CHAPTER: FIVE ,

5.1 Meaning & Definition of social differences, inequalities and stratification

5.1.1 Meaning and definition of Social differences

In all societies there is differentiation of the population by age, sex, & personal characteristics. The roles and privileges of children differ from those adults and those of good hunters or differ from those of the rank & life. It is not customary to speak of a society as stratified if every individual in it has an equal chance to succeed to whatever status are open. Strictly speaking, there are no purely equalitarian societies, only society's differing in degree of stratification.

Everywhere individuals & societies differ. In no society people are absolutely equal in all respects. Differentiation is the keynote of human society. Society rests on the principle of difference. Difference is inherent in the very nature of society. In all societies there is social differentiation of the population by age, sex, occupation & personal characteristics. They are the major factors of social differentiation. Men & women, teenagers & adults, children & old men, masters & servants, rulers & ruled, rich & poor teachers & advocates, engineers & doctors etc. are not always adjudged as equal. There are no equalitarian societies in the world. Societies are marked by differentiation.

Differentiation is clearly related to the rise & operation of social classes. In the economic order, differentiation is found in the different roles entrepreneur, manager & skilled & unskilled laborers. It is evident in the professions; in the political order as witnessed in the varying roles of public administrators, legislators & judges in education as between teachers & administrators; & in religion, as in the distinct roles of prophet, seer & priest. In reality, some form of specialization of the role is found in every association of men.

Causes of Social differences

Talcott Parsons mentions three causal factors of social differentiation –i) Possession ii) qualities, and iii) performance. These three however interrelated.

1) Possession:- it refers to mainly material possessions, such as money, wealth, property and all the other valuable, utilitarian material objects. People do not have equal access to these possessions. The unequal distribution of this material possession has contributed to inequality and differentiation. 2) Qualities:- it refers to the mainly intrinsic capacities or abilities of people to undertake or to do a task. These qualities are also not equally distributed. For example physical strength, intelligence, beauty, courage, loyalty to a cause, moral courage, selflessness, sacrifice & other internal qualities are not equally distributed. People are ranked differently depending upon the degree of possession of these qualities. 3) Performance:-it refers to the execution of task in given time under a given situation. Performance is always judged first according to their products or results. Secondly they are judged according to the manner & style of the performing. Performances are always subject to regulatory norms. When the norms are violated, performances are often disvalued, regardless of their results.

5.1.2 Meaning and definition of social inequality

Social inequality refers to a situation in which individual groups in a society do not have equal . Areas of potential social inequality include voting rights, freedom of speech and assembly, the extent of property rights and access to education, health care, quality housing and other social goods. Social inequality is different from economic inequality, though the two are linked. Economic inequality refers to disparities in the distribution of economic assets and income. While economic inequality is caused by the unequal accumulation of wealth, social inequality exists because the lack of wealth in certain areas prohibits these people from obtaining the same housing, health care, etc. as the wealthy, in societies where access to these social goods depends on wealth.

Social inequality is linked to racial, gender and wealth inequality. The way people behave socially, through racism and other forms of discrimination, tends to trickle down and affect the opportunities and wealthy individuals can generate for themselves. Educational inequality occurs where the quality of education available to pupils is closely related to their or status.

5.1.3 Meaning and definition of Social Stratification

Social stratification is one of the outcomes of the continuous occurring of social processes. Every society is segmented in to different hierarchies. In virtually all societies, some people are regarded as more important than others (more worthy of respect than others), either within the society as a whole or in a certain situations. Social stratification is the segmentation of society into different hierarchical arrangement or strata. It refers to the differences and inequalities in the socioeconomic life of people in a given society. It represents the ranking of individuals or social positions and statuses in the social structure. The term is borrowed from geology where it is used to explain the hierarchical arrangement of rocks and mineral in the earth’s surface. When applied to the world of people, it refers to hierarchical arrangement of people into different classes or strata which is the division of a population into two or more layers, each of which is relatively homogenous, between which there are differences in privileges, restrictions, rewards and obligations (Macionis, 1997; Henslin and Nelson, 1995; Calhoun et al 1994).

The concept of class, involving the "classification of persons into groups based on shared socio-economic conditions, a relational set of inequalities with economic, social, political and ideological dimensions“ is known as social stratification. Everywhere the society is divided into various classes; economic, social, political and religious. The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in a more or less enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification.

