q i N. 7

These values , of which the angular heights of the hills were determined approximately from the contours o n l i mb i the Ordnance map , lead us to the follow ng declinations

Al m n en t . D e c . t ar . D a ig l S te .

° ’ Lo n s t o n e to Mén - an - to l 2 4 sun g 7 N . So l st it ial . . Ni n e Ma den s Bo ske dn an 2 2 i ( ) 37 N . W . Lan o n u o t 14 M a sun . y Q i 3 N . y Lan o n uo t 10 30 P e ade 1 N . s 0 B . y Q i l i 30 C . xx V I T REG ASEAL CIRCLES 2 8 I - The May sun alignment , it may be from that from the circle . The heights of hills determined may give us the same solar declin that now used gives the declination for April 2 8

August 15 in our present calendar .

o n Regarding the alignment Lanyon Quoit , it need only be pointed out that the Pleiades date obtained is some 2 00 years after the date obtained for t h e

n n w n a alagous alignme t from the circle , sho i g that if — these two mon uments the Tregaseal circle and t h e

L — t h e ongstone have any relationship , the removal to

n n W Bo sw en high plain , now k ow as oon Gumpus and

Commons , was an afterthought improvement .

n I ext come to the holed stones , not only the nest of them not far from the circle , but the famous

Men - an - tol itself. I had heard before goin g to T regaseal that the fou r holed stones shown o n the Ordn ance map had been knocked down and set up again (not necessarily in H their old places) two or three times . Mr . orton

an d Bolitho Mr . Thomas , however , in their examination were con vi n ced that the largest of them has never

n bee moved . They also express the belief that the others are not more than a foot or so from their

n n du e origi al positio s , and that this change is only

re - to their erection by Mr . Cornish after they had

n n falle dow . So far I have heard nothin g of the direction of the hole in the stone which retains it s

n original positio . Another interestin g matter is that the explorers in question were able to trace an ancien t stone alignment f rom the circle to the holed stones .

H N A 2 84 ST ONE E GE C H P. The azimuths suggest that theodolite measures may s how that the Tregaseal stones might have been used in the same way ; they , the Longstone and Lanyon

n Quoit , are in early the same straight line , the align

n n n me t , holed sto es to Lo gstone and Lanyon Quoit

Ph t b Lad L k o o . oc er — y y y . FI - - G . 5 . T h Mé n an l 7 e t o .

N ° . 6 7 E being . , so that the May sunrise may have been noted in this way .

e u Several other monuments , . g . , Ch n Castle and

Cromlech , are to be found in the immediate neigh bourho o d Tre aseal of the g circle and the Longstone , but these will have to await further investigation as to their character and antiquity before any con clusions m concerning their astrono ical use can be deduc ed . x xv x T H E T RE G ASE AL CIRCLES 2 85

Not only do we ﬁnd in t his neigh bourhood the nest of Mén holed stones to which I have referred , but the an - in tol , the most famous of them all , England at all events . This , then , is the place to say a few words about them . I have before stated my Opinion that these stones , instead of being used as slaughter stones or posts at which to tie up the victim before sacriﬁce

— T h e Mé n - an - t o l r . 5 8 . . on t V ew an d sect on ro mLa s . FIG F i i , f ki

m w ere reall or in any other similar employ ent , y sight ing stones to enable an align men t to be easily picked

a up . As such these were , of course , treated as s cred ,

- and hence the folk lore connected with them . This folk - lore seems to be most complete in the case of t h e

St en n ess . famous stone of Odin at , so I condense Mr

’ Spence s account of it . Children brought to the stone at Belt ain e an d Mid

n u summer , after being carried su wise ro nd the holy well were passed through the hole as a protection against the powers of the evil one . Marriage ceremony con 2 86

- sacred as the legal marriage of to day .

b in sert in c head cured y g the head in the avity , palsy in children . Children and adults travelled man y miles t o secure relief in this way .

At the Men - an - tol the curative effects could only be

n b rawlin obtai ed y c g through the aperture , which is of con siderable size .

As a rule , however , the aperture is much more

n restricted . ge eral size of the holed stone and the _ The position of the aperture in it may be well gathered from t h e fact that almost all of them have been used for

‘

an d - fulﬁllin h a , t t gateposts are now _ to be seen g func

n . I n . tio some cases the old special use can be inferred ,

in is m but others this ore difﬁcult , as the stones have

n bee shifted or slewed round , or the ancient monu men t to which the sighting stone was directed has disappeared .

n Mén - an - The astro omical origin of the tol , which o n n bviously has ever bee disturbed , is quite obvious .

Fig . 5 6 (from Lu kis ) shews that it was arra n ged along

n the May year alignment , the adve t of May and August , February and November being indicated by the shadows c ast by the stones through the aperture on to the o n pposite o es . To the south—west the alignment for the February and N u ovember sunsets passes exactly over Ch n Castle . “ ” n n The Tolme near Gweek , Constanti e , another famous holed ston e 7 feet 9 inches high and with an a 17 n perture of i ches , is according to a magnetic bearing

Men - an - I took last Easter parallel to the tol , and doubt

s - le s was used for the same purpose .

2 90

e declinations hav been calculated by Mr . theodolite survey will doubtless revise some

Mar Az. s . D e c . k s. Hill ° ’ ° ' ° 2 ' 1 n r N . 43 15 E . 2 7 2 9 6 . F . St o e c o ss +

2 m n N . 5 3 30 E . 1 15 2 2 5 8 P n e e r . . . Fi hi E 1 15 2 2 2 4 N 5 4 30 . 3 B B n d dd er . . . li Fi l 1 0 14 Ma 4 h N 0 . 5 5 T w o ar e men rs . 66 5 su . l g i E y n E 1 8 P 5 n ro s N 8 O . 8 eia t o e c s . . de s . S 7 l 1480 (May ) E 1 —14 32 t on e S. 66 30 No em 6 . S v ber su n W 4 St o n e N 83 30 . 1 36 P e ad 7 . . l i es 2 12 0 over the centre of the circle . As there are both at Tre gaseal and alignments suggesting the observation of the solstice sunrise , it is desirable here to refer to

. 6 0 azimuths as calculated . For this purpose Fig has ° 0 a t . 5 bee n prepared , which shows these for lat both at the pre sen t day an d at the date of the restoration

Sto n ehen ge . 3 . 6 My readers should compare this with Fig , which gives the solstice sunrise conditions of St en n e ss in

n s N. Lat . Such a compariso will how how useless it is to pursue these inquiries without taking the latitude

- and the height of the sky lin e into account .

° '

32 5 0 N. . Str i le St on es . 5 0 p p (lat , long ° ’ W 4 37 . )

This is a very remarkable circle co n sisti n g of 5 erect an d 11 prostrate ston es situated on a circular level platform 17 5 feet in diameter on the boggy south

’ slope of Hawk s Tor on the Haw kst o r Downs in the pari sh of Blislan d . The circle itself is about 14 8 feet

’ in an d n n Lukis s diameter , the whole mo ume t is , in

n n n opinio , the most i teresti g and remarkable in the

n cou try . Surroundi n g the platform is a ditch 1 1 feet

an d n 10 wide , beyond that a pena nular vallum about feet in width . The peculiarity of the vallum is that it

h as - - three bastions situate on the north east , north west ,

- and east sides . It is to the north east bastion that I

r wish to efer .

the Sighting from huge monolith , which is now c the centre of the ircle , e are of this bastion we ﬁ n d

° a i - N . 2 5 E z muth of the sight line is . ; the

elevation of the horizon from the l - inch Ordnance map appears to be about 0° From these values , proceeding as in the former cases , we ﬁnd

A me n n t . D e c . t ar D a e lig l S . t .

° ’ Cen t re o f c rc e t o cen t re o f ast on 35 1 N . a e a i l b i C p ll 12 5 0 B . C . indicating t hat this alignment was formed for the same purpose as that which dominated the erection of the ” Pipers .

° ’ in e Ma id N en s . . 5 0 2 8 2 0 N. (lat , long 4 ° 4’ ” 5 35 W . )

In this monument we ﬁ n d a very differen t type from those considered previously . The Nin e Maidens are s imply 9 stones in a straight

2 6 2 n line feet in le gth at the present day ; possibly ,

Lu kis as suggested by , it may have extended origin

“ ” Th e ally to the monolith known as Fiddler , situated some 800 yards away in a north - easterly

n direction . Measuri g the azimuth of the alignment on

’ Lu kis s l an d n n n n p an , ﬁ di g the horizo elevatio s from

1 - n f n : the inch Ordna ce map , we have the ollowi g

D ecl . ° 4 ’ N 37 7 .

It may he remarked that here we have a date for the use of Capella intermediate bet ween those

“ “ ” Obtained for the Pipers and the St ripple Stones CHAPTER XXVIII

- BR T A N T HE CLOCK ST ARS IN EGYPT A ND I I .

I HAVE now ﬁnished my astronomical reconnaissance n of the British monuments . I trust I have show how important it is that my holiday task should be followed by a serious inquiry by other workers so that the approximate values with which I have had to content myself for want of time may be replaced by others to T which the highest weight can be attached . his means at each circle reversed observation s with a six - inch theodolite an d determination of azimuths by means of

n observatio s of the sun if necessary . I propose in the present chapter to bring together the general results already obtained in cases where the i n quiry has bee n complete enough to warrant deﬁnite

n co clusions to be drawn .

The ﬁrst result to be gathered from the observations , and one to which I attach the highest importance , is

. n e that the practice , so lo g employed in Egypt , of d ter mining time at n ight by the revolution of a star round the pole , was almost universally followed in the British

. ﬁ rst - ma nit ude circles This practice was to watch a g ii

account of the adven t of the

the new walls .

