rchaft des

'deutsche naringen

3 CASTLES AND FORTIFICATIONS OF THE TEUTONIC KNIGHTS AND THE CHURCH HIERARCHY IN

Marian Arszynslei

e central and eastern stretch of rhe Baltic Lowland, now pardy wirhin the borders of northern Poland and partly wirhin the territory of the Russian ndave of Kaliningrad and western Lithuania, was under Teutonic rule for several centuries in the Middle Ages. Historians of architecture categorise this area as one of the regions of Europe characrerised by clusters of fortified structures which present a particularly interesting and multifacered problem. Few of these structures have retained their original shape - mostly as a result of nineteenth-century conversion and reconstruction. The majority of them, though, have survived in a more or less ruined state. Some of the structures have long since disappeared and we can only gain information about thern from archaeological and written sources as weil as from old views and plans. The cluster of architecture referred to above grew up gradually, starting in the second quarter of the thirteenth century. As the Teuronic Order made territorial gains, it spread to ever wider areas - first to the Kulmerland, then to successive parts of Prussia proper, and finally to lands to the west of the , The first structures which marked the beginning of this cluster were in fact not the work of rhe Order. Immediately after arriving on the borders of the Kulmerland, rhe Order sertled its detachrnenr in Nieszawa (Germ. Nessau), in fortifications granted to it by Duke Konrad of Masovia. These forrifications were subsequendy to act as insurance for rhe operation whose aim was to establish an invasive bridgehead on the opposire bank of the Vistula. Ir was immediately protected by a fortified watchtower with foundations made of rhe branches of a massive oak tree. Later, too, large solitary rrees, referred to in sources as arbor custodie or uiartboum, were sometirnes used as fortified observation posts or sentry posts.

57 Part One - Prussia

During such military operations following on from this, aimed at making further territorial gains, the imporrance of fortified structures grew steadily, Ir was only the immediate construction of some kind of fortification that made it possible to defend the newly-conquered area and maintain aurhoriry over it. In this early period, fortifications were not always built from scratch. Ir was fairly cornmon to take advantage of the fortifications built on rhe conquered land by the indigenous peoples, an exarnple of which is rhe Prussian fortified settlement in Balga (Veseloe). However, the Teutonic Knights quickly abandoned this method and began to build cornpletely new fortifications, though usually in locations rhat had long been fortified. In this, they availed thernselves of assistance from both Polish and western European Crusaders participating in their military expeditions. However, the core workforce in these early fortifications works was undoubtedly the local Prussian population. Some of the indigenous people, temporarily allied with the Teuronic Knighrs, worked volunrarily, offering their technical expertise and experience in construction, while others were forced to work. Indeed, the Teutonic Knights were officially authorised ro demand such work, for example through papal regulations. All of the early fortifications in the hands of the Teuronic Knights - both those taken over from the previous owners and those built from scratch - were, in terms of rnaterials and shape, fairly primitive residential and defensive settlements, drawing on very old local building traditions. The main elernent of the construction of these serrlernents was rhe defensive rampart, the massive wooden core of which was filled and covered with earth. Generally preceded by a deep moat, it usually surrounded the inner courtyard following an oval oudine. On top of it, mostly coupled with ramparts, were low wooden residential buildings and outhouses, and sometimes even a chapel. Occasionally wooden defence towers would also be consrructed along the line of the ramparrs. Amongst the Teutonic constructions of this type; one of the most thoroughly researched archaeologically is their first defensive settlement in Marienwerder (Kwidzyn). In the light of the results of recent research, it was not until the end of the thirteenth century that the slow, gradual process began of introducing massive materials and structures into the art of building Teutonic fortifications - at first stone, as in the castle in Thorn (Torun), for example, then brick. Ir was primarily castles built from scratch that were constructed using these durable materials and masonry techniques. At the same time, some of the existing fortified towns, built earlier using wood and earth, were gradually rebuilt. However, a fair proportion of Teutonic strongholds - even those of great military importance, such as Ragnit (Neman) - did not undergo this process until the late fourteenth or early filieenth century. Some of the less significant ones had still not been rebuilt by the end

58 ang iily. !ade ~ir. Lirly by .ent lOd :hat oth ns. dIy _ - '_-r.:._-. 'e-, ied lfid -_- _- ----__ - - ~- nie pal ose Fig. 2. Reconstruction of the wood-and-earth rampart of Thorn ms (after J. Chudziakowa) tng :::se 100 .00 ith ies ng ne

