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Koude Oorlog Op Het Witte Doek ______ Koude Oorlog op het witte doek ________________________________________________________________ Onderzoek naar het veranderende karakter van de Koude Oorlog en spionage in spionagefilms tussen 1950-1991 1 Ronne de Bruin S4604369 Bachelorwerkstuk Geschiedenis Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen Inleverdatum: 15 januari 2019, Nijmegen Begeleider: prof. dr. Wim van Meurs 1 The Spy Who Came in From the Cold (1965) fragment 1:51.33. 2 Inhoudsopgave Inleiding blz. 4 Cultural turn in Cold War History blz.7 De relatie tussen films en wetenschappelijk onderzoek blz.9 Speelfilms en ‘New Cold War History’: spionagefilms blz. 10 Hoofdstuk 1: De jaren vijftig – stereotyperende films tegenover kritische films blz.14 1.1 De anticommunistische film blz.14 1.2 De intrede van de antispionage film blz. 17 Hoofdstuk 2: De jaren zestig – de heroïsche spion versus de verbitterde spion blz.20 2.1 De ontwikkeling van twee verschillende soorten spionagefilms blz.20 2.2 De heroïsche spion blz.21 2.3 De cynische representatie van spionagepraktijken in spionagefilms blz.22 2.4 Spionagefilms in de late jaren zestig blz.24 Hoofdstuk 3: De jaren zeventig – wantrouwen jegens bedreigingen from within en samenwerking met de ‘vijand’ blz.27 3.1 De Watergate-affaire en détente politiek blz. 27 3.2 Spionnen als misdaadbende en de invloed van détente blz. 28 Hoofdstuk 4: De jaren tachtig en het einde van de Koude Oorlog – de toekomst van de spion blz. 32 4.1 De Koude Oorlog in het begin van de jaren tachtig blz. 32 4.2 De spion als slachtoffer blz. 32 4.3 De spion als nostalgisch figuur blz. 34 4.4 Spionage in het glasnost-tijdperk blz. 36 Conclusie blz .39 Bibliografie blz. 42 Bronnen blz. 42 Literatuur blz. 46 3 ‘In the battle for mass opinion in the Cold War, few weapons were more powerful than the cinema.’ Tony Shaw, Hollywood’s Cold War. Inleiding Uit het openingscitaat blijkt de immense macht van films tijdens de Koude Oorlog, het conflict dat bepalend was voor de wereldpolitiek en geschiedenis in de tweede helft van de twintigste eeuw. Het was een periode die zich liet karakteriseren als een ‘gewapende vrede’ tussen het kapitalistische Westen en het communistische Oosten. De oorsprong hiervan lag in de tegenstrijdige ideologieën van het liberalisme, dat voet aan de grond had gekregen in de Verenigde Staten en West-Europa, en het communisme dat het leidende wereldbeeld was voor Rusland -later Sovjet-Unie- na de Russische Revolutie in 1917.2 Hoewel deze ideologische machtsblokken elkaar al met argusogen bekeken voor de jaren veertig, waren ze toch elkaars bondgenoten tijdens Tweede Wereldoorlog. Ze hadden namelijk een gemeenschappelijke vijand in de vorm van het fascisme. Het wegvallen van dit verbindende element tussen de machtsblokken maakte plaats voor verdere gevoelens van wantrouwen en dreiging. Ondanks de oplopende spanning tussen de supermachten, de Verenigde Staten en de Sovjet-Unie, bleef een directe confrontatie tussen beide landen uit. De Koude Oorlog had namelijk een andere aard dan de meeste conflicten.3 Kenmerkend hiervoor was de lange tijdsduur van de Koude Oorlog en de uitvoering van daadwerkelijke gevechten door plaatsvervangers. Bovendien speelde het conflict zich grotendeels af in de age of ideology. Dit impliceert dat de voornaamste inzet van de Koude Oorlog de strijd tussen wereldvisies en politieke actieprogramma’s was met als doel de bevolking te enthousiasmeren. Niet alleen in 2 Giles Scott-Smith en Joes Segal, ‘Introduction’, in: Peter Romijn, Giles Scott-Smith en Joes Segal (red.), Divided Dreamworlds? The cultural Cold War in East and West (Amsterdam, 2012), 1-12, alhier 1. 3 Tony Shaw en Denise J. Youngblood, Cinematic Cold War: The American and Soviet Struggle for Hearts and Minds (Lawrence, 2010), 4; Gordon Johnston, ‘Revisiting the Cultural Cold War’, Social History 35:3 (2010), 290-307, alhier 294- 295; Patrick Major en Rana Mitter, ‘East is East and West is West? Towards a comparative socio-cultural history of the Cold War’, Cold War History 4:1 (2003), 1-22, alhier 4. 4 de politiek maar ook in intellectuele kringen en in culturele uitingen was het dominante Oost- West-denken voelbaar.4 In de ideologische strijd om de harten van de massa draaide het dus niet zozeer om de politieke handelingen maar meer om de culturele uitingen in de populaire cultuur. In de propagandastrijd van de Koude Oorlog barstte daarom (figuurlijk) wél de bom. Bijna vijftig jaar lang had het ideologische conflict een centrale positie in de politieke belevingswereld van miljoenen mensen.5 Zoals nader uit dit onderzoek zal blijken is deze invloed lang buiten de wetenschappelijke belangstelling gebleven, maar de laatste decennia in opkomst als nieuw onderzoeksgebied. Oog is er voortaan voor de wijze waarop de massamedia het conflict vormgaf en hoe overheden populaire cultuur gebruikten als machtsmiddel in de verspreiding van propagandistische boodschappen. Ideologische constructies in de populaire cultuur van de Koude Oorlog kwamen niet alleen vanuit de politiek.6 Ook burgers konden door middel van populaire