H n i ere , the , we have two dates g ven by of a clock - star temple entirely agreeing with the

n recen t views of Egyptia chronology .

’ t r o E t In H is o . 14 . Dr . Budge s y f gyp (iii ) the story of the rebuildin g of the temple at Ann u by Usert sen

4 . 2 33 B C . n Su ( , Brugsch) is give from an ancient roll . p po sin g this temple built parallel with the faces o f the

f n n s n . remai i g obeli k , y Draco is would rise in its axis

n in r n B . Use sen n 2 5 00 C . t prolo ged , prov g that did at A u

an d what Pepi previously did at Denderah , that the same reason for restoration an d even the same star 1 w in ere question . — W he n the clock star ceased to be visible in the chief temple other subsidiary temples were subsequently built

« to watch it . Thus y Draconis was watched at Thebe s 3 5 00 B . from C . to the times of the Ptolemys by temple s ° ’

n s z. 2 0 . orie ted uccessively from that of Mut A N. 7 3 E o ° 0 2 to 6 8 6 3 an d 6 2 It is worth while to show that what we know now of the Egyptian methods of observation enables u s to carry

e the matter further , while we gather at the same tim that in con sequen ce of the difference of latitude the method employed in Egypt could not be followed in

Britain .

I showed in the D a w n of As tr on omy that several ancient shrines consisted of two temples at right angles

1 a w n o As tr o n om 2 15 . D f y, p . 2 I bi ol. . 2 14 , p . 2 97

F i . N E g one axis pointing high . . — - — observe the clock star the worship of Set the. N W . er low . to observe either the sun by itself, or in association with some important star of the same

n declination as the su .

n The temples of Mut and Menu (or Min) , and of Ame ,

L n with the associated temple M . of epsius , at Kar ak , are l t h e best extant examples of this principle of templ e building . There is evidence that both at Annu an d Memphis

n o n e the same principle was followed , but at An u

n obelisk alo e remains , and at Memphis one temple ; from

an d n these , however , Captain Lyons myself have obtai ed sufﬁcient data to enable the original directions of the

- temple systems to be gathered .

n N . W . At De derah , if such a temple ever existed it

n n n has disappeared , but as the mo ume t sta ds there

n are still two temples at right a gles to each other , but

n N IV the second one faces S . E . i stead of . .

n o w n o f This premised , I will give , in a ticipation

n n another one deali g with the British mo uments , a list

n t of the most a cient star emples in Egypt , with their — azimuths and the ﬁ rst - magnitude clock stars w hich

n f n could have been observed i them at dif ere t dates . These dates have bee n approximately determined by

° o 1 the use of a precessional globe , an h rizon of eleva

n . tio being assumed As I have shown , the present views of Egyptian chro n ology and the inscriptio n s carry

a n . us back to Ursae Maj oris , at De derah But there is

n A a suggestio at Luxor , and perhaps also at bydos , that

“ so Vega was used before that star , though there are ,

n o . far as I know , temple traces of Arcturus ° ’ ° ' ° ' * 11 30 10 14 0 5 7 2 5 5 5 5 0 5 2 00 M e mphis 2 9 5 0 12 45 5 8 2 0 D e n de rah 2 6 10 18 30 5 8 5 2 " 2 . T e e s Mu t 3 40 1 30 5 9 46 6 00 4800 h b ( ) . 7 7 3 T e ll - el - Amarn a 5 40 13 0 60 12 Nagada $ 10 12 0 6 1 16

There is a very great difference between det ermin in g the date of a temple erected to the rising or s n etti g of a particular star , and of one erected to the risin g or settin g of the sun on a particular day of the year . In the latter case no date can be given u n less we have reason to believe that both the sun a n d a star rose or set at the same point of the

n horizo at the same date ; in other words , the sun and

n star had the same declinatio , and the rising or setting o f both could be seen in the same temple .

I assumed , without historical data , that this view was acted on in Egypt , at the temple of Menu ; Mr .

Penrose found , with historical data , that it was actually

in To acted on Greece at the Parthenon . show that we are at all j ustiﬁed in this v iew we must study the association of gods with temple worship , and look for temples in differen t azimuths erected at different times if the god is a star ; and we can run the star home

’ if the dates fall in with the star s precessional change . Thus there is reason for supposing that the god Ptah an d the star Capella were associated . There is a

° ’ Az N. 1 . 7 7 5 W . temple of Ptah at Memphis , , hills

. N . 5 2 00. decl star Capella , date In the rect a ngular at a system Memphis , then , Ursae Majoris respectively and was an awkward

— - l Arc u ru s an d a e a as c o c st ars in Br t a n . 6 . t C FIG . p ll l k i i

n AB sea h o r izo . ' ’ ° z r i n A B h o zo 3 high .

1 n n Fig . 6 represe ts diagrammatically the conditio s n a amed , the circumpolar paths of Arcturus and Capell bein g shown by the smaller and larger circle resp ec t ivel A B n y. represents the actual sea horizo and A’ B ’ 3° a locally raised horizon high , whilst the dotted portion of the larger circle represents t he non

’ s o f vi ible part Capella s apparent path .

W i n — o hat the Brit sh astro omer priests did , theref re , in to set up their temples

and set over it an d was invisible for only

me , as shown in the diagram by the raised

The two lists following contain the names of the mon u

‘ ments where I s uggest Arcturus was used as a clock

- s . tar In the ﬁrst , the angular elevation of the sky line as seen from the circle in each case has been actually r measured , and the date of the alignment is , the efore , fairly trustworthy ; but in the secon d list the elevations have been estimated from the differe n ces of contour

- shown on the one inch Ordnance map , and the dates must be accepted as open to future revision .

AR T UR U A A LO - T AR C S S C CK S .

i i n Po s t o .

D cl ° 1 3 16 A i nme n t m n t H i lls . Mo n u e . l g § 132 Lo n L t . . a . N g W .

° ' ” ° ’ ° ’ r t o Carn Ken id ac k N . 12 S E . 4 0 T reg as eal 5 0 5 39 2 0 Ci c . j

N 3 2 41 8 ir . 11 15 4 3 2 170 c irc . o ve r c e n t c c . 5 0 31 0 4 2 7 2 0 S . E

N . 14 18 3 2 4 41 9 v irc . i c o e r . c Ce n t . c r N . E 1 3 2 4 40 0 N . 8 44 i r ve r N E . b ar . N C o . o . E

m n s o f N . 15 0 3 1 40 36 t o r e a . Me r ri vale 5 0 33 15 4 2 30 Cir o . i E c ro mle ch D 2 4 2 5 0 39 5 5 5 . i re c t io n o f s malle r N . E aven u e

1 15 39 7 v . 13 0 F ern w o r th y 5 0 3 5 4 10 Dire ct ion o f A en ue N E . 14 1 15 38 5 1 1670 N . 2 0 E .

N . I 5 9 2 33 38 3S 16 2 0 iro . t o T . 5 1 2 2 0 2 0 Ce n t . o f G t . C E Q u oit

5 1 15 38 34 16 10 3 5 4 10 Dire c t io n o f Aven u e N . 15 4 E .

irc t o s t o n e i n t h e 11 45 . 0 12 38 2 7 5 35 2 5 C . N E

30 f N. 19 5 1 . 1 44 37 W . oirc . t o c en t re o 5 1 2 2 0 2 0 S . E Mo n umen t .

T row l es w ort h y

an In some cases , for one reason or another , this arr ge

e t he ment was not carried out , and Capella , in spit of

in t he obj ection I have stated , was used follo g circles

AP LLA A A - C E S CLOCK STAR .

w At the Merry Maidens , however , ith nearly a sea

horizon , when Arcturus ceased to be circumpolar and N ° ' 1 1 4 5 E . rose in Azimuth . , it replaced Capella , and

- 1 B C . was used as a clock star after 6 00 . In this system of night observation we have the germ of the use in later times of an instrument called the night ”

dial , specimens of which , dating from the fourteenth

century , can be seen in our museums . The introduction

CHAPT ER XXIX

A SHORT H IST ORY OF SUN T EMPL ES

The Origin a l C ult

I HAVE give n detailed evidence showin g that the ﬁrst c in - ircle builders Britain worshipped the May year sun , whether they brought it with them or not . This year

in w as . used Babylon , Egypt , and afterwards in Greece

n ‘ In the two former cou tries May was the harvest month , an n in d thus became the chief mo th the year . The dates w ere apt to vary with the local harvest time . The earliest extan t temple aligned to the sun at this

s s s n fe tival eem to have bee that of Ptah at Memphis ,

B . 5 2 00 C . I have already referred to this temple in

th e — relation to clock star observations carried on in it . This approximate date of the b u ilding of the temple is obtai n ed by the evide n ce afforded (1) by the associated

- s se e clock tar ( p . an d (2 ) by the fact that the god Ptah represented the star Capella since there is a Ptah

n o n temple at Thebes alig ed Capella at a later time , when by the precessional moveme n t it had been carried

s outside the olar limit . There was also a similar temple

° A n H s N . . 30 h as at n u ( eliopoli , lat but it ear p e d . The light of the sun fell along the

1 the temple , especially as

- as a new clock star at the same date .

Of The researches Mr . Penrose in Greece have provided

- us with temples oriented to the May year sun . I shall

are return to them afterwards , as they later in time than

the British monuments .