'fit

[ld

[St ily 1d ilt m ur Fig. 3. Ourline of the castle of the in Thorn (Toruri) rh in the fourreenrh cemwy ui (after Z. Nawrocki) Part One - Prussia of the existence of the Teutonic state. There are even cases where new less important fortifications were built on the eastern border of the state during the declining years of its existence using the traditional wood and earth embankment. Some of the early stone or brick castles, ehe best exarnple of which is Thorn (Toruri), were erected on the framework of ehe earlier wood and earth fortifications, which led to their irregular shapes, in part oval, in part rectilinear, or, in ehe case of Thorn, horseshoe-shaped, The buildings which were erected slighdy later, though, broke away more and more from such a direct reliance on the original plan of the previous buildings from the site. Their shapes became more complex and varied, predominancly irregular polygons - such as those of the cascles in Engelsburg (Pokrzywno) and Roggenhausen (Rogözno). The majority of contemporary researchers represent the view that the Teutonic Order, despite the fact that it had already ruled over numerous fortiflcations in the Middle East and in many parts of Europe, did not yet have its own concept of rhe shape of its fortified sear that was adapred to the particular conditions and tasks rhar it encountered in Prussia. At first it thus drew on Central European knighrs' castles, particularly from Thuringia, as rhe pattern for the casdes in Engelsburg and Roggenhausen and other contemporary strucrures, This pattern obviously still did not suit rhe needs of the Order, as it was soon abandoned. Several years later, certain features began to appear in the shape of subsequently built castles which suggest that rhe Teutonic Knights were starring to find functional and formal solutions thar were more suited to the needs arising from the form and manner in which their organisational and economic strucrures worked as they crystallised after the second half of the thirteenth cenrury in their Prussian estates. Among these needs, the requirements arising from rhe rigours of rnonastic life held a prominent place, as rhis aspect was the subject of particular efforts to activate it by the leaders of the Order during this period. Under the inBuence of all these factors, the division of space into separate functions began to be more apparent in the planning of the interiors of the castles constructed at that time, and the tendency appeared to combine individual elements that had previously been dispersed into a compact architecturally structured whole, larger in size than hitherto. Therefore, castles began to acquire a more regular shape, square or rectangular, while their scale became more monumental and their architectural form more unified. The first signs of the search for these new solutions are visible in the Boor plan of Birgelau (Bierzglowo) casde, whose construction probably started bet\'ieen (he third and fourth quarters of (he thirteenth century. Tangible results were really only achieved, however, ar the end of that century. Ir was ehen that the anti-Teutonic uprisings finally came to an end, and consequently there aost was a slow improvement in the domestic situation. It was not until this irnprovement ~

60 3. Marian Arszyriski, Castfes and Fortifications 0/ the Teutonic Knights ... anr took place that the material and organisational basis was created to undertake more ears extensive construction projects. The fact that more intensive construction work was undertaken at that time orn in Prussia was also undoubtedly influenced by events rhar took place outside its

Ins, borders and were decisive in the further course of the history of the Order. In 1291, :ase Muslims conquered Acre, the last stronghold of Christianity in the Holy Land, which (er, ultimately deprived the Teutonic Knights of their main field of action. This dramatic lau event condusively consolidated the conviction that had been maturing for some nd time in the minds of many of rhe elite Teutonic leadership that the only chance Hg for the further development of rhe Order was to shift ehe focus of its activities from the Mediterranean area to Prussia. The intensihcation of castle-building to oie reinforce loeal military and organisational infrastructure was thus imperative, given ins the situation. ~t In such circumstances, a visibly new type of fortified seat for the Teutonic Order nd began to take shape in rhe late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries in the course , lIS of building casrles in Elbing (Elblag), Marienburg () and Brandenburg ud (Ushakovo). The architectural form which becarne crystallised during the construction lid of these castles became a model whose main features were reproduced thenceforth tin by the builders of subsequent seats for ehe Teutonic Order in Prussia until the state esr ceased to exist. This model only changed slightly with the passage of time, but was subject to certain modifications depending on the terrain surrounding rhe castle eh under construction and its purpose. Ir was most fully realised in the construction of castles designed to be used as :se seats for commanders and the Teutonic monastic convents under their command. fit These castles, called commanders' castles or conventual castles, usually had a fairly ~rs large spatiallayout which consisted of at least two dearly separate elements. Ihe first, most important element was the building housing the rooms for the commander and the convent. lts status was dearly accentuated by ehe monumental, compact form ,es of the building and ehe comparatively rich architectural articulation. The other part, tlS the outer bailey, was spatially and functionally dose to the main part of the whole le, complex; it had a considerably larger surface area, but the form of its buildings ar was more modest. Some conventual castles, such as Schlochau (Czluch6w), Rehden =u (Radzyn) and Schwetz (Swiecie), even had several outer baileys. [}S Ihe main component of these complexes, the headquarters of the commander and the convent, was a large multi-storey edifice with a square ground plan made up v. of four uniformly shaped wings joined at right-angles to each other around an inner as courtyard. Some cascles, though, had only three wings, in wruch case the fouM side of such an edifice was dosed by a separate, defensive curtain wall. However, in most Gt cases, as in Marienburg (Malbork), this wall was eventually replaced by a fourth wing.

