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Library and Archives Bibliotheque et Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-88023-4 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-88023-4 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library and permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par I'lnternet, preter, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans le loan, distrbute and sell theses monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, sur worldwide, for commercial or non­ support microforme, papier, electronique et/ou commercial purposes, in microform, autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in this et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. Ni thesis. Neither the thesis nor la these ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci substantial extracts from it may be ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement printed or otherwise reproduced reproduits sans son autorisation. without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne sur la Privacy Act some supporting forms protection de la vie privee, quelques may have been removed from this formulaires secondaires ont ete enleves de thesis. cette these. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans in the document page count, their la pagination, il n'y aura aucun contenu removal does not represent any loss manquant. of content from the thesis. Canada AN INNU-NASKAPI ETHNOHISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF INDUSTRIAL IRON MINING DEVELOPMENT AT SCHEFFERVILLE, QUEBEC A thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts by JEAN-SEBASTIEN BOUTET Department of Geography Memorial University St. John's, Newfoundland & Labrador April 2012 Copyright © 2012 by Jean-Sebastien Boutet All rights reserved Menutakuaki aimun, apu nita nipumakak. Tshika petamuat nikan tshe takushiniht. (Quand une parole est offerte, elle ne meurt jamais. Ceux qui viendront l'entendront.) —Josephine Bacon "They want a piece of land to build their shrine," said Uchendu to his peers when they consulted among themselves. "We shall give them a piece of land." He paused, and there was a murmur of surprise and disagreement. "Let us give them a portion of the Evil Forest. They boast about victory over death. Let us give them a real battlefield in which to show their victory." They laughed and agreed, and sent for the missionaries, whom they had asked to leave them for a while so that they might "whisper together." They offered them as much of the Evil Forest as they cared to take. And to their great amazement the missionaries thanked them and burst into song. "They do not understand," said some of the elders. "But they will understand when they go to their plot of land tomorrow morning." And they dispersed. —Chinua Achebe ABSTRACT This thesis examines the era of iron ore activities at Schefferville between 1954 and 1983, a major period in the postwar industrial development of subarctic Quebec. Relying on oral and written sources, it seeks to understand the roles and actions of Innu and Naskapi individuals during this phase of large-scale resource exploitation conducted by the Iron Ore Company of Canada at the heart of their ancestral homeland. If the mining experience in Schefferville evolved in part to the detriment of the Innu and the Naskapi communities inhabiting the region, it is also shown that these groups worked to determine their own engagement with the industrial world, adjusting and maintaining their practices notably in order to combine the labour opportunities at the mine with their life on the land. iv RESUME Cette these s'interesse a une periode phare du developpement industriel minier au Moyen-Nord quebecois, soit l'epopee de l'exploitation ferrifere a Schefferville entre 1954 et 1983. Nous appuyant sur une variete de sources orales et ecrites, nous tentons de comprendre le role souvent oublie que les Innus et les Naskapis jouerent pendant cette phase d'exploitation de ressources minerales a grande echelle menee au coeur de leurs territoires ancestraux par la Iron Ore Company of Canada. Si l'experience miniere a Schefferville se construisit en partie au detriment des communautes innues et naskapies habitant la region, nous demontrons egalement que celles-ci batirent a leur fa?on leur engagement au monde industriel, ajustant et maintenant leur propres pratiques notamment de maniere a agencer le travail a la mine et la vie sur le territoire. