VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic

BY LOU TAYLOR https://doi.org/10.38055/FS01010

Abstract: This material culture-based text researches the history of a collection of damaged clothing (1900–50s) once worn by farming families in Normandy and Brittany. The clothing was excavated from a textile dump in an abandoned warehouse in Normandy in 2012. This research examines the six life cycle stages of this clothing from original use, to abandonment, resurrection, and upcycling onto the extreme edges of the vintage world. This text then follows the growing use of ragged clothing as design inspiration for both costly couture garments and the cheapest mass high street designs over the last thirty years or more. Carefully destroyed but brand-new and sweet- smelling and are now admired by celebrities and young high street fashion consumers around the world as fashionable commodities — worn with little regard to the health dangers faced by workers dealing with sand blasting and bleaches. The research then examines the cultural and social forces behind this interest in destroyed textiles in the world of fashion.

KEYWORDS • damaged clothing • upcycling • class vacationing VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic Tracey Diane Cassidy, andHannahRoe Bennet. Clark, Lucy Norris, Margaret Maynard, Karen Tranberg Hanson, much studiedbydress historianssuchasAlexandraPalmer, Hazel edge ofthevastglobalrecycling andvintagefashionindustries, In commercial terms,todaythiscollectionliesontheextreme world of “poverty chic” fashion — the sixth and fnal destination. ffthly resurrected, cleaned, and fnally launched into today’s warehouses, fourthlytoabandonment whennolongerrequired, “chiffoniers-en-gros” —whostored theragged textilesinlarge — nicknamed“biffns,” thirdly soldontolarge scaledealers— secondly passingtosmallscale“chiffoniers ” —ragdealers six lifestages:frstlyusedforfeld,domestic,andfarmwork, way that[a]fare ...canilluminate thesky.” passes anditspassagecan...illuminate those environments inthe economic, political,andculturalenvironments through whichit life ofanobject…gainsitsmeaningsthrough thevarioussocial, No matter its condition, as Roger Silverstone hasargued: “The the unexpectedlifecycleofthisclothingfrom birthtoresurrection. object-based materialculture research project hasbeentofollow of consumptiontoanother. Whathasproved sofascinatinginthis more thanahundred yearsasithaspassedfrom onecommunity several livesofragdumpclothingfrom Normandyoveraperiodof architectural heritagedealer from Sussex. about 2010itwasdiscovered, purchased, and“excavated” byan valueless indamp,rat-infestedconditionsforoversixtyyears.In compressed balespiledontopofeachotherandlefttorot as seems, inthemid-1950s,dumpconsistedoflarge, bound,and textile dumpfoundinafarmbarnNormandy. Abandoned,it dating from around 1900intothe1950s,excavated from alarge This textexaminesacollectionofraggedanddamagedclothing museums asworthlessinevery way, unless ofprecious historical twentieth-century raggedclothes are ofakindrejected by excavated from aNormandy rag dump in about 2010. These today amongstvintageclothingdealers. has proved impossibleduetoprofessional competitivesecrecy whereabouts ofthisdump,beyondthefactthatitisinNormandy, This research willshowthattheseclothesmovedthrough This research, withitsfocusonwomen’s clothing,assessesthe This texttherefore discussesagroup ofgarments 1 . 2 Finding the exact 2 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic 364. 1-12.Professor LouTaylor, photograph. 1900–30, UniversityofBrighton HistoryTeaching Collection,no. Rats’ teethmarksonthehem of ashortragdumptablier,Normandy, c. FIGURE 1 Dress HistoryTeaching Collection,creating thesecondgroup (we then generously donatedsevenitemstotheUniversityofBrighton dealer ofHovewhopurchased directly from theexcavator. She One large group belongstoLoisDavidson,a vintage textile this ragdumpclothing,toprove thefalsityofthisrejection. This text,nonetheless,discussesthree survivinggroups of victims orfrom NaziconcentrationcampsofWorld War II. value suchasragssurvivingfrom theclothesofHiroshima

3 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic The Clothes . various othercottonfabrics,c.1900–10,andpatchedblack silk white cottonwovenwithnarrow blackstripesandpatchedwith corsets from the1930s,women’s open-leggeddrawersinsturdy collection as apatchedS-bendcorsetofabout1905–10intheDavidson collections. Thewomen’s clothingincludes underwear, such Men’s, women’s, and children’s clothessurviveinthesethree the twentiethcentury. countryside andoftheregion’s ragdealingtradeinthefrsthalfof both of thereality of the working clothes worn in the Normandy barn colours, and the growth of mould as rain penetrated the storage by chewingandeatingrats,bird droppings, thebleedingof ones ontheedgesofdump,whoseconditionwasworsened the centre oftheragdump pile,were inbetterconditionthanthe longer serviceableeveninthefelds.Some,thosehauledoutfrom patched, worn,andfrayedtothepointwhere, fnally, theywere no c. 1900–55.Mostofthegarmentsare meticulouslyandheavily rare examplesofworn-out ruralworkingclothingfrom Normandy, to nine). We are thanking her now for her kind generosity. later purchased twomore piecesfrom her—bringingourtotal Spitalfelds MarketintheEastEndofLondon. vintagetextiledealerssellingfrom aweeklystallin Cosmo Wise, third group discussedhere belongstoRichard Ragsandhisson, The specifcinterest within theseclothesliesintheirsurvivalas (see fg.1).Nonetheless,theyoffer ustodayapicture (see fg.2),andotherdamaged,pink,elasticizedfabric 4 3 The 4 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic Davidson collection,withthanks. Professor LouTaylor, photograph. Corset, incottonandboning,c. 1905–10,badlydamaged,Lois FIGURE 2