GI Part One - Prussia

In many cases, the shape of the conventual part of the castle was rounded off by corner turrets which protruded only slightly beyond the face of the external .., walls. This was almost exclusively the case for buildings erected on the eve ••.!.J.:~ of the fourteenth century or in the first half of that century, for example, castles ~ in Mewe (Gniew), Rehden (Radzyri) and Strasburg (Brodnica). Additional height was created in the majority of the castles by a massive main tower. There was no specific position earmarked for it in the plans of these buildings. Ir was either erected in one of the corners of the courtyard by foreshortening the wings of the castle which CD converged there, as in Rehden or Graudem (Grudzi~dz), or at the ourer corners as in Gollub (Golub) and in some cases wiehin one of rhe wings as in Mewe (Gniew). '~ In most castles ehe quarters of the commander and the convent were separated .:zs: from the surroundings by a deep moat. However, it did not run directly along ~ the foot of the external walls but was separated by a strip of levelled land several I~ metres wide lying between the walls and the inner edge of the moat. Along with ,:::::;;:; the retain.ing wall which protected the slope of ehe bank from slipping, it created an additional protruding obstacle called the outer ward (pareham) or terrace. The only ~ access from these buildings to their surroundings was generally ehrough agate, ID usually located in the central axis of one of the wings and leading from its courtyard, over a drawbridge, to the main outer bailey. The internal communication system in such a building was relatively simple. Cellars in individual wings were accessed by stairs leading down from ehe courtyard. Rooms on the ground floor were also accessibJe straight from the courryard. The first Hoor, which was the main storey, could be reached up simple external staircases linked by a covered walkway around all four wings of the castle and attached to the fu<;:ade ~ facing ehe courtyard at the first Roor leveL This kind of walkway was predominantly wooden (e.g. in Gollub), though in so me cases it was made of stone or brick, and then it took on a more ornate form of a two-storey vaulted cloister with arches ;;=s opening on co the courtyard, e.g. in Marienburg (Malbork). This gallery provided convenient access to individual rooms on the first floor. In castles wirh corner mrrets, r=! additional staircases leading to the upper floors were to be found inside them. 1he second element of the casde complex was the outer bailey, or several i:::1 of them. Depending on the lie of the land, i[ had a more or less regular shape, So=: predominantly roughly rectangular. Ir was demarcated by the perimeter defence wall, on top of which was a defensive ctenellated parapet, sometimes reinforced with -.- towers. Depending on loeal needs, buildings of different shapes and sizes were built on to the inside fa<;:adeof this wall but only in exceptional circumstances did they form a continuous and outwardly uniform architectural ensemble. It seems that the central part of [he outer bailey, generally fairly extensive, usually remained free of bwldings.