According to Raymond W. Murry , “social stratification is a horizontal division of society in to high and lower social units.”

According to Ginsberg “Social stratification is the division of the society into permanent groups of categories linked with each other by the relationship of superiority and subordination”.

Theories of Social Stratification

There are various theories of social stratification concerning its importance, origin and value, of which three important theories are the following. • Functionalist Perspective • The lower class provides a pool of inexpensive laborers that help keep prices down • The poor buffer the lower- from economic changes • People have different skills and knowledge and will always seek different opportunities • Conflict Perspective • Stratification and class are the results of the inequality in the distribution of the wealth, which is sustained by the exertion of power • Symbolic Interactions Perspective • People are socialized to accept inequality • People in the subordinate classes often adopt the value systems of those in power and see themselves as unworthy; Marx? Characteristics of stratification • Stratification is a social:- Social stratification is social in the sense it does not represent biologically caused inequalities. It is true that such factors as strength, intelligence, age & sex and class & can often serve as the basis on which status or strata are distinguished. But such differences by themselves are not sufficient to explain why some statuses receive more power, prestige & property than others. • Stratification is ancient:- The stratification system is quite old. According to historian & archaeological records, stratification was present even in the small wandering bands. Age & sex were the main criterion of stratification than. Women & children last was probably the dominant rule of order. Difference between the rich & poor, powerful & humble, freeman & slaves was therein almost all the ancient civilizations. • Stratification is universal phenomenon:- The stratification system is a worldwide phenomenon. Difference between the rich & poor, or the 'haves' & the 'haves notes' is evident everywhere. Even in the non literate societies stratification is very much present. As Sorokin has said all permanently organized groups are stratified. • It is diverse in form:- The stratification system has never been uniform in all the societies. The ancient Roman society was stratified into two strata: the patricians and the , the ancient Aryans society into four varnas: the , , & Sudra, the ancient Greek Society into freemen & slaves; the Chinese society into the mandarins, farmers, & soldiers & so on. Class, & estate seem to be the general forms of stratification. • It is Consequential:- The stratification system has its own consequences. The most important, most desired, & often the scarcest things in human life are distributed unequally because of stratification. They system leads to two main kinds of consequences: i) life chances & ii) life styles. Life chances refer to such things as infant mortality, longevity, physical & mental illness, marital conflict, separation & divorce. Live style include such matters as the mode of housing, residential area one's education, the kinds books magazines relationship between the parents & children, the kinds books magazines & TV shows to which one is exposed, one's mode of conveyance &so on. Functions of stratification • Encourages hard work, • Ensures circulation of the • Serves as economic function • Prevents wastes of resources • Helps to pursue different professions and jobs • Social control

5.2 Caste, ethnicity, class and gender dimensions of social stratification in

The Nepalese caste system, like the Indian caste system, is highly complex and continues the traditional system of social stratification of Nepal. The caste system defines social classes by a number of hierarchical endogamous groups often termed as Jāt. This custom is found in both the Hindu and Buddhist communities of Nepal; but not harsh in Buddhist communities. However, in Nepal people sometimes erroneously use word caste to mean their race or ethnicity. Nepal consist of three main ethnic groups, indigenous, Khas and Madhesi..

5.2.1 Caste system

Caste is a social structuring based on a particular religious belief. In the ancient classical literature caste system has been explained as divine creation. According to it was born out of mouth, out of the hand, Baisya from the thigh & Sudra from the foot of the God. People have to remain under the same caste from their birth till death.

The ethnic indigenous groups are a different race from Khas and Madhesi people, Khas people who themselves are distinct from Madhesi people. The caste system has traditionally existed in the two races (the Khas and Madhesis), not in indegenous people (such as Gurung, Tamang, Thakali, Magar, Sherpa, Mananggi, Mustanggi, Walunggi and so on). Whereas most indigenous people who are ethnic Tibetans who practice and they care less about caste, unlike .

Caste categories diverged from the four varnas of the classical Vedic model and instead had three categories to accommodate the tribal peoples between the pure and impure . These were further classified into five hierarchies with the following order precedence.