5 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic no. 408.05.Professor LouTaylor, photograph. 1900–30, UniversityofBrighton Dress HistoryTeaching Collection, Short patchedwoman’s outdoor weartablier,Normandy, c. FIGURE 3 wool, overandagain(seefg.5) in patchedcottonandhand-knittedsocksdarnedwithbright wear cottonjackets.Thiscollectioniscompletedbygirls’ the seat,knees,andlegssomedarkblue,patched,ready-to - legged inbrown, grey, andblue,withlarge patchesover and fnestitching.Amongstthemen’s clothesare pairsofnarrow- All ofthemendingandmatchingisexecutedwithhigh-quality front waswornthrough bythework-specifcactionsofwearer. length dress, by contrast, has no patching at all, indicating that the patch coveringtheentire front (seefg.4).Thebackofthiscalf- indigo bluetablier, blue, heavycottonandlinenskirts,patchedworn,ashort through dress ofthe1930s invaryingconditions,andonecompletebutton front buttons,rough bluecotton,orgrey woolmixsleeveless woven checkpatternandlongsleeves,highneckswithcentre- destruction Women’s outerwearincludesvariousfull-length,indigo

(see fg.3),,inpatcheddarkgrey cottonwith

5 patchedandrat-eatenatthehemalmostto 6 ofblackheavycottonwithpatchon 6 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic History Teaching Collection, no.408.08. 1935–45, UniversityofBrightonDress Professor LouTaylor, photograph. Patched daydress, Normandy, c. FIGURE 4

7 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic Characteristic Features Brighton Dress HistoryTeaching Collection,no. 408.02.Professor Lou Taylor, photograph. , hand-knittedinbrownsixdifferent woolanddarned shadesofcoloured woollenthreads, Universityof FIGURE 5 the patientover-darning thatstaysinthememory (seefg.6). womanly patching,ontop of layersexistingpatches,and denim. Aboveall,ineverygarment, itistheendlesslypatient also in indigo blue or dark grey but in heavier cotton drill or French fabricforelderlyworkingwomen.Men’s clothesare with tinydotsandgeometricdesignsorsmallfowers— classic jacquard patternsinwhite.Someare roller-printed inwhite and cottonmix.Someexamplesare wovenwithsmallrepeat either dark blue, black, or grey rough cotton and linen or wool The sturdy fabricofallthewomen’s outergarmentsisdark—

8 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic This handworkindicateswithpowerfulforce Lou Taylor, photograph. c. 1910–30,LoisDavidsonCollection, withthanks.Professor Detail ofpatchesonlongwaistcoat forawoman, FIGURE 6 both thefnancialneedforthispainstaking — orboth.Insomeexamples,itisbarely patching andthefrugalityofowners possible toseethebasematerialatall.

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VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic The SixLifeStages Communities ofDress: Life StageOne and ruralfrugality, andhoursofpatientsewingpatching. of about1910(seefg.7).There isnothingbutsignsofhard work or fnelacecoifs,suchasthebonnetrond examplefrom Bayeux festival dress here whatsoever—novelvetbodices,embroidery, parts ofBrittany. There are nosignsof“Sundaybest”church and shabby, were used for rougher outdoor work in Normandy and homemade orboughtinmarketsandcitystores, andthen,once garments were wornfrstly ashard-wearing everydayclothes,either regionalisms andparticular-isms ofeverysort.” fashion anddress are “theirrepressible outcomingsoflocalities, access tothesymbolicwares ofsociety.” Headdssignifcantlythat highly differentiated intermsoftaste,socialidentityandperson’s right downtotheveryshapeandbearingofbodyitself,is meaning attachingtoclothes,cosmetics,hairstyleandjewellery, of theseclothes.Fred Daviesbelievesthat“theuniverseof The startingpointforresearch hasbeenprobing thelifecycle collection. Professor LouTaylor, photograph,author’s published byC.P.A. Bernard, Caen,Normandy. Post card, BonnetRond,Bayeux,about1905–10, FIGURE 7 speculation, Using Prown’s materialculture methodofdeductionand story here. highly specifc communities of dress isexactly applicable to my biographies andlifecycles, 8 coupledwithKopytoff’s notionthatobjectshave 9 research soonclarifedthatthese

7 Thisconceptof 10 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic stockings andsocks,sewinginthebuttons.” sisters’ dresses and her brothers’ and , mending work outofdoors,butwastheladyneedle,making her farm, Louise,theshort-sighted,youngestdaughter, “didnot confrmation ofthis.Shewritesthatin1938,onherneighbour’s house inruralNormandyjustinlandfrom Cabourg, provides time occupation. paintings andphotographyoftheperiod, Lucien Simon,forexample.All ofthemstress thedark orfaded Lhermitte, andtheEnglishpainters SydneyCurnowVosper and Julien Thibaudeau,theAmerican DanielRidgway-Knight,Leon clothes abound, include work by Jules Breton, Julien Dupré, Normandy andBrittanycountryside,where patchedworking romanticized, genre paintingofmenandwomentoilinginthe comparisons hasbeeneasy. The1870–1930sentimental,often paintings ofNormandyandBrittanyfarmworkers, fnding Mrs. Henrey, aLondoner, who,inthe1930s,bought afarm Using establishedmethodsofcomparingsurvivingdress to d’Agescie, Niort. pauvres, 1901,painting,MuséeBernard Bretagne, distributiondescrêpes aux to usethisimage.JulienThibaudeau,En No. 943.2.12.withthanksforkindpermission FIGURE 8

11 inthiscasegenre 10 Thatwasherfull-

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VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic Collection, withthanks.Professor Lou beige-coloured cotton,LoisDavidson Woman’s skirtinindigo-dyed,heavily patched fabricwithwaistbandin Taylor, photograph. FIGURE 9