1 See aw n o Astr on m . 318 . D f o y, p

It more u i Layard in his explorations of Ko y unj k. ’ had unearthed Sennacherib s palace (7 00 B. careful to give the astronomical and of the buildings and of the temple which seemed to ° ’ n Az N. 6 3 E . 8 0 . form the core of them . The beari g is , ’ 1 ° g iving the sun s declin ation as N. 6

n I am en abled by the kind ess of Mr . John Murray to give copies of the plans which Sir H . Layard pre pared Of the excavations both at Ko uyunjik and

Nimro o d n , showi g the careful orientation which enables us to claim Sennacherib ’ s temple as one consecrated

Nimr o o d n to the May year , while at (Babylo ) the equinoctial worship was in vogue as at the pyramids .

’ s n t n La ard s In as ociatio with hese pla s of y , I give another by Mr . Maudslay of the as carefully oriented

n N . temples at Chiche Itza ( . lat explored by

. n n him In these temples , of u known date and origi , the azimuths of two Show that the May year was w l orshipped .

1 The t e mple co n di t i o n s a re app ro ximat e ly as fo llo w s

PA L E N Q UE .

Az m u t s . D ec i h l .

° ' ° ’ N . 2 1 30 E . 60 15

N . 1 - 8 0 E . 62 36 e St ar e m e s . ll t pl Cl oc k stars .

S . 2 \ 7 0 V . 5 6 17

S. 66 0 E . 2 3 O So l st ice 01ar em 1 S t p es . S. 3 7 0 E . 16 0 May

CH I CH E'N I T Z A .

D e c l .

° ’ 5 9 0 St e a r m e o - t e . Cl c star ll pl k . 19 0 19 0 (? I 92 0 So ls t it ial o ar m S l t e ples . 16 0 May H IST ORY OF SU N T EMP LES 30 9

The Ma Yea r Mon um n ts in r t y e B i ain .

In the ﬁrst glimpses of the May year in Egypt we

5 B C . have dates from 000 . It does not follow that it

B C . did not reach Great Britain before about 2 000 . because monuments made their appearance about that ° t h a w it h . t time It is clear , also , the possibilities of fﬁ coastwise tra c as we have found it , it might as easily

2 B C . t 000 . have reached Ireland by then ; , herefore , is a probable date for the May worship to have reached Britain arguing on general principles ; we now come to a detailed summary of the facts Showin g that it really reached Britain earlier . Alignments i n British monuments designed to mark ’ the place of the su n s rising or setting on the quarter days of the May year have been found as follows

I have already shown that it was the practice in ancient times for the astron omer - priests not only to prin cipal festivals .

- an d ne a Each clock star , if it rose set very r

n north poi t , might be depended on to herald

o n on e sunrise of the critical days of the year , for the others other stars would require to be observed .

This practice was fully employed in Britain . — May War n in gs The following table gives the stars I have so far n oted which were used as warners for the

May festival .

D at e o r dat e s Mo n u men t .

T h e H u rl e rs

Merrivale

Bo scaw en - u n

St e n n e ss .

Lo n gst o n e (T re gase al )

R r s n . se in ( ) i i g (S) t t g .

It is conven ien t here to give a list of the Ma

n war ing stars found by Mr . Penrose in Greece , as shows that the same stars were observed for t h e same purpose .

August sun , so did Capella su n in addition to its u se at and dates given in the Capella table will

- good for its employment at the February quarter day .

he Solstitia l Year Mon ume t T n s .

In Egypt generally , the solstitial worship followed

n n that of the May and equi octial years . The religio of

an d e Thot hme s III . the Rameses was in greatest vogu — 2 2 00 15 00 B . C .

We ﬁ n d little trace of it in Greece proper , though

n in Mr . Pe rose has traced it Calabria and Pompeii , and in some of the islands . The solstitial cult was born in Egypt ; it is a child

- of the Nile rise . I have shown in my D a w n of As tr on omy that the lo n g series of temples connected

B C . with the solstice may have commenced about 3000 . ; but for lon g it was a secondary cult ; it was parochial

’ n f 2 3 ls i 00 B C . so t u til the twel th dynasty , say . Egypt s

n n 1 h er 7 00 B . C . tial golde age may be give as , and

n influe ce abroad was very great , so that much travel , “ an d fo r coastwise other , may be anticipated . It is some centuries after the ﬁrst date that the introduction of the solstitial worship into Britain may be anticipated . n f It , for i stance , is quite probable that the pioneers O this

C . worship should have reache d Stonehenge in 2 000 B . i i o u n d so t a a ents by Mr . Penrose in

m s T e e . D a ear pl y . Y .

UNE J .

° ’ At en s D io n su er T e m e An t ares se t t in 11 2 un e 1 h , y s (Upp pl ) ( g ) J 2 0 700 Po mpe ii (I s i s ) B- G emin o ru m 16 44 19 75 0

D ECE MB E R .

Met ap o n t um

IVe ﬁnd plentiful evidence that the worship of t h e solstitial sun such as was carried on in Egypt at 1 Karnak and at other places was introduced into

Britain some time after the May - year worship w as provided for in the monuments . Although some of the alignmen t s already discovered

’ t h e s are in all probability solstitial , variation of the sun solstitial declination is so slow and takes place between such narrow limits that a mos t careful determin ation of the actual azimuths and of the angular heights of the various horizons must be made before any deﬁnite con elusion as to dates can be arrived at . The necessity for this care is illustrated in the paper on Stone 2 henge communicated to t h e Royal Society by Mr . m 18 9 1 Penrose and yself in , where , after taking the greatest precautions , the resulting date was in doubt to the amount of 2 00 years in either direction .

1 8 aw n o Astr on o m . 7 . D f y, p 2 l 6 9. Pr oc . R o . Soc . vo . y , n can yet be give .

Al ign me n t .

49° S t o n eh e n ge Dir ecti on o f aven u e N .

Bo sca w en - u n Ci rc t o ﬁn e men hir Su mmer ( R) Blin d Fiddl e r

t o ro w o f ho ed . 5 3 2 5 . Ci ro . l N E st o n e s '

Ci rc . t o t w o b arro w s 900

Lo n g st o n e Mén -an -t o l t o Lo n gst on e (T regas eal)

S 5 0 5 0 0 . 2 4 17 2 0 S. t o S . st o n e . r rs ci rc . T h e Hu le N, E E

E circ e . 5 1 0 0 2 3 48 D N . irc e t o . Sta n t on re w G t . C l l N E m . 39 30 . 2 4 15 Sum er R S t e n n e s s Circle t o Hin de ra Fi o ld N 0 E 3 N . ( )

w 4 1 0 . Barn st o n e t o Mae sh o e N . E

t o ard Hill S . 41 in t e r R Ci rc . W W ( ) t u mulu s

t o O n s t o n t u mu us S . 36 Circ . l I 0 W .

2 R ris in . S s et t in ( ) g ( ) g .

I cited an alignmen t at the Hurlers which marked the rising point of Betelgeuse . This star warned the ’ s r SO ummer solstice sunrise at about the Hu lers date . far , however , I have not yet found any suggestion of it s use elsewhere . At Shovel Down and Challacombe on Dartmoor there are n Th ave ues pointing a few degrees west of north . e sight - lin es along these avenues would mark the s etting - point of Arcturus at the time that that star (setting) warned the rising of the sun at the summer solstice ; but this use cannot be considered as established , as Ar cturus would scarcely set before its light was t h drowned in that of e rising sun . The absence of

CHAPTER XXX

T H E LIFE OF T H E AST RONOMER - PRIE ST S

THE facts contained in the preceding chapters have

at suggested , all events , that whatever else went on some four thou san d years ago in t h e British circles there was much astronomical observation an d a great

n deal of preparatio for it .

In a colony of the astronomer - priests who built and used the ancient temples we had of necessity

i e . in 1 . ( ) Observatories , , circles the ﬁrst place ; next somethin g to mark the sight - lin es to the clock - star for

n night work , to the risi g or setting of the warning stars , and to the places of sun rise and sunset at the chief festi

. n vals This somethi g , we have learned , might be another

a n n circle , a st ndi g sto e , a dolmen , a cove , or a holed stone .

A study of the sight - lin es Shows us that these col limation marks , as we may call them , were of set purpose , generally placed some distance away from t h e circles , so far that they would require to be illuminated in s ome way for the night and dawn observations. W hen there was no wind , one or more hollows in a s n : to e , whether a menhir or a quoit , might have held the shelter an d man . But the man who brought this new knowledge was , before he came , astrologer as well , and , further , he was a priest ; hence of his knowledge of the seasons , he could not only help the aboriginal till er of the soil as he had never

n been helped before , by his k owledge ; but he could ap peal in the strongest way to his superstitious fears

i sacrifi cer and feel ngs , by his function as the chief and guardian of the sacrificial altars and fires . Hence it was that everything relating to the three ' different classes of things to which I have referred was regarded as very holy because they were closely associated with

- the astronomer priests , on whom the early peoples de pended for guidance in all things , not only of economic , but of religious , medical and superstitious value .

e so The perforated ston s were regarded as sacred , that passing through them was supposed to cure dis W . n h ease hether men and wome , or c ildren only ,

a passed through the hole depended upon its size . But hole large enough for a head to be inserted was good for head complaints .

Th e wells , rivers , and lakes used by the priests were , as holy places , also invested with curative properties , and

ff n l an d o eri gs of garments (skins ) , pins to fasten them o n , as well as bread and wine and cheese , were made at these places to the priests . The fact that the tree on which the garment was hung was either a rowan or a thorn shows that these Offer

- ings commenced as early as the May November worship .