• Thagadhari, (Wearer of holy cord) • Matwali • Namasyane Matwali (Non-enslavable alcohol-drinkers) • Masyane Matwali (Enslavable alcohol drinkers) • Pani nachalne choichoto halnu naparne, (Impure but touchable castes) • Pani nachalne chiochoti halnu parne, (Impure and Untouchable castes)

These categories imply that Thagadhari (Wearer of holy cord) remains in the highest hierarchy in the Nepali caste system followed by Matwali, (Non-enslavable alcohol- drinkers) and enslavable alcohol drinkers, touchable caste and lastly untouchable.

Social Stratification and Caste System

The social stratification is the particular form of social inequality. It refers to the presence of social groups which are ranked one above other, usually in terms of amount of power, prestige, and Property their members possess. In this regard, the Indian and the Nepalese caste system provide an example of social stratification. caste system is based on Hindu religion, philosophy & tradition. A society comprised of caste system is divided into a number of castes. The status of a person is determined not by his wealth but by the tradition of the caste in which he born. Caste is genetic factor it cannot be changed by any means on this way the society is divided into various sections. The society has been divided into four castes Brahmin, Chhetri, Baisya & Sudra. In caste system the person belonging to the caste is forbidden from eating the food touch or prepared by the lower caste people. Similarly, physical relationship with women of lower caste is also restricted. Hindu society in traditional was divided into five main strata: four Varnas or castes, and a fifth group, the outcaste, whose members were known as untouchables. The emergence of caste system in Nepalese society dates back to ancient period when, the legendary says, Gopal dynasty accompanied with the Krishna entered valley and imposed Hindu rules- regulations. Historians argue that the Hindu Aryan entered Nepal at three different time periods:

1. At 1st century A.D. through Kathmandu Valley, 2. At about 12th century A.D. through Karnali basin, 3. From 16th century onwards through different Nepal- India boarders, especially to of Nepal. All of these arrival of Hindu people has ensured the influence of , so the influence of Caste system. In a more concrete way and in a state level, the king Jayasthiti Malla at around 14th century A.D. divided the then Newari society into four castes and sixty four sub-castes. Later in the second part of the 19th century, in 1854 A.D., the then Rana Prime Minister Jang Bahadur Rana, divided whole Nepalese society into four different castes in his promulgated legal code. This later division has consolidated the Nepalese caste system and has sown the seed of conflict among the people of privileged and underprivileged castes with a deeply rooted castism into Nepalese society.

Caste of the Hindu Society of Nepal

• Brahmans (E.g. priests, teachers, etc.) • Kshatriyans (E.g. warriors, landlords, etc.) • Vaishyas (E.g. merchants, traders, etc.) • Sudras (E.g. , servants, etc.) • Untouchables Social outcasts (e.g. leather workers, sweepers, etc.) According to Muluki Ain 1854 AD which was even practiced up to 2020 BS the dimension of caste in Nepal has following categories: A) ( Sacred thread wearing caste) • Upadhaya Brahman • • Jaisi Brahman • Kshetri • Deu Bhaju • Indian Brahman • Sanyasi Giri • Tallo (lower) Jaisi • Different Newar caste B) Matawali (Inslavable Drinking caste) • Magar • Gurung • Sunuwar • Any other Newar caste C) Matawali Slavable • Bhote • Chepang • Kumal • Hayu • Tharu • Gharti D) Untouchable but sprinkling of water is not necessary • Kasai • Kusale • Hindhu • Kulu • Musalman • Mlechha E) Untouchable but sprinkling of water is needed • • • Kadara • • Gaine • Badi • Pode • Chyame Demerits of 1) It has given scope to the inhuman practice of . It has cut cross the social solidarity because untouchability is the hatefullest expression of the caste 2) It has hindered the growth of strong national unity. 3) The excessive caste loyalty has brought political dishonesty 4) It has prevented the proper growth of democracy. Strictly speaking democracy and caste can not go together 5) It has retarded the progress. The caste is more conservative, reactionary and orthodox 6) It has hindered mobility, it has made our society more static than dynamic 7) It has lowered the status of women 8) It has given scope for religious conversion. The lower caste people are getting converted into Islam and Christianity due to tyranny of upper caste

5.2. 2 Gender based stratification Gender is determined by socio-cultural systems. Society gives roles & status to women & men regarding what they should or shouldn't do. Gender is the totality of roles & expectation that society has from men & women, On the basis of cultural system, communities determine roles for men & women, assign them rights, puts restriction on them, this is called gender. Gender is the role that men & women fulfill differently & these roles are formed on the basis of social norms & values, religion & culture, In almost all the societies in the world such socially determined roles are discriminatory or support patriarchal social structure on the basis of gender