milk pailonhershouldersandwearsahigh-collared, long-sleeved 10). Theyoungwoman,wearinglarge woodenclogs,iscarryinga nous, chestlaruesansbout,as-tufnir’commenche...” women, oneelderlyandyoung.Thecaptionreads “Tcheu from Saint-Pierre-Eglise, intheMancheregion, showstwocountry Le Goubey, who madesuchseriesfrom 1904.One,ofabout1910 used here, produced bytheNormandyfamilypublishingcompany Examples from onesuchgroup entitledNormandiePittoresque are herding cows,orelderly women sittingindoorwaysorspinning. bleu, patchytrousers, andheavy clogs,oftencarryinggeeseor others show local “characters” — old men in their loose emphasis onthefamousNormandyandBrittanylacecoifs,whilst to tourists. Some highlighted “best” and festivaldress, with an whole seriesofpostcards were photographed,printed,andsold useful garmentcomparisons. By theearlytwentieth century, this periodofNormandyandBrittanyfarmersthatdoprovide rural photography, there are nonethelessmanyphotographsfrom stage backdrops inmuchlate nineteenth-centurystudio-based and againconsciousofsentimentalizing,usefauxgarments, women inNormandybytheearly twentiethcentury. urban fashionswasalready well-establishedamongst younger there fewerthanthecottonblouses,showsthatinfuenceof Normandie inabout1910(seefg.12).Thisexample,ofwhich and boaterhat,sellingeggsatCoutancesmarketin Basse- that are verylikeonewornbyayounggirlwearingherbestdress silk blouses for example, some now owned by Richard Rags — some more fashionableclotheswere found—high-neckedstriped long skirtare clearlyvisible.Aswell,inthecentre ofthedump withablousebeneath.Theshabbinessandpatching on her fg. 11). de crepes aux pauvres rag dump.Thibaudeau’s 1901paintingEnBretagne, distribution blue clothes,withlarge patchesexactlylikeourexamplesfrom the closely similartooneownedbyLoisDavidson(seefg.9) wears along,patched,indigoblueskirt,withbeigewaistband, doorway ofalarge house(seefg.8).Oneoldwomanpictured receiving charity, intheformoflarge pancakes,handedoutatthe perfect example,whichshowsagroup ofpoormenandwomen Moving on to period photography as a comparative source, 14 similartotheonefoundinourTeaching Collection

Her older companion wears a bodice with an attached

(Musée Bernard d’Agesci, Niort) blousons (see fg. 12

has a (see 12 13 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic Cotton blousewithpatches,Normandy c. 1920,from theragdump,University Collection, no.408.07.Professor Lou of BrightonDress HistoryTeaching Taylor, photograph. FIGURE 11

Professor LouTaylor, photograph,author’s collection. Pittoresque seriesno.2071,LeGoubey, c.1910. Post card, Saint-Pierre-Eglise from theNormandie FIGURE 10

13 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic photograph, author’s collection. Post card, Coutanceseggmarket,c.1905–10.Professor LouTaylor, FIGURE 12

cotton jacketsandsometimeslooseblousonbleusmocks. by LoisDavidsonandRichard Rags—classicheavyblueworking photography, whichcompare withragdumpgarmentsownedboth and partsofBrittany. that these clothes were once wornby rural families in Normandy not identifedassuch(seefg.13). faded blueworkingmen’s jacketsfrom theragdump,butcarefully the same rag dump is unknown. His rails more often carry patched, Brittany each, a few examples of the famous smock-like Normandy and Rennes datingtoabout1945. Musée de Bretagne owns a very similar veste de , travail from Men’s clothesare equallyseeningenre paintingsand With these matching images in place, it seems safe to confrm With blouson bleu overalls — though whether they come from

16 Richard Ragsalsosells,for£300 15 The 14 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic Life StageTwo: Biffn Value End ofLondon.Professor LouTaylor, 2016,photograph. Rail ofragdumpmen’s jackets,Richard Rags’stall,Spitalfeldsmarket,East FIGURE 13 human bodywouldnormallyhave endedhere. only intheirbarteringvalue. Their role asgarmentsworn onthe cheap glass ware. At this point, the function of these clothes lay for cheapceramicdecorative plates,“assietteduchiffonier,” or to street, leading donkeys or even dog carts, bartering clothes in Brittany) who travelled on foot from farm to farm and street small-scale, impoverished, localchiffoniers —biffns —(pilhaouer Once worntotheirlives’end,thesegarmentswere bartered to

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VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic Life StageThree: Chiffonnier enGros Industrial Paperand Textile Pulp Life StageFour:Transformation into excellent source ofgoodlength …fbres formakingpaper.” together cellulosefbre — andcottonlinenragsprovided an to papermanufacture because thelatterconsistsinbonding its displacement by wood pulp, wasrags. Rags were necessary writes that:“Theprimaryrawmaterialforpapermanufacture, until in NormandyandBrittanypapertextilemills.MartinO’Brien value. Interest layinselling theclothes,stillunsorted,forpulping For thechiffoniers engros , theragsheldveryreal commercial competitive commercial world ofprofessional wastecollection. the handsofNormandyfarmingandsea-faringfamiliesinto textiles. Ownershipofthegarmentsthuspassedentirely outof across NormandyandBrittany —papermakingandwoollen formed thebasisoftwolongestablishedandoncevitalindustries barns. Thiswasavastandlucrativetrade,becausetherags of unsortedoldclothesandtextilesinstoragewarehouses and dealers, The early eighteenth century Tim Barrett, usinganillustrationfromearly eighteenthcenturyTim indeed famousforitshigh-quality papermanufacturing.Bythe to paperforletters,maps to playingcards. Normandy was Such millsmadeeveryquality ofpaper, from fnedrawingquality alone there were twenty-sevenmillsdrivenbywaterwheels. Philippe Dupré writesthatby1723inthevalleyofl’Orbiquet to thelatesixteenthcenturyinLePerche inBasse-Normandie. Yannick Lecherbonniercitesreferences forsuchmillsdatingback running riversinnarrow ruralvalleystoturntheirwaterwheels. The NormandyandBrittanypapermillsmadeuseofthe fast- biffns soldtheirhoards ontothelarge-scale wholesale rag chiffoniers-en-gros, whowouldstore vastquantities

