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Home , Hassan Butt, Montgomery McFate, Murder of Lee Rigby

Notes

Introduction

1. See Peter R. Neumann and M.L.R. Smith, The Strategy of : How It Works and Why It Fails (: Routledge, 2008), pp. 5–9. 2. Dipak K. Gupta, “Exploring the Roots of Terrorism,” in Tore Bjørgo (ed.), The Roots of Terrorism: Myths Realities and Ways Forward (London: Routledge, 2007), p. 17. 3. For further information on the nature of strategic theory, see the work of Thomas C. Schelling, Arms and Influence (New Haven, CT: Press, 1966); The Strategy of Conflict (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980); Choice and Consequence: Perspectives of an Errant Economist (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984). 4. See Gilbert Ryle, The Concept of Mind (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1949). 5. The principle associated with logician and English Franciscan friar, William of Ockham (1228–c.1348) 6. Eric Voegelin, Modernity without Restraint: The Political Religions, The New Science of Politics and Gnosticism (ed. and intro. Mannfred Henningsen) (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 2000); Science, Politics and Gnosticism (Chicago: H. Regnery, 1968); The New Politics of Science: An Introduction (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1952). See also Barry Cooper, New Political Religions or an Analysis of Modern Terrorism (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 2004). 7. Eric Voegelin, “The Political Religions,” in Manfred Heningsen (ed.), Modernity without Restraint: The Collected Works of Eric Voegelin, vol. 5 (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 2000), p. 64. 8. Cooper, New Political, p. 6. 9. Ibid., p. 7.

1 History Restarted: Jihadist Terror and Liberal Democracy

1. See Eric Voegelin’s “Modernity without Restraint,” in Manfred Heningsen (ed.), The Collected Works of Eric Voegelin (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1952) pp. 27–71. 2. As Australian Attorney General Mark Dreyfus observed: “under Australia’s (post 2001) terrorism framework, four major terrorist attacks on Australian soil have been disrupted.” (Nino Bucci, “Fine Tuning Push on Terror Laws,” Sydney Morning Herald, 14 May 2013. In the UK, MI5 have brought 23 major cases to court between 2002 and 2013 that would have otherwise led to a

200 Notes 201

major terror attack in the UK. See MI5 Terrorist Attacks in the UK. http: www. .gov.uk.home/ 3. See James M. Lutz and Brenda J. Lutz, Global Terrorism (London: Routledge, 2013), p. 277. 4. Both the Tsarnaev brothers in Boston and Michael Adebolajo and Michael Adebowale in London respond in this radically unpredictable way. 5. Louis Beam, Leaderless Resistance. http: www.crusader.net/texts/bt/bt04.html, p. 4. 6. A strategy congenial to other militant single-issue extremist groups like the Animal Liberation Front. 7. See Ayaan Hirsi Ali, “The Problem of Muslim Leadership,” The Wall Street Journal, 27 May 2013. 8. See Philip G. Cerny, “Plurality, Pluralism and Power: Elements of Pluralist Analysis in an Age of Globalization,” in Rainer Eisfeld (ed.), Pluralist Developments in the Theory and Practice of Democracy (Opladen and Farmington Hills: Barbara Budrich Publishers on behalf of the International Political Science Association Research Committee) No. 16, Socio Political Pluralism (2006), pp. 81–111. 9. Michael Oakeshott, On Human Conduct (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975), p. 136. 10. Walter Russell Mead, Power, Terror, Peace and War America’s Grand Strategy in a World at Risk (New York: Knopf, 2004), p. 74. 11. Philip, Bobbit, “Everything We Think about the War of Terror Is Wrong,” The Spectator, 20 May 2006, p. 14. 12. Danilo Zolo, “The Singapore Model Democracy, Communication and Globalization,” The Blackwell Companion to Political Sociology (London: Wiley, 2004), chapter 38. 13. In terms of understanding developments within Western academe, like the post-colonial discourse theory currently promulgated by academic commentators like Zaiuddin Sardar and Tariq Ramadan (the latter termed the 7/7 attack an “intervention”), they have, by a specious reductionism, obscured the study of oriental society, languages, history and culture. Following Edward Said, such studies have been pejoratively designated “orientalist.” 14. Ernest Gellner, Conditions of Liberty Civil Society and Its Rivals (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1994). 15. Olivier Roy, “The Within,” The National Interest, 71 (Spring 2003), p. 70. 16. Mead, Power Terror Peace and War. 17. Oliver Wright and Jerome Taylor, “Cameron: My War on Multiculturalism,” , 5 February 2011. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/ politics/cameron-my-war-on- multiculturalism-2205074.html 18. Leo Strauss, Natural Right and History (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1953). See also K.R. Minogue, “Remarks on the Relation between Social Contract and Reason of State in Machiavelli and Hobbes,” in Roman Schnur (ed.), Staatsrason (Berlin: Duncker and Humblot, 1975), p. 272. 19. See J.H. Hexter, The Vision of Politics on the Eve of the Reformation (London: Allen Lane, 1973), pp. 167–171. 202 Notes

2 The Politics of Homeland Insecurity: The Cybercaliphate and the Unbearable Lightness of Being British

1. Quoted from an Al-Qaeda training manual recovered by police in Manchester following the search of a suspect’s home in 1998 and translated from Arabic into English, Translation UK/BM-7. District Court: District of Massachusetts, United States of America vs. Richard Colvin Reid, 17 January 2003, p. 5. 2. Part of the statement claimed: “The heroic mujahideen have carried out a blessed raid in London. Britain is now burning with fear, terror and panic in its northern, southern, eastern, and Western quarters.” BBC News, “Statement Claiming London Attacks,” 7 July 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/ hi/uk/4660391.stm. 3. Ramadan’s words were: “Des banlieues françaises aux sociétés musulmanes, vous ne trouverez pas de soutiens, sauf infimés, aux interventions de New York, Bali ou Madrid.” “ et Occident: Interview Tariq Ramadan,” Le Point, 22 April 2004, p. 68. 4. “Major Incident – Travel Update,” leaflet produced by the Mayor of London and Transport for London, July 2005. 5. According to the Russian anarchist writer Peter Kropotkin, the violent polit- ical action “does more propagandizing in a few days than do thousands of pamphlets.” Peter Kropotkin, Paroles d’un Revolté (Paris: Marpon and Flammarion, 1885), p. 286. 6. “Terror Attack ‘A Matter of Time’,” BBC News, 17 June 2003. http://news.bbc. co.uk/1/hi/uk/2997146.stm, accessed 21 November 2005. 7. Rosie Cowan, “Attack on London Is Inevitable,” , 17 March 2004. 8. “Queen Condemns Bombing ‘Outrage’,” BBC News, 8 July 2005. http://news. bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4665537.stm, accessed 2 October 2005. 9. Joseph Conrad, The Secret Agent (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983) (originally published 1907), p. 312. 10. , “Work Together to a Brave New World,” speech to Labour Party Conference, The Times, 3 October 2001. 11. , “State Multiculturalism Has Failed.” http//www.bbc.co.uk/ news/uk-politics-12371994 12. See Anthony Heath and David Sanders, Ethnic Minority British Electoral Survey (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012); Anthony Heath, “Has Multiculturalism Failed in the UK? Not Really,” The Guardian, 2012. http:// www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/aug/10/multiculturalism-uk- research 13. See the Future of Multi-Ethnic Britain – The Parekh Report (London: Profile Books/ The Runnymede Trust, 2000). The Runnymede Trust set up a Commission on the Future of Multi-ethnic Britain in 1997. According to the Trust’s summary, the “Commission’s remit was to analyse the current state of multi-ethnic Britain and propose ways of countering racial discrimination and disadvan- tage and making Britain a confident and vibrant multicultural society at ease with its rich diversity.” The degree to which the Commission received official recognition and endorsement is indicated by the fact that the report was formally launched by then-Home Secretary Jack Straw on 11 October 2000. Notes 203

14. Audrey Gillan, “Detained Muslim Cleric Is Spiritual Leader to Militants, Hearing Told,” The Guardian, 20 November 2003. 15. See James Corbett, “London’s New Villains,” Al-Ahram Weekly, 31 October–6 November 2002. 16. The stated aim of Hizb ut-Tahrir is “to resume the Islamic way of life and to convey the Islamic da’wah [call: refers to the call to the “Truth”] to the world. This objective means bringing the back to living an Islamic way of life in Dar al-Islam [realm of Islam/sphere of faith] and in an Islamic society such that all of life’s affairs in society are administered according to the Shari’ah [Islamic law] rules, and the viewpoint in it is the halal [that which is lawful and permitted in Islam] and the haram [that which is unlawful and not permitted in Islam] under the shade of the Islamic State, which is the Khilafah [Caliphate] State ... The Party, as well, aims at the correct revival of the Ummah [community of Muslims] through enlightened thought. It also strives to bring her back to her previous might and glory such that she wrests the reins of initiative away from other states and nations, and returns to her rightful place as the first state in the world, as she was in the past, when she governs the world according to the laws of Islam. It also aims to bring back the Islamic guidance for mankind and to lead the Ummah into a struggle with Kufr [those who disbelieve in Allah], its systems and its thoughts so that Islam encapsulates the world.” http://www.hizb ut-tahrir.org/english/ english.html, accessed 22 August 2005. 17. See “40% of British Muslims Want Shari’ah Law – ICM,” UK Polling Report, 20 February 2006. http://ukpollingreport.co.uk/blog/archives/146, accessed 23 June 2009. 18. Brian Brady, “Hooked at Last,” Scotland on Sunday, 30 May 2004. 19. See Richard Willing, “Radical Cleric Fighting Extradition to USA on Terror Charges,” USA Today, 27 May 2004. 20. Jon Stock, “Inside the Mind of a Seductive Killer,” The Times, 21 August 2002. 21. Nick Britten, “Locals Shun the Tipton ,” , 27 January 2005. 22. See Daniel McGrory and Zahid Hussain, “New Wave of British Terrorists Are Taught at School, Not in the Mountains,” The Times, 14 July 2005. 23. “Three on London Terror Charges,” BBC News, 17 November 2002. http:// news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/2198228.stm, accessed 22 August 2005. 24. Foreign and Commonwealth/Home Office Paper, “Young Muslims and Extremism,” submitted as part of a report into a study conducted by the Cabinet Office, “Relations with the Muslim Community,” Cabinet Office, 6 April 2004, pp. 10–11. See also Steve Coll and Susan B. Glasser, “Islamic Radicals Found a Haven,” , 10 July 2005, p. A01. 25. See Olivier Roy “EuroIslam: The Jihad Within?” The National Interest, 71 (Spring 2003), pp. 63–74. 26. Richard Beeston and Michael Binyon, “Blair ‘Repeatedly Failed to Tackle Radical Muslims in his Backyard’,” The Times, 10 August 2005. 27. Quoted in Charles Moore, “Where Is the Gandhi of Islam?” The Daily Telegraph, 9 July 2005. 28. Quoted in “Rise in Hate Crimes Against Muslims After Attacks,” Reuters Report, 11 July 2005. 204 Notes

29. Quoted in Paul Berman, Terror and Liberalism (New York: Norton, 2003), p. 75. See also Ibrahim Abu Rabi, “Sayyid Qutb: From Religious Realism to Radical Social Criticism,” Islamic Quarterly, 28 (1984), p. 115. 30. Vikram Dodd and Ian Cobain, “Crackdown on Elusive Extremists,” The Guardian, 15 July 2005. 31. Blair, “Work Together to a Brave New World.” 32. “But Together We Can Defeat the Bombers,” The Observer, 31 July 2005. 33. Blair, “Work Together to a Brave New World.” 34. See Robert Hefner, Civil Islam (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), chapter 1. 35. See David Martin Jones and Mike Lawrence Smith, “From Konfrontasi to Disintegrasi: ASEAN and the Rise of in Southeast Asia,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 25 (6) (November–December 2002), pp. 351–352. 36. See Bhikhu Parekh, “The Cultural Particularity of Liberal Democracy,” in David Held (ed.), Prospects for Democracy (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1993), pp. 156–175. 37. Briefing on British Muslims: socio-economic data and attitudes (updated), “Relations with the Muslim Community,” Cabinet Office, 10 May 2004, pp. 1–5. See also “Young Muslims and Extremism,” p. 4. 38. James C. Davies, “Toward a Theory of Revolution,” American Sociological Review, 27 (1962), pp. 5–18; James C. Davies, “The J-curve of Rising and Declining Satisfaction as a Source of Some Great Revolutions and a Contained Rebellion,” in Hugh Davis Graham and Ted Robert Gurr (eds), The History of Violence in America (New York: Bantam, 1969). Also see in this context Ted Robert Gurr, Why Men Rebel (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970). 39. Foreign and Commonwealth Office, FCO Update on “Building Bridges with Mainstream Islam,” 5 November 2003, pp. 29–30. 40. Fred Halliday “The Politics of Islamic Fundamentalism,” in Akbar S. Ahmed and Hastings Donnan (eds), Islam, Globalization and Postmodernity (London: Routledge, 1996), p. 96 41. “Profile Omar Saeed Sheikh,” BBC News, 16 July 2002. http://news.bbc. co.uk/1/hi/uk/1804710.stm, accessed 3 September 2005. 42. See Roy, “EuroIslam,” p. 67. 43. See David Cohen, “Terror on the Dole,” The Evening Standard, 20 April 2004. 44. Dilpazier Aslam, “We Rock the Boat,” The Guardian, 13 July 2005. 45. See Roy, “EuroIslam,” for this profile, pp. 67–68. 46. Ibid., p. 69. 47. Ibid., p. 67. 48. Ed Hussain, The Islamist Why I Joined Radical Islam In Britain, What I Saw And Why I Left (London: Penguin, 2007), p. 133. 49. Ibid., pp. 145–146. 50. Ibid., p. 67. See also Maajid Nawaz, Radical (London: W.H.Allen, 2012), pp. 114–123. 51. Francis Fukyama, The End of History and the Last Man (London: Hamilton, 1992); Samuel Huntingdon, The and the Remaking of the World Order (New York: Touchstone, 1998). 52. One might just as easily, and more interestingly, throw Huntington against Huntington: the Huntington of the “clash” against the Huntington of Notes 205

the “Third Wave,” or, better, the Huntington who wrote Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968). 53. Oswald Spengler, The Decline of the West (London: Allen & Unwin, 1922); Arnold Toynbee, A Study of History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961). 54. Pieter Geyl, “From Ranke to Toynbee: Five Lectures on Historians and Historiographical Problems,” Studies in History, No. 39 (1952) (Northampton, MA: Smith College History Department). 55. Benjamin Barber, Jihad vs McWorld (New York: Ballantine, 1996); Thomas Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree (London: HarperCollins, 1999). 56. The phrase “Cool Britannia” was first coined as a song title by the Dadaist inspired art-school rockers, the Bonzo Dog Doo Dah Band in 1967. As a term to denote a fashionably diverse UK chic, it is widely seen to have arisen from a Newsweek magazine article by Stryker McGuire in 1996 that described London as the “coolest city on the planet,” though in fact the term Cool Britannia came to prominence the previous year in 1995 as the name of a brand of Ben and Jerry’s Vanilla ice cream with strawberries and fudge-covered shortbread. The notion coincided with Tony Blair’s election as Prime Minister in 1997, who came to power promising to re-make Britain as a “modern society.” Blairite rhetoric implicitly endorsed the image of “Cool Britannia” and became strongly identified with Blair’s first term in office, even though he never publicly used the phrase. See “Cooling Towards Britannia, Not Blair,” The Observer, 12 October 2003. Interestingly, and showing a remarkable degree of political, as well as commercial, prescience, Ben and Jerry’s “Cool Britannia” brand was retired from service in 1998, just as the lustre of Blair’s own “coolness” was beginning to show signs of losing its edge. 57. Karl Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1962). 58. Ernest Gellner, Conditions of Liberty: Civil Society and Its Rivals (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1994), p. 199. 59. See particularly Ernest Gellner, Muslim Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981). 60. See Kemal H. Karpat, The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Faith, State and Community in the Late Ottoman Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 18. 61. See Natana J. Delong-Bas, Wahhabi Islam: From Revival to Reform to Global Jihad (London: I.B. Tauris, 2004). 62. See Elie Kedourie, Afghani and Aduh: An Essay on Religious Unbelief and Political Activism in Modern Islam (London: Frank Cass, 1966); Nikki R. Keddie, An Islamic Response to Imperialism: Political and Religious Writings of Sayyid Jamal al-Din “al-Afghani” (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1968). 63. Wael Hallaq, “Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?” International Journal of Middle East Studies, 16 (1) (1984), pp. 3–11. 64. See Shaykh Ibn Taymiyah, Al-‘Ubudiyyah: Being a True Slave of Allah (trans. Nasiruddin al-Khattab) (London: Ta-Ha, 1999). 65. See Nazih N. Ayubi, Political Islam Religion and Politics in the Arab World (London: Routledge, 1991), pp. 60–63; Hasan al-Banna’, Five Tracts of Hasan al-Banna’ (trans. Charles Wendell) (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1988). 206 Notes

66. See Rudolph Peters, Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam: A Reader (Princeton, NJ: Marcus Wiener, 1996), p. 128. 67. Ayubi, Political Islam, p. 139. 68. Sayyid Qutb Milestones (Ma’alim fi al-tariq) (Damascus, 1985), pp. 21–22. 69. See Sayyid Qutb, Islam: The Misunderstood Religion (: Ministry of Awqaf and Islamic Affairs, 1967). 70. For this curious development, see Paul Berman, Terror and Liberalism (New York: Norton, 2003), pp. 190–195; Barry Cooper, New Political Religions, or An Analysis of Modern Terror (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 2004), chapter 4; Eric Voegelin, Modernity without Restraint: The Political Religions; The New Science of Politics; and Science, Politics and Gnosticism, in Manfred Henningsen (ed.), vol. 5, The Collected Works of Eric Voegelin (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 2000). 71. Eric Voegelin, “Science, Politics and Gnosticism,” in Modernity without Restraint, p. 298. 72. Cited in Husain, The Islamist, p. 83. 73. Ibid., p. 90. 74. Johannes J.G. Jansen, The Neglected Duty: The Creed of Sadat’s Assassins and Islamic Resurgence in the Middle East, with a translation of Muhammad Abd al-Salam Faraj, al-Faridah al-Gha’ibah (London: Macmillan, 1986). 75. Nimrod Raphaeli, Radical Islamist Profiles (3) Ayman Muhammad Rabi al Zawahiri: The Making of an Arch Terrorist, Middle East Research Institute Inquiry and Analysis Series, No. 127, 11 March 2003, p. 10. 76. See Monstasser al-Zayyat, The Road to Al-Qaeda: The Story of Bin Laden’s Right- Hand Man (London: Pluto Press, 2004). 77. See Ernest Gellner, Postmodernism, Reason and Religion (New York: Routledge, 1992). 78. Salafiya, or salafism, refers to the honour due to the supposedly untainted Islamic beliefs and practices of the first four caliphs, the Rushidun. It thus becomes clear that fundamentalism in Islam equates more or less to radical Christian forms of Protestantism, a desire to “return” to a pure, unmediated and uncorrupted personal relationship with God. 79. See William E. Shepard, Sayyid Qutb and Islamic Activism (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1996), pp. xxxix–xl. 80. Craig Whitlock, “Briton Used Internet as His Bully Pulpit,” The Washington Post, 8 August 2005. 81. Sayyid Qutb, The Religion of the Future (Kuwait: International Islamic Federation of Student Organizations, 1971), p. 121. 82. Ernest Gellner, Conditions of Liberty: Civil Society and Its Rivals (Hamish Hamilton: London, 1994), p. 31. 83. Ibid., p. 27. 84. David Martin Jones and M.L.R. Smith, “Franchising Terror,” World Today, 57 (10) (October 2001), p. 10. 85. With the discovery of a rising plot in Britain, and clear links between the plotters and Abu Hamza’s Finsbury Park Mosque, the mosque was belatedly raided by on 20 January 2003. But in deference to Muslim sensibilities, police wore Islamically-appropriate footwear. See “Anti-Terror Police Raid London Mosque,” BBC News, 20 January 2003. http://news.bbc. co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/2675223.stm, accessed 19 August 2005. Notes 207