The word gender is being used sociologically and has been one of the major agendas of discourse, including the socio-political, and disciplinary discussion and debates. In Nepal, it has been the hot issue before and after the 2nd Jana Andolan. Gender issues like woman’s violence, the concern of property right, the question of proportionate representative in NGOs and GOs, attitudes and belief system towards woman, religious and cultural based discrimination, etc. are making the hot debate among the various group of people, including political parties, feminists, social worker, etc.

Barriers and mal practices to gender equity and gender based Relation in Nepal

• Patriarchal society- That means the authority of family and society lie on male head of the family. • Patrilineal Society- That means descent and property transforms from male head of family to off spring • Belief, Values and norms are as against to woman’s welfare and justice-Chaupadi and Dewaki in far western region of Nepal, for instance, provide evidence of how woman’s dignity , justice and their basic right are threatened and violated • Non sense practices prevailing in society- The popular non-sense practices like witchcrafts and dowry system in many parts of Nepal, especially in the middle Terai, are as against the practices of woman’s justice and welfare. • Category of work and burden- Women in developing countries like ours have to shoulder 3 burdens at a time- reproduction, house hold chores and outside work (in underdeveloped societies reproduction is taken as burden, since many of the women can not get proper care and health facilities during the gestation period and in the post delivery period). • Lack of implementation of woman related law- Due to the deeply rooted social values, woman’s law like property right bill and abortion bill are not being effectively implemented. • Domestic violence and sexual abuses- Domestic violence is on increasing and sexual abuses are rampant. But the law related to these problems are either not effective or are ambiguous in meaning and interpretation, giving the defendant or culprit more chances to get free. • Religion and social beliefs- Some religions like Hindu and Islam, in its extreme form, are barriers for the uplift and equity of women (many aspects mentioned in their religious books are against the welfare of woman) • Maternal mortality rate- As compared to other SAARC countries and developed countries, the maternal and neo-natal mortality rate in Nepal is high. It is due to the lack of proper health care and health facilities provided to the many of rural women in Nepal.

Whereas sex is the biological predisposition of man and woman, gender is the socio- cultural and political manifestation of man and woman. As elsewhere, gender is the key locus of the cultural structure in Nepal. The construction of gender and gender relations may vary from society to society in terms of age, life related positions within family, caste, ethnicity, class, region, etc. Gender based discrimination is highly experienced with the patrilineality and patrilocality which contribute to an extremely unequal level of life opportunities between man and woman.

5.2.3 Class based Stratification

'Social class' is a principal type of social stratification found especially in the modern civilized countries. If the caste system is found be unique to India & Nepal, the class system is universal in nature. Sometimes, the word 'class' is used to represent groups of , artists, engineers, doctors, students, etc. The word 'class' is also used to refer the quality of the things whether good, better, best & so on. But the concept of 'social class' is more used in sociology representing a kind of social stratification than anything.

Moreover, like Marx and Weber, many modern sociologists use economic factors as the basic criteria for differentiating social classes. In this regard, the British sociologist Anthony Giddens identifies three major classes in advanced capitalist society. They are: an upper class based on the ‘ownership of property in the means of production’, a middle class based on the ‘ possession of educational or technical qualifications’ and a lower or based on the ‘ possession of manual labor power’.

Horton and Hunt, the authors of the work, ‘Sociology’, defines social class as, “a stratum of people of similar position in the social status continuum.”

Marx, attempted to reduce all forms of inequality to economic class and argued that classes formed the only significant social groups in society. According to Prof. Dor Bahadur , Nepalese Societies are arranged into following class which he explained in his popular book Fatalism and Development 1992

A) Upper Class • People who believe on fatalism • Haves • Higher caste • Ruler class B) Middle Class • Educated and self employed • Teachers, Engineers, Doctors, Lawyer C) Lower Class • Ploughers, Farmers, workers, land less

According to Prof Dr. Chaitanya Mishra following classes are available in Nepalese societies:

A) Upper Class • Feudal • Aristocrat • Politicians • Administrator, Technician and Big Merchants B) Lower Class • Petty businessman • Waged labor • Rented labor • Marginalized farmers • Rural land serf.