17 16 19 18 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic to closedownsteadilyinthesecondhalfoftwentiethcentury. lesser quality, butwascheaperthanpure woollenfabrics. mixed withpure woolandnewcotton.Theresulting clothwasofa wool fabric—Renaissance.Thiswaseitherwovenonitsownor in theLisieuxregion bythelatenineteenthcentury, producing a or cottonfabricwaste,introduced from England,waspracticed l’Orbiquet, forexample,anindustrialmethodre-using wool,silk, Whilst thetraditionofwoolweavingwasancientinVallée de Normandy. This alsoevolvedintoindustrialscalesofmanufacturing. wool wasteinaround 1875forthemakingofshoddytextilesin into anever-growing declineafterWorld War II. bleached, dried,androlled intopaper. hammering machinesformanyhourstoproduce apulpthatwas best earlybookpapers.”Thenextstepwasstampingbywooden crucial reason fortheunique look,feel,andhandleofmanythe the process. Barrett confrmsthat“thesensitiveuseofretting isa softening process) andwere thenbleachedatcertainstagesof retted in still water (rotted through a naturalfermentation and pins andtore orcutgarmentsdowninsize.Theragswere then women and girls working in large sheds who removed buttons and used onalarge scale,frstskilfullysortedbyhandforquality Diderot’s closed in 1975. but bythe1950sitsbusinesswasdeclining,andthisfactory, too, cigarette papersthrough more modernmanufacturingprocesses; at Thiel-sur-Huisne, inOrne,Perche, andwas famousformaking discusses, amodernfactorycalledAbadiewasopenedin1866 rural papermills,whichcloseddownsteadily. AsLecherbonnier steam power introduced into large factories threatened the small Both thepapermakingandwoolweavingindustriescontinued Signifcantly for thisresearch, there wasanewdemandfor Encyclopedie, 1751–65,notesthatcollectedragswere 21

Thus, the demand for rags for paper making went 20 From the1850sonward, 22 17 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic (c. 1955–2010) Stage Five:UnwantedDetritus By the1950s,thisdumpofclotheswasnot function atthisstagewas asfoodforfarm cost ofitsremoval. The garmentsbecame unwanted industrialdetritus. Theironly even economicallyworththeeffort and have beenremoved atthe sortingstage. and blouses,dresses, and trousers withbuttons,allofwhichwould pile stillcontainedelasticizedcorsetswiththeirsuspendersintact were evidentlystillunsorted, because,asalready discussed,the reached apaperortextile factorywarehouse forrecycling and to anyone.Itisclearthattheclothesinourdumpnevereven to rot because they were no longer of any commercial value must have been abandoned around this time, leaving the clothes numbers, themarketforragscollapsed.OurNormandydump By the1950s,asbothpaperandtextilemillsclosedinlarge rats.

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VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic ” Transformation into “PovertyChic Life StageSix:Resurrection and with anentirely newculturalvalue—thatof Thus startedaprocess oftransformation,as some oftheclotheswere carefully infused “vintage” garments. commercial value— not inFrance,butEngland. dealers andupcyclingsoonbegantoraisetheclothing’s value oftheseraggedclotheswasspottedbyEnglish they could!” lot ofdirty, very hard worktogothrough itandsalvagewhatever bales that were both flthy and rat infested, so it was apparently a so oftentosortandclearmore. Itwasallstored inheapsandlarge dealers topurchase thecontents ofthebarnandreturn backevery Lois Davidsonremembered thatthefarmingfamily“allowed cafés, pubs,andsomehomes,certainlyintheSouthofEngland. warehouse. Theseare popularasinteriordecorationinEnglish furniture, ceramics,andtextiles tosellathislarge second-hand farms around 2010for, amongstotheritems,“shabbychic” 2010. Doubtless,hewaslookinginNormandybrocantes and architectural heritagecollector anddealerfrom Sussexinabout rights toexcavateitpurchased from thefarmerbyanEnglish Some sixtyyearslater, ourparticulardumpwasdiscovered and The key point here is that the potential commercial 23

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VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic characteristics byfashion and textiledesigners, They are nowcommercially admired fortheirrough, rural,frayed some oftheragdumpclothesare nowtobefound. ironed —alsofor£50.Itiswithinthiscircuit andpricerangethat laboratory —stained,spattered, discreetly holed,laundered, and white, cottondrill,full-lengthoverallsdiscarded from achemistry Britain’s bestvintageshopsbyCompany magazine,wasalsoselling denim jacketscost£50.In2015,thislittleshop,namedas one of (see fg.14). 2016, newly-distressed denim jacketswere onsalefor£10 each shredded jeanswere sellingfor£45.Inthesamestreet inAugust boutiquearoundVintage thecorner ontrendy SydneyStreet, similar offered forunder£1.Atthestylish,countercultural Wolf &Gypsy area, second-hand,worn, bluejeanswithholed-kneeswere being of Brighton’s manycharityshopsintherundownLondonRoad bogus, brand-new“vintagedenim”clothing.InJuly2015,atone process ofdamageddenim jeansandjacketstheretailing of vintage clothing outlets. These offer a perfect study of theupcycling countercultural vibesand itsmanyquirkycharityandindependent identifed themanylayersofvintagefashionmarket. Work byAlexandraPalmer andHazelClark,already citedhere, has these specifcgarmentsonceagainbecameofcommercial interest. to thevintageclothescircuits, internationally, andtodesignstudios, viruses, bird droppings, germs, and ragdumpstench.Oncesoldon scenting withagreat deal offabricconditionertoremove flth,rat — probably through hot washinginmodernmachinesand garments withviablecommercial possibilitieshadtobesanitized inspiration foryoung,streetwise styles.Firstly, ofcourse,those

Brighton, inSussex,isaseasidecityfamedforits Wolf’s &GypsyVintage second-handworn,French 24 for example, seeking 20

VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic youth, whofocktothispartofLondon. alongside rag dump clothes. He sells to actors and countercultural costly examplesofthesefrom hislarge stallinSpitalfeldsmarket, and cansellforhighpricesinartgalleries. worn through, havenowbeenelevatedintotherealm offneart printed Japanesecottonclothesandcoverings,patchworked and (see fg. 15).Theverybestexamplesofthesefnely-stitched,indigo- jackets, £100,soldalongsideexamplesofJapaneseboro sashiko dump clothing—blousesfor£30,,men’s trousers, anddenim in Hackney, East Londonfullofvintageclothes,includingmanyrag text straightfrom thebarn in Normandy. Theyownalarge warehouse whoboughtthethird collectiondiscussedinthis son CosmoWise, immigrant community, inthesecond-hand clothesdealingtrade. century, famouslythehomeforvast,hugely impoverishedJewish streets 150 years ago. East London was, from the mid-nineteenth not be more different to those buying and selling in the very same stall mightberecognizably similar, Richard Rags’customerscould that, today, althoughtheraggedcontentsofhisSpitalfeldsvintage vintage marketsinBostonandLosAngeles. Two purchasers from ourragdump were Richard Ragsandhis photograph. £10. Professor LouTaylor, 2016, sale inSydneyStreet, Brightonfor Newly-distressed denimjacketson FIGURE 14