86. Quoted in Robert Mendick, “Now Bakri Attacks ‘Hypocrite Muslims’,” The Evening Standard, 21 July 2005. 87. Eric Voegelin, “The Eclipse of Reality,” in Thomas A. Holweck and Paul Caringella (eds), What Is History and Other Late Unpublished Writings. vol. 28 of The Collected Works of Eric Voegelin (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1975), p. 112. See also Cooper, New Political Religions, chapter 3. 88. Eric Voegelin, The New Science of Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1952), p. 167. 89. Ibid., p. 169. 90. London Mayor Ken Livingstone, far from discouraging Islamist activism, publicly welcomed Sheikh Yusuf al-Qaradawi on a visit to London as an honoured guest, despite the cleric’s endorsement of suicide bombing in Israel. In January 2005, Livingstone published a 26-page justification of his meeting, claiming: “I regard it as my responsibility to welcome a leader of any great religion, such as Dr al-Qaradawi.” Mayor of London, Why the Mayor Will Maintain Dialogues with All of London’s Faiths and Communities (London: Greater London Authority, 2005), p. 2. 91. See in this context, Amir Tahiri, “Beards and Scarves Aren’t Muslim, They’re Simply Adverts for Al-Qaeda,” The Times, 27 July 2005. 92. Collected by the authors at the meeting, 25 August 2002. 93. See Roy, “EuroIslam,” p. 69. 94. Voegelin, “Science, Politics, and Gnosticism,” in Modernity without Restraint p. 313. 95. British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw has maintained that many of the world’s crises “are a consequence of our colonial past,” New Statesman, 15 November 2002. 96. Asian Wall Street Journal, 2–4 August 2002. 97. See Mohamed Sifaoui, Inside Al-Qaeda: How I Infiltrated the World’s Deadliest Terror Organization (London: Granta, 2003), pp. 129–131. 98. Ibid., p. 129. 99. Eric Voegelin, “The Political Religions”, Modernity without Restraint, p. 61. 100. Philip Johnston, “Hardline Cleric Faces Expulsion from Finsbury Park Mosque,” The Daily Telegraph, 17 January 2003. 101. The propensity of multiculturalism to lead to forms of cultural apartheid has long been noted by conservative and libertarian commentary. See for example, “Multiculturalism: The New Racism,” Impact (Ayn Rand Institute), November 2002. However, these kinds of criticisms were implicitly accepted by the “Cantle Report” into the interracial riots in Bradford, Burnley and Oldham in the Spring and Summer of 2001, which pointed to the deeply segregated nature of Muslim and other communities in many urban areas in Northern England. See Building Cohesive Communities: A Report of the Independent Review Team (London: Home Office, 2002), sections 2.13–2.19. 102. See M.M. Ashan and A.R. Kidwai, Sacrilege Versus Civility: Muslim Perspectives on the Satanic Verses Affair (Markfield, UK: Islamic Foundation, 1993). 103. House of Commons, Religious Hatred Bill (Norwich: HMSO, 2005); Racial and Religious Hatred Act, 2006, Office of Public Sector Information. http://www. opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2006/ukpga_20060001_En_1, accessed 25 June 2009. 104. Roy, “EuroIslam,” p. 67. 208 Notes

105. Interestingly this is a notion given implicit recognition in official documents, see Foreign and Commonwealth/Home Office Paper, “Young Muslims and Extremism,” p. 22. It was also given inadvertent acknowledgment by Tony Blair in his statement on 5 August that the “rules of the game are changing.” See “Rules of The Game,” The Times, 10 August 2005. 106. See Jamie Campbell, “Why Terrorists Love Britain,” New Statesman, 9 August 2004. 107. A fact that led Bakri to assume his activities had immunity in the UK. See Yolam Fakner, “Radical Islamist Profiles: Omar Bakri Mohammad,” Middle East Media Research Institute, No. 24, October 2001. 108. “Muslim Cleric Says Groups Plan to Strike London,” The Boston Globe, 19 April 2004. 109. Faridah al-Gha’ibah (The Neglected Duty), by the Egyptian Abd al-Salam Faraj is seminal text in the development of published in the 1980s that maintained that the duty of the Muslim was struggle and warfare against Islam’s enemies, the reward for martyrdom being entry into paradise. Faraj was executed in 1982 for his part in the assassination plot against President Anwar Sadat. 110. “Muslim Cleric Says Groups Plan to Strike London.” 111. “Blair Pays Tribute to Resilience,” BBC News, 9 July 2005. http://news.bbc. co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4666311.stm, accessed 24 August 2005. 112. Quoted in “Tributes and Tears One Week On,” CNN.com, 14 July 2005. http:// www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/europe/07/14/london.attacks.tributes/. 113. See “In Full: Blair on Bomb Blasts,” BBC News, 7 July 2005. http://news.bbc. co.uk/1/hi/uk/4659953.stm, accessed 24 August 2005. 114. Quoted in Dhimmi watch, 8 July 2005. http://www.jihadwatch.org/dhim- miwatch/archives/007014.php, accessed 27 August 2005. 115. David Harrison, Andrew Alderson and Bruce Johnston, “Forceful, Persistent, Patient, Unravelling the Bombing Plot,” The Daily Telegraph, 31 July 2005. 116. Quoted in Duncan Campbell and John Hooper, “Second Bomb Suspect Was Seen in Rome,” The Guardian, 1 August 2005. 117. See Peter Oborne, “Don’t be Misled – The London Bombs Were a Direct Response to the War,” The Spectator, 30 July 2005; Salim Lone, “Withdrawal Would Curb Terrorism,” The Guardian, 12 July 2005; “The Iraq Connection,” The Guardian, 20 July 2005. 118. Frank Gregory and Paul Wilkinson, “Riding Pillion for Tackling Terrorism Is a High Risk Policy,” Security, Terrorism in the UK, ISC/NSC briefing Paper 05/01, July 2005, p. 3. 119. J. Habermas and J. Derrida, “February 15: What Binds Europeans Together: A Plea for a Common Foreign Policy, Beginning in the Core Europe,” Constellations, 10 (3) (2003), p. 289. 120. “We Have The Laws: Use Them,” The Sunday Telegraph, 17 July 2005; David Leppard and Robert Winnet, “Blair’s Extremism Proposals Attacked as the Hunt Continues for Terror’s New Breed,” The Sunday Times, 7 August 2005. 121. See “Who Will be Deported and Who Decides,” The Guardian, 6 August 2005. 122. Duncan Gardham, “Preachers of Hate Could be Charged with Treason,” The Daily Telegraph, 8 August 2005; “Calling Terrorist Traitors Is No Answer,” The Daily Telegraph, 9 August 2005. 123. “Labour’s Shambles,” The Daily Telegraph, 10 August 2005. Notes 209

124. See “Abu Qatada Deported,” The Guardian, 7 July 2013. http://www. theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/07/abu-qatada-deported-from-uk 125. Many of the Algerian GIA suspects implicated in the Paris Metro bombings of 1995, sought, and of course obtained, sanctuary in the UK, including Rachid Ramda whom the French authorities have been attempting unsuc- cessfully to extradite for over ten years. See Alan Travis, “Judges Quash Extradition of Suspect,” The Guardian, 28 June 2002. 126. See for example, David Clark, “This Terror Will Continue Until We Take Arab Grievances Seriously,” The Guardian, 9 July 2005; Simon Jenkins, “Panic in the Face of Fanatics Is Making Britain Dangerous,” The Sunday Times, 31 July 2005. 127. “Deporting Hatred,” The Times, 6 August 2005. 128. Colin Randall, “France Ejects 12 ‘Preachers of Hate’,” The Daily Telegraph, 30 July 2005. 129. See Andrew Porter and Robert Winnett, “Law May Halt Blair’s War on Extremism,” The Sunday Times, 7 August 2005; Ferdinand Mount, “Our Law Lords Act Like Children Presented with a New Lego Set,” The Daily Telegraph, 17 August 2005. 130. See in this context Roger Sandall, The Culture Cult: Designer Tribalism and Other Essays (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2001). 131. Michael Collins, The Likes of Us: A Biography of the White Working Class (London: Granta, 2004). 132. Eric Voegelin, “The Political Religions,” in Modernity without Restraint, p. 63.

3 The Commentariat and Discourse Failure: Language and Atrocity in Cool Britannia

1. Marshall McLuhan, “Why have the Effects of Media Been Overlooked?,” in G.E. Stearn (ed.), McLuhan Hot and Cool (London: Penguin, 1968), p. 138. 2. Before the attacks, the prevailing stereotype, reflected in both official and media commentary, presented British based Islamist militants, with their predilection for kaftans, beards, and colourful rhetoric, as ersatz revolu- tionaries indulging their exhibitionist fantasies at the taxpayers’ expense. Interestingly, this caricature recalls the way the liberal establishment dismissed the German Fascist threat. In 1940, for example, the Fabian socialist, H.G. Wells, considered Hitler a “screaming little defective in Berlin,” presenting no threat to Europe. Indeed, Wells observed the Nazis “jerry-built discipline ... wilting under the creeping realization that Blitzkrieg is spent.” Writing later in 1941, after the German blitzkrieg had occupied France and the Low Countries, overrun the Mediterranean, and the Soviet Union as far as Stalingrad, George Orwell maintained that, for Wells and the progressive intelligentsia more generally, Hitler represented, “an absurdity, a ghost from the past, a creature doomed to disappear almost immediately.” As Orwell presciently continued, this Panglossian faith “in the equation of science with commonsense does not really hold good.” Much of what Wells and his ilk imagined and worked for was physically present in Nazi . But it was “all in the service of ideas appropriate to the Stone Age.” It was impos- sible for the progressive mind, in Orwell’s view, to accept this state of affairs. Therefore, “the war-lords and witch-doctors must fail, the commonsense 210 Notes

World State, as seen by a nineteenth-century Liberal whose heart does not leap at the sound of bugles, must triumph.” George Orwell, “Wells, Hitler and the World State,” Essays, chapter 12 (London: Penguin, 2000). 3. Quoted in David Rose, “Flashy Tactics Won’t Defeat the Terrorists,” Observer, 24 July 2005. It should be noted that the quote attributed to the MI5 official stands in direct contrast to the President of the Special Immigration Appeals Commission, Mr Justice Collins, who described Qatada as a “truly dangerous individual” (as opposed to just a loud-mouth), who was “at the centre in the of terrorist activities.” Quoted in Sam Knight, “ ‘Al-Qaeda’ cleric among ten detained for deportation,” The Times, 11 August 2005. 4. Quoted in Richard Woods and David Leppard, “Focus: How Liberal Britain Let Hate Flourish,” The Sunday Times, 12 February 2006. Hossein was an Algerian journalist who reported on Abu Hamza. 5. Quoted in Rose, “Flashy Tactics.” 6. Simon Freeman, “Leaked Security Services Memo said Britain Was Safe,” The Times, 19 July 2005. 7. Peter R. Neumann and M.L.R. Smith, “Missing the Plot? Intelligence and Discourse Failure,” Orbis (Winter 2005), pp. 96–98. 8. Anatole Kaletsky, “The Act of Small-time Losers,” The Times, 14 July 2005. 9. Rose, “Flashy Tactics.” 10. Peter Sanders, “The Opinonators,” Policy, May 2006. 11. Press reports and academic accounts of the threat over this period constitute the data for this analysis. 12. Peter Neumann, “Inquire Within,” Prospect, November 2005; “Unanswered Questions of the London Bombings,” The Daily Telegraph, 15 December 2005. 13. M.L.R. Smith, “Guerrillas in the Mist: Reassessing Strategy and Low Intensity Warfare,” Review of International Studies, 29 (2003), pp. 29–34. 14. President George W. Bush, Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People (Washington DC: Office of the Press Secretary), 20 September 2001. 15. For a survey see , “Postmodernity Goes to War,” Spiked. com, 1 June 2004. http://www.spiked-online.com/Articles/0000000CA554. htm. 16. Tom Utley, “The Moment I Saw Bush Has Grasped the Point of This War,” The Daily Telegraph, 28 September 2001. 17. See Michael Portillo, “We All Just Sat Back and Let Rise Against Us,” The Sunday Times, 24 July 2005. 18. See “The Underground Groups,” The Sunday Times, 24 July 2005; Anthony Browne, “Threat of Islamic Extremism That Stretches across Europe,” The Times, 26 July 2005. 19. Nick Fielding, “Terror Links of the Tottenham Ayatollah,” The Sunday Times, 24 July 2005. 20. Deborah Davies, “Traitors Welcome,” Daily Mail, 8 August 2005. 21. Quoted in HalaJabar, “Safe Haven Claim: Accuses Britain of Failing to Tackle Militants,” The Sunday Times, 31 July 2005. 22. Irwin Steltzer, “Letter from Londonistan,” The Weekly Standard, 1 August 2005. 23. Jonathan Guthrie and Chris Tighe, “The Eerily Ordinary Extremists,” The Financial Times, 15 July 2005. Notes 211

24. See Libby Purves, “The Land That Lost Its Pride,” The Times, 26 July 2005; Minnette Marin, “Confronted with Our Own Decadence,” The Sunday Times, 31 July 2005. 25. Steltzer, “Letter from Londonistan.” 26. “A Failure of Political Will,” The Daily Telegraph, 14 August 2005. 27. “Who Will be Deported and Who Decides,” The Guardian, 6 August 2005. 28. “Blair Says the ‘Rules Are Changing’ on Extremism,” The Daily Telegraph, 5 August 2005. 29. “Rules of the Game,” The Times, 10 August 2005. 30. “Blair’s Extremism Proposals Attacked as the Hunt Continues for Terror’s New Breed,” The Sunday Times, 7 August 2005; Andrew Porter and Robert Winnent, “Law May Halt Blair’s War on Extremism,” The Sunday Times, 7 August 2005. 31. “Ministers Are Powerless Before Our Judges,” The Daily Telegraph, 13 August 2005. 32. “Calling Terrorists Traitors Is No Answer,” The Daily Telegraph, 9 August 2005. 33. This remains the default position of Blairism. Thus in August 2006, Blair called for a rethink on the war on terror strategy and called for an “alliance of moderation” to combat the growing arc of extremism. This is in fact not a rethink but a return to the muddled multicultural approach to the “war” that Blair announced in September 2001. See The Australian, 3 August 2006. 34. See Jörg Freidrichs and Raphael Muturi, “Anything New Under ? The Political Struggle Behind the Legal Debate on International Terrorism,” From Government to Governance: 2003 Hague Joint Conference on Contemporary Issues of Law (The Hague: Asser/Cambridge University press, 2004), pp. 463–471. 35. See Edward Herman and Gerry O’Sullivan, The “Terrorism” Industry: The Experts and Institutions That Shape Our View of Terror (New York: Pantheon, 1989), pp. 229–246. For a more recent rendering of the same sort of argu- ments see Natasha Hamilton-Hart, “Terrorism in Southeast Asia: Expert Analysis, Myopia and Fantasy, Pacific Review, 18 (3) (2005), pp. 303–325. 36. For a survey of this area see Karin Von Hippel, “The Roots of Terrorism: Probing the Myths,” in Lawrence Freedman (ed.), Super Terrorism: Policy Responses (Oxford: Blackwell, 2002), pp. 225–239; Neil J. Smelser and Faith Mitchell (eds), Terrorism: Perspectives from the Behavioral and Social Sciences (Washington DC: National Academies Press, 2002), pp. 18–36; Dilip Hiro, War without End: The Rise of Islamist Terrorism and the Global Response (London: Routledge, 2002), p. 409. The journal Critical Studies on Terrorism launched in 2008 summated and developed these views in a distinctly anti- liberal and anti-capitalist direction. See inter alia Ken Booth, “The Human Faces of Terror: Reflections in a Cracked Looking Glass,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 1 (1) (2008), pp. 65–79. 37. Richard Jackson et al., “Introduction,” Critical Studies on Terrorism, 1 (1) (2008), pp. 1–3. See also Rama Mani, “The Root Causes of Terrorism and Conflict Prevention,” in Jane Boulden and Thomas G. Weiss (eds), Terrorism and the UN: Before and After September 11 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), pp. 219–243; Susanne Karstadt, “Terrorism and ‘New Wars’,” in Bülent Gökay and R.B.J. Walker (eds), 11 September: War, Terror and Judgement (London: Frank Cass, 2003), p. 140; Thomas G. Weiss, Margaret E. Crahern 212 Notes

and John Goering, “Whither Human Rights, Unilateralism, and US Foreign Policy,” in Thomas G. Weiss, Margaret E. Crahern and John Goering (eds), Wars on Terrorism and Iraq: Human Rights, Unilateralism and U.S. Foreign Policy (London: Routledge, 2004), pp. 231–241; Tom H. Hastings, Nonviolent Response to Terrorism (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2004), p. 160; Pippa Norris and Ronald Inglehart, “Public Opinion Among Muslims and the West,” in Pippa Norris, Montague Kern and Marion Just (eds), Framing Terrorism: The News Media, the Government and Terrorism (London: Routledge, 2003), p. 206. 38. Said, who identified the ideology of Orientalism (1975), was of course of a Palestinian, but Christian, background. See Edward Said, Out of Place a Memoir (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999), p. 20. 39. Tarak Barkawi, “On the Pedagogy of ‘Small Wars’,” International Affairs, 80 (1) (2004), p. 228. 40. Mohammad Yunus, “Commonwealth Lecture 2003: Halving Poverty by 2015,” The Commonwealth Yearbook (London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 2004), p. 58; Jody Williams in Irwin Abrams and Wang Gungwu (eds), The War in Iraq and Its Consequences: Thoughts of Nobel Laureates and Eminent Scholars (Singapore: World Scientific, 2004), p. 31. 41. Ibid., p. 22. 42. Ibid., p. 27. 43. It is notable in Barkawi’s article (pp. 19–37) there are over 50 references to a generic “West” or “Western” that is deemed to cover a negative spectrum of phenomena: from the Spanish conquest of the in the sixteenth century, the Zulu wars in the late nineteenth century, the World War I battle- fields of Flanders, to the IMF and globalization. 44. See in this context, John Gray, False Dawn: The Delusions of Global Capitalism (London: Granta, 2002); Manfred Steger, Globalism: The New Market Ideology (Lanham, MD: Rowman, 2002). 45. Ken Booth, “The Human Faces of Terror,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 1 (1) (April 2008), p. 75. 46. See Greg Bankoff, “Regions of Risk: Western Discourse on Terrorism and the Significance of Political Islam,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 26 (2003), pp. 413–428; See Seng Tan, “An Enemy of Their Making: US Security Discourse on the September 11 Terror Problematique,” in Kumar Ramakrishnan and See Seng Tan (eds), After Bali: The Threat of Terrorism (Singapore: IDSS/World Scientific Publishing, 2003), pp. 281–304; John Esposito, The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality? (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 231; Meaghan Morris, “White Panic or Mad Max and the Sublime,” in Chen Kuan-Hsing (ed.), Trajectories: Inter-Asian Cultural Studies (London: Routledge, 1998), p. 246. 47. David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998), p. 68. 48. Ibid., p. 68. 49. Azza Karram, “Islamisms, Globalisation, Religion and Power,” in Ronaldo Munck and Purnaka de Silva (eds), Postmodern Insurgencies: Political Violence, Identity Formation and Peacemaking in Comparative Perspective (London: Macmillan, 2000), p. 217. 50. See Richard Jackson, Writing the War on Terror: Language, Politics and Counter- terrorism (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2005). Notes 213