5.2.4 Ethnicity based stratification

Categories of Ethnicity/Caste in Health Management and Information System (HMIS) of Ministry of Health and Population, Nepal

The National ethnic group development committee has tried of ethnic groups. The task force for the promotion of ethnic groups formed in 2053 B.S (1996 A.D.) has defined ethnic groups like this: Having separate cultural identity, own traditional language, religion, rites, rituals, culture, social structure based on equality, separate geographical location, written or oral history, having no strong position in politics & government etc .are the features of such indigenous people & they are the ethnic groups of Nepal. As explained and defined by Uwe Kievelitz (has presented a paper at a seminar on Ethnicity and Nation-Building), ethnicity is a collective identity formation. It is such group identity formation which refers to relationships between groups- above the family level- which consider themselves, or are considered, as culturally distinctive from other groups with whom they have minimum of interaction. He, again, argues that such ethnic groups can be defined as endogamous collectivities which follow a distinctive identity through selected traditions.

The term ‘ethnicity’ first appeared in the 1950s in the English language and it is first recorded in a dictionary in the Oxford English Dictionary of 1953. However, the term is a derivative of the much older term and more commonly used adjective ‘ethnic’, which in the English language goes back to the Middle Ages. The English adjective ‘ethnic’ in turn derives from the ancient Greek term ethnos and it was used as a synonym of gentile, that is, non-Christian and non-Jewish pagan in New Testament Greek. As the English language has no concrete noun for ethnos or ethnie, the French term is used here to denote an ‘ethnic community’ or ‘ethnic group’.

1. :- Hill: Kami, Damai, Sarki, Gaine, Badi

Terai: , Mushar, Dhusah/ , Tamta, Khatway, Bantar, Dom, Chidimar, Dhobi, Halkhor

2. Disadvantaged Janajatis Hill: Magar, Tamang, Rai, Limbu, Sherpa, Bhote, Walung, Byansi, Hyolmo, Garti/, Kumal, Sunsar, Baramu, Pahari, Yakkah, Chhantal, Jirel, Darai, Dura, Majhi, Danuwar, , Lepcha, Chepang, Bote, Raji, Hayu, Raute, kusunda. Terai: Tharu, , Rajbansi, Tajpuriya, Gangai, , Meche, Kisan, Munda, Santhal/Satar, Dhangad/ Jhangad, Koche, Pattarkatta/Kusbadiay 3. Disadvantaged non-Dalit Teraian caste groups: , , Kalwar, Sudhi, Sonar, , Koiri, , Kanu, Haluwai, Hajam/Thakur, Badhe, Bahae, Rajba, , Mallah, Nuniya, , Kahar, Lodhar, Bing/Banda, Bhediyar, Mali, Kumar, Dhunia 4. Religious Minorities: Muslims, Churoute 5. Relatively advantaged Janajatis: Newar, Thakali, Gurung 6. Upper caste groups: (Hill) Chhetri, Thakuri, Sanyasi, Brahman (Terai), Rajput, , Baniya, Marwadi, Nuraang, Bengali.

Social Stratification Vis-a-Vis Management and Business Administration

• In all societies, there is differentiation of the population by age, sex and personal characteristics. Everywhere individuals and society differ. In fact there are no purely egalitarian societies. All societies exhibit some system of hierarchy whereby its members are placed in positions that are higher or lower, superior and inferior in relation to each other. • Similarly, stratification can be found in organizational setting. Different people having different talent and skills obtain their position hierarchically. Since the word stratification simply refers to the process in which people are placed in hierarchical position based on certain system of social inequality, we can see the different people from different social, linguistic, and religious background having different skills in business and management setting. • Furthermore, the word management itself refers the inequality where someone, having more power and higher status, supervises, controls and coordinates the activities of the others. • The existence of bureaucratic organization itself related to stratification where superior controls the junior level workers by using power. If the hierarchy is not maintained, it's difficult to manage and promote the business. • It is claimed that the specialized division of labor, which characterizes organizational society, is based on a hierarchal principle of authority and control. The job fragmentation and specialization have evolved as a means of control based on principle of divide and conquer. • A hierarchy of authority is said to be necessary in order to coordinate, supervise, and control the many specialized tasks in the division of labor. It is also the fact that every different people have their talent in different fields.