62 3. Marian Arszyriski, Castles and Fortifications 0/ the Teutonic Knights ... ded The spatial layout of a comrnander's castle as ouclined above was influenced -nal by its particular functions. According to the guiding principle of knighcly orders, eve their rnembers were to be at once rnonks and knights. The same was naturally des true of the Teutonic Order. Ir is obvious, thererore, that the two main spheres ght of activity of this corporation had the greatest influence on shaping the way no rhat the headquarters was used. Ir was built in such a way as to meet the needs red of the military functions of the Order, but at the same time to enable its members ich to perform their monastic duties. as Analysing the architectural elements of Teutonic castles which have a military w). purpose and comparing them to the equivalent solutions in Italian, French and English red cascles, it will quickly be concluded that such a comparison does not show Teutonic lOg structures in a good light. They had a much more modest repertoire of defensive ~ral elernenrs, They were not equipped with devices such as loopholes Banking the gateway, im massive barbicans, trapdoors brattices, etc. However, this should not be taken as an proof of a lack of technical knowledge of the builders and users of rhese fortified My structures. It is rather due to rwo Iocal factors of a more general nature. Firstly, due .re, to the nature of the theatre of war in that area, Teutonic cascles fulfilled the military rd, function not so much of a place of resistance ready to withstand a prolonged siege, but rather of fortified places for garrisoning numerieally strong field units intended for manoeuvre warfare. These units were composed of members of rhe Teutonic convents and cascle servants, but also contingents of the loeal population obliged ro do rnilitary service in the ranks of the Teutonic armed forces. In the event of rhe threat :ed of war, these cascles, and particularly their outer baileys, also served for some time as de a fortified refuge for me loeal civilian population Beeing me enemy. Secondly, sieges dy in Prussia were moscly laid with considerably less use of technieal devices compared nd to sieges in southern and western Europe. In such a situation it was not necessary to resort to more complex elements of defensive archirecrure. ed The defensive qualities of Teuronic cascles were above all the result of the physieal

15, resistance of their massive outer walls, which formed a tall, solid, rectangular building for me headquarters of the convent. The value of the building as a sttonghold was reinforced by a massive main tower commanding the whole complex. If necessary, it served as the last point of resistance for (he cascle garrison. That is why it was usually Lll, situated in an isolated position wicll only one fairly inaccessible entrance. The best rh preserved example of such a consuuction is me castle tower in Strasburg (Brodnica). ih The latrines of Teutonic castles, called gdanisko (Polish) or dansker (German) also er had some defensive use, especially those that were free-standing towers, as in Thorn at (Torwi), or brattices overhanging the moat, as in Rehden (Radzyn ChdmiIlski), which ee were connected to the main building via covered walkways supponed by the arcades. 1hey were used as projecting combat posts Banking the maiD line of defence. (PjSY:MBfS 'r J;;llJB) (qnlo~) qnrro~ ur ;;l[1SB) SPPUBlUUlo:J ;;ltp JO ;;l:)UBJBdddB pm~:)no dIp JO UO!DnIlSUo:Jd~ ·t ·'3H

- >-_ 3. Marian Arszyriski, Castles and Fortificatiom 0/ the Teutonic Knights ...