51. Michael Moore, Dude, Where’s My Country? (New York: Warner Books, 2003), p. 101. 52. Anthony Burke, Beyond Security, Ethics and Violence: War Against the Other (London: Routledge, 2007), p. 212. 53. Anthony Burke, “Against the New Internationalism,” Ethics & International Affairs, 19 (2) (Summer 2005), pp. 73–89. 54. Ed Weissman, “The Vote Ed Snowden Needs to Turn Back the Surveillance State,” Oped News, 27 November 2013. See also “MI5 Chief Andrew Parker says Edward Snowden’s Leaks are a Gift to Terrorists,” The Huffington Post, 14 October 2013; “Edward Snowden’s Revelations Prompt UN Investigation of Surveillance,” The Guardian, 2 December 2013. 55. See David L. Altheide, Terrorism and the Politics of Fear (Lanham, MD: Alta Mira Press, 2006). 56. Jackie Ashley, “Be Afraid, Be Very Afraid,” The Guardian, 25 March 2004. 57. Quoted in Andy Beckett, “The Making of the Terror Myth,” The Guardian, 15 October 2004. 58. See Adam Curtis, “Feign of Terror,” Village Voice, 19 April 2005. 59. “The Power of Nightmares: Baby It’s Cold Outside,” BBC News, 14 January 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/1/hi/programmes/3755686/stm. 60. For example, King’s College, London-Monash University Conference on The Roots of Terrorism, Florence, 7–8 July 2005. 61. Quoted in Beckett, “The Making of the Terror Myth.” 62. Charles Kennedy’s New Year Message 2005, Liberal Democrats, 1 January 2005. 63. “The Judiciary Should not Patrol our Borders,” The Daily Telegraph, 30 July 2005. 64. Quoted in Clare Dyer, “How the Law Lords Reached their Conclusion in One of the Most Important Cases of Recent Years,” The Guardian, 17 December 2004. 65. Ibid. 66. Ibid. 67. Bill Durodié, “Al-Qaeda: A Conspiracy of Dunces?,” Spiked.com, 14 April 2005. http:www.spiked-online.com/Articles/0000000CA90.htm. According to the by-line, Durodié is apparently a “senior lecturer in risk and security at the Royal College of Military Science.” 68. See Anthony Giddens, “Scaring People May be the Only Way to Avoid the Risks of New-style Terrorism,” New Statesman, 10 January 2005. 69. See Frank Furedi, The Politics of Fear (London: Continuum, 2005). 70. Obviously, the Internet provided a repository for much conspiratorial thinking on this subject. See for example, Todd May, “Religion, the Election and the Politics of Fear,” Countercurrents.org, 19 November 2004. http:// www.countercurrents.org/us-may191104.htm: Jeanne Carstensen, “Neocon Nightmares,” SFGate.com, 30 April 2005. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/ article.cgi?f=/g/a/2005/04/30/curtis.DTL. 71. Andrew Parker, “Address on the Evolving Security threat,” Royal United Services Institute, London, 8 October 2013. http://www.rusi.org/events/past/ ref:E5254359BB8F44. 72. “Edward Snowden Revelations Prompt UN Investigation of Surveillance,” The Guardian, 2 December 2013. 214 Notes

73. “Guardian Staff under Police Investigation for Snowden Leaks,” The Daily Telegraph, 4 December 2013, “We are Patriots at The Guardian, Editor Insists,” The Times, 4 December 2013. 74. Quoted in Ferdinand Mount, “Our Law Lords Act like Children Presented with a New Lego Set,” The Daily Telegraph, 17 August 2005. 75. See Gerard Baker, “Why Blame the Terrorists? Apparently We Can Agree That It’s Britain’s Fault,” The Times, 15 July 2005; David Clark, “This Terror Will Continue Until We Take Arab Grievances Seriously,” The Guardian, 9 July 2005. 76. Seng Tan, “An Enemy of Their Making,” pp. 281–304. See also Brendan O’Neill, “Creating the Enemy,” Spiked.com, 18 July 2005. http://www.spiked- online.com/Articles/0000000CA492.htm. 77. David Goodhart, “It’s Paranoia, Not ,” The Guardian, 15 July 2005. 78. Shiv Malik, “The Muslim Community,” Independent, 24 July 2005. 79. Michael Adebolajo’s letter “Why Carnage Is Hitting our Towns,” The Times, 4 December 2013, p. 7. 80. “Hundreds of UK Jihadists in Syria,” The Daily Telegraph, 4 December 2013, p. 1. 81. Quoted in Nick Britten, “Leading Cleric Rails at Injustice of ‘Muslim’ Bashing,” The Daily Telegraph, 28 July 2005. 82. Quoted in “Rise in Hate Crimes Against Muslims After Attacks,” Reuters, 11 July 2005. 83. Mayor’s statement, 7 July 2005. http://www.london.gov.uk/mayor/mayor_ statement_070705.jsp. 84. Simon Jenkins, “Panic in the Face of Fanatics Is Making Britain Dangerous,” The Sunday Times, 31 July 2005. Jenkins contended, somewhat hysterically, that “three weeks since the attacks ... a howling mob has clambered aboard the terrorists’ bandwagon ... They are taking the opportunity to beat their political pectorals, roar abuse at all and sundry, and cloak prejudice in the dogma of necessity.” 85. See Christopher Adams, “Growing Fears of Backlash as BNP Seeks to Make Capital,” The Financial Times, 14 July 2005; Tom Baldwin, “BNP Fans Flames with ‘Sick’ By-election Leaflet,” The Times, 14 July 2005. 86. See for example, Karen Armstrong, “The Label Catholic Terror Was Never Used About the IRA,” The Guardian, 11 July 2005. 87. See Cathy Newman and James Blitz, “MPs Urge Fellow Muslims to Drive Out ‘Evil’,” The Financial Times, 14 July 2005; Burhan Wazier, “People Look at Me on the Tube,” Metro, 14 July 2005. 88. Quoted in Jonathan Freedland, “Tread More Carefully,” The Guardian, 27 July 2005. 89. Charles Moore, “Where Is the Gandhi of Islam?” The Daily Telegraph, 9 July 2005. 90. BBC , 8 July 2005. 91. Richard Ford, “Two Communities That Hardly Ever Mix,” The Times, 13 July 2005. See also Andrew Norfolk and Russell Jenkins, “A Laughing Lad from the Chippie and His Mate,” The Times, 13 July 2005; “A Legacy of Deprivation,” The Guardian, 15 July 2005. 92. Mick Hume, “The Age of Intolerant Tolerance,” Spiked.com, 19 August 2005. http://www.spiked-online.com/Articles/0000000CAD0A.htm. Notes 215

93. Hume, “The Age of Intolerant Tolerance.” 94. See Will Hutton, “Our Britishness Can Beat the Bombers,” The Observer, 31 July 2005. 95. Daley, “For British ‘Tolerance’ Read ‘Indifference’.” 96. Sarah Oates, “Selling Fear? The Framing of the Terrorist Threat in Elections,” Security, Terrorism in the UK, briefing paper 05/01 (London: Chatham House, July 2005), p. 9. 97. Bill Durodié, “Terrorism and Community Resilience – A UK Perspective,” Security, Terrorism in the UK, briefing paper 05/01 (London: Chatham House, July 2005), p. 4. 98. Quoted in “The Threats,” The Times, 10 July 2005. 99. Quoted in Ibid. 100. Clark, “This Terror Will Continue Until We Take Arab Grievances Seriously.” 101. Salim Lone, “Withdrawal Would Curb Terrorism,” The Guardian, 12 July 2005. 102. “Blair’s Blowback,” The Guardian, 11 July 2005. 103. Frank Gregory and Paul Wilkinson, “Riding Pillion for Tackling Terrorism Is a High Risk Policy,” Security, Terrorism in the UK, briefing paper 05/01 (London: Chatham House, July 2005), p. 3. 104. Richard Norton-Taylor, “Use and Abuse of Intelligence,” The Guardian, 19 July 2005. 105. “The Iraq Connection,” The Guardian, 20 July 2005. 106. Ali Tariq, Rough Music Blair, Bombs and Baghdad (London: Verso, 2005), p. 53. 107. See for example, Peter Oborne, “Don’t Be Mislead – The London Bombs Were a Direct Response to the ,” Spectator, 30 July 2005. 108. According to an ICM poll for The Guardian, see Ibid. 109. David Aaronovitch, “If We Don’t Provoke Them, Maybe They Will Leave Us Alone. You Reckon So?” The Times, 12 July 2005. 110. Abu Hamza, for example, described Britain as a “toilet,” while according to a You-Gov poll, 32 percent of Muslims agreed with the statement that “Western society is decadent and immoral and Muslims should seek to bring it to an end.” See Woods and Leppard, “Focus: How Liberal Britain Let Hate Flourish.” 111. In fact, if we are talking about simple correlations, it could be pointed out that the United States has not been attacked either post-9/11 or, indeed, post the invasion of Iraq. 112. “Hundreds of UK Jihadists in Syria,” The Daily Telegraph, 4 December 2013. 113. Lone, “Withdrawal Would Curb Terrorism.” 114. Matthew Parris, “Suicide Bombings Will Pass – They are Just a Grisly Terrorist Fashion,” The Times, 6 August 2005. 115. Rosemary Hollis, “Isolating Extremists,” World Today, August/September 2004, p. 21. 116. Barkawi, On the Pedagogy of ‘Small Wars’,” p. 22. 117. This is a reference to the destruction by suicide bombers of the headquarters of the UN in Baghdad, 19 August 2003. 118. Barkawi, On the Pedagogy of ‘Small Wars’,” p. 37. 119. Ken Booth, “The Human Faces of Terror,” Critical Studies on Terrorism, 1 (1) (April 2008), p. 76. 216 Notes

120. Anthony Burke, “The End of Terrorism Studies,” Critical Studies on Terrorism, 1 (1) (April 2008), p. 44. 121. Quoted in “Inside the Sect That Loves Terror,” The Sunday Times, 7 August 2005. 122. Quoted in report by Richard Watson, Newsnight, BBC, 1 August 2005. 123. Ibid. 124. Leo Strauss, “Social Science and Humanism,” The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism: An Introduction to the Thought of Leo Strauss (Selected and intro- duced by Thomas. L. Pangle) (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1989), p. 10. 125. Ibid., p. 12. 126. “Declaration of War Against Americans Occupying the Land of the Two Holy Places,” in Yonah Alexander and Michael S. Swetnam (eds), Usama bin Laden’s Al-Qaeda: Profile of a Terrorist Network (Ardsley, NY: Transnational Publishers, 2001), Appendix 1, A, p. 19. 127. See Elie Kedouri, Afghani and Aduh: An Essay on Religious Unbelief and Political Activism in Modern Islam (London: Frank Cass, 1966); Nikki R. Keddie, An Islamic Response to Imperialism: Political and Religious Writings of Sayyid Jamal al-Din “al-Afghani” (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968); Natana J. Delong-Bas, Wahabi Islam: From Revival to Reform to Global Jihad (London: I.B. Tauris, 2004). 128. See William E. Shepherd, Sayyid Qutb and Islamic Activism (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1996), pp. xxxix–xl. 129. Sayyid Qutb, Milestones (New York: Mother Mosque Foundation, 1979), pp. 81 and 94. 130. Ibid., p. 94. 131. See Erich Ludendorf, The Nation at War [Der Totale Krieg], trans. A.S. Rappoport (London: Hutchinson, 1936). 132. Qutb, Milestones, pp. 63–70. 133. Ayman Muhammad Rabi al Zawahiri, quoted in Nimrod Raphaeli, Radical Islamist Profiles, 3: Ayman Muhammad Rabi al Zawahiri: The Making of an Arch Terrorist (Berlin: Middle East Media Research Institute), 11 March 2003, p. 10. 134. “Al-Qaeda Training Manual,” document recovered by Manchester police 1998 and translated from Arabic to English and presented as evidence at the trial of in the United States in 2003, p. 5. The passage continues, “and let the Nil, al-Asri, and Euphrates rivers flow with their blood.” 135. Ibid., p. 3.

4 (COIN): The Post-9/11 Military Revolution and Its Consequences

1. Beatrice Heuser, “The Cultural Revolution in Counter insurgency,” Journal of Strategic Studies, 30 (1) (2007), pp. 153–177. 2. For example Holsti’s statistical assessment indicates that 75 per cent of the 164 cases of warfare identified since the end of World War II involved armed conflict within state boundaries, while only 18–20 per cent of cases could accurately be termed inter-state wars. See K.J. Holsti, The State, War and the State of War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 22–24. Notes 217

3. Lt. Gen. Sir John Kiszley, “Learning about Counterinsurgency,” Military Review (March–April 2007), p. 10. 4. Quoted in John A. Nagl, “Foreword to the University of Chicago Press Edition: The Evolution and Importance of Army/Marine Corps Field Manual 3–24 Counterinsurgency,” in US Army and Marine Corps, Counterinsurgency Field Manual (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), p. xiv. 5. David Ucko, “Innovation or Inertia? The US Military and the Learning of Counterinsurgency,” Orbis, 52 (2) (Spring 2008), p. 291. 6. David C. Hendrickson and Robert W. Tucker, “Revisions in Need of Revising: What Went Wrong in the Iraq War,” Survival, 47 (2) (2005), pp. 7–32. 7. See for example Ahmed S. Hashem, “The Insurgency in Iraq,” Small Wars and Insurgencies, 14 (3) (Autumn 2003), pp. 1–22; Alistair Finlan, “Trapped in the Dead Ground: US Counterinsurgency Strategy in Iraq,” Small Wars and Insurgencies, 16 (1) (March 2005), pp. 1–21; Robert Tomes, “Schlock and Blah: Counterinsurgency Realities in a Rapid Dominance Era,” Small Wars and Insurgencies, 16 (1) (March 2005), pp. 37–56; Jeffrey Record, “Why the Strong Lose,” Parameters (Winter 2005–2006), pp. 16–31. 8. Nagl, “Foreword,” p. xv. 9. See for example, Lieutenant David Petraeus, “Learning Counterinsurgency: Observations from Soldiering in Iraq,” Military Review (January–February 2006), pp. 2–11. 10. Ucko, “Innovation or Inertia?” p. 294. 11. In particular see Nigel Aylwin-Foster, FM3 “Changing the Army for Counterinsurgency Operations,” Military Review (November–December 2005), pp. 2–15. 12. Frank G. Hoffman, “Neo-Classical Insurgency?” Parameters (Summer 2007), pp. 1–87. 13. Examples of this set of literature would be Jonathan Stevenson, “We Wrecked the Place:” Contemplating an End to Northern Ireland’s Troubles (New York: Free Press, 1996); Malachi O’Doherty, The Trouble with Guns: Republican Strategy and the Provisional IRA (Belfast: Blackstaff, 1998); Michael Page, Prisons Peace and Terrorism: Penal Policy and the Reduction of Terrorism in Northern Ireland Italy and the Basque Country, 1968–1997 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998); Ed Moloney, A Secret History of the IRA (London: Allen Lane, 2002); Peter Neumann, Britain’s Long War: British Government Strategy in Northern Ireland, 1968–1998 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003). 14. Matthew B. Stannard, “Montgomery McFate’s Mission,” San Francisco Chronicle, 29 April 2007. 15. Montgomery McFate, “The Military Utility of Understanding Adversary Culture,” Joint Forces Quarterly, 38 (3rd Quarter 2005), p. 42. 16. Montgomery McFate, “Iraq: The Social Context of IEDs,” Military Review (May–June 2005), pp. 37–40. 17. Montgomery McFate and Andrea Jackson, “An Organizational Solution for DOD’s Cultural Knowledge Needs,” Military Review (July–August 2005), p. 18. 18. For a survey of this area, see Col. Clinton J. Ancker, “Doctrine for Asymmetric Warfare,” Military Review (July–August 2003), pp. 18–25; Patrick Porter, “Shadow Wars: Asymmetric Warfare in the Past and Future,” Security Dialogue, 37 (4) (2006), pp. 551–561. 218 Notes

19. The apotheosis of this thinking was Rupert Smith, The Utility of Force: The Art of War in the Modern World (London: Allen Lane, 2005). Mary Kaldor’s New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era (Cambridge: Polity, 1999) also foreshadowed much of this debate. 20. See for example, Andrew Dorman et al. (eds), The Changing Face of Military Power: Joint Warfare in an Expeditionary Era (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002). 21. John Nagl, Learning to Eat Soup with a Knife: Lessons from Malaya and Vietnam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), p. 51. 22. Montgomery McFate and Andrea V. Jackson, “The Object of War: Counterinsurgency and the Four Tools of Political Competition,” Military Review (January–February 2006), pp. 13–16. 23. Nagl, Learning to Eat Soup with a Knife, p. 216. 24. Standard, “Montgomery McFate’s Mission.” 25. Quoted in Ibid. 26. See for example, Eliot Cohen, Conrad Crane, Jan Horvath and John Nagl, “Principles, Imperatives, and Paradoxes of Counterinsurgency,” Military Review (March–April 2006), pp. 49–53. 27. Nagl, “Foreword,” pp. xiii–xx. 28. Montgomery McFate, “ and Counterinsurgency: The Strange Story of their Curious Relationship,” Military Review (March–April 2005), p. 24. 29. Ibid., p. 27. 30. Heuser, “The Cultural Revolution in Counterinsurgency,” p. 165. 31. Ucko, “Innovation or Inertia?” p. 308. 32. See for example, Lt. Col. Robert M. Cassidy, “Winning the War of the Flea,” Military Review (September 2004), pp. 41–46; Lt. Col. Wade M. Markel, “Winning Our Own Hearts and Minds: Promotion in Wartime,” Military Review (November–December 2004), pp. 25–30; Lt. Col. Robert M. Cassidy, “The Savage Wars of Peace,” Military Review (November–December 2004), pp. 76–77; Lt. Col. James D. Campbell, “French Algeria and British Northern Ireland: Legitimacy and the Rule of Law in Low-Intensity Conflict,” Military Review (March–April 2005), pp. 2–5; Wade Markel, “Draining the Swamp: The British Strategy of Population Control,” Parameters (Spring 2006), pp. 35–48; Lou DiMarco, “Losing the Moral Compass: Torture and Guerre Revolutionnaire in the Algerian War,” Parameters (Summer 2006), pp. 63–76; Brian A. Jackson, “Counterinsurgency Intelligence in a ‘Long War:’ The British Experience in Northern Ireland,” Military Review (January–February 2007), pp. 74–85; Walter C. Ladwig, “Managing Counterinsurgency: Lessons from Malaya,” Military Review (May–June 2007), pp. 56–66; Major Michael D. Sullivan, “Leadership in Counterinsurgency: A Tale of Two Leaders,” Military Review (September–October 2007), pp. 119–123. 33. See David Galula, Pacification in Algeria, 1956–1958 (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2006) (originally published in 1963); David Galula, Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2006) (originally published 1964); Roger Trinquier, Modern Warfare: A French View of Counterinsurgency (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2006) (originally published 1964); Bernard Fall, Street without Joy: The French Debacle in Indochina (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole, 2005) (origi- nally published 1963); John J. McCuen, The Art of Counter-Revolutionary War: The Strategy of Counterinsurgency (St. Petersburg, FL: Hailer, 2005) (originally published in 1966). Notes 219