The n holed stones , besides bei g curative , were in long

in o f the May year were operation there was the introduction of a new

a o r shortly fterwards , in southern Britain , so that the changes in the chief orientation lin es s ton e circles can be traced .

su n N To the worship of the in May , August , ovember a n d February was added a solstitial worship in June a n d December . The associated phenomena are that the May—November Balder an d Belt ain e cult made much of the rowan and

u n e - maythorn . The J December cult brought the worship of the mistletoe .

n The ﬂoweri g of the rowan and thorntree in May , a n d N their berries in early ovember , made them the most appropriate an d s triking ﬂoral accompaniments of N the May and ovember worships , and the same ideas would poin t to a similar use of the mistletoe in June an d December .

The fact that the J un e - December cult succeeded and largely replaced the May—November one could hardly have bee n put in a cryptic and poetic statement more happily than it appears in folklore : Balder was killed by mistletoe . This change of cult may be due to the intrusion of

n ew a tribe , but I am inclined to attribute it to a new view taken by the priests themselves due to a greater

n m n m n k owledge , a ong it bei g the deter inatio , in Egypt , of the true len gth of the year which could be Observed

an d n by the recurrence of the solstices , of the i tervals f between the estivals reckoned in days .

H t h e owever this may have been , all old practices

The clock - star

- The Pl ay warning stars followed pretty quickly . \V ‘ e may say , then , that we have full evidence astronomical activity of all kinds at the circles for period of some 7 00 years . ? W hat prevented its continuance on the old lines It may have been that the invention of some other method of telling time by night had rendered the Old methods m of observation , and therefore the apparatus to carry the

n o s . on , longer neces ary

On the other hand , it may have been that some new race , less astronomically inclined , had swept over the land .

n e I am i clined to take the former view . It is quit — certain that for the clock stars other Observations besides those on the horizon would soo n have suggested them

n n selves for determi i g the lapse of time during the night .

Old The , high , bleak , treeless moorlands might then in

a an d e process of time have been gr dually forsaken , lif may have gone on in valleys and even in sheltered woods , W except on the chief festivals . hen this was so astro n o my and superstition would give way to politics and

n e other new huma interests , and the priests would becom in a wider se n se the leaders and the teachers of t h e

n more highly orga ised community . It is clear that in later days as at the commencement h Hi t ey were still ahead in the knowledge of the time .

mu n di u e ma n it u din em et terrae q g formam , motus coeli ” siderum v elu n t sciere ro ﬁ en ur is ac , ac quod dii p t t ’ Po m o n ius 1 p Mela s statemen t concerning them . From 15 0 ’ 0 B . C . a to C esar s time is a long interval , and yet

1 Pom ’ . M . ela Lib . . 2 II c . I . a l 5 2 u t Caesar s p , h ve a re ady (p . ) q o ed t est imon t o t h e same e ff y e ct .

n me ts have been dated , that the astronomical referred to by Caesar and Pomp o n ius Mela was no

et h n importation if, therefore , the present view of 1 00 B . that the Celtic intrusion took place about 0 C .

n o correct , it is certain the Celts brought higher intel ligen ce with them than was possessed by those whom they found here ; nor is this to be expected if, as the i nquiry has suggested , the latter were the representatives o f the highest civi lisation of the East with which possibly t he former had never been brought into contact . APPEND ICES

I D ETA LS OF T HE T HEOD OL T E OBSE R AT ONS AT . I I V I ST ONE HE NG E

T HE in strumen t chieﬂy employed was a six- in c h t ran sit theodolit e " o w rn rs r n t o 2 0 in l u an d z m t by C oke ith ve ie eadi g a tit de a i u h . Most o f t h e obser vat ion s w ere made at t w o p o in ts very n ear the x s w c ma be s n t b a b on a was s n c a i , hi h y de ig a ed y , . Stati at a di ta e o f 6 1 f t o t he sou - w e s o f t h e c n t r o f t he t m l an d b eet th t e e e p e ,

36 f t t o n ort - s T he st n c from t h e c n t r Of t on 4 ee the h ea t. di a e e e S e n t o l s ur r n f t c lc l c orr c on s he ge Sa i b y Spi e bei g ee , the a u ated e ti for parallax at t h e p oin ts of o bservat ion w it h referen ce t o Salisbury Spire are ’ S tation a 4 12

b 2 5 2 0.

1 Relative Azi mu ths —T o ol st on a ( ) . he d ite at ati

0° 0’ 0

f o n l N . S o n t r n ide pe i g in NE . i itho o f t h e ext ern al rin g 2 37 2 7 40 T ree in middle o f clump on Sidbury Hill 2 37 40 2 0 ’ Highest poin t o f Friar sHeel 2 39 47 2 5 f 14 40 . s 2 4 o o n n in r l t on . 0 S ide pe i g NE . t i i h 2 38 5 1 10 — Absolu te Azimu ths All the azimu th s were referred t o that o f al s r r t h e z m t o f w c w as t rm n b S i bu y Spi e , a i u h hi h de e i ed y 32 6

’ 2 T rue altitude o f Sun s cen tre 41 5 37

° ’ ’ ° ' " Latit ude 5 1 10 S un s declin atio n 2 3 2 6 43 Usin g t h e formu la sin A e —z s n A z—e 2 %( + ) i g; ( + ) 008 311 sin e sin 2

w r A z mu t fro m so A : ol s n c he e a i h uth , p ar di ta e

- : (3 00 l t an d z z n s n c a itude , e ith di ta e w e get

° ' z f 75 0 A imut h o S un 3 30 W . Mean circle readin g on S un 84 38 35

Azimuth o f Salisbury Spire S . 9 8 5 E .

5 Obser vation s o Polari — 1 T m f r s J n 2 3 190 . o s ( ) f u e , i e g eate t

st rl lon on c lcu l t formu l co s h = n ( ) cot 8 is ea e y e gati , a a ed by a ta j , M T G . . . A M.

Az mu t at r s s rl lon on calc l b t he i h g eate t ea te y e gati , u ated y formula

sin A cos 8 se c

° ’ " 18 1 5 7 0 from sou t h .

Obser ved maximu m readin g o f circle T r u e azimu t h o f star

r n Me idia (S . ) readin g o f c ircle C rcl r i e eadin g on S alisb u ry Spire

Az imu t h o f Salisbury Spire

T he m n o f h ea t e t wo det ermin ation s gives fo r t he azimut h o f " l s ur r . E T t h e Sa i b y Spi e S . his result agrees well wit h lu o f t he z m va e a i ut h comun icat ed by t h e Ordn an ce S urvey ° ’ " Of c n m l ﬁ , , 9 4 8 from t h e c n r o f t h e c rcl “ c e a e y e t e i e, hi h

The mean o f t he t h ree in de pen den t ° ' observer w as 49 39 The calculat ed bearin g Of t h e more t he aven ue det ermin ed in t he same man n er ° ' ° t at on b is 49 32 T h e m n Of t het w o n m l 49 s i ea , a e y, l 4 ° 4’ 1 ” justiﬁes t he ado pt ion o f t h e va ue 9 3 8 as given Ordn an ce S urvey for the st raight lin e fro m Ston ehen ge t o

Hill . — 3 Observation o Su n r ise On t h e morn n of J n 2 5 1901 ( ) f i g u e , , ’ su n r s w as O s r from st on a an d s t t n m as n rl i e b e ved ati , a e i g ade ea y as po ssible o n t h e middle o f t he visible segmen t as soon as c ould be don e aft er t h e Sun appeared. ’ The t elesc o pe was t hen se t on t he highest p oin t o f the Friar s ’ " H l n d t h la r was fo n t o 8 40 so t f a e t t e o Su n . ee , u d be u h the

’ ° ' " S u n s declin at ion at t ime o f o bser vat ion 2 3 2 5 5 El t on o or zon o n o f su n r s 0 5 4 eva i f. h i at p i t i e 3 8 ' Assu ming 2 vert ical o f Sun t o have been s l o s r t on w e r n vi ib e at b e va i , have appa e t ’ altit ude o f S un s upper limb Refract ion Parallax

T ru e alt it u de o f upper limb ’ S un s semi - diamet er

’ T ru e alt it u de o f S un s c en t re From t his it results t hat t he t rue azimu th ° o f t he Sun t he t m o f o s r t ion = N 5 0 at i e b e va . ’ An d sin ce azimu t h o f Friar s Heel 5 0

’ ’ 2 o f sun r s s oul b N o f Fr r s H l i e h d e . ia ee 0 8 11 Observed differen ce o f azimuth O 8 40 — Observed calcu lated O 0 2 9

The o s r t on t us r s w t c lc l on if w e s os b e va i h ag ee i h a u ati , upp e ' ’ o u t 2 o f t h ab e S u n s limb t o have been ab ove the h orizon w hen it w as m an d t r fo r ade , he e e su bst an t ially co n ﬁrms t h e azimuth above ’ n o f t he Fr r s H l an d n er ll give ia ee ge a y the data ado pt ed . KIN II. H NTS ON MA G AND ET HOD OF RE D UC NG T H E I , M I , F E LD BSER AT ON I O V I S .

IT will pro bably b e fou n d usefu l if I give here a fe w hin t s as t o t he p recau tion s w hich must b e taken in makin g t he ﬁeld o bser va t ion s an d an example o f t heir redu ction t o an ast ron o mical s s ba i . For t he azimu ths of t h e sight- lin es t h e in vest igator o f these

mon u m n s c n n o do r n u se t h e 2 5 - n c or 6 - n c m s e t a t bette tha i h , i h , ap l h n r T r ccu r c is o f a pub ished by t e Ordn a ce S u vey. hei a a y very or r an d is n o t l l t o b e c n if ro c high de ike y ex eeded , eve app a hed , by an y casu al o bserver havin g t o make his o wn special arran ge men ts for correct time before h e can begin his su r veyin g w or k .