An imponant role in the defence of the convent headquaners was played by defensive walkways built into the thickness of the defence walls high up under the eaves of each wing. They gave on to the outside of rhe castle rhrough a dense row of large arrow loops protected by hinged shutters, which rnade it possible to keep the foreground under fire. Narrow arrow loops were additionally placed at the ground floor level of the building. One of the most characteristic defensive elements of Teutonic castles was the outer ward mentioned earlier. It was conceived not merely as an element reinforcing the defensiveness of the castle, albeit passively, by erecting an additional obstacle in the terrain, which protruded towards the foreground. It was also to fulfil the function of a combat post for active defence, since the retaining wall erected at its edge to protect the vertical slope of the moat was, as a rule, raised to about two metres above ground level and topped with battlemenrs. In this form it provided effective cover for crossbowmen and archers firing at the enemy on the mo at foreground. The significance of the outer ward further increased after firearms became widespread because it was above a11here that the castle artillery took up its firing positions. The effectiveness of the outer ward as a defence was of course increased by the moat, which protected the main cascle building from a11 sides. Depending on rhe loeal terrain, it could be dry, as in Birgelau (Bierzglowo) or filled with water, as in Schlochau (Czluchow) or Rehden (Radzyri Chelmiriski). In casdes which were situated on the edge of the steep slopes of elevated ground, such as Gollub (Golub), only one stretch of the mo at was constructed to separate the castle from the rest of the area. The defence system of the commander's headquarters and me convent reached its peak in the fourteenm century. In the following century, me increased use of firearms meant mat it was necessary to supplement the existing system wirh new defence devices adapted for the use of mese weapons - among omers, cannon towers, which projected forwards towards the foreground and flanked the main line of defence of both me castle and me outer balley. When evaluating how good Teutonic castles' defences were, it should be borne in mind that it was not just the permanent elements of architecture mat were responsible. Old descriptions and views, as weil as traces on the walls of both castles and town walls, indicate that in the event of the threat of war, efforts were made to increase the defence capabilities by temporary means. Particularly vulnerable places, such as the gate, were additionally reinforced with wooden constructions and embankments. Wo oden parapets were added to the tops of walls and towers and sometimes roof frames were dismantled because, being inflammable, they could set fire to the whole complex. In order to create an image that fuHy reflects me military issues ofTeutonie casde architecture, it is not sufEcient just to examine me defence capabilities of individual Part One - Prussia castles. Throughout Europe, castles, especially those, like Teutonic castles, that were ~ the responsibiliry of a central authority, were usually part of a complex of defensive strucrures distributed over a greater or smaller area in a particular way. In the light of research to date, it should be assumed that the location of Teutonic castles was '~ rhe result of various factors, not only military ones, the strength of whose influence varied in different periods of time. l:'>;,;:S;;: Ouring the early period of the conquest of Prussia, the most important role Qb: was assigned to conditions determined by the geography of transport and settlement ..-..s and the course of subsequent military campaigns. Thus the earliest castles were built along waterways, which were rhen the backbone of the transport systern, and on the territory of pre-Teutonic settlernent clusrers, which enabled the invaders to take over existing defensive buildings of the native populations and guaranteed thern S<:L- a workforce for further fortification works. Since the majority of contemporary -::::::: Teutonic fortitications were built in connection with particular military campaigns against the Prussians, the location of individual castles was at least partly deterrnined by the route of military marches, battle sites and the scope of territorial conquests. Later, other facrors, especially of an administrative and economic nature, also began to influence rhe location of Teutonic seats. These led either to the total abandonment of so me sites or to their transfer to other more advantageous sites, e.g. from Santir (Zantyr) to Marienburg (Malbork), or from Potterberg DZ:':J to Mewe (Gniew). Although there can be no doubt that the network of castles that grew up in this ct·::o way displays certain characteristics of a deliberate system of fortifications, there is as yet no conclusive evidence that the distribution is the result of planning decisions ~ taken at the top. The first evidence that such grand scale planning of the castle network really took place can be found only in the late fifteenth century, At that ,;0:,:::; time, the efforts to create a system of castles for rhe security of the borderland ro ~:::1 the north-east of Ragnit (Neman) are distinctly visible. The central idea of knighdy orders was that their members, being simultaneously knights and monks, dealt with two spheres of life through their actions: the secular- military sphere and rhe religious one. It is obvious, then, that both spheres, since they were treated on an equal footing, must have significandy influenced rhe shape of their seats. One of the principal features of monastic life is to this day irs communal character. The daily rhyrhm of life, subject to the rigours of a strict schedule, was marked out ~ by collective prayer, collaborative work, shared meals, and even communal sleeping c: arrangements. To implement such a daUy programme, each monastic community had ...... - (0 have appropriate space available, or rather aseries of spaces arranged appropriately. ~ Ouring the initial period after the Teutonic Knights' arrival in Prussia, this task was «

66 3. Marian Arszyriski, Castles and Fortifications 0/ the Teutonic Knights ... were almest impossible. Their headquarters ar rhe time were cramped and very primitive. ~DSlVe Moreover, rhe situation in rhe country, wirh its constant wars, was not conducive to light rhe striet observanee of religious duties, Alrhough chronicles eite examples restifying :s was rhat rhe Teutonic convents in Prussia led a regular monastic life, it may be suspected uence that the writers were guided not so much by a love of truth as by the desire to present the Order in rhe best possible light. It was not until masonry castles began r .role to be planned and built at the end of the thirteenth cenrury, when major unrest ment was coming to an end, that spaee devoted to monastic functions ean be dearly built distinguished . .d on In the monasteries of other orders, these rooms are usually located on rake the ground floor. The Teutonic Knights, however, put thern on the first floor, rhem starting wirh their earliest masonry castles, e.g. in Thorn (Toruri], and continuing orary the custom until the last. It is possible that this solution was prompted by reasons aigns of defence. However, it may weil be that reasons of prestige came into play regarding iined the chivalrous character of the Order. It should be remernbered that in secular aests, residential buildings in Europe at the time, there was a carefully observed tradition also of placing represeotative rooms on the first floor. roral According to rhe common practice of monastery construction, the rooms teous in Teutonic castles set aside for religious purposes differed from other interiors 'berg particularly in their decorative architectural form and in their rich ornamentation in architectural sculpture, murals and stained glass windows. The most important, . this of course, was the chapel. Chapels - or at least altar recesses - were part of the building isas plan for almost every knights' casrle in Europe, since frequent attendance at holy mass !>ions was among the duties of secular knights, too. In Teutonic casdes, however, dIe chapel :ascle played an even greater and more complex role. According to the rules already rhat adopted by omer orders, Teutonic Kniglus were required to congregate in the chapel td to several times a day for eollective prayer, ealled eanonieal prayers. The daily holy mass as weU as services on special occasions were also eelebrated in the ehapel. All solemn ceremonies were also held here, e.g. admission of candidates ioto the ranks of the Order and funeral rites. ince Of all of the rooms in the castle used for religious purposes, only the chapel tJape had a fixed place in the plan. The reason for this was the tradition followed by all religious buildings of placing the altar wall facing east. lherefore the chapel IUer. was always in the wing of the casrle with the appropriate orientation. In some