34. Colin Gray, “Thinking Asymmetrically in Times of Terror,” Parameters (Spring 2002), p. 13. 35. These are too many examples to enumerate but for a selection see for instance: Kalev I. Sepp, “Best Practices in Counterinsurgency,” Military Review (May–June 2005), pp. 8–12; Colonel Thomas X. Hammes, “Countering Evolved Insurgent Networks,” Military Review (July–August 2006); Jan S. Breemer, “Statistics, Real Estate, and the Principles of War: Why There Is No Unified Theory of War,” Military Review (September–October 2006), pp. 84–89. 36. Sarah Sewall, “Modernizing US Counterinsurgency Practice: Rethinking Risk and Developing a National Strategy,” Military Review (September–October 2006), p. 103. 37. Ibid., p. 103. 38. Ibid., p. 104. 39. John A. Lynn, “Patterns of Insurgency and Counterinsurgency,” Military Review (July–August 2005), p. 27. 40. Ibid., p. 27. 41. See Col. James K. Greer, “Operation Knockout: COIN in Iraq,” Military Review (November–December 2005), pp. 16–19; Lt. Gen. David H. Petraeus, “Learning from Counterinsurgency: Observations from Soldiering in Iraq,” Military Review (January–February 2006), pp. 2–12. For example, see also Frederick W. Kagan and Kimberly Kagan, “The Patton of Counterinsurgency,” The Weekly Standard, 3 October 2008. 42. Lt. Col. Chris Gibson, “Battlefield Victories and Strategic Success: The Path Forward in Iraq,” Military Review (September–October 2006), p. 49. 43. Capt. Travis Patriquin, “Using Occam’s Razor to Connect the Dots: The Ba’ath Party and the Insurgency in Tal Afar,” Military Review (January–February 2007), pp. 16–25. 44. McFate Montgomery and Andrea Jackson, Military Review (July–August 2005), pp. 8–21. 45. McFate Montgomery and Steve Fondacaro, “Reflections on the Human Terrain System During the First Four Years,” Prism, 2 (4) (September 2011), pp. 1–3. 46. See also Carter Malkasian, “The Role of Perceptions and Political Reform in Counterinsurgency: The Case of Western Iraq, 2004–2005,” Small Wars and Insurgencies, 17 (3) (September 2006), pp. 367–394; Warren Chin, “Examining the Application of British Counterinsurgency Doctrine by the American Army in Iraq,” Small Wars and Insurgencies, 18 (1) (March 2007), pp. 1–26; James Corum, “Rethinking US Army Counterinsurgency Doctrine,” Contemporary Security Policy, 28 (1) (April 2007), pp. 127–142. 47. Of the many possible contributions in this respect see, inter alia, Maj. Morgan Mann, “The Power Equation: Using Tribal Politics in Counterinsurgency,” Military Review (May–June 2007), pp. 104–108; Col. Joseph D. Celeski, “Attacking Insurgent Space: Sanctuary Denial and Border Interdiction,” Military Review (November–December 2006); Col. Gregory Wilson, “Anatomy of a Successful COIN Operation: OEF-Philippines and the Indirect Approach,” Military Review (November–December 2006), pp. 2–12; Michael R. Melillo, “Outfitting a Big-War Military with Small-War Capabilities,” Parameters (Autumn 2006), pp. 22–35; David M. Tressler, Negotiation in the New Strategic Environment: Lessons from Iraq (Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, 2007); 220 Notes

James Clancy and Chuck Crossett, “Measuring Effectiveness in Irregular Warfare,” Parameters (Summer 2007), pp. 88–100; Brian Reed, “A Social Network Approach to Understanding an Insurgency,” Parameters (Summer 2007), pp. 19–30; Jeffrey Record, “External Assistance: Enabler of Insurgent Success,” Parameters (Autumn 2006), pp. 36–49; Jim Baker, “Systems Thinking and Counterinsurgencies,” Parameters (Winter 2006–2007), pp. 26–43; Raymond Millen, “The Hobbesian Notion of Self-Preservation Concerning Human Behaviour during an Insurgency,” Parameters (Winter 2006–2007), pp. 4–3. 48. See for example Christopher M. Ford, “Speak No Evil: Targeting a Population’s Neutrality to Defeat an Insurgency,” Parameters (Summer 2005), pp. 51–66; Lt. Col. Douglas A. Ollivant and Lt. Eric D. Chewing, “Producing Victory: Rethinking Conventional Forces in COIN Operations,” Military Review (July–August 2006); David Betz, “Redesigning Land Forces for Wars Amongst the People,” Contemporary Security Policy, 28 (2) (August 2007), pp. 221–243; Major Mark P. Krieger, “We the People Are Not the Center of Gravity,” Military Review (July–August 2007), pp. 96–100; Col. Peter R. Mansoor and Major Mark S. Ulrich, “Linking Doctrine to Action: A New Center-of-Gravity Analysis,” Military Review (September–October 2007), pp. 45–51. 49. John Mackinlay, “Tackling Bin Laden: Lessons from History,” Observer, 28 October 2001. 50. Ibid. 51. John Mackinlay, Globalisation and Insurgency, Adelphi Paper 352 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies/Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 79. 52. See for example, Mary Kaldor, New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Age (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999); David Held and Anthony McGrew, with David Goldblatt and Jonathan Perraton, Global Transformations: Politics, Economics and Culture (Cambridge: Polity, 1999); Mark Duffield, Global Governance and the New Wars (London: Zed, 2001). 53. See Benjamin Barber, Jihad Versus McWorld: How Globalism and Tribalism are Reshaping the World Order (New York: Ballantine, 1996); Olivier Roy, Bruce Hoffman, Reuven Paz, Steven Simon and Daniel Benjamin, “America and the New Terrorism,” Survival, 42 (2) (Spring 2000), pp. 156–172. 54. Mackinlay, Globalisation and Insurgency, p. 79. 55. David Kilcullen, “Countering Global Insurgency,” Journal of Strategic Studies, 28 (4) (August 2005), p. 597. 56. Ibid., p. 598. 57. Ibid., p. 601. 58. David Kilcullen, “Globalisation and the Development of Indonesian Counterinsurgency Tactics,” Small Wars and Insurgencies, 17 (1) (March 2006), p. 52. 59. Kilcullen claims in fact that Indonesian COIN methods were less harsh than other similar campaigns of the period such as those in Malaya, Palestine, , Vietnam and Algeria. Without some clear statistical evidence, it is difficult to compare and validate this supposition. See Ibid., p. 60. 60. Ibid., p. 59. 61. Kilcullen, “Countering Global Insurgency,” p. 602. 62. Ibid., p. 602. Notes 221

63. Ibid., p. 608. 64. Ibid., p. 609. 65. John Hillen, “Developing a National Counterinsurgency for the War on Terror,” Military Review (January–February 2007), p. 13. 66. Col. Joseph D. Celeski, ‘Strategic Aspects of Counterinsurgency,” Military Review (March–April 2006), pp. 5–41. 67. Hillen, “Developing a National Counterinsurgency for the War on Terror,” p. 13. 68. See for example Daniel Byman, “US Counter-terrorism Options: A Taxonomy,” Survival, 49 (3) (Autumn 2007), pp. 121–150. 69. In fact, David Kilcullen and Montgomery McFate shared a writing platform in Anthropology Today, defending themselves and the role of anthropologists in facilitating the writing of FM 3–24, who had been criticized by Roberto González for supposedly allowing themselves to become tools of “US imperial power” (p. 17). See Roberto J. González, “Towards Mercenary Anthropology? The New US Army Counterinsurgency Manual FM 3–24 and the Military Anthropology Complex,” pp. 14–19; David Kilcullen, “Ethics, Politics and Non-State Warfare,” p. 20; Montgomery McFate, “Building Bridges or Burning Heretics,” Anthropology Today, 23 (3) (June 2007), p. 21. 70. Lt. Col. David Kilcullen, “ ’Twenty-Eight Articles’: Fundamentals of Company- level Counterinsurgency,” Military Review (May–June 2006), pp. 103–108. 71. Mackinlay, “Tackling Bin Laden.” 72. David Kilcullen, “Counterinsurgency Redux,” Survival, 48 (4) (Winter 2006– 2007), p. 111. 73. Ibid., p. 112. 74. Hoffman, “Neo-Classical Insurgency?” p. 71. 75. Betz, “Redesigning Land Forces for Wars Amongst the People,” p. 225. 76. Hoffman, “Neo-Classical Insurgency?” p. 71. 77. McFate, “Iraq: The Social Context of IEDs,” p. 40. 78. See for example, US Army/Marine Corps, Counterinsurgency Field Manual, pp. 11–15. 79. Hoffman, “Neo-Classical Insurgency?” p. 71. 80. Steven Metz, Rethinking Insurgency (Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, 2007), p. 36. 81. Robert Taber, War of the Flea (Potomac Books, VA: 2002), pp. 1–16, 117–133, 173–192 (originally published by Penguin Books in 1970). 82. As Cassidy, in contrast to Metz’s assessment, notes with respect to British COIN operation from “the predominantly rural jungle of conditions Malaya, Kenya, Borneo, Guyana, and Dhofar to the desert conditions of Palestand: Muscat; and Oman; Radfan; and Kuwait” that the “ helped bring about favourable political outcomes for Britain. In almost every case of devolu- tion, newly independent states allowed the British Army to retain facilities in their countries.” Surely, this is the proper criterion for gauging COIN success. Lt. Col. Robert M. Cassidy, “The British Army and Counterinsurgency: The Salience of Military Culture,” Military Review (May–June 2005), p. 56. 83. French COIN thinking manifested itself in an unyielding that perceived the Algerian nationalist campaign waged by the Front de Liberation Nationale as a war against Western civilization, resulting in immense brutality and loss of life on all sides, and which during certain 222 Notes

parts of the campaign saw the creation of a clandestine bureaucracy that institutionalized policies of torture and atrocity. Many assessments have been written on the war, but for one of the most comprehensive treatments, see Alistair Horne, A Savage War of Peace: Algeria, 1954–1962 (London: Macmillan, 1977). 84. Kilcullen, “Countering Global Insurgency,” p. 609. 85. Ibid., p. 610. 86. Hoffman, “Neo-Classical Insurgency?” p. 78. 87. David Kilcullen, “Subversion and Counter Subversion in the Campaign against ,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 30 (8) (August 2006), p. 649. 88. Ibid., p. 652. 89. Quoted in George Packer, “Knowing The Enemy: Can Social Scientists Redefine the ‘War on Terror’?” , 18 December 2006. 90. Ibid. 91. “Notes from Reviewing UK Army Countering Insurgency Meeting,” (KCL Insurgency Group), King’s College London, 20 June 2007, p. 1. 92. Ibid., p. 2. 93. McFate, “The Military Utility of Understanding Adversary Culture,” p. 43. See also Celeski, “Strategic Aspects of Counterinsurgency,” p. 35 for another example of critical appreciations of Clausewitzian understandings. 94. Carl von Clausewitz, On War (Michael Howard and Peter Paret trans. and eds) (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984), pp. 87–88. 95. Ibid., p. 87. 96. Which is something that John Mackinlay, for instance, believes Clausewitz embodies, when he suggested in 2001 of the “coalition of likeminded states to ‘wage the war on terrorism’ is an old fashioned emergency structure that would address a Clausewitzian threat to security.” Again this is an erroneous interpretation. Clausewitz never wrote of what constituted “threats to secu- rity” and to the extent that it is possible to discern a Clausewitzian under- standing of threat, it is one that arises from the complex social and political conditions of individual societies, that is, the source of all war. Therefore the statement is a tautology. Mackinlay, “Tackling Bin Laden.” 97. Jan Willem Honig, “Strategy in a Post-Clausewitzian Setting,” in Gerd de Nooy (ed.), The Clausewitzian Dictum and the Future of Western Military Strategy (The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1997), p. 110. 98. David Kilcullen, too, appears to subscribe to this conception when he writes that the “religious ideology of some modern insurgents” meant that they often do have “real-world objectives.” “Al-Qaeda-linked insurgencies,” he contends, do not necessarily seek to do or achieve any practical objec- tive, but rather to be a mujahid, earning God’s favour (and hope of ulti- mate victory through his intervention) through the act itself. Kilcullen, “Counterinsurgency Redux,” p. 116. 99. Clausewitz, On War, p. 87. 100. Honig, “Strategy,” p. 118. 101. Col. Melanie R. Reeder, Editorial Statement, Military Review (November– December 2001), p. 1. 102. David J. Shaughnessy and Lt. Col. Thomas M. Cowan, “Attack on America: The First War of the 21st Century,” Military Review, supplement (November– December 2001), pp. 2–9. Notes 223

103. The authors could only find two such articles in Military Review after 9/11: Lt Col Peter J. Schifferle, “Terrorism and the Crabgrass,” Military Review (November–December 2001); Col. John W. Jandora, “’s Global Jihad: Myth and Movement,” Military Review (November–December 2006), pp. 41–50. 104. Lawrence Freedman, “Globalisation and the War Against Terrorism,” in Christopher Anderson (ed.), Understanding Global Terror (Cambridge: Polity, 2007), p. 227. 105. Kilcullen, “Countering Global Insurgency,” p. 606. 106. Ibid., p. 605. 107. Mackinlay, Globalisation and Insurgency, p. 33. 108. Kilcullen, “Countering Global Insurgency,” pp. 611–612. 109. Mackinlay, “Tackling Bin Laden.” 110. See for example, Barry Cooper, New Political Religions, Or an Analysis of Modern Terrorism (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 2004), p. 147; Samuel L. Berger and Mona Sutphen, “Commandeering the Palestinian Cause: Bin Laden’s Belated Concern,” in James F. Hoge and Gideon Rose (eds), How Did This Happen? Terrorism and the New War (New York: Public Affairs, 2001), p. 123. 111. Mackinlay, “Tackling Bin Laden.” 112. Kilcullen, “Countering Global Insurgency,” p. 612. 113. Paul Rogers, Global Security and the War on Terror: Elite Power and the Illusion of Control (Routledge: London, 2008), pp. 82, 99. 114. Joseba Zulaika and William A. Douglass, “The Terrorist Subject: Terrorism Studies and the Absent Subjectivity,” Critical Studies on Terrorism, 1 (1) (April 2008), p. 33. 115. Ken Booth, “The Human Faces of Terror: Reflections in a Cracked Looking- Glass,” Critical Studies on Terrorism, 1 (1) (April 2008), p. 75. 116. Tarak Barkawi and Mark Laffey, “The Post-Colonial Moment in Security Studies,” Review of International Studies, 32 (2) (April 2006), p. 329. See also Tarak Barkawi, “On the Pedagogy of ‘Small Wars’,” International Affairs, 80 (1) (January 2004), p. 28. 117. Rogers, Global Security and the War on Terror, p. 33. 118. Mackinlay, “Tackling Bin Laden.” 119. Freedman, “Globalisation and the War Against Terrorism,” p. 227. 120. Raymond Aron, On War . 121. Kilcullen, “Countering Global Insurgency,” p. 609. 122. “Full Text of MI5 Director-General’s Speech,” The Daily Telegraph, 5 November 2007. 123. Jack Malvern, “Jailed Extremists Snub Non-violence Courses,” The Times, 2 January 2014. 124. Ibid. 125. For a general survey see Anthony Glees and Chris Pope, When Students Turn to Terror: Terrorist and Extremist Activity on British University Campuses (London: Social Affairs Unit, 2005). 126. Peter Clarke, Learning from Experience: Counter Terrorism in the UK since 9/11, Colin Cramphorn Memorial Lecture (London: Policy Exchange, 2007), p. 18. 127. See Jonathan Sacks, The Home We Build Together: Recreating Society (London: Continuum, 2008). 224 Notes

128. See Thomas Harding, “Public Support for Is Vital,” The Daily Telegraph, 13 November 2008; Michael Evans, “Army Chief Predicts a ‘Generation of Conflict’,” The Times, 28 August 2007. 129. Clausewitz, On War, pp. 88–89.

5 Non-Western Terror and Counterinsurgency: The Case of

1. See “Alien Arrests Bid to Flush Out ‘Sleepers’,” Bangkok Post, 11 March 2002; Reme Ahmad, “KL Arrests 23 Islamic Militants in Swoop,” The Straits Times, 5 January 2002. 2. Justin Magouirk, Scott Atran and Marc Sageman “Connecting Terrorist Networks,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 31 (1) (2008), pp. 1–16. 3. See David Martin Jones and M.L.R. Smith, “The Perils of Hyper-Vigilance: The War on Terrorism and the Surveillance State in Southeast Asia,” Intelligence and , 17 (4) (Winter 2002), pp. 31–54. 4. An indication of the inaccurate comprehension of Al-Qaeda’s future threat potential was illustrated by Robert Fisk, “Anti-Soviet Warrior Puts His Army on the Road to Peace,” The Independent, 6 December 1993. It was Fisk’s opinion that the “Saudi businessman who recruited mujahidin now used them for large-scale building projects in Sudan.” 5. See Sayyid Qutb, Islam: The Religion of the Future (Kuwait: International Islamic Federation of Students, 1971); Elie Kedourie, Democracy and Arab Political Culture (London: Frank Cass, 1994), pp. 94–100. 6. Abdullah Azzam was a Jordanian-Palestinian scholar and a Muslim Brotherhood radical. He studied Islamic law at Cairo’s Al-Azhar University. Inspired by the prospect of being able to put the principles of Islamic resist- ance into practice, he was one of the first Arabs to leave for Afghanistan to fight the Soviet occupation after 1979. In 1980 he founded Maktab al-Khidmat lil-Mujahidin al-Arab (MaK) (the general translation is the “College that Serves the Arab Warriors” but is often rendered in English as the Afghan Service Office), in Peshawar, Pakistan. MaK formed one of the umbrella groups of the foreign fighters of the Afghan Mujahideen and was part of the League. It was here along the Afghanistan- Pakistan border that Osama bin Laden, the Islamicized scion of a wealthy Saudi family, first encountered Azzam. Azzam became Osama’s ideological guru. Osama bankrolled MaK and honoured Azzam with the appendage the “Emir of Jihad.” The recruitment of Arab fighters for the Afghan struggle meant that from early on MaK became heavily infiltrated by groups like the Egyptian al Gamaa al-Islamiyah, the Palestinian Hamas and the Algerian Groupe Islamique Armée. It was MaK that was to form the nucleus of later ideas about developing a transnational jihad and which was to evolve into the entity known as Al-Qaeda. It is claimed that Azzam and Osama were to fall out over the future direction of the MaK, though precisely over what seems to be a matter of debate. Some say Azzam had less commitment to global jihad. Other accounts suggest both men got caught up in Afghan tribal politics with Azzam supporting Ahmed Shah Massoud’s while Osama supported the Taliban. Evidently, though, while in Afghanistan, Osama developed far more sympathy for the views of the Notes 225

militant Egyptian surgeon Dr Ayman al-Zawahiri (and later leader of the al Gamaa al-Islamiyah) who proclaimed that “Afghanistan should be a plat- form for the liberation of the entire Muslim world.” Azzam was assassinated in a car bomb in Peshawar, in September 1989, which, fortuitously or not, permitted the hard line elements within the Maktab al-Khidmat like al-Zawa- hiri and Osama himself to predominate. See Fiona Symons, “Analysis: The Roots of Jihad,” BBC News, 16 February 2003. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/ world/middle_East/1603178.stm, accessed 28 October 2004; Mohamad Bazi, “Bin Laden’s ‘Logistical Mastermind’,” New York Newsday, 21 September 2001; Pierre Conesa, “Al-Qaeda, The Sect,” Le Monde Diplomatique, January 2002. http://mondediplo.com/2002/01/07sect, accessed 28 October 2004; “Al-Qaeda (The Base),” Center for Defence Information (Washington DC), 20 December 2002. 7. See Richard Engel, “Inside Al-Qaeda: A Window into the World of Militant Islam and the Afghan Alumni,” Jane’s International Security, 28 September 2002. www.janes.com/security/international_security/news/misc/janes010928_1_ shtml, accessed 4 November 2004. 8. Ibid. 9. Jessica Stern and Amit Modi, “Producing Terror: Organizational Dynamics of Survival,” in Thomas J. Biersteker and Sue E. Eckert (eds), Countering the Financing of Terrorism (London: Routledge, 2008), p. 20. 10. Ibid., p. 21. 11. Audrey Kurth Cronin, How Terrorism Ends: Understanding the Demise and Decline of Terrorism Campaigns (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009), p. 171. 12. Ibid., p. 172. 13. Marc Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), p. 137. 14. Ibid., p. 126. 15. Max Abrahms, “What Terrorists Really Want: Terrorist Motives and Counter-terrorism Strategy,” International Security, 32 (4) (Spring 2008), p. 103. 16. It is sometimes queried whether it is correct to say that Al-Qaeda existed in the 1980s. It is uncertain when the grouping actually came into being, though 1989 is often stated as the year of its formation. However, what we now call Al-Qaeda is in fact simply the name given to the later evolution of the MaK. There is even evidence to suggest that “Al-Qaeda” is not self-given, but was merely the name of a file found on Osama bin Laden’s personal computer listing members and contacts within the MaK. Thus, the appendage “Al-Qaeda” appears to have been coined by the US authorities as convenient shorthand to describe the loose, if rather complex, arrangements of a network based on MaK’s membership. See “Al-Qaeda’s Origins and Links,” BBC News, 16 May 2003. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1670089.stm, accessed 2 October 2004; “Blowback,” Jane’s Intelligence Review, 26 July 2001, accessed 7 October 2004. See also Rohan Gunaratna, “Al-Qaeda’s Origins, Threat and Its Likely Future,” in David Martin Jones (ed.), Globalization and the New Terror (London: Edward Elgar, 2006). For a more recent study of this evolution see Justin V. Hastings, No Man’s Land Globalization, Territory and Clandestine Groups in Southeast Asia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2010), pp. 45–85. 226 Notes