26 25 Healsosellsathuge Richard Ragssellsless 27 Itisbitterlyironic

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VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic and bespoketailoringretailers, thesecond- Denim jacketfrom ragdump,Richard Rags’ new French patisseries,costlyshoeshops, stall SpitalfeldsMarket,Londonfor£100. hand clothes’customersare nolongerthe Professor LouTaylor, 2016,photograph. poor ofLondonbutyoung,edgy, largely scrapers takesovertheoldstreets with of Londonintheformnewglasssky Today, asthegreat wealthofthe City international, andmiddleclass. international, FIGURE 15

22 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic Rouen, Caudebec-en-Caux,Yvetot, Caen,andCoutances. and othercompanions,theystudiedchurches andcathedralsin hisfriend,theartistEdward Burne-Jones summer of1856.With jackets andsmocksonhistourofBrittanyNormandyinthe Morris,whowouldhaveseenfarmersintheir can citeWilliam clothes oftheirworkingclassmusesandheroes. InEngland,we class artistsandintellectuals,whowore theirownversionsofthe clothes foruseascountercultural sartorialstatementsbymiddle wearer, as featured inhis2009collection. 2015, withaverticalfrayedslashexposingtherightknee ofthe His PoloRepaired DenimOverallforwomenretailed at£245in the AmericanWorker” whotoiledthrough theGreat Depression. Program notesclarifedthathisinspirationwas“thecharacterof in September2009andhasboughtthecompanylastingsuccess. Bowl” Spring2010CollectionlaunchedinNewYork FashionWeek men was selling in August 2016 for £1940. Ralph Lauren’s “Dust sold at£1018.CommedesGarçons’ longpatchedindigocoatfor July 2015for£2350.Thatsummer, PhilippPlein’s bleached jeans patching onindigocottontrousers byYohji Yamamoto, sellingin impossibly trendy boutiqueat127BrickLane,featured exquisite ready-to-wear collections. One example, seen bytheauthoratan worn outboro sashikostyle,andthistrickledintohigh-end, just two. Designers embraced rag dump and Japanese farmers’ Perry EllisandXULY.Bët couture designsinParis1992,toname design withMarc Jacob’s Spring1993“grungecollection”for an internationallevel.Thestylehasnotleftthecatwalksince. 1990s, commercialized vintage andgrungegarmentsmarketedat had raggedyhippyclothesviaCaliforniaandbythelate1980s 1930s andrevived withgusto inthe1960s.Bylate1960s,we dress interest neverfaded, and was constant throughout the , gold , and huge, shaggy . famous forhisfascinationwithRomanilifeandopen-toed artist AugustusJohn,attheturnoftwentiethcentury, was There isalonghistoryoftheappropriation of working By theearly1990s,povertychicreached thelevelsofcouture 31 30 This bohemian 29 The 23 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic entirely faux.There are ofcourse,noactual fraying causedbymanuallabour. Thehard rats’ teethmarks,noactualdirt, workshops orfactoriesallovertheworld. that theirdistressedconditionis andtorn Of course,theonecharacteristicthatall work involvedisthatoftheirmakersin of these“designer”garmentsshare is following years of agitation by the Clean Clothes Campaign. Gucci, andotherleadingcompaniesnolongerusethesemethods actual, thoughsomeprogress hasbeenmade.Armani,Levis, holed kneescost £30 andPrimark seriously distressed shortssold have beeneverywhere. In2016,H&Mgrey jeanswithmodestly can turntomasshighstreet styles.From 2015to2017,examples remembering thattheseclothesare alwaysfauxdistressed, we photographed bythepaparazziinartifciallyraggedgarments. including BradPittandJohnnyDepp,haveplayedtheirpart here, of newlydamagedgarments.Multimillionaire celebrities, in public,celebritieshaveencouragedemulativeconsumption Eagle.” deaths tomakejeansforAbercrombie andFitchAmerican “workers inChinausecontroversial methodslinkedtodozensof However, in 2015 JackCrone notedinMailOnlinethat,still, surfaces, whichleadstolungsilicosis. used inbleachingpatchesandsandblastingtocreate distressed The dangertoworkers’healthliesinthenoxiouschemicals recognition onbehalfofaconsumergoodbyappearingwithit” individual whoenjoyspublicrecognition andwhousesthis by celebrityuse.Defnedin1989GrantMcCrackenas “any To fnd fashionable poverty chic today in England, and 34 Thus this distressed fad rolls on, encouraged further 32 Thusdangerremains

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VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic Professor LouTaylor, 2015,photograph. New distressed shortsforwomen,£10,Primark,Brighton. FIGURE 16

become ubiquitous (seefg.17,18,19,and20). of bothlegs,revealing more skinthanfabric.These styleshave with eighteenhorizontalfrayedslashesdowntheentire length Wash LinearRipLowRiseBoyfriendJean,themostextreme style, with twodiscreet littleripsonbothknees,totheSkylare Mid Styles veered from themodestKendallBlackKnee Rip MomJean, chic jeansinblue,black,andwhite,eachfor£28August2016. different stylesofskinny, holedanddistressed cotton,poverty- company, Pretty LittleThings,wassellingnolessthanforty-eight for £10(seefg.16),tonamebuttwo.Onemassonlinefashion

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VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic Ripped jeans’knees.Professor Lou Taylor, photograph. FIGURE 17

26 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic photograph. Professor LouTaylor, 2018, Ripped jeans’knees,Brighton. FIGURE 18