OUt easrles - e.g. in Gollub (Golub) - sm all rooms were placed in the thickness ping of the outer walls of the chapel on the side of the cloisters and conneeted to bad the interior of the ehapel only through small squints. Many researchers believe lreIy. them to be penitence cells, whieh can indeed be found in the construction plans of other orders. Fig. 5. Plan of the main Roof of the commander's casde in Rehden (Radzyri) (after C. Steinbrechr)

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Fig. 6. Reconstruction of the outward appearance of the commander's cascle in Rehden (Radzyri) (after C. Steinbrecht) Fig. 7. Ruins of the castle in Thorn (Toruri), outer tower dansleer wirh the gallery leacling to the High Casde. Present view. (photo by L. Witowski)

Fig. 8. Casrle in Birglau (Bierzglowo). Present view. (photo by L. Witowski) Fig. 9. Cascle in Mewe (Gniew), the main castle, Present view. (phoro by L Witowski)

Fig. 10. Casde in Mewe (Gniew), present view from the Vistula (photo by L Witowski) Fig. I I. Cascle in Marienburg (Malbork); in the foreground the High Cascle, in the background rhe Palace of Grand Masters in the Middle Casde. Presem view. (photo by L. Witowski)

Fig. 12. Castle in Rehden (Radzyri). Prescnt view. (photo by L. Witowski) _, me oc

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Fig. I4. Ruins of the casde in Alt Kischau (Stara Kiszewa). Present view. r:if~ (photo by L Witowski) tF.:lL_ 3. Marian Arszyriski, Cast/es and Fortifications of tbe Teutonic Knights ...

Apart from the chapel, the chapter room was also of great irnportance for the organisation of monastic life. General meetings of the whole religious community were held here, usually after the service. Probably far this reason, chapter roorns were olten adjacent to chapels in Teutonic castles, The most important were the weekly meetings, called "horne chapters". After a short prayer, the participants moved to the first item on rhe agenda, which was to read subseqvent chapter (capitulum) - from which the name of the room and of the meeting held there comes - of the rnonastic statutes and rules. Then discussions were held on problems arising from the current situation in the convent or in the Order as a whole, work needing to be done was assigned and disciplinary matters were decided. An equally important role in the daily life of the convent was played by another of the large casde rooms - the refectory. As the Latin name far this room (reftctio - "refreshrnent", "renewal") suggests, the members of the community gamered here for communal meals and recreation. For practical reasons, the kitchen was placed in proximiry to the refectory, usually one floor below, and near thar was the cellar wich kirchen supplies ro hand, and illere was sometimes even a bakery. One more large roorn was the dorrnirory (from rhe Latin dormio - "I sleep"). In centrast to the other three large rooms, no particular attention was paid to irs interior design. Ir was enough for it to accommodate beds for me mernbers of the convent, separated by light partitions, and trunks for clothing. Tbe typical rooms found in a Teutonic castle also include me infirmary (infirmatio - "weakening"), or hospital. Obviously, this was a hospital in the medieval sense, combining che functions of a clinic wich those of a shelter for invalids and the infirm. Ir does not appear to have had a permanent place in the floor plan of a castle. There is, however, some evidence that in some casdes built c. 1300, the infirmary was housed in a small room to the west of the chapel. This enabled the patients to take part in masses through openings in me dividing wall. At a later stage, tlle infirmary occupied a considerably larger space, particularly in the more significant casdes. By then it had not only a sick room, but also aseparate kitchen, bath house and sometirnes even a chapel. Clearly, being so extensive, such infirmaries were oEren situated outside the convent headquarters. Generally speaking, casde infirmaries were only intended for che needs of me Order itself Hospitals open to me public operated in urban centres, wim some of them, dedicated to me Holy Spirit, being under the auspices of the Teutonic Order. All of these casde rooms were mainly used by the Teutonic brother knights and brother priests. Tbere is no condusive evidence, however, thar, following me model of monasteries of other orders, they were subject to strict endosure, in omer words were dosed to outsiders. Part One - Prussia