17. Jemaah Islamiyah is the Malay and Indonesian translation of the Arabic al Jemmat or the Egyptian al Gamaa, which denotes either a group or commu- nity. Islamiah, sometimes spelt Islamiyyah in its Indonesian variant, is the Arabic Islami or the adjectival form of the noun Islam. 18. See Robert Hefner, Civil Islam (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), esp. chapter 1. 19. See Greg Barton, Jemaah Islamiyah Radical Islamism in Indonesia (Singapore: National University of Singapore Press, 2005), p. 45. 20. Author interview with Abdurrahman Wahid (Gus Dur), PNU office, Central Jakarta, 4 June 2007. 21. An ideology of resistance by poor workers and rural dwellers against the rich, ruling elite: Marhaen being the name of an Indonesian farmer who was content with his simple life. 22. See Asia Watch, Human Rights in Indonesia and East Timor (New York: Asia Watch, 1989), pp. 76–85. 23. See “Hambali Plotted Terror Campaign,” The Star (Malaysia), 1 January 2003. 24. International Crisis Group, “Al-Qaeda in Southeast Asia: The Case of the ‘Ngruki Network’ in Indonesia,” 8 August 2002, reissued 10 January 2003. http://www.intl-crisis-group.org/projects/asia/indonesia/reports/ A400733_08082002.pdf, accessed 30 August 2003. 25. The five principles are belief in one god, a civilized community, national unity, guided democracy, and social justice. 26. Greg Barton, Jemaah Islamiyah, p. 114; Magouirk, Atran and Sageman, “Connecting Terror Networks,” p. 9. The authorities closed the school in 2001. 27. Rohan Gunaratna, “Ideology in Terrorism and Counter Terrorism: Lesson from combating Al- Qaeda and al Jama’ah al Islamiyyah in Southeast Asia,” in Abdul Halim Bin Kader (ed.), Fighting Terrorism: The Singapore Dimension (Singapore Tamaan Bacaan, 2007), pp. 84–85. 28. “Hambali: SE Asia’s Most Wanted,” BBC News/Asia-Pacific, 21 October 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/low/world/asia-pacific/2346225.htm, accessed 6 February 2004. 29. Abu Walid al Masri (b. 1945) was an Arab volunteer for the Afghan Mujahideen during the Soviet occupation and regarded as a key influence over the evolu- tion of Al-Qaeda. 30. Dan Murphy, “Man ‘Most Wanted’ in Indonesia,” Christian Science Monitor, 30 April 2002. 31. See David Martin Jones and M.L.R. Smith, “Identity Politics in Southeast Asia,” Jane’s Intelligence Review, 12 (11) (November 2000), pp. 44–45. Malaysia has hosted at least 13 radical groups that sought to reform the state along Islamist lines since the formation of the federation in 1963. From the Tentera Sabilullah (Holy War Army) which operated out of Kedah down to the Kumpulan Persaudaraan Ilmu dalam Al-Maunah (Brotherhood of Al-Maunah Inner Power) that successfully raided an army base in Perak in 2000. Malaysian Islam has demonstrated a neglected and albeit minority avoca- tion for . The Kumpulan Militan or Kumpulan Mujahidin Malaysia clearly fits in this tradition. See Mohammed Mizan Aslam, “The Thirteen Radical Groups: Preliminary Research in Understanding the Evolution of Notes 227

Islamist Militancy in Malaysia,” JATI – Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 14 (1) (December 2009), pp. 145–161. See also Kumpulan Mujahidin Malaysia (KMM), Federation of American Scientists. http://www.fas.org/irp/world/ para/kmm.htm, accessed 11 May 2010. 32. See Greg Barton, “An Islamist North Australia: Al-Qaeda’s Vision,” The Age, 30 October 2002. 33. Barton, Jemaah Islamiyah, pp. 56–57. 34. International Crisis Group, “Al-Qaeda in Southeast Asia.” 35. Dan Murphy, “Al-Qaeda’s Asian ‘Quartermaster’,” Christian Science Monitor, 12 February 2002. 36. See “Tentacles of Terror,” The Bulletin, 13 February 2002; David Martin Jones and M.L.R. Smith, “The Strange Death of the ASEAN Way,” Australian Financial Review, 12 April 2002. 37. See “Bush Backs Independent 9/11 Probe,” CBSNews.com, 20 September 2002. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/09/24/attack/printable523156. shtml, accessed 21 November 2002; “The FBI’s Hijacker List,” CBSNews.com, 27 September 2001. http://www.cbsnews.com/archive/printable311329. shtml, accessed 27 November 2002. 38. Mark Fineman and Bob Drogin, “Indonesian Cleric Had Role in Skyjackings, Officials Say,” Los Angeles Times, 2 February 2002. 39. The Straits Times, 10 January 2003. 40. Farah Abdul Rahim, “White Paper Sheds Light on Singapore JI Indoctrination Process,” Channel News Asia.com, 9 January 2003. http:www.channelnews- asia.com/stories/singaporelocalnews/view/29264/1/.html, accessed 12 March 2004. 41. See Office of Public Affairs (Washington DC), “Statement by the Treasury Department Regarding Today’s Designation of Two Leaders of Jemaah Islamiyah,” 24 January 2003, KD-3796. 42. Jack Roche, the Australian former JI member, observed this JI practice in an interview with Sally Neighbour. See Sally Neighbour, “Indonesia Terror Optimism Premature,” Weekend Australian, 14–15 August 2010. 43. “The Bali Bomber’s Network of Terror,” BBC News/Asia-Pacific, 12 May 2003. http:news.bbc.news.co.uk/1/world/asia-pacific/2499193.stm, accessed 15 March 2004. 44. See Magouirk, Atran and Sageman, “Connecting Terrorist Networks,” pp. 1–16. 45. The US State Department’s Patterns of Global Terrorism 2002 formally lists the Group as having broken away from the MNLF in the early 1990s under Abdurajak Abubakar Janjalani. http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/ pgtrpt/2002/html, accessed 18 June 2003, although this is questioned by other analysts who argue that it evolved somewhat more independently based on the Tausug ethnic group. See also Federation of American Scientists. http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/Abu Sayyaf.htm, accessed 19 June 2004. For a more concerted examination of the general development of Moro sepa- ratism see Peter Gowing, Muslim Filipinos (Manila: Solidaridad, 1974); W.K. Che Man, Muslim Separatism: The Moros of the Philippines and the Malays of Southern Thailand (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), chapter 1. 46. The Manila Times, 1 November 2002. 47. The Guardian, 23 September 2001. 228 Notes

48. Lira Dalangin, “MILF: Camp Abubakar Upland Military’s Next Goal,” Newsbreak (Philippines), 17 February 2003. http:www.inq7.net/brk/2003/ feb/17/brkpol_4–1.htm, accessed 23 June 2004. 49. See C.C. Hidalgo, “Camp Abubakar: A Symbol of Muslim Pride,” Codewan. com (Philippines), 17 May 2000. http:www.codewan.com.ph/CyberDyaryo/ features/f2000_0515_01.htm, accessed 19 June 2004. 50. Republic of Philippines Directorate for Intelligence, “Reference Folder on International Terrorism,” National Headquarters, Philippine National Police, Camp Crame, Quezon City (1999), p. 2. The document is marked D1, clas- sified as secret. The document also refers to MILF’s links with Al-Qaeda and MaK stating that: “A certain Zine el Abiddin Abou Zoubaida of Maktab al Khidmat has been in contact with 2 prominent personalities of the MLIF.” Zoubaida was, of course, a Saudi on the leadership council of Al-Qaeda. 51. See Zachary Abuza, Funding Terrorism Research in Southeast Asia: The Financial Network of al Qaeda and Jemaah Islamiyah (Washington: The National Bureau of Asian Research, 2003). 52. “Dancing Girls and Romance on Road to Terrorist Attacks,” Sydney Morning Herald, 25 June 2002. 53. Laurie Mylroie, “The World Trade Center Bomb: Who Is Ramzi Yousef? And Why It Matters,” National Interest (Winter 1995/1996); “The Baluch Connection: Is Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Tied to Bagdad?” Wall Street Journal, 18 March 2003. 54. See “Top Al-Qaeda Suspect Captured,” BBC News, 1 March 2003. http:www. bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/2811473.stm, accessed 24 February 2003. 55. See Christopher Kremmer, “Then There Were Two: Al-Qaeda Planner Caught,” Sydney Morning Herald, 3 March 2003. 56. Abu Sayyaf bombed the ferry because the owners refused to pay protection money. 57. Jessica Stern, “The Protean Enemy,” Foreign Affairs, July/August 2003. http:// www.pvtr.org/pdf/GlobalAnalysis/The%20Protean%20Enemy, accessed 24 June 2005, p. 3. 58. See Thomas M. Kiefer, The Tausug Violence and Law in a Philippine Moslem Society (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972), pp. 35–36. 59. See Eduardo F. Ugarte, “The Alliance System of the Abu Sayyaf, 1993–2000,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 31 (2) (2008), p. 134. 60. Noor Huda Ismail, “The Role of Kinship in Jemaah Islamiyah,” The Straits Times, 22 April 2006. 61. Zachary Abuza, “Terror Network Spreads,” The Australian, 9 October 2006. 62. “Saudi Linked Charity Linked to Bali Bombs,” The Australian, 8 August 2006. 63. “Al-Qaeda Plot to Bomb US Ships Foiled by MI6,” The Daily Telegraph, 13 January 2002. 64. “PM Reveals Plan to Crash Jet into Changi,” The Sunday Times (Singapore), 7 April 2002. 65. Rahim, “White Paper Sheds Light on Singapore JI Indoctrination Process.” 66. See Mark Baker, “Evidence Points to Web of Extremists,” The Age, 9 November 2002. 67. See “Confessions of an Al-Qaeda Terrorist,” Time Magazine, 15 September 2002. 68. “A Deadly Connection,” Sydney Morning Herald, 16 November 2002. Notes 229

69. “Four Corners: The Bali Confessions – Chronology.” http://www.abc.net. au/4corners/content/2003/20030210_baliconfessions_chronology.htm, accessed 10 October 2004. 70. See Seth Mydans, “Suspect Going on Trial in Bali Blast,” International Herald Tribune, 12 May 2003. 71. Marian Wilkinson, “We’ll Hit You: Pre-Bali Alert,” Sydney Morning Herald, 16 October 2002. 72. The Australian, 25–26 January 2003. 73. The Australian, 15–16 February 2003. 74. Jusuf Wanandi, “Indonesia: A Failed State?” The Washington Quarterly, 25 (3) (Summer 2002), p. 142. 75. Alan Dupont, quoted in Far Eastern Economic Review, 2 October 2002. 76. Reme Ahmed, “Asean Ministers Acknowledge Defining Terrorism Is Not Crucial, Fighting It Is,” The Straits Times, 21 May 2002. 77. See David Martin Jones and M.L.R. Smith, “Making Process, Not Progress: ASEAN and the Evolving East Asian Regional Order,” International Security, 32 (1) (Summer 2007), pp. 170–174. 78. See for example, Dini Djalal, “Asia’s Intelligence Gap,” Foreign Policy, March/ April 2003. 79. See “Bali Opens Terror Trial in Blast Fatal to 200,” International Herald Tribune, 12 May 2002. 80. See Caroline Munro, “Bashir Goes on Trial,” The Daily Telegraph (Australia),11 May 2002. 81. Quoted in letter sent to President Bush from Bashir, The Australian, 2 September 2003. 82. International Crisis Group, Jemaah Islamiyah in South East Asia: Damaged But Still Dangerous, ICG Asia Report 63, Jakarta/Brussels, 26 August 2003, p. 1. 83. Quoted in Weekend Australian, 23–24 August 2003, p. 6. 84. Zachary Abuza, “Fall of the Teflon Terrorist? Jemaah Islamiyah and the Arrest of Abu Bakar Bashir,” Australia Israel Review, September 2010, pp. 12–5. 85. Weekend Australian, 14–15 August 2010, p. 22. See also The Daily Telegraph, 13 December 2010. 86. Wahyudi Seriaatmadja, “Militant Jailed for 14 Years for Role in Aceh Training Camp,” The Straits Times, 21 January 2011. 87. See Mark Baker, “Angry Thais Threaten Writers Over Hambali Plot Reports,” Sydney Morning Herald, 14 November 2002. See also “Into the Heart of Darkness,” The Age, 16 November 2002. 88. Zachary Abuza, “Umar Patek: Indonesia’s Most Wanted,” Militant Leadership Monitor, 1 (3) (31 March 2010), p. 1. 89. Author interview with Tito M. Karnavian, International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research, S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 13 June 2007. 90. See Jones and Smith, “The Perils of Hyper-Vigilance,” pp. 43–48. 91. Terrorism in Southeast Asia: The Threat and Response, Report of an International Conference organized by the Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies and Office of the Coordinator for Counter-Terrorism, US Department of State, Washington DC, Singapore, 12–13 April 2006. 92. Author interview, June 2007. 230 Notes

93. Author interview: Tito M. Karnavian further observed, ironically we think, that the practice of de-radicalization of former JI members involved, “when they cooperate we give them a carrot and when they don’t we give them the stick.” 94. Terrorism in Southeast Asia: The Threat and Response. 95. David Kilcullen, “Subversion and Counter Subversion in the Campaign Against Terrorism in Europe,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 20 (8) (2008), p. 652. 96. Gunaratna, “Ideology in Terrorism,” p. 95. 97. Goh Chok Tong, “After Amman: Uniting to Defeat Terrorism – Speech by Senior Minister Goh Chok Tong at the Opening Ceremony of East-West Dialogue on 16 Nov 2005,” Singapore, Ministry of Foreign Affairs Press Release. http://app.mfa.gov.sg/pr/read_content.asp?View, 4387, accessed 12 May 2010. 98. Wong Kan Seng, “Guarding Against Radical Ideology,” Kader, Fighting Terrorism, p. 20. 99. Goh, “After Amman.” 100. Yaacob Ibrahim, “Stand up to Deviants: Don’t Give Them the Last Word,” in Kader, Fighting Terrorism. 101. Mohamed Feisal bin Mohamed Hussein, “The Role of the Religious Rehabilitation Group in Singapore,” in Kader, Fighting Terrorism, p. 166. 102. Zakir Hussain, “Reforming JI Detainees Remains a Long Struggle,” The Straits Times, 3 February 2007. 103. M.H. Bin Hassan, ‘Imam Samudra’s Justification for the Bali Bombing’, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 30 (12) (2007), p. 1051. 104. Ibid., p. 1052.

6 Beyond Belief: Islamist Strategic Thinking and International Relations Theory

1. Peter R. Neumann, “Europe’s Jihadist Dilemma,” Survival, 48 (2) (2006), p. 71. 2. Lorenzo Vidino, Al-Qaeda in Europe (Amherst, New York: Prometheus, 2005), p. 368. 3. See David Kilcullen, “Subversion and Counter Subversion in the Campaign Against Terrorism in Europe,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 30 (8) (2006), p. 653. 4. The use of the term “Islamism” in this chapter refers to the radical belief that Islam is not merely a faith but a system of political thought that can regu- late all aspects of society in accordance with Islamic principles. It does not inherently connote a belief in and is not to be conflated with Islam as a revealed religion. 5. Robert Pape, Dying to Win: The Logic of Suicide Terrorism (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2006); Louise Richardson, What Terrorists Want: Understanding the Enemy, Containing the Threat (New York: Random House, 2006). 6. Mitchell D. Silber and Arvin Batt, Radicalization in the West: The Home Grown Threat (New York: New York City Police Department, 2007), p. 5. Notes 231

7. David Kilcullen, a former Australian army colonel and a PhD graduate of the University of New South Wales, is probably the most influential terrorism and insurgency analyst in Washington. His work, for instance, his advocacy of “Disaggregation” as the basis of a global counterinsurgency strategy, has informed the evolution of much US counter-terrorism strategy in recent years. See for example, David J. Kilcullen, “Countering Global Insurgency,” Journal of Strategic Studies, 28 (4) (August 2005), pp. 597–617. 8. Kilcullen, “Subversion and Counter Subversion in the Campaign Against Terrorism in Europe,” p. 658. 9. Ibid., p. 649. 10. Ibid., p. 652. 11. Mark Lilla, “A New, Political Saint Paul,” New York Review of Books, 55 (16) (23 October 2008). 12. See Radicalization, Extremism and Islamism: Realities and Myths in the War on Terror: A Report by Hizb ut-Tahrir, Britain (London: al-Khilafah, 2007), p. 14. 13. Rohan Gunaratna, “Ideology in Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism Lessons from Combating Al-Qaeda and Al Jemaah al Islamiyah in Southeast Asia” in Abdul Halim bin Kader (ed.), Fighting Terrorism: The Singapore Perspective (Singapore: Taman Bacaan, 2007), p. 95. 14. Stephen Ulph, Al Qaeda’s Enemy Within. http://bbc.co.uk/nol/shared/spl/hi/ programmmes/analysis/transcripts/07_08–08.txt. 15. Ekaterina Stepanova, Terrorism in Asymmetrical Conflict: Ideological and Structural Aspects, SIPRI Research Report 23 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 20. 16. Ibid., p. 25. 17. Ibid., p. 66. Stepanova also makes the point that while jihadist activists may not be recognized intellectuals, or in the case of religious terrorists, advanced theologians, that “does not mean that theologians are not ideologically driven,” p. 25. 18. Khilafah is the term that Hizb ut-Tahrir uses in its various works advocating their preferred outcome for the political organization of the Muslim world. Khilafahism is perhaps the most appropriate coinage to express the ideology. The alternative is the Anglicized term “caliphism” which we also use in this article. 19. Olivier Roy, “Euro-Islam: The Jihad Within,” The National Interest, 71 (Spring 2003), p. 67. 20. Taqiuddin Nabhani, The System of Islam Nidham al-Islam (London: al-Khilafah, 2002); Thought al-Tafkeer (London: al-Khilafah, 2004); Islamic Personality al-Shaksiyyah al-Islamiyah (London: al-Khilafah, 2005). 21. Melanie Phillips, Londonistan (New York: Encounter, 2006), pp. 14–17. 22. See http://www.hizb ut-tahrir.org/english/english.html, accessed 22 August 2005. 23. , The Islamist (London: Penguin, 2007), pp. 83–110. 24. Hizb ut-Tahrir, The Method to Re-establish the Khilafah (London: Al-Khilafah, 2000), p. 1. 25. Ibid., pp. 105–106. 26. For a survey see Anthony Glees and Chris Pope, When Students Turn to Terror: Terrorist and Extremist Activity on British University Campuses (London: Social Affairs Unit, 2005). 232 Notes