FIGURE 19 photograph. Professor LouTaylor, 2018, Ripped jeans’knees,Brighton.

hole inonekneeofherjeans. own stylewebsiteshowsher, too,relaxing athomewitharagged Harry inNovember2017,somehowinevitably, animageonher Finally, following theengagementofMeghanMarkletoPrince anddesignerjeansneatlycutwithlarge holesintheknees. TV chatshowinOctober2017wearingasmart,trendy, tailored edge sartorialeleganceoff track.Heappeared on apopularUK the BritishracingcardriverLewisHamilton,knownforhiscutting 2017 witnessedyoungmentakingupthelookaswell,including destruction, holing,andslashing.Interestingly, thesummerof The voguecontinuedin2018withevenmore extremes of

FIGURE 20 photograph. Professor LouTaylor, 2018, Ripped jeans’knees,Brighton. 36

27 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic Vacationing” Conclusion: Masqueradeand“Class

by millionaires orshoppersatPrimark. enough tobewornintheworldofconventionalfashion,whether in Spitalfeldsmarket,butragdumpclotheswillneverbesanitized just enoughtobewornbyedgy, young,non-conformistsshopping faux dirtied.Somespecifcragdumpclotheshavebeensanitized fashionable, poverty-chicclothesare alwaysfauxdistressed and entirely oncecopiedand sold.Itneedsagaintobestressed that patched up,theystillheldreal valueas utilitarianworkclothes. everyday style, as defned by Davies, and, even when seriously and communityvaluesofdecencyrespectability, apeergroup clothes constantly. Whennew, these clothesrepresented personal frugality ofthewomenwhomadeorboughtandrepaired these barn, refecting the necessity, thepracticality, thepatience and the with tothebiffns were clearlypresent before abandonmentinthe period. Thecarefully sewn patchesontheclothestheybartered working farming families in Normandy and Brittany in the 1900–55 The sixlifestagesofourragdumpclothesbeganwithinhard discarded.” with theaestheticsofdecay… seekingthepatinaofwornand street styles.RobinHealydescribesthisinterest asa“fascination twenty-frst-century fashiondesignereyes,well-aware ofcurrent who are reinterpreting ruralpovertythrough theirtwentieth-to educated creators workingwithinelitefashiondesigncircles about classappropriation, frstlybyavant-garde artanddesign- Ayres as“fundamentallyaboutrace,privilegeandpower.” not acaseofcross culturalappropriation, describedbyJennifer abstract aestheticsources fordesigncreativity. Thisis,however, are lostalmostentirely. Thestains,repairs, andshreds become of patchesanddarningwornout,sweatingraggedness, and communityvalues,oncesofundamentalwithinthecreation design studiosfor“inspiration.”Atthispointtheoriginal class confrmed totheauthor, are alsoboughtbyyoungdesignersand Original rag dump and boro sashiko The cultural meanings of such working clothes, today, alter 38

clothing, as Richard Rags

37 Itis 28 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic and thedecentered subject.” life inthelatetwentiethcentury—computervirus, cyborg of replication, contagionandsimulationthatpermeateseveryday that the“useofmold…chimeswithmore modernmetaphors garments were never designed to be worn, Evans concluded “fashion, artandscience.” Understanding thatMargiela’s eighteen the result ofanavant-garde fusionofphilosophicalideasand rag dumprotting oversixty years.Theirrotted appearancewas costly raggednessthrough aprofoundly different process than scale. Yet Margiela’s elite,unwearablegarmentsachievedtheir rag pickerslivingouttheirlivesattheverybottomofsocial drew parallelswithgarments scavengedbynineteenth-century much indeedliketheNormandyragdumpclothes.Indeed,Evans a rusttrunk,hunguptoair, spottedwithmildewandmold”— “Many of the garmentslooked like oldclothes disinterred from of mottleddecaygrew and grew, until,inCaroline Evans’s words: sprouted intodifferent coloured andtextured moulds.Thelevels into thegallery, they were leftforseveralmonthsasthespores spores. Placedoutdoorsbehind large glasswindowsandlooking to encouragemouldgrowth andthensprayedwithavarietyof eighteen garments were scientifcally saturated with a substance from previous collections,withthehelpofamicrobiologist. The stands, hedestroyed eighteen ofhisowndeconstructeddesigns Van BeuningeninRotterdam where, mountedonStockman entirely different levelinhisexhibitionattheMuseumBoijmans miles awayasculturalformsfrom theclothesandlivesof This, andMargiela’s expensivelyrotted garments,are amillion a global,vastlylucrativecommercial fashionphenomenon. for artifciallyraggedclothinghasescalatedasshownhere into remain in place and are indeed heightened. The fascination By 1992,MartinMargiela hadtakenthisconcepttoan 39 Twenty yearslater, theseideas 29 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic garments usually worn. Theholesandshredsgarments usuallyworn. because itremains transgressive, ashocking remain amarkoffashionedginess—even the normalclean-cut,new, carefully made It wouldseemthatthestylecontinues and attentionseekingdeparture from though socommonlyseen today. beneath. larger holes,sometimesmodestly covered withpatternedleggings with evermore areas ofnakedthighexposedthrough larger and wear, andcontinue towear, raggedjeans?The style continues natural rot resulted from sixty years burial as unwanted detritus. through sheerhard labour, frugality, andpoverty, whilstthe Normandy families.Theirclotheswere maderaggedandpatched Why dothereally rich, followedbyeverydayshoppers,