In som c s s o w r it ma b e fo un t t t h e ur h as n ot . e a e , h eve , y d ha S vey in clu ded every o u t st an din g st on e w hich may b e fo un d by an in vest igator on makin g a careful search ; man y o f t h e ston es are co r b f r l f n o s 8 m an d are n o t t r o s o u . ve ed y g r e, , , he e e , ea i y d In such cases t h e azimuth o f So me o bject that is marked on t he map sh o u ld be taken as a referen ce lin e an d t h e differen ce o f z m B a i uth between t hat an d t h e u n marked o bjec t s determin ed . y t s m n - n hi ea s t h e azimuth s o f all t he sight lin es may b e Obt ai ed . W hen u sin g t h e 2 5 - in c h map s for det ermin in g azimu t hs it must be orn in m n t he s e- l n s are n o t n c ss r l du e b e i d that id i e , e e a i y, n o r an — f h r n n c u r d so t . T he D r c o r G n r l o t e O th u h i e t e e a d a e S vey,

o t m t o n w ll ro l o n l c on s t he corr ct ion t o S u ha p , i p bab y app i ati tate e b e l t o t h e z mu s on t s ccou n t an d t s s o u l b e app ied a i th hi a , hi h d l d f o co urs t o c o f t h e alu s O t n . app ie , e, ea h v e b ai ed If for any reason it is foun d n ecessary or desirable t o make Observatio n s o f the azimuth s in depen den t ly o f t he Ord n an c e ur full n st ru c on s as t o t h e m t o o f roc ur ma b e S vey, i ti e h d p ed e y 1 fo u n d in an in expen sive in structio n b oo k issu ed by the Board o f E 4 are mo st c T . 3 on . he n st ruc o n s n o n 9 du ati i ti give p , ,

1 D emo n st ration s a n d Pr act ical Work in A str o n omical Physics a t the R oya l

Colle e o Scien ce ou th Ken si W man an d So n s l s. g f , S ngton . y , 330

w l n r ll l c l an d t he fo rm On . 76 g e e a y app i ab e , p il

In makin g o bser vat ion s o f t h e an g ular elevat ion o f o t rni rs s o l a goo d t heodolit e is essen t ial . B h ve e h u d m n t n an d t n t h e t l sco s o l b e r rs in ea ake , he e e pe h u d eve ed t t n Ys r s t an d o t r d n s t n n . On e s , e e , b h ea i g ake agai e i g r n a eadi g re o f litt le use . T he Ordn an ce S ur vey maps may also b e employed i n a p relimin ary r econ n aissan ce t o o bt ain appro ximate values o f t h e

or zon l t o n s n b m s r n t h e s t n c s h i e eva i . T his may be do e y ea u i g di a e a n d - - T s m t od con t o ur l n s s o wn o n t h e on e n c m s . i e h i h ap hi e h ,

o w r is o n l r ro u l ro m t o w n t o t h e f ct t t h eve , y ve y gh y app xi a e i g a ha sharp b ut very lo cal elevation s close t o t h e mo n umen t s may n o t a ppear on t hese map s an d ye t b e o f suffi cien t mag n it u de t o cause l r rro rs in t he r l a ge e esu t s . W r t r s l o f co rse o s s & c . t o t he or zo n S o u he e ee , h u e , , p h i , they h d , u , b e n l c t an d t he l t on o f t he ro un l l at t s ot eg e ed e eva i g d eve , hat p ,

t n . o ul t he S ow o t o o f t he z mu t mar st o n St e . ake Sh d p a i h k ( e , ) h ab ve t he ct u l or zon it s l t o n s o l r cor an d n o t t o f a a h i , e eva i h u d be e ded tha t he o r z n h i o . Having meas ured t he ang ular elevatio n o f t h e horizon alo n g t he s t - l n it is n c ss r t o co n rt t n t o ct l z n t st n c igh i e , e e a y ve his i a ua e i h di a e a d t n o apply t he refract io n correct ion befo re t h e c o mpu tat ion s o f d cl n t on can b e m e i a i ade . T he p ro cess o f do ing t his an d o f calc ulat in g t he declin at io n w ll b e i gat hered fro m th e examples given belo w

D ata .

° ' ° o n u m n — = t E . c rc l l t T re l N e. co lat . i . 39 e sea 5 0 8 . M e i e g , a Al n m n t . C n t r o f c r l ig e e e i c e t o Lon gst o n e . Az ° ' . fro m 2 5 Or n n c N 8 E . . 66 3 ( d a e Map) . El ° evat ion o f h orizon (measu red) 2

R f r n c t o t he Ma - Sun c u r 2 n c t t t n o n . 63 s e e e e y ve, give p , i di a e ha t s is ro l an l n m n hi p bab y a ig e t t o t h e su n rise o n May morn in g . T r fo r in m , t r n n t h e z n t st n c t he c orr c t o n for he e e de e i i g e i h di a e , e i ’ t he s un s s m - m t r m st be t n n t o c cou n t llo w n e i dia e e u ake i a , a i g ' ’ t 2 o f t h tha e su n s disc was abo ve t he h o rizon w hen t he o bser vat io n w as m ade .

° ° ” ’ = = E ll 4 . 12 8 . z N . s A . ; hi

° ’ l o f 42 N r T s es u s a ec n on 33 . an d r f ce hi giv d i ati , a e e en — - 115 6 s ow s t Arc r s st ellar declin at ion curves (p . ) h hat tu u had m t h e t l n n 117 2 B . . Fro cl n t on in 330 C o . de i a i ab e give p , see t hat at t hat epo ch Arct u ru s acted as warn in g - st ar fo r

Au g ust su n . In cases w here t h e elevat ion o f the h orizon is or

r l mn r m n at on s w r ma b e ss m as t h p e i i a y exa i i , he e it y a u ed r fr ct on ct l coun t r l n c s ll an d r for t h e t r e e a i exa y e ba a e the hi , the e e u zen it h distan ce at t he momen t of star - rise is Hen ce t h e f t he st r ma b e fo n fro m t h e fo llo w n s m l P. D . o N. a y u d i g i p e equation (3) cos A = cos A cos A w here A an d A have t h e same sign iﬁcan ce as before an d A is t he latitu de o f t h e l c of o s r on p a e b e vati . IND EX

A en es in Br t t an 149 o n D art v u , i y , ; mo o r 146 319 de n t o n o f 37 . , , ; ﬁ i i ,

A dos c o c st ar at 2 97 . Ax s of t em e St o n e en e 5 5 60 by , l k , i ( pl ) , h g , , d st o n e n r A ri ca sac re s a d t ees 2 35 . arn a 5 6 Ko u un ik 305 An n u f , , K k , ; y j , ; ,

Al n see T au r a . de ara 305 c han e o f 42 . b , i ; g , “ ” All eé cou ert e 41 317 . Azimu deﬁ n ed 10 111 c an es v , , t h , , , ; h g ” H 18 Ir s an d W s All a ow s 7 e in 12 2 o f Ma sun r se 2 64 . ll , i h l h , ; y i ,

- e u a e n t s 195 . Az mu mar s u mn at o n o f 110. q iv l , i t h k , ill i i , ” an f dat e 18 Al l Sou s c e o 6 . l , h g , 2 2 Al sia w ell , 7 . A ar s n e St on e en e 8 1 A er t t o B. l , h g , ; b deen t e 36 . yp ,

- 2 t em e o f Amen Ra 5 5 2 97 . aa 19 2 49 2 5 9. , ; pl , , B l , 7 , , 111 “ ’ ” Am u de 10 . Bel an 40. pli t , , Baal s Fire ( t ) , e 1 5 Ma An ma s sacr c s o f 97 . Ba on 2 4 2 40 2 9 2 95 308 i l , iﬁ , byl , , , , , y m s at 2 96 2 9 4 An n u t e e 30 . ear in 304 . , pl , , 7 , y , n mca n ow ed e Ant ares see Sco r o s a . Ba on an s ast ro n o , pi i byl i , i l k l g

o c e t f 1 o rs 2 4 1. An u ar es S o 69 33. o f 2 4 ear n a at t iq i , i y , , , 0 ly vig ,

4 m 2 . An t ro us Sir dw ard 9 69 94. Ba r Sir Sa u e 35 b , E , , , ke , l , 2 A o o 5 . Ba der 32 0. p ll , l ,

Ara a sacred st on e s an d t ree s in Ba ou r Pro . Ba e 2 01. bi , , lf , f yl y ,

n 2 6 . D r . H e r Ball , y ,

a n m rs n o f Or n e 2 5 9. Arch wolo re t o t o ast ro n o 4. Ba us t gy , l i y , l , ﬁ ki g k y , - 1 0 194 Arct uru s see Bo Ot is a . ar n ou d R ev . S. 149 9 , , i g G l , , , ,

Ari es 15 315 . 1 8 2 1 2 15 2 39 2 5 6 . , , 9 , 3, , ,

- Armen a c a e n dar in 2 9 ﬁ re est a B r s n e Maesh ow e Or n e 12 9 . i , l , f iv l a n t o ( k y ) , m e red in 191. Barrow s u r a s in 32 3 c a , , b i l , h b , f 8 2 38 e m Ar an 40 2 36 . 1 4 1 2 31 dat e o 7 y s, , 6 , 9 , 7 , , ; 18 2 1 me n o f 38 110 140 2 68 ar e t e s A cen on D a 5 3 . o t s si y , , pl y , , , , v i i h ra h A s e 2 45 2 5 . o f 143. , , 7 ,