27. Husain, The Islamist, p. 108. 28. Ibid., p. 102. 29. Ibid., p. 73. 30. Hassan Butt, “My Plea to Fellow Muslims: You Must Renounce Terror,” The Observer, 1 July 2007. See also Shiraz Maher, “How I Escaped Islamism,” The Sunday Times, 12 August 2007; Maajid Nawaz and Dawud Masieh, In and Out of Islamism (London: Foundation, 2008); Maajid Nawaz, Radical (London: W.H. Allen, 2012). Butt’s testimony concerning the jihadi network is unreliable. See Vikram Dodd, “Al-Qaeda Fanatist Tells Court: ‘I’m a Professional Liar,’ ” The Guardian, 9 February 2009. Nevertheless, despite his propensity to lie for money, Butt was the spokesman for Omar Bakri Mohammed’s al Muhajiroun in the 1990s, and as Manchester Police acknowl- edge, had links to a number of convicted terrorists. Muslim radicals have also questioned the role that both Husain and Nawaz played in Hizb ut-Tahrir. The attempt to traduce the reputation of former brothers is a familiar feature of radical sectarian politics. Moreover, the aspersions cast upon Husain and Nawaz’s credentials also reflects the fact that their think-tank the Quilliam Foundation is prominently engaged in counter-radicalization strategies. Nawaz was in fact gaoled in Egypt in 2001 for his membership in Hizb. 31. “Australian Spy Agencies Target Indonesian President’s Mobile Phone,” The Guardian, 13 November 2013. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/ nov/18/australia-tried-to-monitor-indonesian-presidents-phone. 32. For Qutb, after the abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate, no country had replaced Turkey as the Islamic world’s centre. To bring about a new caliphate governed by God’s law there must be a revival in one Muslim country, enabling it to attain that status. Significantly, after the Taliban took Kabul in 1996 and established an Islamic state governed by shari’ah law, in the view of bin Laden and others, Afghanistan became the strongest candidate for the core of the new caliphate. See “Interview with Nida’ul Islam,” in Bruce Lawrence (ed.), Messages to the World: The Statements of Osama bin Laden (London: Verso, 2005), p. 42. 33. Ibid., p. 121. 34. Ibid., pp. 41–42. 35. Ayman Al-Zawahiri letter to Musab al-Zarqawi, 9 July 2005. http:// www.globalsecurity.org/security/library/report/2005/zawahiri-zarqawi- letter_9jul2005.htm. 36. Abu Hamza quoted in James Brandon, Virtual Caliphate Islamic Extremists and their Websites (London: Centre for Social Cohesion, 2008), p. 3. Abdullah Faisal also described democracy as shirk, p. 6. 37. Cited in Ibid., p. 14. 38. Al-Qaeda Training Manual, 9. The full text is available from the US Department of Justice at http://www.usdoj.gov/ag/trainingmanual.htm. 39. Mahan Abedin, “Al-Muhajiroun in the UK an Interview with Sheikh Omar Bakri Mohammed,” Spotlight on Terror, 2 (5) (22 March 2004). http://www. jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews[tt_news]=290, accessed 29 September 2009. 40. Ibid. However, former leading Hizb ut-Tahrir member Maajid Nawaz, stated in a BBC Newsnight interview on 13 September 2007 that the organization “secretly believes that the killing of millions’ to ‘expand the caliphate would be justified.” The interview is available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/ newsnight/2007/09. Notes 233

41. Caitlin Dewey, “Al-Qaeda’s Inspire Magazine Celebrates Boston Bombings,” The Washington Post, 31 May 2013; Tom Whitehead, “From Quiet Christians to Islamist Murderers,” The Daily Telegraph, 20 December 2013, David Leppard and Richard Kerbaj, “Hunting the Lone Wolves,” The Sunday Times, 22 December 2013. 42. For example, nearly all Hizb ut-Tahrir texts make some form of reference to the Khilafah as the ultimate source of salvation. See for instance some of the organization’s press statements such as: “Only the Return of the Khilafah will Silence Those Who Attack Islam,” 4 April 2008. http://www.hizb.org. uk/hizb/press-centre/press-release/only-the-return-of-the-khilafah-will- silence-those-who-attack-islam.html; “Hizb ut-Tahrir Calls For Replacing the Israeli Apartheid State with Khilafah,” 19 May 2008. http://www.hizb. org.uk/hizb/press-centre/press-release/hundreds-attend-palestine-meeting- marking-60-years-of-occupation-and-oppression.html, accessed 1 June 2008. 43. Hizb ut-Tahrir, Iraq: A New Way Forward at www.hizb.org.uk, accessed 7 November 2007. See also Hizb ut-Tahrir, Radicalism, Extremism and Islamism, chapter 3, which explores the caliphatic system, 20ff. 44. Ibid., pp. 50–55. 45. See Taqiuddin al-Nabhani, The System of Islam (London: al-Khilafah, 2002). This is a Hizb ut-Tahrir translation of al-Nabhani’s system written in in the 1950s. 46. Hizb ut-Tahrir, Radicalism, Extremism and Islamism, pp. 20–21. 47. Hizb ut-Tahrir, Iraq: A New Way Forward, p. 52. 48. The similarity between Islamist thinking and Western styles of illiberal thought was a point initially observed and developed by Paul Berman, Terror and Liberalism (New York: Norton, 2003), esp. pp. 53–153. 49. Husain, The Islamist, p. 161. 50. Ibid., p. 162. 51. Ibid., p. 163. 52. Paul Rogers, Global Security and the War on Terror: Elite Power and the Illusion of Control (Routledge: London, 2008), p. 82. 53. Ken Booth, “The Human Faces of Terror: Reflections in a Cracked Looking- Glass,” Critical Studies on Terror, 1 (1) (April 2008), p. 75. 54. Rogers, Global Security and the War on Terror, p. 33. 55. Osama bin Laden, video, 7 September 2007. http://msnbcmedia.msn.com/i/ msnbc/sections/news/070907_bin_laden_transcript.pdf, accessed 29 May 2008. 56. Andrew Linklater and Hidemi Suganami, The English School of International Relations: A Contemporary Reassessment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. 246–272. 57. See Roy E. Jones, “The English School of International Relations: A Case for Closure,” Review of International Studies, 7 (1) (1981), pp. 1–13. 58. Tim Dunne, Inventing International Society: A History of the English School (London: Macmillan, 1998), pp. 5–11. 59. David Held and Anthony McGrew, “The End of the Old Order? Globalization and the Prospects for World Order,” Review of International Studies, 24 (3) (1998), p. 232. 60. Roger Epp, “The English School and the Frontiers of International Society,” Review of International Studies, 24 (3) (1998), p. 49. 234 Notes

61. Barry Buzan, “The English School: An Underexploited Resource in IR,” Review of International Studies, 27 (3) (July 2001), p. 472. 62. See Richard Little, “English School vs. American Realism: A Meeting of Minds or Divided by a Common Language?” Review of International Studies, 29 (3) (October 2003), pp. 443–460. 63. Buzan, “The English School,” pp. 472. 64. See Dale C. Copeland, “A Realist Critique of the English School,” Review of International Studies, 29 (3) (2003), p. 430. 65. Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics (London: Macmillan, 1977). 66. Martin Wight did write of the three approaches that he felt characterized the study of the international system (realism, rationalism and revolu- tionism) see, Martin Wight, International Relations: The Three Traditions (Brian Porter and Garbriele Wight, eds) (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1991). However, whether this constitutes the English School tradition, let alone represents Wight’s own position on the question of the underlying factors that govern the international system (which appear to be classically realist) is rather questionable. See for example, Martin Wight, Power Politics (London: Penguin, 1978). 67. Copeland, “A Realist Critique of the English School,” p. 430. 68. Nicholas J. Wheeler, Saving Strangers: Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000). 69. Andrew Linklater, Beyond Realism and Marxism: Critical Theory and International Relations (London: Macmillan, 1990), pp. 8–9. 70. See Andrew Linklater, “Dialogue, Dialectic and Emancipation in International Relations at the End of the Post-War Age,” Millennium, 23 (1) (1994), pp. 119–131. 71. See Richard Devatek, “The Project of Modernity and International Relations Theory,” Millennium, 24 (1) (1995), pp. 37–38. 72. Ken Booth, “Security in Anarchy: Utopian Realism in Theory and Practice,” International Affairs, 67 (3) (1991), p. 539. 73. Booth, “The Human Faces of Terror,” p. 65. 74. Tarak Barkawi and Mark Laffey, “The Post-Colonial Moment in Security Studies,” Review of International Studies, 32 (2) (April 2006), p. 329. 75. Ken Booth, “Security and Emancipation,” Review of International Studies, 17 (4) (1991), pp. 313–326; Bhikhu Parekh, “The Cultural Particularity of Liberal Democracy,” in David Held (ed.), Prospects for Democracy (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1993), pp. 156–175; Steve Smith, “The Self-Images of a Discipline: A Genealogy of a International Relations Theory,” in Ken Booth and Steve Smith (eds), International Relations Theory Today (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1996), pp. 9–11. 76. Tarak Barkawi, “On the Pedagogy of ‘Small Wars’,” International Affairs, 80 (1) (January 2004), p. 28. 77. Ibid., p. 27. 78. Barkawi and Laffey, “The Post-Colonial Moment in Security Studies,” p. 330. 79. Richard Jackson, “Language, Policy and the Construction of a Torture Culture in the War on Terrorism,” Review of International Studies, 33 (3) (2007), pp. 353–371. Notes 235

80. Michael Stohl, “Old Myths, New Fantasies and the Enduring Realities of Terrorism,” Critical Studies on Terrorism, 1 (1) (April 2008), pp. 11–12. 81. Richard Jackson, “Genealogy, Ideology and Counter-Terrorism: Writing Wars on Terrorism from Ronald Reagan to George W. Bush Jr.,” Studies in Language and Capitalism, 1 (2006), p. 172. 82. Booth, “The Human Faces of Terror,” p. 77. 83. Ken Booth, “Security in Anarchy: Utopian Realism in Theory and Practice,” International Affairs, 67 (3) (1991), p. 539. 84. Marie Breen Smith, Jeroen Gunning, Richard Jackson, George Kassimeris and Piers Robinson, “Critical Terrorism Studies – An Introduction,” Critical Studies on Terrorism, 1 (1) (April 2008), p. 2. 85. Barkawi and Laffey, “The Post-Colonial Moment in Security Studies,” p. 332. 86. Ibid., p. 333. 87. Edward Said, Orientalism (London: Penguin, 1978); Edward Said, Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World (London: Vintage, 1981). 88. Richard Jackson, “Constructing Enemies: ‘’, in Political and Academic Discourse,” Government and Opposition, 42 (3) (2007), p. 399. 89. Barkawi and Laffey, “The Post-Colonial Moment in Security Studies,” pp. 336–347. 90. Richard Jackson, “Security, Democracy and the Rhetoric of Counter- Terrorism,” Democracy and Security, 1 (2) (2005), p. 152. 91. Ibid., p. 152. 92. Barkawi and Laffey, “The Post-Colonial Moment in Security Studies,” p. 347. 93. Barkawi, “On the Pedagogy of ‘Small Wars,” p. 33. 94. Jackson, “Security, Democracy and the Rhetoric of Counter-Terrorism,” p. 152. 95. Richard Jackson, “An Analysis of EU Counter-terrorism Discourse Post- September 11,” Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 20 (2) (June 2007), p. 243. 96. Ibid., p. 243. 97. Barkawi and Laffey, “The Post-Colonial Moment in Security Studies,” p. 347. See also Anthony Burke, “The End of Terrorism Studies,” Critical Studies on Terrorism, 1 (1) (2008), p. 45, which also cites Qutb positively, arguing that his “critique of the West” is “sometimes well observed and converges with elements of critical theory.” 98. See Fred Halliday, Two Hours That Shook the World – September 11, 2001: Causes and Consequences (London: Saqi, 2002). 99. Jackson, “Security, Democracy and the Rhetoric of Counter-Terrorism,” p. 166. 100. Ibid. 101. Hizb ut-Tahrir, Radicalization, Extremism and Islamism, p. 9. 102. Ibid., p. 5. 103. Ibid., p. 7. 104. Ibid., pp. 23–25. 105. It should be noted here the Hizb ut-Tahrir’s objectives are not confined merely to the Middle East but like the Islamist project in general, its agenda is global not regional. 236 Notes

106. Hizb ut-Tahrir, Iraq: A New Way Forward, pp. 150–155. 107. See Jeroen Gunning, “A Case for Critical Terrorism Studies?” Government and Opposition, 2 (3) (2007), pp. 363–393. 108. Barkawi, “On the Pedagogy of ‘Small Wars’,” p. 29. 109. Richard Jackson, “Responses,” International Affairs, 83 (1) (2007), p. 174. 110. Ibid., pp. 174–175. 111. Hizb ut-Tahrir, Radicalization, Extremism and Islamism, pp. 1–36. 112. Breen Smith, Gunning, Jackson, Kassimeris and Robinson, “Critical Terrorism Studies – An Introduction,” p. 2. 113. Routledge journal proposal for Critical Studies on Terrorism, 2006. 114. Oceanic Conference on International Studies Conference, University of Melbourne, 5–7 July 2006. http://www.politics.unimelb.edu.au/ocis/draft. pdf. accessed 2 June 2008. 115. Oceanic Conference on International Studies Conference, Australian National University, 14–16 July 2004. http://rspas.anu.edu.au/ir/Oceanic/ OCIS%20Final%20Program.pdf, accessed 4 June 2008. 116. British International Studies Association Annual Conference, University of Cambridge, 17–19 December 2007. http:// www.bisa.ac.uk/2007/index. htm, accessed 4 June 2008. 117. “Is It Time for Critical Terrorism Studies,” University of Manchester, 27–28 October 2006, co-sponsored by the British International Studies Working Group on Critical Studies on Terrorism, The Centre for the Study of Radicalization and Contemporary Political Violence, University of Wales, Aberystwyth, the Economic and Social Research Council and the University of Manchester. 118. Katrina Lee Koo, “Terror Australis: Security, Terror and the ‘War on Terror’ Discourse,” Borderlands, 4 (1) (2005). 119. Goldie Osurie, “Regimes of Terror: Contesting the War on Terror,” Borderlands, 5 (6) (2006), p. 7. 120. Koo, “Terror Australis,” para.11. 121. Bill Durodié, “Fear and Terror in a Post Colonial Age,” Government and Opposition, 42 (2) (2007), p. 442. 122. Koo, “Terror Australis,” para. 33. 123. Ibid., para. 31. 124. Jackson, “An Analysis of EU Counter-terrorism Discourse Post-September 11,” p. 244. 125. Anthony Burke, “Freedom’s Freedom: American Enlightenment and Permanent War,” Social Identities, 11 (4) (2005), p. 315. 126. Ibid., p. 315. 127. Antony Burke, “Against the New Internationalism,” Ethics and International Affairs, 19 (4) (2005), p. 74. 128. Anthony Burke, “Reply to Jean Bethke Elshstein: For a Cautious Utopianism,” Ethics and International Affairs, 19 (4) (2005), p. 98. 129. Koo, “Terror Australis,” para. 31. 130. Burke, “Freedom’s Freedom,” p. 74. 131. Interestingly, critical terrorism studies theorists speak endlessly not of plurality or tolerance but of “self-reflexivity” by which they mean “reflecting” exclusively upon the iniquities of the construction of Western knowledge discourses and Western policies. For example, in the first edition of the Notes 237

journal Critical Studies on Terrorism, the two and a half page introduction manages to use the phrase five times. See Breen Smith, Gunning, Jackson, Kassimeris and Robinson, “Critical Terrorism Studies – An Introduction,” pp. 1–3. The phrase crops up regularly in other contributions to the journal. See Burke, “The End of Terrorism Studies,” pp. 38, 44; Booth, “The Human Faces of Terror,” pp. 71. Elsewhere, Gunning, “A Case for Critical Terrorism Studies?” employs the phrase eight times (pp. 370, 379, 382, 389, 392, 392, 393). 132. Jackson, “Constructing Enemies,” p. 396. 133. Ibid., p. 425. 134. Ibid., p. 395. See also Jackson, “Security, Democracy and the Rhetoric of Counter-Terrorism,” p. 165; Jackson, “Language, Policy and the Construction of a Torture Culture in the War on Terrorism,” p. 371. 135. John J. Mearsheimer, “E.H. Carr vs. Idealism: The Battle Rages On,” International Relations, 19 (2) (2005), p. 145. Here Mearsheimer is quoting from Tim Dunne and Nicholas J. Wheeler, “ ’We the Peoples’: Contending Discourses of Security in Human Rights Theory and Practice,” International Relations, 18 (1) (2004), p. 9. 136. David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998), p. 68. 137. Ibid., p. 68. 138. See Azzam Karim, “Islamisms, Globalization, Religion and Power,” in Ronaldo Munck and Purnaka de Silva (eds), Postmodern Insurgencies: Political Violence, Identity Formation and Peacemaking in Comparative Perspective (London: Macmillan, 2000), p. 217. 139. John Esposito, The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality? (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 231. 140. Jackson, “Constructing Enemies,” p. 420. 141. Jackson, “Security, Democracy and the Rhetoric of Counter-Terrorism,” p. 157. Of course, this is a spurious contention as quite evidently there are dangers that are not independent of interpretation. A child playing in the middle of a busy road is objectively in a dangerous situation. The child faces a high probability of being struck by a vehicle irrespective of one’s percep- tion of the level of danger. 142. Meghan Morris, “White Panic or Mad Max and the Sublime,” in Chen Kuan- Hsing (ed.), Trajectories: Inter-Asian Cultural Studies (London: Routledge, 1998), p. 246. 143. See David Campbell, The Social Basis of Australian and New Zealand Security Policy (Canberra: Pacific Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1989), p. 26. 144. Cited in Simon Philpott, “Fear of the Dark: Indonesia and the Australian National Imagination,” Australian Journal of International Affairs, 55 (3) (2001), p. 376. 145. Jackson, “Security, Democracy and the Rhetoric of Counter-Terrorism,” p. 166. 146. Ibid., p. 157. 147. Ibid., p. 166. 148. It is noteworthy that the “myth” of the suppression of “dissenting” critical viewpoints (when in fact they are more than well-represented in both the 238 Notes

media and academy) is purveyed to sustain and legitimize the critical voice. For example, Jackson argues, “Already, conservatives have attacked anti-glo- balization protestors, academics, postmodernists, liberals, pro-choice activ- ists, environmentalists, and gay liberationists as being aligned to terrorism and its inherent evil.” However, he cites no examples, and refers only to the work of David Campbell – a critical theorist himself – as the source of authority as justification for this claim (David Campbell, “Time Is Broken: The Return of the Past in the Response to September 11,” Theory and Event, 5 (4), 2002). Nor does he appear to see the irony of denouncing others for supposedly de-legitimizing opposing views, while trying to do exactly the same to those who oppose his position. It suggests two things: (1) that “conservative” criticism (or indeed any form of criticism) of the critical voice is for some reason invalid, and (2) that the notion of the attempted “de-legitimization of dissent” is a conspiracy that is wholly manufactured, or more worryingly, actually believed by critical theorists. Jackson, “Security, Democracy and the Rhetoric of Counter-Terrorism,” p. 166. 149. Mearsheimer, “E.H. Carr vs. Idealism,” p. 144. 150. Richard Jordan, Danial Maliniak, Amy Oaks, Susan Peterson and Michael Tierney, One Discipline or Many? TRIP Survey of International Relations Faculties in Ten Countries (Willamsburg, VA: Teaching, Research and International Policy (TRIP) Project published by the Institute of the Theory and Practice of International Relations, February 2009). For example Q.26 (pp. 31–32) indicates only 8 per cent of UK and 16 per cent of Australian international relations scholars approached their subject from a realist perspective. 151. Anthony Burke, “The Perverse Perseverance of Sovereignty,” Borderlands, 1 (2) (2002), para. 64. 152. Butt, “My Plea to Fellow Muslims.”. 153. Stepanova, Terrorism in Asymmetrical Conflict, pp. 60–72. 154. The title of Australian Research Council grants DPO558402 and DP0559707. 155. Ruth Blakeley paper at BISA 2006, subsequently published as Ruth Blakely, “Bringing the State Back into Terrorism Studies,” European Political Science, 6 (9) (2007), pp. 228–235. See also Ruth Blakeley, “The Elephant in the Room: A Response to John Horgan and Michael J. Boyle,” Critical Studies on Terrorism, 1 (2) (2008), pp. 153–154.

