CHAPTER: FIVE , SOCIAL STRATIFICATION 5.1 Meaning & Definition of social differences, inequalities and stratification 5.1.1 Meaning and definition of Social differences In all societies there is differentiation of the population by age, sex, & personal characteristics. The roles and privileges of children differ from those adults and those of good hunters or warriors differ from those of the rank & life. It is not customary to speak of a society as stratified if every individual in it has an equal chance to succeed to whatever status are open. Strictly speaking, there are no purely equalitarian societies, only society's differing in degree of stratification. Everywhere individuals & societies differ. In no society people are absolutely equal in all respects. Differentiation is the keynote of human society. Society rests on the principle of difference. Difference is inherent in the very nature of society. In all societies there is social differentiation of the population by age, sex, occupation & personal characteristics. They are the major factors of social differentiation. Men & women, teenagers & adults, children & old men, masters & servants, rulers & ruled, rich & poor teachers & advocates, engineers & doctors etc. are not always adjudged as equal. There are no equalitarian societies in the world. Societies are marked by differentiation. Differentiation is clearly related to the rise & operation of social classes. In the economic order, differentiation is found in the different roles entrepreneur, manager & skilled & unskilled laborers. It is evident in the professions; in the political order as witnessed in the varying roles of public administrators, legislators & judges in education as between teachers & administrators; & in religion, as in the distinct roles of prophet, seer & priest. In reality, some form of specialization of the role is found in every association of men. Causes of Social differences Talcott Parsons mentions three causal factors of social differentiation –i) Possession ii) qualities, and iii) performance. These three however interrelated. 1) Possession:- it refers to mainly material possessions, such as money, wealth, property and all the other valuable, utilitarian material objects. People do not have equal access to these possessions. The unequal distribution of this material possession has contributed to inequality and differentiation. 2) Qualities:- it refers to the mainly intrinsic capacities or abilities of people to undertake or to do a task. These qualities are also not equally distributed. For example physical strength, intelligence, beauty, courage, loyalty to a cause, moral courage, selflessness, sacrifice & other internal qualities are not equally distributed. People are ranked differently depending upon the degree of possession of these qualities. 3) Performance:-it refers to the execution of task in given time under a given situation. Performance is always judged first according to their products or results. Secondly they are judged according to the manner & style of the performing. Performances are always subject to regulatory norms. When the norms are violated, performances are often disvalued, regardless of their results. 5.1.2 Meaning and definition of social inequality Social inequality refers to a situation in which individual groups in a society do not have equal social status. Areas of potential social inequality include voting rights, freedom of speech and assembly, the extent of property rights and access to education, health care, quality housing and other social goods. Social inequality is different from economic inequality, though the two are linked. Economic inequality refers to disparities in the distribution of economic assets and income. While economic inequality is caused by the unequal accumulation of wealth, social inequality exists because the lack of wealth in certain areas prohibits these people from obtaining the same housing, health care, etc. as the wealthy, in societies where access to these social goods depends on wealth. Social inequality is linked to racial, gender and wealth inequality. The way people behave socially, through racism and other forms of discrimination, tends to trickle down and affect the opportunities and wealthy individuals can generate for themselves. Educational inequality occurs where the quality of education available to pupils is closely related to their social class or status. 5.1.3 Meaning and definition of Social Stratification Social stratification is one of the outcomes of the continuous occurring of social processes. Every society is segmented in to different hierarchies. In virtually all societies, some people are regarded as more important than others (more worthy of respect than others), either within the society as a whole or in a certain situations. Social stratification is the segmentation of society into different hierarchical arrangement or strata. It refers to the differences and inequalities in the socioeconomic life of people in a given society. It represents the ranking of individuals or social positions and statuses in the social structure. The term is borrowed from geology where it is used to explain the hierarchical arrangement of rocks and mineral in the earth’s surface. When applied to the world of people, it refers to hierarchical arrangement of people into different classes or strata which is the division of a population into two or more layers, each of which is relatively homogenous, between which there are differences in privileges, restrictions, rewards and obligations (Macionis, 1997; Henslin and Nelson, 1995; Calhoun et al 1994). The concept of class, involving the "classification of persons into groups based on shared socio-economic conditions, a relational set of inequalities with economic, social, political and ideological dimensions“ is known as social stratification. Everywhere the society is divided into various classes; economic, social, political and religious. The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in a more or less enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification. According to Raymond W. Murry , “social stratification is a horizontal division of society in to high and lower social units.” According to Ginsberg “Social stratification is the division of the society into permanent groups of categories linked with each other by the relationship of superiority and subordination”. Theories of Social Stratification There are various theories of social stratification concerning its importance, origin and value, of which three important theories are the following. • Functionalist Perspective • The lower class provides a pool of inexpensive laborers that help keep prices down • The poor buffer the lower-middle class from economic changes • People have different skills and knowledge and will always seek different opportunities • Conflict Perspective • Stratification and class are the results of the inequality in the distribution of the wealth, which is sustained by the exertion of power • Symbolic Interactions Perspective • People are socialized to accept inequality • People in the subordinate classes often adopt the value systems of those in power and see themselves as unworthy; Marx? Characteristics of stratification • Stratification is a social:- Social stratification is social in the sense it does not represent biologically caused inequalities. It is true that such factors as strength, intelligence, age & sex and class & can often serve as the basis on which status or strata are distinguished. But such differences by themselves are not sufficient to explain why some statuses receive more power, prestige & property than others. • Stratification is ancient:- The stratification system is quite old. According to historian & archaeological records, stratification was present even in the small wandering bands. Age & sex were the main criterion of stratification than. Women & children last was probably the dominant rule of order. Difference between the rich & poor, powerful & humble, freeman & slaves was therein almost all the ancient civilizations. • Stratification is universal phenomenon:- The stratification system is a worldwide phenomenon. Difference between the rich & poor, or the 'haves' & the 'haves notes' is evident everywhere. Even in the non literate societies stratification is very much present. As Sorokin has said all permanently organized groups are stratified. • It is diverse in form:- The stratification system has never been uniform in all the societies. The ancient Roman society was stratified into two strata: the patricians and the plebeians , the ancient Aryans society into four varnas: the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas & Sudra, the ancient Greek Society into freemen & slaves; the Chinese society into the mandarins, farmers, & soldiers & so on. Class, caste & estate seem to be the general forms of stratification. • It is Consequential:- The stratification system has its own consequences. The most important, most desired, & often the scarcest things in human life are distributed unequally because of stratification. They system leads to two main kinds of consequences: i) life chances & ii) life styles. Life chances refer to such things as infant mortality, longevity, physical & mental illness, marital conflict, separation & divorce. Live style include such matters as the mode of housing, residential area one's education, the kinds books magazines relationship between the parents & children, the kinds books magazines & TV shows to which one is exposed, one's mode