1 2 o rn w a 2 19. dn da 8 . Ash W e es y , Bart in n é , C ll ,

m e 15 8 . R end 15 8 . Assaco b , e t t on ,

r 160. d t re e s c . 2 4 a e n u e s n ea Ass r a sacre & 5 . Bat w orth y i , , , y , v , ’ - t ron omer riest s ro cedure o f B e s e n ear arro w 2 30. As p , p , ed w ll , J ,

- 2 30. 110 316 . ir Barn w e , Be n a w ell ( ll ) ,

- M o f D un da 2 5 3. At en s a da w o rs 108 Be Mr . h , y y hip , ll , J lk , t em e at 2 w arn n cere mo n e s at 40 197 2 85 s 3 st ars at 11. pl , i g , 3 Bel t ain e , i , , , ,

- Au u es i a dat es o f 185 in 32 0 ar at o n s o f 2 01 2 04 2 18 2 5 9. g st f t v l , , ; v i i , , , ,

Br t t an 199 in re an d an d W a es Bet e eu se see Or o n s a . i y , ; I l l , lg , i i

- 186 w ar n n st ars 311. Bet e 2 45 2 5 5 . i g , h l , ,

Aur ae a Ca e a c o c an d w ar n Bi sw ell 2 18 . ig ( p ll ) , l k g , ” - in st ar 11 2 2 2 90 2 92 2 9 2 98 B n d dd er T h e 2 91. g , 7 , 7 , , , 3, , li Fi l , ,

2 99 304 312 asso c at ed w t h P ah B i s an d Co rn w a 2 9 1. , , i i t , l l , ll ,

- n st on es 15 6 176 . Bl ocki g , ,

M 9 . . 6 A e ur c o e at 3 . B ow r v b y , v , 7 l , , ” B u e s on s at St o n e hen e 80 9 1. A enue at St o n e en e 63 65 . t e v , h g , , l , g , , 334

H o r t o n 140 2 19 2 68 Mr . Bolit h o, , , , ,

2 2 82 2 8 2 89 2 91. 2 70, 77 , , 7, , ” r see re s . C eesewrin Th e 134 . Bonfi es, Fi h g , , - Book an R n of 12 8 . C c en t za 32 308 . , i g , hi h I , , ' ” 11 137 15 0 C o r Gaw r 5 3. Bot t i s a (Arct urus ) , 7 , , , h i , 1 160 16 1 163 1 4 hfin Cast e Co rn w a 2 84 2 8 5 9 7 C 6 . 15 1, , , , , , l , ll , , Corn w a 2 2 3 2 80 2 99 301 311 314 . Ch fin Cromec 84 . 7 , , , , , l h , ll , 134 2 18 2 19 2 34 2 5 4 u rc es re aced st o n e c rc es 2 1 r . 9 D C . Borlase, , , , , , , h h , pl i l , 1 2 2 2 89 32 3. Ch soi st er 3 3. 2 5 5 , 67, , y , W 2 1 2 66 2 4 e m o me n r . 3 3 . C rc es s n e t o f 2 C. 7 t o 2 M . 7 Borlase , , , , , i l ( ), pl y , 3 ,

en - Un 2 8 2 90 309 314 316 asso c at e d w t w e s 2 2 8 c ass Boscaw , 7 , , i i h ll , l i

Bosw ens Common 2 82 . ﬁ cat io n o f 36 37 st ar o ser at o n s in , , , b v i ,

- Br a n n t ro du c t o n o f c oc st ars 109 . it i , i i l k ,

- - 1 4 u r s in 2 99 Ma ear t em e s 309 re Ce t c C st s 6 a 32 3. y y pl , ; p l i i , b i l , n h a t an t s 2 5 0 C oc - st ars e m o men t o f 108 2 94 i bi , l k , pl y , , , Br t an e st i a s 198 me a t c 2 96 2 98 2 99 304 308 a n t o dis i t y , f v l , g li hi , , , , f ll i u se 2 2 rema n s 6 so st t a re s 194 . 3 . i , 9 ; l i i l fi , ,

n au r f 5 . C ear Br s 2 Br t on s Sa o s t e o 9 o n a e t 5 . i , x l gh , i g , ly i i h ,

- - Bron ze a e 75 78 . Co mat on mar s 316 . g , , lli i k ,

2 . rn w Bru sc 96 Con st an t n e Co a 2 69. g h , l , i , ll ,

Bu d e D r . 2 96 . Cord T h e st ret c n o f t h e g , , , hi g , l . 14 i mo un ds 2 r Bur a s 6 164 n 3 3. Cormac A c s o 18 1 189 195 i l , , ; , , hbi h p , , , , 2 ur Ca t a n 35 . B t on , p i , Mr 2 2 Corn s . 0 82 . i h , , 7 , C ast ro n om ca co n d n in ornwall , i l it io s 2 2 z mu o f Ma n C. 6 a t s su r se 2 64 ; i h y i ,

' c o c - st ar s in 2 99 Ma at n in l k , y b hi g ,

Cae sar 5 2 32 3 32 4. st o n e c rc e s in 6 2 62 w e , , , i l , 3 , ; lls Ca rn s e m o men t o f 38 142 1 4 an d c rc s in 2 1 6 e 9 . i , pl y , , , , i l , 192 2 89 B ca re e re n ce s t o 2 44 B s o o f D u r am 1 4 Cosen s 8 . , ; ibli l f , ; , i h p , h , u r a s in 2 5 2 o r n f e t at on o 2 5 4 . 2 Cou n c N 3. b i l , i i , il of i ce,

Ca a r a 312 . u d Co va e 319. l b i , , h Ca en ds t e w n t er 195 . Co es 3 316 . l , i , v , 7, Ca en dar c an e s in t h e 2 3 Arme Cr ss - 190 2 e e st n e 5 6 . l , h g , ; t o s , , n an an d T u r s 2 9 Ce t c 1 m de n e m ; 86 Cro ec s . d 37 e o ed i ki h , l i , ; l h fi , pl y , Ko ic 2 t 8 . 101 102 16 1 2 5 3 in ca rn s 2 u p , , , , i , 5 3 ses m 2 8 Ca den 9. o f 110 14 1 2 45 2 2 5 1 . , , , , , , 3 7 Canaan sacred st o n e s an d t re e s in Crosses st on e old mo n o t s 141 , , ( ) , li h , 2 4 5 . 2 73. Can s Ma or s a S r u s 108 11 r z mon umen a i j i ( i i ) , , 7, C o on , t s t 101. n f 2 Cu t c a e o 3 0. l , h g , Can d emas 143 184 1 . 85 188 191. Cu t u s La dum den o u n c e men t l , , , , l pi , 1 Can o u s 8 . o f . p , , 39 Ca e a see Au r ae a Cum er an d st o n e c rc e in p ll , i , 36 . g b l , i l , Ca r corn a 117 . , Cunn n n Mr . 9 8 1 p i i t o 7 90. i g , , , , Carado H 1 n , 43. Cu s fo r c o n t a n n am s 1 ill 3 . p , i i g l p , 9 Car K n n e id ack 2 78 . Cursi r Mr . 2 35 1 3. j , t e , , , Carn ac o n fi re s at 40 men r , b , ; hi s at Cur su s T h e at St o n e e n e 15 4 , , h g , , 98 105 2 39 sac r fi c e s at 1 , 9 . , ; i 9 15 5 319 . , , Carr t r Mr u e s . 69. h , , Cast al l ack Co rn w a 2 , ll , 67 . Cast or see e m n o r u m , G i . Cat t e dre n c n in o w e s 2 l , hi g h ly ll , 30. Caves u r o se o f 2 44 2 5 4 , p p , , . D an ams 90. , Ca e of E e a t a ” 2 n , 5 6 . v l ph D an ck w ort h D r . 111. , ,

Ce t s . ca e n dar o f t h e 186 1 l l , , 95 ; in D artmoor a en u e s o n 146 1 1 , v , , 5 , 319. t ru s o n o f 32 4 w o rs , 32 . 2 i ip D Mr . h , av es 7 95 . i , , , Ce 2 on 35 . yl , D ec n at on , de n ed 10 c an e o f li i ﬁ , , h g ,

111. C a dea 12 . l , D e a 1 2 h e d e 3 . p l , C a acom e 15 8 m h ll b , ; ult ipl e aven u e D ek k an sacred st on e s an d , , t rees in 14 9 , 15 9 so st t a w or s l i i l ip 314 . t h e 2 h , 35 . ,

Sir e n r 2 1 r . ames 9 . H M . 2 37 all , , J , H y , A 4 3 8 . H e 5 4 . a an all y , J p , , ’ H 12 5 143 2 01 311. ew s e u n oc t a e st a s all ow e en , , , , J , q i i l f iv l

H ss 18 . t h e 2 5 8 . all owma , 7 , Co on e 11 14 . ohn st on 1 12 Hamel don , 7 J , l l , , 9 4 1 2 a es 5 1 6 . an d . 6 Hammerst on es, x , 7 ,

H arrison Mr . 5 0. on es n o 5 3. , , J , I ig ,

- r M . 1 P o . . r 5 8 . on e Hat To , J s , f J ,

H o f 1 9 304 . ar est seaso n 3 ose u s 32 . v , , , J ph , ’ ” 16 1 8 . Pro . 1 a l s u o t 7 6 u dd 80 9 . H ut vil e Q i , , J , f , ,

2 2 1 - 2 . Hawt orn 2 01 02 un e Year 93 2 5 1. h , , , J , , ’

Haw s Tor 2 9 1. k ,

Haz t 183 197 2 39. lit , , , '

K. H ecat wu s o f A de ra 5 1. , b , H 1 1 1 4 t h e 3 08 5 . ecat omp edon , , , , t e m e s at 5 5 2 Karn a , , , 97 . He os 2 9 . k pl li , Keni d ack Carn H ar Co o n e 2 0. , , ell d, l l , 7 j