cultuur hun visies op het conflict delen en deze waren vaak kritisch op de nationale en internationale politiek. Voor onderzoek naar de contemporaine betekenis van de Koude Oorlog in populaire cultuur zijn spionagefilms goed bronmateriaal.7 De films vulden een publiekelijk vacuüm aan kennis over spionage op doordat de spionnenoorlog in de Koude Oorlog gehuld was in geheimzinnigheid.8 Spionagefilms waren populair tijdens de Koude Oorlog en portretteerden vaak een morele strijd. Zowel de populariteit als de morele boodschap van de films zorgden dat ze zeer geschikt waren voor ideologische beïnvloeding van kijkers.9 De representaties van de 4 Trevor McCrisken en Christopher Moran, ‘James Bond, Ian Fleming and intelligence: breaking down the boundary between the ‘real’ and the ‘imagined’’, Intelligence and National Security 33:6 (2018), 804-821, alhier 805; Johnston, ‘Revisiting the Cultural Cold War’, 290-296; Major en Mitter, ‘East is East and West is West?’,1-5. 5 Shaw en Youngblood, Cinematic Cold War, 4; Tony Shaw, Hollywood’s Cold War (Edinburgh, 2007), 1; Major en Mitter, ‘East is East and West is West?’, 4 en 16. 6 Jessica Gienow-Hecht, ‘’How Good Are We?’ Culture and the Cold War’, Intelligence and National Security 18:2 (2003), 269-282, alhier 270-272; Eric J. Morgan, ‘Whores and angels of our striving selves: the cold war films of John le Carré, then and now’, Historical Journal of Film Radio and Television 36:1 (2016), 88-103, alhier 89; Shane O’Sullivan, ‘This Film is Restricted: Training Films of the British Security Service’, Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television 38:2 (2018), 274- 295, alhier 292. 7 Wesley K. Wark, ‘Introduction: Fictions of History’ in: Wesley K. Wark (red.), Spy Fiction, Spy Films and Real Intelligence (New-York, 1991), 1-16, alhier 9. 8 Alan R. Booth, ‘The Development of the Espionage Film’, in: Wesley K. Wark (red.), Spy Fiction, Spy Films and Real Intelligence (New-York, 1991), 136-160, alhier 157-158; McCrisken en Moran, ‘James Bond, Ian Fleming and intelligence’, 806. 9 McCrisken en Moran, ‘James Bond, Ian Fleming and intelligence’, 809-810. 5 Koude Oorlog in spionagefilms en de macht van deze beelden zijn culturele aspecten van het conflict die tot nu toe onderbelicht zijn gebleven. In lijn met deze gedachten zal deze scriptie het veranderende karakter van de Koude Oorlog en spionage in tien populaire westerse spionagefilms van 1950 tot 1991 onderzoeken en waar mogelijk een beeld schetsen van contemporaine ideeën hierover van Nederlandse filmrecensenten. De tien films die naar voren komen in het onderzoek zijn gekozen omdat ze representatief zijn voor een ontwikkeling door de tijd heen en als thema spionage tijdens de Koude Oorlog hebben. Centraal in de analyse van de films staat de historische context en de verbeelding van de Koude Oorlog, spionage en spionnen in populaire Amerikaanse en Engelse spionagefilms. Het resultaat hiervan is een chronologische uiteenzetting van het conflict in het kader van westerse spionagefilms uit de Koude Oorlog. Om een ontwikkeling door de tijd heen te schetsen, is gekozen voor een opdeling in vier hoofdstukken die elk respectievelijk een decennium van de Koude Oorlog beslaan. Daarnaast hebben de spionagefilms zich in vier stadia ontwikkeld synchroon met de decennia in de Koude Oorlog. Dit zal in de verschillende hoofdstukken verder worden toegelicht. In het eerste hoofdstuk staan spionagefilms uit de jaren vijftig centraal en wordt al snel duidelijk dat spionagefilms het stereotyperende beeld van de Koude Oorlog loslieten om spionagediensten van negatieve repliek te bedienen. Het tweede hoofdstuk draait om de jaren zestig en toont de ontwikkeling van twee compleet verschillende soorten spionagefilms als reactie op de historische context: de heroïsche spion versus de cynische, bittere spion. Het derde hoofdstuk omvat de jaren zeventig waarin spionagefilms een nog kritischer beeld van de Koude Oorlog en spionagediensten gingen uitdragen onder invloed van onder andere de politieke flaters en de kritiek op de Vietnamoorlog. Het vierde hoofdstuk integreert de jaren tachtig in de ontwikkeling van spionagefilms, waarin een gevoel van weemoed naar de oprechte spion heerste. Spionnen werden steeds vaker geportretteerd als slachtoffers van het kwaadaardige systeem, maar spionagediensten juist als hét grote kwaad in de Koude Oorlog. Als afsluitende film is in het vierde hoofdstuk voor een film uit 1990 gekozen die als laatste Engelse en Amerikaanse Koude Oorlog spionagefilm voor het uiteenvallen van de Sovjet-Unie in de bioscoop draaide. Dit alles leidt tot de ontrafeling van het veranderende karakter van spionage en de Koude Oorlog in populaire Anglo-Amerikaanse spionagefilms. 6 Cultural turn in Cold War history De Koude Oorlog was meer dan alleen een confrontatie tussen economische systemen en politieke supermachten. Het draaide veel meer om de rivaliteit tussen conflicterende ideologieën en culturen.10 Belangstelling voor het conflict nam bijzonder toe na de val van de Berlijnse Muur in 1989 en de daaropvolgende neergang van de Sovjet-Unie.
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