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Transparency and Trust in Journalism: an Examination of Values, Practices and Effects ABSTRACT Title of Document: TRANSPARENCY AND TRUST IN JOURNALISM: AN EXAMINATION OF VALUES, PRACTICES AND EFFECTS Michael Koliska, Doctor of Philosophy, 2015 Directed By: Professor Linda Steiner, Philip Merrill College of Journalism Journalism scholars and practitioners have repeatedly argued that transparency is crucial to generate trust in the news media, which, over the years, has faced continues decline in public trust. As news organizations have been encouraged to implement transparency in their daily work, transparency has increasingly gained the status of a professional norm in journalism. However, very little is actually known about how journalists think and apply transparency in their everyday practices or how news organizations in the United States implement transparency. Similarly, normative assumptions about the trust-generating effects of transparency have not been consistently shown to exist. This dissertation examined to what extent journalists at 12 national news outlets embraced transparency on a day-to-day basis and how these news organizations implement transparency online at the news item level. Moreover, this dissertation tested whether existing features of transparency (hyperlinks, editorial explanations, corrections, staff biographies etc.) impact audiences’ trust perception of a news story. The results of the mixed method approach showed that transparency in journalism is far from being a professional norm, which guides journalists’ news production processes. An analysis of 27 in-depth interviews found that journalists rarely consider transparency in their work. Journalists agreed that the notion of transparency has value. They repeatedly suggested that the news outlets they work for utilize transparency as a promotional tool to engage audiences and to appear transparent, rather than significantly disclosing information about the inner workings of their news organization. The results of the content analysis supported this claim as the findings show that the transparency features news organizations currently use provide little information for audiences to learn about how journalism is done. Meanwhile, the results of two experiments indicate that participants may not recognize the intended meanings of the varied transparency features, as participants’ trust perception did not vary across different transparency conditions. The findings of this dissertation suggest that transparency in journalism is still a goal rather than reality. News organizations have not opened up to the extent that they may be understood as transparent organizations; instead their efforts to pull back the curtain so that audiences may see the inner workings of newsrooms can be considered translucent at best. TRANSPARENCY AND TRUST IN JOURNALISM: AN EXAMINATION OF VALUES, PRACTICES AND EFFECTS By Michael Koliska Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2015 Advisory Committee: Professor Linda Steiner, Chair Professor Sarah Oates Assistant Professor Kalyani Chadha Professor Jeffrey Lucas Associate Professor Rosellina Ferraro © Copyright by Michael Koliska 2015 Dedication For Lijuan( 瞎丽娟 ), who continues to open my eyes. ii Acknowledgements Many thanks are due to a number of people who helped me to complete this dissertation and supported me along the way. Most significantly, Linda Steiner, who deserves tremendous praise for her continued support. I call her my “doctor mother,” as female dissertation chairs in Germany are commonly called. Her nurturing critiques and encouragement have significantly shaped this dissertation and my thinking as a scholar. I also want to thank Kalyani Chadha for her years of collaboration on various research projects, which as a result guided me toward the topic of this dissertation. I am also very grateful for the valuable input and support from my other committee members. Jeff Lucas was incredibly helpful, as he assisted me with the design and analysis of the experiment section of this dissertation. Our many conversations were a source of inspiration. Sarah Oates always found the right words to encourage me during the good and the not-so-good days of the writing process. I also want to thank Rosie Ferraro for her continued belief and trust in me. Her class on information processing was one of the best I ever took and what I learned back then continues to influence my research. Finally, I also want to thank my family and in particular my mother, Anna Koliska. Her unconditional love and support were a great source of comfort throughout the entire time of pursuing the doctorate degree. iii Table of Contents Dedication ..................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ......................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ............................................................................................................. viii List of Figures .............................................................................................................. ix Chapter 1: Believing in the Power of Transparency ..................................................... 1 1.1. A rising culture of transparency ......................................................................... 1 1.2. Transparency in Journalism ............................................................................... 6 1.2.1. Transparency Bolstering Trust in Journalism? ........................................... 9 1.2.2. Transparency Undermining Trust in Journalism? .................................... 11 1.3. Where is the Data? Need for Empirical Research ........................................... 13 1.4. A Mixed Method Approach ............................................................................. 18 1.5. Contribution to Research ................................................................................. 20 1.6. Dissertation Outline ......................................................................................... 21 Chapter 2: Transparency ............................................................................................. 24 2.1. Transparency and Accountability in Journalism: Two Concepts, one Goal .... 27 2.1.1. Accountability and Social Responsibility in Journalism .......................... 29 2.1.2. Accuracy: First Steps to Accountability ................................................... 32 2.1.3. Transparency: Linking Accountability and Social Responsibility ........... 33 2.1.4. Drawing distinctions: Accountability, Accuracy and Transparency ........ 35 2.1.5. From Accuracy to a Mechanism of Transparency .................................... 39 2.2. Transparency and Journalism: Coming to terms ............................................. 41 2.2.1. Transparency and Digital Technologies ................................................... 42 2.2.2. Transparency the Good ............................................................................. 47 2.2.3. Transparency’s Downsides ....................................................................... 49 2.3. Researching Transparency in Journalism ........................................................ 52 2.3.1. Transparency: Do the Right Thing! .......................................................... 52 2.3.2. Transparency: Tested in the Field ............................................................. 54 iv 2.3.3. Transparency: Testing the Effects............................................................. 60 2.4. Defining Transparency in Journalism .............................................................. 64 2.4.1. Availability ............................................................................................... 69 2.4.2. Information ............................................................................................... 70 2.4.3. News Organizations and/or Journalists ..................................................... 71 2.4.4. External Stakeholders (i.e. Audiences) ..................................................... 72 2.4.5. Evaluation of Journalistic Work ............................................................... 73 2.4.6. Interaction with News Organization/ Journalists ...................................... 74 2.5. Selecting Transparency Variables: Narrowing the Scope ............................... 75 2.6. Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 77 Chapter 3: Trust .......................................................................................................... 80 3.1. Conceptualizing Trust ...................................................................................... 82 3.2. Trust as a Psychological State ......................................................................... 86 3.2.1. General and Specific Trust ........................................................................ 88 3.2.2. Trust: Cognitive Process or Affective Reaction? ...................................... 93 3.2.3 Trust Over Time: Initial and Ongoing Trust Relationships ....................... 97 3.3. Accepting Vulnerability ................................................................................. 102
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