- Keren n eu r 105 . H Ma da at 2 05 . , el st on , y y ,

2 4 Kerl escan t , 39. 140 0 2 . H Ca t . en derson , p , , 7 , 7 1 5 0 . Hen r Hun n don Kerl oas , y of t i g , 1 1 Kesw c 35 , 1 . Hermes 2 5 9. i k , , ’ s Tei n t on 196 . Hi r cs 38 . , e og lyp hi , g g h e at o - R h Kin st on e T R c O o n . r 62 . , ( Hi n s M . , ll i x gg i , , g

H s ac t u a an d an u ar e ht s 36 . ill , l g l h ig , ’ K t s Co t Hous e 37 . 1 12 e ec t s o f 12 0 2 6 4 2 91. i i y , ff , , , o e n t 14 Kni h t l ow H C r 188 . . ( , Hoare Sir R . C . 6 1 9 ill v ) , , , g y

2 3 . Kn u t A . D . 3 Ho d s on es see st o n e s . ( l e t , 2 2 Kou u n ik , 308 3 . Holl ant ide , 188 . y j ,

H D art mo o r 195 . ol n e ( ) ,

Ho H 16 5 5 . ly of oli es , ,

Ho T ursda 185 . ly h y , 2 Hon e suc e 07 . y kl , mmas 186 . La ,

Hoo La e 15 8 . k k , Lan n 2 3. yo , 7 Ho e 2 13 2 2 8 2 31 2 33. p , , , , 2 80. Lanyon Quo it , Hor zon an u ar e e at o n o f 112 i , g l l v i , ; res u t s o f 2 91. Lat it ude , l , m o me n o f 2 2 e ar y e t 5 5 0. l pl y , , , ir H 2 4 1 30 8 . La r S . 30 ya d, , , 7 , H r s at Ma - da e st a s 1 o se 3 9 . , y y f iv l , Len t o r n an d c u st o ms o f 183 2 , igi , , Horus 3 195 . , , 4 18 . 2 Hu 36 . c , sl Co o n e 2 18 2 35 2 5 5 . “ Le i e, l l , , , Hur ers T h e Co rn w a 36 133 l , ( ll ) , , , L . 12 1 6 . Lewi s, Mr . A . , 35 , 3, 7 134 135 a n me n t s at 13 c an e , ; lig , 7 ; h g Loc er D r . 111. ky , , o f w arn n st ar at 311 dat e s o f o n i g , c Lon st on es o un d in arro w s 2 68 . g , f b , st r u ct o n 139 Ma - ear at i , , 309 y y Lon s n T h e T re eseal 2 78 2 80 g t o e, ( g ) , , , s o st ce s at 314 . l i , 309 , 314 . H er or an s 5 1. yp e , b - Lu t h e r s Sun G od 186 . g , I i h ,

Lu n assad r s e ast 186 . g , I i h f , L D r 3 133 144 15 0 2 5 3 uh i a, . , 7 , , , , ,

2 5 2 2 91 . 6 , 87 , , 2 92

Lux or, 2 97 .

L rae a e a 2 97 315 . y , (V g ) , , Ih erin 2 4 1. g , umin at on s c o mat o n - mar 31 Ill i , lli i k , 7 Ma - da 2 04 y y , . m em ﬂ n en t s t 74 . I pl , i , n ern s t e o f c rc e es at 36 . , M r 1 2 31 . Mac i chi e . 9 I v yp i l , R t , , , 7 re an d d s o n o f t h e e in , ar 30 Ma n Corn w a 2 2 5 . I l ivi i y , ; dro ( ll ) , est a s in 18 19 , 7, 7 309 . Maesh ow e Or n e 35 12 3 12 5 2 5 3 f iv l , ( k y) , , , , ,

sis 32 . 4 dat e o f 12 9 u se o f 192 . I , 2 5 ; , ; , I sl e‘ of- Man e st a s i n t h e 1 87 Mar a see Pe as a . , f iv l , , k b , g i 2 07 w e s an d c rc e s in t h e 2 1 9. m 2 85 1 ll i l Marr a e c ust o s 3 9 . , i g , , , ND I EX 33

i 1 St . n e rman Mar t n 18 . i , , G y , 1 ld 1 ma o 88 . Mart in s , , M Mau ds a r . 32 308 . N 2 2 1 , an t w c . l y , , i h ,

M u s 5 . a l , 7 Naos Th e at St o n e e n e 16 4 1 3 , , h g , , , 6 , - 1 8 2 1 2 0 0 04. May day , , ,

- Ma eve 95 2 07 . N e e d ﬁ res 190. y , , ,

Ma f est ival s 40 185 196 198 2 2 6 Neo t c - 5 6 , , , a e . y , , , li hi g , 7 , 7

- 2 47 2 5 8 . New ran e Meat 38 . , G g ( h ) , 2 ’ Ma o e 05 2 2 7 . New t on 2 , s er a 12 . yp l , h b l ,

- 36 15 1 2 2 - Ma sun , , 6 2 63. New ear c an e o f dat e , 194 . y , y , h g , - 2 2 - Ma t orn 0 2 12 32 0. Ni h t d a u se o f 302 . y h , , , g i l , , Ma - ear t h e 19 181 2 32 304 32 0 N 1 , e 3 8 12 . y y , , , , , il , , , 3 d s o n s o f 2 63 304 ro ded fo r 18 Nim m e s 4 ivi i , , p vi , , rood t e at 2 1 308 . , pl , , ” 35 64 93 98 104 105 12 7 174 2 4 1 N n e Ma d T h e 2 , , en 92 2 . , , , , , , , i i s ( ) , , 93 2 47 2 7 1 2 80 2 84 2 86 2 90 304 306 N n e Ma m e , e t e at 30 . , , , , , , , i v h , y pl , 7 307 308 309 32 1 re at o n t o u n e Norw c s un - w e e , ; at 193. , , l i J i h , h l , ear 106 2 30 2 5 1 2 6 1 w arn n - st ars lVos G a la - la n a 18 . y , , , , i g , g f . 7

11 142 w o rsh 95 96 109. N 0 9 Glama u 7 2 . , ; ip , , , , 07

Mecca 2 45 . o em er e st a 18 19 2 , , f iv l , 6 , 5 , 90, ﬁl ein veth dd Ma - e ve 5 “ N 9 . y ( y ) , v b M on s an d o f 102 e . l , i l , Mem s Ca e a at 304 Ma phi , p ll , y 18 t e m s a 2 2 w o rs e t 9 98 . hip , ; pl , 7 , 0.

- - 2 Mén an t ol , 84, 2 86 . Mé 15 ak co n Le 39 98 9 . O t uo u o n ec s t sacred w e s 2 16 . ( ) , , , , ig ll , Men rs 37 105 cere mo n e s at 2 5 6 O u t of t h e E c c c an e o f hi , , i , bliq i y lipt i , h g Br an t h e 1 4 in t t 96 n ear o w e s 2 2 5 5 3. i y , h ly ll , , , ar o us 1 1 1 1 O s er a n as r n o m a an d r e 39 0 02 103 15 2 5 . t o s t o c v i , , , , , , 7 b v i , i l - 2 li io us 12 5 2 n 6 . 3 2 . Me Peru , 9 g , , ’ 2 1 t e m e o f 2 9 1 O n D r . Menu or Min 3 108 con or 6 . , pl , , , , , , 142 2 97 2 98 305 asso c at e d w t Od n st on e St en n e ss 12 7 2 18 2 83 , , , ; i i h i , , , , , 2 85 . ca 2 99 . Spi ,

Mercur 2 5 9 . Offer n s at o ace s 2 2 2 318 . y , i g , h ly pl , ,

Merr a e a e n u e s at 14 15 3 15 4 On s on 132 . iv l , v , 7 , , ; t ,

M a - ar a e t Ordea 2 4 . y y , l s , 7

Merr Ma den s 2 65 a n men t s at Ordn an ce Sur e 111 2 5 3. y i , ; lig , v y , ,

- 2 7 1 2 76 c o c st ars at 302 Ma Or en t at on ﬁ rs t u se o f 18 . , ; l k , y i i , , 1 144 14 ar a Or a 1 3 . e t 309 . on s Be e e s y , i i , ( t lg u e) , 7 , ,

Midsummer c e re mo n e s at 2 31 Or n e 12 5 2 5 9. , i , , k y , , 2 11 Mr . on at an 5 1 . 85 . Ot e 3 l y , J h , ,

M u m m s e t o n Ousel e Sir W am 2 34. ds m er eve t e o 2 10. i , i l , y , illi ,

Mi Arme n an r - r ﬁ e o d 191. h , i g , M s et oe 2 6 2 2 01 2 10 32 0 as a i t l , , 7 , , , ; m ” e d c n e 2 10 il f 2 1 P. O o St . o n 0 i i , ; J h , ; S w ed s n o t o n c n n 2 s on c er 09. i h i i g , ’ M c E Pa en ue 32 308 . t e s t an Ca en dar 2 8 . i h ll gyp i l , l q , ,

2 5 . Mo ec 48 . Pa aeo t c a e 7 l h , l li hi g ,

M d 10 Pa m at e r na e u n o 2 11. o en s s an 3. l I l , l , v l q i x,

M 8 1 2 16 2 44 Pa mSun da 184 2 11. on o s . lit h , , , l y , ,

M Pa h en 31. n iu . n at wa o t el s , 76 ,

con e m o men t o f t h e 18 w o r Paxal l elit h on s 148 . , pl y , ; , “ ” s h o f t h e 2 49 Pardon s in Br t t an 198 . ip , . , i y ,