In Teutonic Prussia, state and monastic administration formed a single coherent structure with the territorial links being the commandries. At their head were the commanders, whose duty it was to exercise authority in borh of these fields. gxo:: Residing in their castles, they had authoriry as spiritual superiors of local religious ~ communities and as military leaders of the castle garrison, as well as of the contingent ;: of loeal people called up for rnilitary service. ~ At the same time, however, they were the local representatives of the central ~ authorities and rhe heads of territorial units of state adrninistration, called ~ cornmandries, responsible for the areas in the vicinity of the casrle. The main tasks ~ of the commanders in territorial adrninistration were to exercise power on behalf of the Grand Master, to supervise the general administration of the subjugated ~ territory, and especially to organise sertlernent and public works, to implement fiscal policy, etc. With such a heavy workload, the commander, and often his depury too, had separate living quarters in the castle which they also used as offices. Research to date has not revea:led whether these rooms had a permanent place in the castle Hoor plan. The commander also had judicial authority in the subjugated areas. The court hearings, however, were conducted outside the castles. aJ;;;; Another function of the castles thar was very significant for the efficienr ~ running of the whole monastic and state structure in Prussia was that of staging i3:;.--:- post in the postal network. Almost every one had a dedicated ream of horses, vehicles and watercraft as weil as people who provided an unusually efficient postal service. The road nerwork closely followed the postal nerwork, which enabled Teutonic dignitaries, and especially rhe Grand Master, to perform tours of inspection, oue of the important methods for managing the Order and its state. Therefore, many castles had special guest rooms set aside for them. iP-r No less important were the economic functions of Teutonic castles. The scale ;d',. of these functions far surpassed that of European knights' castles and can only be c.=::u compared to a certain extent to the size of the economic activity of great Cistercian or Benedictine abbeys. The Teutonic castle was the centre for the management .SCl!l of vast landed property, induding various types of casrle farms. Some of them were fu:: arable farms, while others bred cattle, horses and pigs. Some suitably located casdes concentrated on forestry or fishing. l.., As weH as running farms and associated duties, the castles were also important nr for other branches of the rural economy in Prussia - particularly for villages paying 0;- ground rent and property belonging to the knights. They served as collection points ,::; and storage facilities for the compulsory contributions in kind given by the village ...... _._~-- people for their Teutonie Masters. All agricultural produce was stored in the castles for longer or shorter periods, either on the upper floors of the convent houses or L .. in outbuildings in the outer bailey. ~

70 3. Marian Arszyriski, Castles and Fortifications of the Teutonic Knights ... enr The outer bailey also had room for other buildings like stables, barns, stores for cre rnilitary and transport equipment, craftsmen workshops, etc. Some of the buildings ds. accommodated casde servants. Remains of buildings used for these purposes have

)OS been preserved in Birgelau (Bierzglowo) and Engelsburg (Pokrzywno). Sometimes, !Ot for example in Thorn (Toruri), mills were situated in the outer bailey. AB a rule, they were used not just for rhe casrle bur, together wirh mills built by the Teutonic ral Knighrs in other places, they met the needs of the local population too. This broughr ed rhe Order sizeable prohts because rhe inhabitants were obliged by force of certain ;ks legal provisions to mill their grain only in these milis. aI:f Discussing the economic functions of castles, one should not omit to mention ed their importance for the trade apparatus of the Teutonic state. Here the rnain role was cal played by special functionaries with their headquarters in Marienburg (Malbork) and rhe largest trading towns. Depending on their functions, they were called SchaeJfer m (which meant: trading officials), Lieger (commission agents) and Diener (servants).