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Mes premiers remerciements s'adressent d'abord a tous les individus innus et naskapis de la region de Schefferville et de Sept-Iles qui ont accepte de partager leur histoire de vie au cours de l'automne 2009. Si le recit historique presente ici est en grande partie le leur, toute deformation ou interpretation fautive des propos recueillis demeure mon entiere responsabilite. La participation d'Alfred McKenzie (Matimekush) et de George Mameamskum (Kawawachikamach) fut tout a fait indispensable quant a la mise en place et a la traduction simultanee des entrevues realisees dans le cadre de cette recherche. De plus, l'hospitalite genereuse d'Anne-Marie Andre a Sept-Iles et de Nathalie Andre (ainsi que toute sa famille) a Matimekush m'ont permis de mener des travaux de terrain qui furent autant inoubliables au niveau personnel que productifs du point de vue academique. C'est d'ailleurs a Jose Mailhot que je dois leur rencontre. Je souligne de plus l'apport inestimable fonde sur une expertise de terrain profonde d'Adrian Tanner, de Peter Armitage, de Sylvie Vincent, et de Marc Hammond lors de la conceptualisation du projet. Armand MacKenzie, Paul Wilkinson, Paul Renzoni, et Marcella Beaudoin, ont egalement apporte leur soutien au niveau local au moment du demarrage de la recherche. Merci aussi a la Naskapi Nation of Kawawachikamach pour son appui logistique et son accueil au conseil de bande. En tant que membre du comite de direction, Kelly Vodden a parcouru la derniere ebauche du present document avec patience et clairvoyance. Marc Boutet ainsi que deux evaluateurs anonymes ont commente en details une premiere version de l'article "Developpement ferrifere et mondes autochtones au Quebec subarctique, 1954-1983," vi paru chez Recherches amerindiennes au Quebec (2010). Plusieurs de leurs recommandations ont ete integrees au chapitre deux du present ouvrage. Marguerite MacKenzie et Bill Jancewicz ont offert leur aide relative a l'orthographe et a 1'interpretation de certains termes innus et naskapis, tandis que Charlie Conway a produit la carte des lieux historiques de la peninsule du Quebec-Labrador. Je reconnais finalement le Social Economy Research Network of Northern Canada, le Conseil de recherches en sciences humaines, ainsi que le Abandoned Mines Project pour leur precieux soutien financier. Je termine en soulignant l'appui de ceux et celles qui m'ont accompagne tout au long du processus qui a mene a Fachevement de mes travaux de maitrise. Ce fut pour moi un reel plaisir d'evoluer sous la supervision d'Arn Keeling et de John Sandlos ainsi que de partager avec eux un interet grandissant pour l'histoire geographique, economique et culturelle du nord canadien et des societes autochtones. lis ont developpe I'idee originale de mener une recherche historique portant sur la fosse du Labrador, ont contribue a definir et a financer le projet a son stade embryonnaire, et se sont engages de fa?on soutenue a l'avancement des travaux. lis ont de plus lu avec rigueur des versions antecedentes des chapitres qui suivent et ont encourage certaines initiatives de formation extracurriculaires qui me furent par ailleurs grandement benefiques. Leur attrait pour l'independance intellectuelle comme valeur cle se situant au cceur du projet academique m'a permit par-dessus tout de pouvoir mettre a profit nombre de privileges qui sont associes specialement a la vie estudiantine. vii Merci finalement au departement de geographie de l'Universite Memorial, et en particulier a ceux et celles qui y travaillent de fa?on indispensable (et souvent dans l'ombre) pour en faire un endroit chaleureux bien apprecie des etudiants gradues; a mes parents et amis, qui m'ont accueilli et heberge un peu partout a travers le pays au cours de mes recherches; ainsi qu'a Christina, grande compagne de route et temoin quotidien de cette aventure. Cela fut grandement apprecie. viii CONTENTS ABSTRACT iv RESUME v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vi TABLES xi FIGURES xii APPENDICES xiv ABBREVIATIONS xv INTRODUCTION 1 Methodological Approach 7 Theoretical Position and Historiography 15 Knowledge gap 19 The concept of agency in Indigenous ethnohistory 27 Schefferville historiography 42 CHAPTER ONE 48 Indigenous Histories, Geographies, and Territorial Identities 52 Establishing a New Monopoly over Space 64 Exploration and early development activities 70 Transition into Mixed Livelihoods 84 Resettlement of the Sept-Iles Innu 97 The Naskapi Relocation 107 CHAPTER TWO 121 Socio-geographic Context at Schefferville 125 Evolution of Wage Labour and Working Conditions at the Mine 133 The unionization process 141 Life on the Land 167 Caribou hunting 178 CHAPTER THREE 195 Abandonment of Mining Operations 198 Memories of Closure and Perspectives of Change over the Longer Past 214 ix Relating to a postindustrial landscape 219 The legacy of environmental change 224 Dismantling the vestiges of modernity 233 Reconstruction Years 240 Looking forward 252 CONCLUSION 256 AFTERWORD 271 Doing Oral History in Indigenous Communities 278 BIBLIOGRAPHY 284 x TABLES Table 1.
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