M r n men Part en on 2 98 . o an a t s at 100. bih , lig , h , 4 d 9 . M L Pa n Mr. H o w ar 66 or an o d Pro . 16 1 0 1 6 . g , l y , f , 7 , 7 , 7 y , , ,

M a a an d 11 . Mr . Pe si 7 or an . 5 3 g , , g , B,

M P n a t o ur o f Sco t an d 2 06 . M r 1 1 1 . e n nt orrow , . , 7 , 74 , l ,

- 2 5 1 62 M P n r Mr . 31 34 38 4 oun t a n ash 2 06 . e ose i , , , , , , , , M n - 2 5 78 89 93 94 109 142 15 4 2 98 306 u o Par 3 . , g k , , , , , , , , ,

M r 310 312 313 315 . Mr r e 2 . ur a . e o y , G g , 7 , , ,

ur Mr o n 8 Pen t ecost east o f 32 185 . ra 30 . y , . J h , , f , ,

M e m Pe 2 95 . ut t e o f 2 9 . , pl , 7 pi , ’ M Perc s Nor t u m er an d Not es 184 . t o o o r n o f 19. , y h l gy , igi , y h b l 148 . r . Perrot t , M ,

- - e r n s in Bo Ri c O o n . 36 . Pers a ra o f , ll h , x , i , g f i g Ro s on 62 . t e Pro . Pet ri e i n d rs , , l , , Fl f

- Rorrin t on C r u r 2 2 7 Pet set 2 . g , hi y , , b a r 2 01 2 11 318 Mrs 2 5 7 . Row n t ee , , Ph ilpot , . , , ’ - n w t c cra t 2 06 2 08 n ear sac re d w e s P c s o f dee r s o r , 78 . i f , , ll , i k , h h “ La at ar 104 . Pierre du Con seil ( g j ) , ’ ’ re an d 182 2 2 9 . R ow e s eram u at on of D ar moor Pi r Su r e o f S. t e s v y I l , , p b l i ,

as o ffe r n s at sac re d w e s 2 2 2 147 148 , 15 2 15 8 2 8 7. Pin s , i g ll , , , , , Kasim 2 9 18 Rii z . 2 2 7 , 2 5 8 , 3 . , ” R K dr 2 9 . ers T h e 2 66 2 7 1. iis Pip , , , hi ,

- Pi t Ri ers en e ra 2 35 2 36 . t v , G l , ,

Plat o, 7 . eia s at Br t s mo n ume n t s 15 3 Pl de , i i h , , m - e 2 73 2 74 2 80 2 90 e m o e d b Se Sacred ﬁ res , s e res . , , , ; pl y y ﬁ

t e s 2 4 e se w e re 108 117 15 1 15 5 Sacriﬁ ces 197 2 05 319. i , 7 l h , , , , , , , , 1 2 10 11. Sa t t ar us 5 . 16 3 , 3 g i i , , S i east o f 1 mo n u me n s a 1 . t t 00 ainh a n 8 . Ploudalmes eau , , , f , 7

- ﬁ ld t h e at H o n e 196 . San ct uar at St o n e e n e 5 5 . Pl oy e , , l , y , h g , f h e l an D e r s re 2 1 n at o stars at t S . A 6 Po e a are t t e i . l , pp p h , by hi ,

n o rt 6 e e at o n o f t h e 9 mo t o n St . B aze B asen s h , ; l v i , ; i l l

o f s tars ro u n d 300 303. an n ersar o f 184 . , , , iv y ,

m . m n o ru . B Co rn w a 2 2 1 Po u x see e St uri an 6 . ll , G i , ll , 7 , 7

Pom e i 312 . St . C aire 140. p i , l ,

2 2 2 4 . . o w a 2 2 Pom on iu s Me a 3 3 St C eer e t 9. p l , , l , h ly ll , ’ men rs 1 Pont l Abbé at 05 . St . Cu t ert Co rn w a 2 2 8 . , hi , hb , ll , - n m r w a m e s . sac r ce s o 1 Port u a ace e s o St Her o t t 99. g l , pl f ll , b , ifi , ’ 2 . S . o D a e st a s o n 30 t J hn s y , f iv l , ’ ’ m Prat t s fl ow er n an t s 2 02 2 06 . St . o n s E ve fi re c us t o s 192 . i g p l , , J h , , f fec t s o 2 . Precess on e 64 95 S . us Co rn w a st o n e c rc e at i , f , , t J t , ll , i l ,

Pro . Prestwi c 79 . h , f , Pri 1 1 3 6 3 . 1 es s in 40. t 7 S . u st , , t J , ac re 1 f Proc s i s d 3 9. e s ous S . Mar n e as t o 186 . , , t t i , f ,

P a 2 9 31 2 98 04 . ma den t 3 S . Medan o w e at r h , , , , t , h ly ll Ki k i , P on s u se o f 5 5 . yl , , P ramds u d n o f 1 w ’ 4 M 0. 8 ors St . c ae s Moun t y i , b il i g , hip i h l ,

at 2 9. mu sac r ce s t o 199 . St . N code s , i , iﬁ , ’ P ren en a o - ees t w e s 2 4 . Ro me 3 . P er s 32 . y , g ii h ly ll , St et , , P r i t e a ucu r ia a 2 01. mo n umen t s at 100. y p , St . Ren an , , Sa s ur o s t o n o f cat ed ra 65 li b y , p i i h l , ; u m a so st t a c st o t 43. l i i l ,

- . Sara en s star w o rs amo n t h e Q c , hip g ,

2 49.

u c en - t r 2 06 ee 2 08 . f 2 Q ard n e m lo men t o 3 . i k , , o yx , p y , u r- Co o Q e uc w e s 2 13 2 16 ars s t o n e s 15 45 9 91. ill h , h ly ll , , , S en s , , , , 7 ,

Scan d n a a t e m e s in 63. i vi , pl , uo deﬁ n f Q t t o n o 38 . S h b l r Pro . 2 02 . i , i i , c u e e , f , Scor on s a An r 2 3 pi i ( t a es) , 7 , 11 310, 3 .

Scot an d Ma - ear in 109 186 2 1 l , y y , , , 3

t e s o f s t o n e c rc es in 36 . yp i l , Rac n at e s t a s 31 9. ir W a , Sc S t e r 40. i g f iv l , ot t , l , Ba as s , o fer n s in sacred ace s S a n ast ro n o m ca an d e e t a g f i g pl , e so s , i l v g 2 16 2 2 2 2 , 2 3 2 2 5 . t io n al 2 1 , , , 2 . am Fe a ast , t o n e D art moo r Semte s e e s co n c ern n t h e st ars H l ( ) , i , b li f i g , 1 g 9 2 49 in Br t a n 2 43 2 46 t e m e rac ; i i , , pl p Be M ad r . C H , . . 2 37 . mo n h t ces a t e 2 40 2 48 2 5 6 . , i g , , , Refract on e fe c t o f 112 , 12 0. Ma 8 Senn ac er t e m e o f 30 . i f , , h ib , y pl , Ben t - da dat e o f in , r e an d 30. P 2 3 y Ser ro . . , I l , gi , f , 7 R s Pro y , . 2 6 30 186 188 2 02 S r a 11 h f , , , , , , e p en t is , 7. 2 06 2 0 , 7 , 2 08 , 2 13 2 15 2 19 2 2 0 2 2 , , , , 3, Se sh et a, 2 . 2 5 0 2 6 , 0 319. , Se Br t sh u a e n t o f 195 . t , i i eq iv l ,

U .

a 2 95 2 98 . Ursae Maj or is , ,

- M r 2 W od Mar in . 13 2 14 4 2 9 1. o t Ve ll um, 7 , , , , ,

e a see L rae a . V g , y ” 1 1 3. Via Sa cr a , 60, 5 5 , 6

s t o n e s o f 12 8 . Via, , a S ca 108 142 st a w e Vi rg in i s , ( pi ) , , , ll 15 305 , 3 . d W ort Mr . an s o r 146 148 h , H f , , ,

M r . R . N . 14 4 W ort 7 1 s. h , , , , ” me n o f 1 W rot si er a t 88 . h lv , p y ,

W a es w e s n e ar c u rc e s 2 2 9 . l , ll h h , W arni n - st ars 108 in Br t a n g , i i ,

310 in re e ce 311. ; G ,

W at er n ear o ace s 2 46 317 . , h ly pl , , W e s asso c at ed w t t re e s 2 19 ll , i i h , , 2 2 0 c urat e o w e rs 2 35 sac re d Y ar t h e ast ro n o mca 16 2 ; iv p , ; e , i l , , 5 assoc at o n s 2 06 2 14 2 16 2 17 2 18 t h e C e t c 186 d s o n o f t h e 1 i i , , , , , , l i , ; ivi i , 8 , 2 19 2 2 8 2 2 9 2 34 2 5 7 2 73 W a n t h e u an 2 3 t h e un ar in Ba o n , , , , , ki g J li , ; l byl , ” t h e W e 2 2 8 w s n 2 15 w o rs 2 4 t h e so st t a 19 15 9 2 6 1 t h e ll , i hi g , ; hip ; l i i l , , at 2 15 2 33 w o rs mode rn 2 2 1 e et at o n 18 19 2 5 9 109 2 0 7 3. , , ; hip , , , v g i , , , , , 2 2 3 2 2 5 2 2 6 h t e m e s o f u cat an t e 33. , , Y , pl ,

T HE E ND

R . C LAY AND S ONS LT D . BR E K: AD ST R EET HILL B . C . AND B UNGAY SUFFOL , , , , ,