7 Political Fiction and Jihad: The Novel Response to 9/11

1. Leon Edel, “Introduction,” The Princess Casamassima, The Bodley Head Henry James, 10 vols., 10 (London: The Bodley Head, 1972), p. 5. 2. Andre Malraux, Man’s Estate (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1989), p. 4. 3. Richard Rorty, “Heidgger, Kundera and Dickens,” Essays on Heidegger and Others: Philosophical Papers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 68. 4. Richard Rorty, “Introduction,” Contingency, Irony and Solidarity (Cambridge: University Press, 1989), p. xvii. 5. Richard Rorty, “The Last Intellectual in Europe: Orwell on Cruelty,” Contingency Irony and Solidarity, p. 173. Notes 239

6. Richard Rorty, “A Queasy Agnosticism,” Dissent Magazine, Fall 2005. 7. John Updike, Terrorist (New York: London, 2006), p. 20. 8. Jay McInerney, The Good Life (New York: Vintage, 2006), p. 4. 9. Ibid., p. 180. 10. Ibid., p. 355. 11. Don DeLillo, Falling Man (New York: Scribner, 2007), p. 34. 12. Ibid., p. 215. 13. Ibid., p. 230. 14. An event, of course, which actually took place. 15. Ian McEwan, Saturday (London: Vintage, 2007), p. 55. 16. Ibid., p. 33. 17. Rorty, “A Queasy Agnosticism,” p. 2. 18. McEwan, Saturday, p. 33. 19. Ibid., p. 81. 20. Ibid., p. 73. 21. Ibid., p. 121. 22. Ibid., p. 126. 23. See Aristotle, Politics (London: Penguin, 1976), Book 3. Aristotle argues that the polis is more than a tribe, but is not a city of strangers. It is constituted as a form of friendship through the mutual recognition of fellow citizens. 24. Michel Houellebecq, Platform (London: Vintage, 2003), p. 163. 25. Ibid., p. 164. 26. Ibid., p. 163. 27. Ibid., p. 164. 28. Ibid., p. 166. 29. Ibid. 30. McInerney, The Good Life, p. 162. 31. Updike, Terrorist, p. 12. 32. Ibid., p. 260 33. Ibid., p. 12. 34. McInerney, The Good Life, p. 124. 35. Ibid., pp. 123–124. 36. McEwan, Saturday, pp. 276–277. 37. Mohsin Hamid, The Reluctant Fundamentalist (London: Hamish Hamilton, 2007), pp. 31–32. 38. Ibid., p. 72. 39. Ibid., p. 73. 40. Ibid., p. 152. 41. Ibid., p. 171. 42. Ibid. 43. Richard Flanagan quoted in Stephen Moss, “The Art of Darkness,” The Guardian, 20 April 2007. 44. Richard Flanagan, The Unknown Terrorist (London: Picador, 2006), p. 142. 45. Ibid., p. 2. 46. DeLillo, Falling Man, p. 80. 47. Ibid., p. 81. 48. Ibid., p. 170. 49. Ibid., p. 80. 50. Ibid., p. 176. 240 Notes

51. Ibid., p. 177. 52. Ibid., p. 231. 53. Updike, Terrorist, p. 90. 54. Ibid., p. 76. 55. Ibid., p. 77. 56. See Mitchell D. Silber and Arvin Batt, Radicalization in the West: The Home Grown Threat (New York: New York City Police Department 2007); Marc Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004). 57. Updike, Terrorist, p. 3. 58. Thus when his school guidance counsellor asks how he likes to be called, “Mulloy” after his mother or “Ashwamy” after his absent father, Ahmed replies: “My mother attached her name to me, on my social security and driver’s license, and her apartment is where I can be reached. But when I am out of school and independent I will become Ahmed Ashwamy.” Updike, Terrorist, p. 37. 59. Ibid., p. 234. 60. Ibid., p. 306. 61. Rorty, “A Queasy Agnosticism,” p. 1. 62. Hannah Arendt, The Promise of Politics (New York: Schocken Books, 2005), p. 154. 63. Barry Cooper, Eric Voegelin and the Foundations of Modern Political Science (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1984), p. xii. 64. Leo Strauss, The City and Man (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), p. 1. 65. Ibid., p. 41. 66. Ibid., The City and Man, p. 6. 67. Moss, “The Art of Darkness.” The Guardian, 20 April 2007. 68. Animah Kosai “The Booker Books,” The Star (Malaysia), 21 October 2007. 69. Original italics, Updike, Terrorist, p. 310. 70. Joseph Conrad, The Secret Agent (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992), p. 283. 71. Henry James, The Princess Casamassima (London: The Bodley Head, 1972), p. 335. 72. Ibid., pp. 337–338. 73. Thus, Nikita Necator, in Under Western Eyes, regards himself a celebrity of the militant revolution and only succumbs to petit bourgeois emotions when Razumov, the unknown, putative assassin of a Czarist minister, outdoes his feats of violence. On meeting Razumov, Necator performs “his horrible squeaky burlesque of professional jealousy exasperated like a fashionable tenor by the attention attracted to the performance of an obscure amateur.” Joseph Conrad, Under Western Eyes (New York: The Modern Library, 2001), p. 198. 74. Rorty, Contingency, p. 171.

8 Conclusion

1. Barry Cooper, Eric Voegelin and the Foundations of Modern Political Science (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1999), p. 4s. Notes 241

2. Ernest Sternberg, “Purifying the World: What the New Radical Ideology Stands For,” Orbis (Winter 2010), p. 64. 3. Emilio Gentile, “The Sacralization of Politics: Definitions, Interpretations and Reflections on the Question of Secular Religion and Totalitarianism,” Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions, 1 (1) (2000), pp. 18–19. 4. Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York, Houghton: Mifflin Harcourt, 1951), pp. 472–479. 5. See Eric Voegelin, Political Religions and The Ecumenic Age, vol. 4 in Order and History, 5 vols. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana University Press, 1974), p. 268; Norman Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millennium (London: Palladin, 1969). 6. Roger Griffin, The Nature of Fascism (London: Pinter, 1991), p. 32. 7. Guy Standing, The Precariat: The New Dangerous Class (London: Bloomsbury, 2011), pp. 1–5. 8. Church of Jesus Christ Christian – Aryan Nations Converse, Louisiana. https//:www.aryan-nations.org. 9. American neo-Nazi Eric Thomson coined the term in 1976. 10. Andrew Macdonald (a.k.a. William Luther Pierce), The Turner Diaries (Hillsboro, West Virginia: National Vanguard Books, 1978), Southern Poverty Law Center spl.org. 11. It was White extremists, Alex Curtis and Tom Metzger who originated the term “” in the mid-1990s. 12. Louis Beam, “Leaderless Resistance,” The Seditionist, 12 (January 1992), p. 1. Beam first promulgated the notion in 1983 to the Ku Klux Klan. See also Southern Poverty Law Center, “Louis Beam,” at spl.org and George Michael Lone Wolf Terror and the Rise of Leaderless Resistance (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1995), pp. 5–15. 13. There is currently a move by the ruling coalition government to ban the party. A previous attempt to ban the party as unconstitutional failed in 2003. See http://www.spiegel.de/international/topic/right_wing_Extremism/. 14. http://www.spiegel.de/international/topic/right_wing_Extremism/. 15. http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/douglascarswellmp/100242451/the-front- national-is-the-most-popular-party-in-france-are-you-happy-now-eurocrats/. 16. David Samuels, “The New Mastermind of Jihad,” The Wall Street Journal, 6 April 2012. http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702303299 604577323750859163544. 17. See Alexander Meleagrou-Hitchens and Hans Brun, A Neo-Nationalist Network: The and the European Counter Jihad Movement (London: International Centre for the Study of Radicalization and Political Violence, 2013), p. 3. 18. Robinson was “the rock star” of UK extreme right. However, in October 2013 he decided to abandon both the EDL and his extremist views. 19. Ibid., p. 5. 20. Ye’or Bat (a.k.a. Litman, Giselle), Eurabia the Euro-Arab Axis (New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2005) 21. “Murder of Lee Rigby Provokes Anti-Muslim Attacks,” The Daily Telegraph, 23 May 2013; “Islamophobia Attacks Rise Dramatically After the Murder of Lee Rigby,” The Independent, 28 May 2013. 22. Andrew Berwick, 2083: A European Declaration of Independence (London, 2013) pp. 595–645. 242 Notes

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Abbas, Nasir, 118 Aum Shinriyko, 11 Abdu, Mohammed, 34–5 Australia, 19, 20, 60, 118, 135 Abrahms, Max, 107 Australian Anti , Abu Sayyaf, 115–18, 119–20, 122 11 academic relativism, 5–6 Australian Secret Intelligence Adebolajo, Michael, 12, 64–5, 138 Organization (ASIO), 14, 168 Adebowale, Michael, 65 Australian Security Intelligence administrative utopia, 15–16 Organisation Act 1979, 11 Afghani, Jamal, 17, 74 Awlaki, Anwar al, 138 al-Afghani, Jamal al-Din, 34–5 Azam, Abdullah, 36 Afghanistan, 3, 10, 18, 24, 37, 40, 42, Azis, Nik Adli Abdul, 124 53, 77, 78, 92, 103–4, 112, 148 Azzam, Abdullah, 106 Algeria, 9, 42, 83, 115 Algerian War, 84 Badat, Sajid, 62 Ali, Tariq, 57, 70, 72 Badawi, Zaki, 44 Ali, Usman, 12 Bakri, Omar, 46, 137 alienation, 11, 29, 47, 64–5, 152, 179, Bali, 95 187 Bali bombings, 28, 105, 119–22, 123 alliances, 116–18 Balkans, 10 anarchists, 23, 157, 191–2 Banna, Hasan al, 35 Anès, Abdellah, 43 Barber, Benjamin, 32 Anglo-Saxon model, 14 Barkawi, Tarak, 57, 58, 72, 144, 146 Anonymous, 191–2 Barnett, Anthony, 196, 198 anti-globalization movements, 189 Bashir, Abu Bakar, 109, 110, 112, Arab Spring, 48, 148–9 121–2 Arendt, Hannah, 2, 171, 176, 177, Beam, Louis, 11, 180–1 193 Bend Sinister, 158 armed forces, see military Berg, Alan, 180 Arnold, Matthew, 166 Betz, David, 91 Aron, Raymond, 1, 4, 8–9 Bingham, Lord, 62 Aryan Nation, 11, 179, 180 bin Laden, Osama, 36–7, 42, 74, 86, Ashley, Jackie, 60 87, 93, 105–6, 112, 119, 124, Asian financial crisis, 10, 14, 15, 19, 136–7, 140 28, 29, 111 Blair, Tony, 19, 24, 28, 33, 40, 44, 45, Assange, Julian, 191 53, 54, 56, 73, 197 assimilation, 56 Blakeley, Ruth, 155 Association of Southeast Asian Bobbit, Philip, 15 Nations (ASEAN), 10, 15, 119, Booth, Ken, 58, 72, 143 120 borderless world, 9 asymmetric threats, 52, 77, 81 Boston, 8, 11, 12, 131 asymmetric warfare, 81–2 Boston Marathon bombing, 138 Atatürk, Kemal, 34 Bourgass, Kamel, 62 Atta, Mohamed, 40, 119 Breivik, Anders, 11, 186

261 262 Index

British Islamism, 53–5, 134–6 Cooper, Barry, 3, 177 British military, 81–2, 95–7 Copeland, David, 143, 183 British Muslims, 25–7, 30, 41–8, 50, Copenhagen, 131 53–4, 64–7 cosmopolitan cities, 4, 8, 10, 12, 14, , 66, 182–3 159–76 Brooks, Omar, 72 cosmopolitan liberalism, 8 Burke, Anthony, 59–60, 72, 151, counter-ideology campaigns, 125–30 154–5 Countering Insurgency, 95–6 Bush, George W., 72, 73 counterinsurgency (COIN), 5, Buzan, Barry, 142 77–104, 132 Bali bombing and, 120–2 caliphate, 35, 36, 38, 136–41, 148 classical, 84 see also cybercaliphate global, 86–90, 92–104, 106 caliphism, 133 neo-classical, 80–6, 90, 92, 94, 95, deconstruction of, 135–41 97–100, 103–4, 144 international relations theory and, neo-Maoist, 100–2 141–5 post-Maoist, 89–92, 100–2 Cambodia, 122 techniques, 97–8 Cameron, David, 19–20, 24 Counterinsurgency Field Manual, 86, 90 Campbell, David, 153 counter-terrorism policy, 51–76 capitalism, 13, 58, 99, 140, 144, 179, covert intelligence operations, 60, 63 188 Cox, Robert, 143 Cerny, Philip, 12, 14 Crenshaw, Martha, 106 Chiarelli, Peter, 84 Crick, Bernard, 171, 193, 194 China, 15, 16 crime, transnational, 9 Choudhury, Anjum, 73 critical terror studies, 72–3, 149–52, citizenship, 20–1 156 The City and the Man, 172 critical theory, 1, 57, 59, 72–3, 141–9, civil associations, 13 152–6 civilization, 31–4, 74, 146 Cronin, Audrey Kurth, 106–7 civil liberties, 59, 63, 66, 145 cults, 11 civil society, 33, 48, 78 cultural knowledge, 80, 85 Clarke, Peter, 102 cultural nationalism, 177–87 Clausewitz, Carl von, 1, 3, 7, 96–7, cybercaliphate, 16–17, 21, 38–41 103, 104 “coalition of the willing”, 7 Dahl, Robert, 193 Cohen, Nick, 188, 190 Daly, Janet, 68 COIN, see counterinsurgency (COIN) Darkness at Noon, 158 , 4, 5, 9, 59, 73, 126, 140, Darul Islam movement, 88, 94, 106, 141, 151, 153, 178–9, 191, 193 108–14 Colley, Linda, 61 Davies, Deborah, 54 Collins, Michael, 47 Davies, James C., 29 colonialism, 22, 58 decolonization, 178 commentariat, 50–76 DeLillo, Don, 157, 160, 166, 169–70, communication technology, 88, 118 173 complacency, politics of, 64–5, 74 del Valle, Alexander, 192 Conrad, Joseph, 23, 158, 175 democracy, 3–4, 6, 28, 94, 152, Cool Britannia, 19, 27, 33, 44, 47, 192–9 55–6, 67, 134, 174, 205n56 karaoke, 15–16 Index 263 democracy – continued Faisal, Abdullah, 137 liberal, 7–8, 12, 14, 19–21, 28, 59, Falling Man, 157, 160–1, 166, 169–70, 101, 139–40, 156, 192–9 173, 174 deracination, 192–9 Faraj, Muhammad Abd al-Salam, 36 deregulation, 13, 15 far right groups, 66, 177–87 despotism, 193–4 fascism, 181–2 de-territorialized strategies, 12 FBI, 14, 120 diaspora communities, 9, 10, 18, 26, fear, politics of, 59–64, 65, 68, 74, 187 134 fifth column terror, 2, 10–11, 51, 55, Dick, Cressida, 63 63, 68–9 discourse failure, 51–2, 66–76 al-Filistini, Abu Qatada, 137 diversity, politics of, 24–7 financial markets, 19 division of labour, 13–14 Finland, 186 domestic terrorism, 69–71, 131–2 Flanagan, Richard, 157, 161, 166, Dover Beach, 166 168–9, 173 Dunne, Tim, 143 Foer, Jonathan Safran, 157, 160 Durodié, Bill, 60, 68 foreign policy, 70–1, 139–40, 147, 148 Egypt, 34, 36, 42, 110, 135, 148 France, 46 electronic surveillance, 14 Frankfurt, 131 elite power, 140 Frankfurt School, 139, 188 Emmerson, Ben, 63 Free Aceh Movement (GAM), 113 empathy, 72–3, 134, 148, 187 Freedman, Lawrence, 98, 100 English Defence League, 66, 184–5, Friedman, Thomas, 32 186 Fukuyama, Francis, 31–2, 33 English School, 141–5, 155–6 Furedi, Frank, 62–3 Enlightenment, 18, 32, 47, 48–9, 59, 192 Galloway, George, 69 Epp, Roger, 142 Galula, David, 84 ETA, 9 al-Gamen, Ahmad, 115 ethnocentrism, 59 Gellner, Ernest, 17, 33, 34, 37, 39, Euro-Islamism, 24–7, 40–1, 185, 186 41, 48 Europe, 4, 5, 9, 10, 19, 30–1, 33, 37, Gentile, Emilio, 177–8 40, 45, 182 Gey, Pieter, 32 European Convention on Human Gibbon, Edward, 32, 33, 34, 39, 48, Rights, 46, 56 149 European Counter Jihad Movement Gibson, Chris, 85 (ECJM), 184, 185 global capitalism, 58, 99, 140 European Social Science Research global cities, 4, 8, 10, 12, 14, 159–76 Council (ESCRC), 24 global counterinsurgency, 5, 86–90, (EU), 15, 20, 143, 92–104, 106 188 global financial crisis, 14, 15, 19, 179, Evans, Jonathan, 101 191 evil, 3 global financial markets, 19 Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close, globalization, 1, 3–4, 12, 13, 16, 18, 157, 160 38, 88, 118, 141, 146, 188 extreme right, 177–87 global South, 146 global war against terrorism, 53 failed states, 9–10, 77 see also war on terror 264 Index