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VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic “a superfcialpretence ofpoverty.” commodifed poverty.” Itisalsoapublicidentitygamesplaying— it asashort,safe,sociallydistancedandsanitizedexperiencewith that controls againstfearsofdeclining intopovertybyconsuming Buying “poorchic,”shebelieves,is“aclassdistinguishingactivity superfcial andtemporaryidentities…atypeofclassvacationing.” astutely defnedthisinternationalfashionasaprocess of“adopting undistressed wardrobes ofclothes.In2002,Karen BettezHalnon underneath.” with nofabricbetween,“leavingjustathong-likefoundation the seamstitching:waistband,sideseams,pocketsandhems, that consistedofnothingmore thanthestripsofdenimbearing shock endofallthesedevelopments—amodelwearing“jeans” 2018 collectionofthebrandThibautreached theabsolutelogical Week inTokyo, onthe18thofOctober, 2017,theSpring/Summer shredded andholed. have beencutfrom knees andlegs,jackets,too,havebeen sliced verticallythelengthofthighorcalf,large square holes exploded. Worn now bothbymenandwomen,jeanshavebeen or recreational ‘fun’outofpoverty.” “fads andfashions,”suchasthosedescribedabove,make“stylish of DustBowlpoverty. Halnon concludes, as do I, that poverty chic Normandy farmingorruralJapanesefamilieswornasa result is along,longwayfrom theworkingclothesofpast,wornby been, oneofthemotivatingstyleforces ofthefashionworld.It through fashionisanamusementthatindeed,andhasalways trends totheirultimatelogicalstyleend.Thismasquerading ironic parody refecting onthelogicoffashioncyclesthatcarry Poverty chic garments are now commonly found in otherwise There isonemore storytoaddhere. AtAmazonFashion From 2015to2018,the passionforshredded jeanshas 40 Thisisbeyond“classvacationing.”Itaknowing, 42 41 31 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic Consumer.”and theVintage of SecondHandClothingandZambia;Tracy DianeCassidyandHannahRoseBennett,“TheRiseofFashion Virgins:and Vintage SecondHandFashionintheTwenty-frst Century;Karen Tranberg Hansen, Salaula: TheWorld Notes 18. Lecherbonnier256. 17. O’Brien58. 16. Veste deTravail, c.1945(no994.47.1MuséedeBretagne), inLethuillier154. 15. “AtRichard andCosmoWise’s Shop,” Spitalfelds Life,28Oct.2011. 14. UniversityofBrightonDress HistoryTeaching Collection,no.408.07. 13. SeeTaylor, Chapter6. 12. Lethuillier133. 11. SeeTaylor, Chapter5. 10. Henrey 33. 9. Kopytoff 66-7. 8. Prown 7. 7. Davies9and205. 6. Ibid.no408.08. 5. UniversityofBrightonDress History Teaching Collection,no.408.05. 4. Conversationswiththeauthor, SpitalfeldsMarket,Whitechapel,London,July2015. 3. SeeLoisDavidson’s websiteatMorgaine Textiles LeFeyVintage , http:/morgaine-le-fey.co.uk/. 2. SeeMargaret Maynard, Dress Whores andGlobalisation;AlexandraPalmerHazelClark,Vintage andSpaces.” 1. SeeRogerSilverstone,“TheMediumistheMuseum:OnObjectsandLogicsinTimes 32 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic

News, 18Sept.2009. prices from $700-$2500.https://www.kimonoboy.com/. Accessed16Feb.2018. “Morgaine LeFey, AntiqueTextile.” thankstoSusanBishopfortheinvitationattend.LoisDavidsontradesundernameof design source. With and vintageclothescollectors-dealersinBrighton2013,gathered toseetheLoisDavisonCollectionasa Process.” deaths tomakejeansforAbercrombie andFitchAmericanEagleOutftters,”MailOnline,14Mar. 2015. 23. E-mailfrom LoisDavidsontotheauthor, 30 22. Dupré 225. 21. Lecherbonnier260and269. Barrett etal.,“Background,20. SeeTimothy European PaperMakingTechniques 1300–1900.” 19. Dupré 210. 34. “Secret footage shows how factory workers in China use controversial methods linked to dozens of 33. “ArmaniBansSandblastedJeans,”CleanClothesCampaign , 14Sept.2011. 32. MatthewsDavid215-217. 31. “Calvin Klein, Tommy Hilfger and Ralph Lauren EmbraceAmerican to Close FashionWeek,” 30. SeeFrancescaCuojati,“IntoGypsydom:AugustusJohn’s Provence.” 29. MacCarthy93. 28. SeeMendelshon,Chapter1. 27. “AtRichard andCosmoWise’s Shop.” 26. Conversationswiththeauthor, SpitalfeldsMarket,Whitechapel,London,July2015. 25. Kimonoboy’s JapaneseFolkTextiles website,basedinJapan,sellsvintage boro sashikojacketsat 24. Theauthorfrstsawtheragdumpclothesatasmallmeetingofyoungfashion/textiledesigners 37. Ayres 152. 36. 35. SeeGrantMcCracken310,“WhoIstheCelebrityEndorser? CulturalFoundationsoftheEndorsement Meghan’s Mirror,