Gnosticism, 36, 40–1 Hussein, Saddam, 34, 70 Goodhart, David, 64 Hussin, Azahari, 123 The Good Life, 157, 159–60, 161, 174 government identity cards, 20 response of UK, to terrorism, 50–76 identity politics, 18, 28 role of, 51 ideology, 1, 133, 138–9, 147, 152, 178 Gramsci, Antonio, 139 see also Islamism; political religion Greene, Graham, 158 extremist, 4 guerrilla warfare, 1–2, 9, 88 Islamist, 2–4, 17, 94 Gufron, Ali, 114 jihadist, 100 guilt, 159–63 reformist, 5, 17–18 Gulf War, 81 illberal cybercaliphate, 4–5, 7, 16–17, Gunaratna, Rohan, 127, 133 see also cybercaliphate immigration, 20 Habermas, Jurgen, 142, 143–4, 152, imperialism, 148 188 Indonesia, 28, 30, 40, 105, 108–14, Halliday, Fred, 29 120–1, 126–30, 135 Hamas, 148 Indonesia Mujahidin Council (MMI), Hambali, 110–12, 114, 119, 122, 112 124–5 Inspire, 138 Hamburg, 4, 8, 12, 40 instrumental rationalism, 59 Hamid, Mohsin, 157, 161, insurgency, 1–2, 4, 5, 64, 78–83, 166–8, 173 86–104, 180, 186, 187, 190 Hamza, Abu, 25, 51, 137 international relations theory, 8, Hassan, Muhammad, 128 133–4, 140–5, 148–9, 152–5 Haz, Hamzah, 112 Internet, 11, 13, 18, 21 Held, David, 141–2 Iran, 30 Hexter, J. H., 20, 195 Iraq, 3, 24, 34, 40, 77, 148 Hezbollah, 9, 148–9 counterinsurgency in, 80–6, 92, Hizb ut-Tahrir, 4, 5, 7, 25, 30, 31, 36, 103–4 38–41, 45, 56, 132–41, 147–8, Iraq war, 44–5, 69–72, 77–9, 83, 85, 152 92, 188 Hobbes, Thomas, 20, 194 irregular war, 4 Hoffman, Frank, 79, 91, 93–5 Isamuddin, Nurjaman Riduan, 110 Hoffman, Lord, 62 Islam, 17 home-grown terrorism, 51–76, extreme right and, 183–4 131–2, 134–6 sociology of, 32, 39–40 Honig, Jan, 96–7 Islamic Army Group (GIA), 115 Hossein, Michelle, 67 Islamism, 1, 6, 27–31, 39, 56, 94, 147 Houellebecq, Michel, 157, 163–4, 174 see also jihadism human rights, 56 appeasement of, 71–2 Human Rights Act, 47, 56 de-territorialization of, 79–80 Human Terrain System (HTS), 85–6 eradication of, 71 Hume, Mick, 67–8 Euro-Islamism, 24–7, 40–1 Huntington, Samuel, 31–3 modernity and, 34–8 Husain, Ed, 139 radical, 131–3, 140–1, 149 Husain, Mohammed, 134–5 transnational, 87–9 Husein, Usama, 102 in UK, 53–5, 134–6 Hussein, Ed, 31 worldview of, 73–5 Index 265

Islamist ideology, 2–4, 17–18, 138–41 Khan, Samir, 138 see also Islamism Kiefer, Thomas, 117 Islamist Internationale, 18–19 Kilcullen, David, 87–90, 93–5, 98, 107, Islamist strategic thinking, 131–41, 127, 129, 131, 132, 133 149–52, 156 kinship, 116–18 Islamophobia, 59, 64, 65, 66, 153 Kiszley, John, 77–8 Israel, 188 Koestler, Arthur, 158 Italy, 181–2 Koo, Katrina Lee, 150–1, 152 Ivanovich, Peter, 158 Koresh, David, 180 Izzadeen, Abu, 72 Kuala Lumpur, 10 Ku Klux Klan (KKK), 179 Jaamat-i-Islami, 38 Jabarah, Mohammed Mansoor, 119, Laffey, Mark, 144 120 Laskar Jihad, 30 Jackson, Richard, 72, 146, 151–4 Lebanon, 9, 149 Jakarta, 10 left, 187–92 James, Henry, 158, 175 Le Pen, Jean Marie, 182, 183 Janjalani, Abdulrajak, 115 Levy, Bernard-Henri, 188 Javid, Makbool, 44 liberal democracy, 7–8, 12, 14, 19–21, Jefferson, Thomas, 20 28, 59, 101, 139–40, 156, 192–9 Jemaah Islamiyah, 5, 28, 88–9, 105–30, liberalism, 8, 18–19, 40, 48–9, 155–6 133 liberation struggles, 11 Bali bombings and, 119–22 Lilla, Mark, 132 counter-ideology campaigns and, Linklater, Andrew, 142, 143 125–9 literacy, 37 counterinsurgency and, 120–2 Livingstone, Ken, 66, 67 degrading and dismantling, 123–5 London, 4, 8, 10, 11, 12, 40, 42, 95, Indonesian connection, 108–14 131, 163 kinship, marriage and, 116–18 London bombings, 20, 22–3, 26, 41, Philippine connection, 114–16 46–7, 50, 131 sources of the organization, 107–16 rhetoric and response to, 50–76 Jemmat-i-Islami, Mawdudi, 17 Londonistan, 53–4, 55 Jibril, Abu, 109, 110, 113 London universities, 30, 134 jihadism, 1, 5, 7–21, 24, 100, 155 Lone, Salim, 69 see also Islamism long war, 3–4, 7–9 political novels and, 157–76 Lynn, John, 84–5 transnational, 87–9 Joint Terrorism Analysis Centre Mackinlay, John, 86–7, 90, 98–100 (JTAC), 51 Madrid, 4, 8, 28, 95, 131 Jones, Sidney, 121 Maidin, Ibrahim, 112, 119 Jordan, 42 Mair, Peter, 196, 197 Malayan Emergency, 81–2, 83, 98 karaoke democracy, 15–16 Malaysia, 28, 42, 108, 109, 111–13, Kartosuwijoro, Maridjan, 108 119, 124, 126, 128–30 Katz, Richard, 196 Malaysian Mujahidin Movement Keane, Jack, 78 (KMM), 110, 111–12 Keelty, Mick, 121 Malraux, Andre, 158 Kennedy, Charles, 61 Manning, Bradley, 14, 191 Khalifa, Mohammed Jamal, 114–15 Manningham-Buller, Eliza, 23 266 Index

Maoism, 9, 91–2, 94, 100–2, 103 Moore, Charles, 67 market state, 14, 16–17 Moore, Michael, 59 marriage, 116–18 morality, 2 Marxism, 9 Moro Islamic Liberation Front al-Masri, Abu Hamza, 40 (MILF), 110, 114–15 Masri, Abu Hamza al, 7 Moro National Liberation Front Massumi, Brian, 154 (MNLF), 110 Mathews, Robert J, 180 mosques, 54 Matin, Dul, 124, 129 Moss, Stephen, 173 Matz, Steven, 91 Moussaoui, Zacarias, 112, 124 Maududi, Abu alu, 106 al-Muhajiroun, 5, 7, 45, 56, 73, 137 Maududi, Syed Abdul A’ala, 5 Mukhlas, 109, 111, 114, 118, 119, Mawdudi, Abu al-a’la, 25–6 123 McCuen, John, 84 multiculturalism, 5, 8, 14, 18, 19, McEwan, Ian, 157, 158, 161–3, 171, 24–5, 27, 40, 41–8, 56, 66–8, 76, 173 135 McFate, Montgomery, 80, 81, 82, 91, Mumbai, 95 96–7 Munich Olympics (1972), 9 McGrew, Anthony, 141–2 Musharraf, Pervez, 54 McInerney, Jay, 157, 159–60 Muslim alienation, 29, 47, 64–5 McLuhan, Marshall, 50 Muslim Brotherhood, 4, 36–7, 38, McVeigh, Timothy, 181 106, 148 Mead, Walter Russell, 13, 19 Muslim Brothers, 35, 36 Mearsheimer, John, 153, 154 Muslim rage, 18–19, 64–5, 152 media, 21, 50, 67–8, 71–2 Muslim women, 37 Melbourne, 131 Mussolini, Benito, 181–2 Merkel, Angela, 20 MI5, 14 al-Nabhani, Taquiuddin, 36, 139 Middle East, 4, 8, 10, 18, 36, 37, 40, Nabokov, Vladimir, 158 45, 149, 156 Nagl, John, 78, 81–3 military al-Nahbani, Taquiuddin, 5 counterinsurgency and, 77–104 Nairobi, 11 technology, 81 Naseem, Mohammad, 65 Military Review, 97 Nasser, Gamel Abdel, 34, 39, 135 millennial capital, 12–15, 19 National Alliance, 182 Minogue, Kenneth, 193 National Front, 182–3 modernity, 2, 3, 5, 12, 16, 18, 34–8, nationalism, 147 74 national security, 151–2, 188 modernization theory, 28–34, 56, 94, National Security Agency (NSA), 60 196 nation-state, 14, 34, 151–2 Modi, Amit, 106 NATO, 15 modularity, 33–4 Nazis, 3 Mohamed, Khalid Sheikh, 115–16 Necator, Nikita, 158 Mohammad, Mahathir, 108 negative utopia, 15 Mohammed, Khalid Sheikh, 113, neo-classical counterinsurgency 119, 124–5 (neo-COIN), 80–6, 90, 92, 94, 95, Mohammed, Omar Bakri, 7, 24, 40, 97–100, 103–4, 144 44, 51, 54, 69, 137 neo-Maoist counterinsurgency, 100–2 monoculture, 47 Neo-Medievalism, 12–15, 16 Index 267 neo-Nazis, 11 Pattani United Liberation neo-orthodoxy, 18–19, 37, 38 Organization (PULO), 113 Net-centric warfare, 9–12 peace, 8 , 31, 115 Pearl, Daniel, 25 networked state, 12–17 Petraeus, David, 84 Neumann, Peter, 131 Phantom Cell, 11 New Force party, 182 Philippines, 40, 111, 113–17, 122, New Labour, 24, 26, 47, 56, 66, 198 124, 129–30 new media, 21 Pierce, William Luther, 180 New Order regime, 108, 109, 111, 112, Pinker, Steven, 194–5 120–1 PIRA, 9 New Terrorism thesis, 87 Platform, 157, 163–4 New War thesis, 87 PLO, 9 New York, 4, 8, 10, 12, 131, 163, pluralism, 12, 28, 40, 43, 70, 74, 126, 164–6 134–5, 142–3, 155–6, 192–9 9/11 attacks, 14, 48, 51, 105, 157 politica fiction, 157–76 discourse failure and, 51 political activism, 177–87 extreme right after, 177–87 political Islam, see Islamism response to, 20, 53, 78 political parties, 70, 125, 181–7, 196–7 9/11 literature, 157–76 political philosophy, 171–6 Nineteen Eighty-Four, 158 political religion, 1, 3, 5, 6, 10–11, 36, norms, 8 94, 101, 132–3, 177, 178, 198–9 North Africa, 37, 40, 104 political science, 152–5 Northern Alliance, 182 political violence, 1 Northern Ireland, 80, 82, 83 politics, 193–9 Norway, 186 of complacency, 64–5, 74 novels, 6, 157–76 of diversity, 24–7 Nurhasyim, Amrozi bin, 114 of fear, 59–64, 65, 68, 74, 187 identity, 18, 28 Oakeshott, Michael, 13, 171, 176, 193 polymorphous violence, 4, 12 Oates, Sarah, 68 Popper, Karl, 34 Obama, Barack, 197–8 post-Cold War era, 1, 4, 8–17, 81, 87, Olympianism, 18–19 132, 141, 144, 153, 179 Omar, Mullah, 112, 119 post-Maoist counterinsurgency, Orientalism, 145–9 89–92, 100–2 Orientalism (Said), 17, 146 post-modernity, 27–31, 37 Orwell, George, 158 The Power of Nightmares, 61 Osman, Hussein, 45 power relations, 153 Othering, 59, 151–2, 153, 156 The Princess Casamassima, 158 privatization, 15 Paddick, Brian, 26, 66, 67 purificationism, 187–92 Paine, Tom, 20 Pakistan, 54, 56, 77 Al-Qaeda, 1, 3–5, 7, 10, 14, 16, 30, 39, Palestine, 36, 148 40, 42, 50, 62, 72, 99, 105–7, 113, Pape, Robert, 131, 133 133, 135, 138, 140, 144, 177, 187, Paris, 4, 8, 10, 163 190, 193 Parker, Andrew, 63 Bali bombings and, 120–2 parsimony, 2 establishment of, 36–7 Patriquin, Travis, 85 in Europe, 24–5 268 Index

Al-Qaeda – continued Sardar, Ziauddin, 57, 72 global appeal of, 86–7, 88–9 Satanic Verses, 43–4 Military Command Council, 110 Saturday, 157, 158, 161–3, 173 in Southeast Asia, 28, 107, 115, Saudi Arabia, 40, 56, 115 116, 127, 129 The Secret Agent, 158 strategic thinking of, 149–52, 156 secularism, 2, 8, 12, 27, 30, 34, 36, tactics, 11, 18–19, 90, 93 43, 59, 70, 74, 155–6 Qatada, Abu, 24, 40, 46, 51, 56, 62 security measures, 44–7 queasy agnosticism, 6 7/7 attacks, see London bombings The Quiet American, 158 Sewall, Sarah, 84 Qutb, Sayyid, 5, 16, 35–6, 39, 48, Sharif, Omar, 30 74–5, 135, 147 Sheikh, Omar, 25, 30 Shinawatra, Thaksin, 122 racist groups, 179–81 Sifaoui, Mohamed, 42 radicalization, 94–5, 131–3, 140–1, Silent Brotherhood, 180 149 Singapore, 15–16, 42, 111–13, 119, radical solidarism, 144 127–30 Ramadan, Tariq, 22, 57 Snowden, Edward, 60, 63, 191 Reagan, Ronald, 14 social collective, 3 Red Army Faction, 9 social deprivation, 11 reformist ideology, 5, 17–18 social media, 18 Reid, Richard, 25, 62, 137 social science, 27–31, 73, 132–4, relativism, 5 155–6 Religious Hatred Act, 43 Somalia, 9 The Reluctant Fundamentalist, 157, South Asia, 37, 40 161, 166–8 Southeast Asia, 5, 29, 37, 40, 76, 132 resistance, 72, 73, 74, 77–9, 84, 86, counter-ideology campaigns, 97, 99, 106, 109, 113–17, 132, 125–30 144–8, 190 Jemaah Islamiyah in, 105–30 Rida, Mohammed Rashid, 35 Southeast Asian Islam, 28, 108–14 Rida, Rashid, 17 Soviet Union, 18, 81 Rigby, Lee, 65, 138 Spengler, Oswald, 32 right-wing extremism, 177–87 Steltzer, Irwin, 56 Roberts, Adam, 61 Stepanova, Ekatarina, 132–3, 155 Robinson, Tommy, 184–5 Stern, Jessica, 106, 129 Roman Empire, 32 Stevens, John, 23 Rorty, Richard, 6, 158, 162 strategic theory, 1–2 Roy, Olivier, 19, 25–6, 31, 44 Strauss, Leo, 2, 73, 171, 172, 176, 193 Rudd, Kevin, 197 Straw, Jack, 44 rule of law, 13 Sufaat, Yazid, 111–12 Runciman, David, 197, 198–9 Suharto, Achmed, 108, 112 Rushdie, Salman, 43–4 suicide bombers/bombings, 23, 30, Rwanda, 9 33, 45, 51, 54, 71–2 Suleiman, Abu, 124 Sadat, Anwar, 36 Sungkar, Abdullah, 109–12 Sageman, Marc, 107, 129 supranational organizations, 31 Said, Edward, 17, 57, 146 al Suri, Abu Musab, 184 salafism, 38 surveillance, 60, 63 Samudra, Imam, 119, 128 Sweden, 31 Index 269

Sydney, 4, 8, 10, 11, 12, 131, 163 Tipton Taliban, 25 Syria, 40, 71, 104 tolerance, 73 Top, Noordin, 124, 129 Taber, Robert, 91 Toronto, 4, 131 tactics, 2, 11–12, 90 Toynbee, Arnold, 32 Taimiya, Ibn, 34–5 Training and Doctrine Command Taliban, 37, 53, 112, 136–7 (TRADOC), 85 technology, 33 training camps, 115, 122 Tentara Nasional Indonesia (TNI), 113 transnational corporations, 179 terrorism, 177 transnational crime, 9 causes of, 1, 10–11, 95, 144 Treason Act, 46 Cold War, 9 Tsarnaev brothers, 138 critical perspective on, 57 Turner, Earl, 180 decoding of, 53–5 defined, 2 Ucko, David, 78, 83 home-grown, 51–76, 131–2, 134–6 UK Terrorism Act 2006, 11 post-Cold War era, 9–12 Ulph, Stephen, 132–3 religiosity and, 3 United Kingdom, 7–8, 10, 19–20, 40 research, 2 asylum seekers in, 25–6 root causes of, 56–9, 69 Iraq war and, 69–71 strategic approach to, 1–2 Islamism in, 53–5, 134–6 as tactic, 56–7 Islamist groups in, 41–8 war on, 7, 20, 39–40, 45, 46, 52, 88, multiculturalism in, 41–8 144, 145, 147, 151, 154 response to terrorism in, 50–76 Terrorism Act, 63 security measures, 44–7 Terrorist, 157, 159, 164–6, 170–1, 173, terrorist attacks in, 20, 22–3, 26, 41, 174–5 46–7, 50, 131 terrorist attacks United Nations (UN), 15, 188 9/11 attacks. see 9/11 attacks United States, 19, 59–60, 132, 140, Bali bombing, 28, 105, 119–23 178–9 London bombings. see London counterinsurgency and, 78 bombings foreign policy, 147 rhetoric and response to, 50–76 imperialism, 148 terrorist organizations Iraq war and, 69–71, 78–9 see also specific organizations politics in, 197–8 attraction of, 107 response to 9/11 in, 78 in Europe, 24–5 war on terror and, 7, 20, 45, 46, 52, kinship, marriage and, 116–18 53, 144 recruitment by, 131–2, 134–6, 155 universities, 30, 134–5, 149, 187 in Southeast Asia, 105–30 The Unknown Terrorist, 157, 168–9 supranational, 31 Updike, John, 157, 159, 164–6, 170–1, tactics, 11–12, 18–19 173, 174–5 training camps, 115, 122 urbanization, 37 Thaib, Jafar Umar, 113 urban pathologies, 163–6 Thailand, 113 US military, 78–86 Thatcher, Margaret, 14 counterinsurgency and, 82–6, 89, third way, 24, 33 93–4 Thomas, Jack, 118 culture of, 83 Thornbury, Emily, 26 Uzair, Abu, 72–3 270 Index

Vaz, Keith, 63 war on terror, 7, 20, 39–40, V for Vendetta, 63 45, 46, 52, 53, 56, 68, 76, Vietnam, 9 88, 144, 145, 147, 151, 154 Vietnam War, 78, 82 Weaver, Randy, 180 violence, 8–9, 41, 51, 75, 99, 101, Western civilization, 31–4, 74, 146–7, 152, 178 146 see also terrorism Western teleology, 6 low intensity, 15 Wight, Martin, 142–3 motivation for, 95 WikiLeaks, 14, 191 polymorphous violence, 4, 12 Winsor, Tom, 198 violent peace, 132, 140, 144 working class, 13 Voegelin, Eric, 2–3, 10–11, 36, 40–2, world purificationism, 171, 176, 177, 195 187–92 al-Wahhab, Muhammad ibn Abd, 34 Yemen, 25 Wahid, Abduhrrahman, 108, 113 Younge, Gary, 69 Walker, Lord, 64 Yousef, Ramzi, 115–16 warfare Yugoslavia, 9, 81 asymmetric, 81–2 binary structure of modern, 4, 9 Zahwari, Ayman al, 19 Clausewitzian thinking and, 96–7 al-Zarqawi, Abu Musab, 137 guerrilla, 1–2, 9, 88 al-Zawahiri, Ayman, 36, 42, low-tech, 4, 8–9 43, 110, 135, 137 Net-centric, 9, 10, 11–12 Zionism, 183–4, 188 new, 9–12, 87 Zolo, Danilo, 15