http://meghansmirror.com/. th January, 2015. NY Daily 33 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LdiZCfEFqsw. thankstoMarieMcLoughlin. With Margiela andAReviewofMartinMargiela: Exhibition(9/4/1615).” 42. BettezHalnon513-14. 41. BettezHalnon501and513. 40. “Breaking News–Thibaut‘ThongJeans’HaveNoFabric,JustSeams,”USFemail,18Oct.2017, 39. SeeCaroline Evans79and81,“TheGoldenDustman:ACriticalEvaluationoftheWork ofMartin 38. Healey263. 34 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic Cassidy, Tracy Consumer.” Diane,andHannahRoseBennett.“TheRiseofFashiontheVintage Fashion Carter, Nicole,andLeahChernikoff. “CalvinKlein,Tommy HilfgerandRalph Lauren EmbraceAmericana toClose “Breaking News–Thibaut‘ThongJeans’HaveNoFabric,JustSeams.”USFemail,https://www.youtube.com Bettez Halnon,Karen. “PoorChic: TheRationalConsumptionofPoverty.” Current Sociology , vol.50,no4,2002, Barrett, Timothy, etal.“Background, European PaperMakingTechniques 1300–1900.”PaperThrough Time: Ayres, Jennifer. “Inspiration or Prototype? Appropriation and Exploitation in the Fashion Industry.” Fashion,Style “At Richard andCosmoWise’s Shop.”SpitalfeldsLife,28Oct.2011,spitalfeldslife.com/2011/10/28/at-richard “Armani BansSandblastedJeansbutDolceandGabbanaSTILLIgnore theCall.”CleanClothesCampaign,14 Works Cited Practice, vol.4,no.2,2012,pp.239-61. tommyhilfger-ralph-lauren-embrace-americana. Accessed31Aug.2016. Fashion Week.” NYDailyNews,18Sept.2009,http://www.nydailynews.com/life-style/fashion/calvinklein ?v=LdiZCfEFqsw. Accessed12Dec.2017. pp. 501-16. lib.uiowa.edu. Accessed23Aug.2016. Nondestructive Analysisof14th-through 19th-CenturyPapers.UniversityofIowa,2012,n.p.http://paper & PopularCulture, vol.4,no.2,2017,pp.151-65. cosmo-wises-shop/. AccessedSept.2017. 2016. Sept. 2011,https://archive.cleanclothes.org/news/armani-bans-sandblasting.html. Accessed25Aug. 35 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic Normandie, vol.24,no.1,1992,pp.253-59. http://www.persee.fr/doc/annor_0570-1600_1992 Lecherbonnier, Yannick. “Dumoulinàl’usine.Laproduction depapierdanslePerche.” CahierdesAnnalesde Kopytoff, Igor. “TheCulturalBiographyofThings:CommoditizationasProcess.” TheSocialLifeofThings: Henrey, Mrs.Robert.Madeleine,Young. J.M.Dent,1960. Wife Healey, Robin. “TheParody oftheMotleyCadaver:DisplayingFuneralFashion.”TheDesignJournal,vol. Evans, Caroline. “TheGolden Dustman:ACriticalEvaluationoftheWork ofMartinMargiela andAReviewof Dupré, Philippe.“Évolution dupatrimoineindustrieldanslavalléedel’Obriquet.”AnnalesNormandie,vol. Davies, Fred. Fashion,Culture andIdentity . ChicagoUniversityPress, 1994. Cuojati, Francesca.“IntoGypsydom:AugustusJohn’s Provence.” Provence andtheBritishImagination , editedby Crone, Jack.“Secret FootageShowsHowFactoryWorkers inChinaUseControversial MethodsLinkedtoDozens hos_24_1_4088. Accessed25Aug.2016. 64-91. Commodities inCulturalPerspective,editedbyArjunAppadurai,CambridgeUniversityPress, 1986,pp. 11, no.3,2008,pp.255-68. Martin Margiela: Exhibition(9/4/1615).” FashionTheory, vol.2,no.1,1998,pp.73-93. 27 Aug.2016. 32, no.3,1982,pp.209-35.http://www.persee.fr/doc/annor_0003-4134_1982_num_32_3_5490. Accessed 10 Feb.2018. Claire Davisonetal.,Ledizioni, 2013,pp.157-73.http://books.openedition.org/ledizioni/818. Accessed Eagle-Outftters.html. Accessed31Aug.2016. China-use-controversial-method-linked-dozens-deaths-make-jeans-Abercrombie-Fitch-American Mar. 2015,http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2994650/Secret-footage-shows-factory-workers of DeathstoMakeJeansforAbercrombie andFitchAmerican EagleOutftters.”MailOnline,14

36 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic Tranberg Hansen,Karen. Salaula:TheWorld ofSecondHandClothingandZambia.TheUniversityChicago Taylor, Lou.TheStudyofDress History.ManchesterUniversityPress, 2002. Silverstone, Roger. andSpaces.”Towards the “TheMediumistheMuseum:OnObjectsandLogicsinTimes Prown, Jules. “Mind in Matter: An Introduction to Material Culture Theory and Method.” Palmer, Whores Alexandra, andHazelClark.Vintage Virgins: andVintage SecondHandFashionintheTwenty-frst O’Brien, Martin.ACrisisofWaste?: UnderstandingtheRubbishSociety. Routledge,2008. Norris, Lucy. RecyclingIndianClothing:GlobalContextofReuseandValue . IndianaUniversityPress, 2010. Mendelsohn, AdamD.TheRagRace:HowJewsSewedTheirWay toSuccessinAmericaandtheBritishEmpire. Meghan’s Mirror. http://meghansmirror.com/. Accessed12Feb.2018. McCracken, Grant.“WhoIstheCelebrityEndorser?CulturalFoundationsofEndorsementProcess.” Journal Maynard, Margaret. Dress andGlobalisation.ManchesterUniversityPress, 2014. TheDangersofDressMatthews David,Alison.FashionVictims: PastandPresent. Bloomsbury, 2015. MacCarthy, FaberandFaber, Morris:ALifeforOurTime. Fiona.William 1994. Lethuillier, Jean-Pierre. Deshabitsetnous,vêtirnosidentités.Presses Universitaires deRennes,2007. Press, 2000. Museum oftheFuture, editedbyRogerMilesandLauro Zavala,Routledge,1994,pp.163-75. 17, no.1,1982,pp.1-19. Century. Bloomsbury, 2005. New York University Press, 2015. of ConsumerResearch, vol.16,no.3,1989,pp.310-21. Winterthur Portfolio, vol. Winterthur 37 VOLUME 1 The Several Lives of a Collection of Rag Dump Clothing from Normandy (1900–55): From Farm, to Dump, to Poverty Chic Author Biography Lou Taylor https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/) Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial- and NaziControl, co-editedwithMarieMcloughlin. Press, NoDerivs 3.0Unported(CCBY-NC-ND 4.0)license (see: Publishing, 2015.Forthcomingin2018forBloomsbury co-authors CassieDavis-Strodder andJennyLister, V&A Fashion, 1905–25:theWardrobe ofHeatherFirbankwith University Press and co-author of London Society and Establishing Dress History , 2004,bothbyManchester and Francis, 2012, Social History,Routledge,1983,reprinted byTaylor She istheauthorofMourningDress: ACostume and Copyright ©2018FashionStudies-AllRightsReserved the UniversityofBrighton. Lou Taylor isProfessor EmeritainDress Historyat OF BRIGHTON UNIVERSITY Paris FashionandWorld War Two: GlobalDiffusion The Study of Dress History, 2004,

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