OI However, the commanders of some suitably located castles also made a significant contribution to Teutonic trade. Ir is known, for example, that the Thorn (Toruri) commander took part in trading fish destined for the Silesian market. The castle m in Thom had a special storehouse for the temporary storage of dried fish sent from ng Balga (Veseloe) castle on the Baltic coast to Breslau (Wrodaw). Similar storehouses [es meant for other goods could be found in many other casdes. :e. The description of Teutonic castles so far has only fully covered fortifled ÜC headquarters of commanders and convents. Apart from rhis category of buildings, tle however, a considerable number of strucrures were built in the Teutonic state for cornpletely different purposes. These included, above all, fortified headquarters for friars and lay Teutonic officials seconded to perform various functions - mainly Je administrative and economic - in particular parts of the state. They were aided in these be duties by several assistants, and sometimes by a small army unit. These functionaries

ID formed the lower links of the administrative and economic structure of the Teutonic

Ilt state and were caHed - depending on the rank - Vogt or Pfleger (procurator). re The lowest links in this strucrure simply had the name Amt ("office"), sometimes es wirh aprefix denoting the exact function, e.g. Waldamt was the forestry office and Fischamt was the fisheries office. From the names of these links there developed the tides of the Teutonic functionaries in charge of them - Vogt, procurator (Pfleger), ag or in the case of an office, master, e.g. Waldmeister (forest master). The names es of the fortified buildings where mey had their headquarters were also derived from

here. Their architectural shape is difficulr to reduce to a common denominator. Quite a few of them - such as Lochstädt (Pavlovo) and Barten (Barciany) - were

)T typologicaHy similar to conventual casdes. Others were in diverse but often very simple shapes. For example, in Bäslak (Bezlawki), the small office building was built

71 Part One - Prussia wirhin the defensive wall surrounding a reetangular courtyard, in Neuenburg (Nowe), on the other hand, a sirnilar building was builr by the town walls. To tinish this description, it should be added that this network of Teutonic '.:n:: fortifications was supplemented in many places by yet other buildings equipped with defensive architecture. This included some of the Teuronic farms, and above all some of the mills. However, wirhin this group of fortifications the conventual castle type was dominant, the final shape of which was consolidated at the turn of the fourteenth century. Ir combined the Ieatures of a fortified building, a monastery, an. econornic y-. centre and a local government agency for political power and state administration, and did so in a very deliberate and neat way which was at the same time architecturally marure, No dose analogy has been discovered through research for such a complex set of uses and the architectural shape necessary to serve these uses as found in Teutonic castles in Prussia. It was not true even of the castles the Teutonic Order possessed :'lP"t-_~ previously in the Holy Land, the Mediterranean Basin, Hungary or in Germany c and other parts of Europe. It can be assumed, then, that this type of Teutonic castle was the result of a developmental process taking place in Prussia areund the year ~ 1300. The course of this process and its final outcome were particularly influenced by the characteristic geographical conditions of Prussia and its political, sodal and economic situation as weIl as the consequem needs of this branch of the Order, ~ which were crystallising at the time. Nevertheless, this does not mean that there were no outside influences from the style of fortified buildings flourishing at the time in other regions of Europe that were on a higher civilisational level. lhere are strong indications that such influences could have reached Prussia from France. lhere, espedally in fortified GE:: buildings belonging to the state, a distinct tendency appeared, long before it was r3! visible in Prussia, for a regular geometry of the floor plans and an architecrural order 2.- of four rectangular connecting wings forming a peripheral structure around an inner es courtyard. One of the forerunners of this type of planning arrangement is the Louvre, 2. the residence of French kings, in its earlier form dating from the late twelfth and ~- ~ early thirteenth centuries. 1he intermediary in transmitting these influences could .--"- have been Bohemia, which around 1300 had lively political and cultural contacts L-::l with 60th France and the Order. lhis hypothesis is reinforced by the fact that many Bohemian castles that were 6uilt at that time showed a distinct preference for a rectangular layout of their four-wing compounds. In this role as intermediary, we should not completely discount Livonia, as there, in 1237, the Teutonic Knights inherited property from the Livonian Brothers of the Sword including a number of masonry castles, of which one, Fellin (Viljandi) clearly alluded to the geometrie trend of western European fortified buildings.

72 3. Marian Arszyriski, Castles and Fortifications of the Teutonie Knights ...

JWe), The characterisation of Teutonic fortified architecture in Prussia would not be complete wirheut mentioning a unique building: the monumental architectural onic complex that was created after 1300 when the thirteenth century casde in Marienburg ;>ped (Malbork) was extended. The purpose of this large-scale undertaking was to adapt bove the existing ordinary headquarters of the commander and the convent into a building suited to the residence of ehe Grand Master, who, since losing the Palestinian lands, was had been residing in Venice. euth After designating a new site for the existing outer bailey on neighbouring )mic ground to the north, stately new edifices began to take shape following the outline and of the original walls. The result, after subsequent additions, was a compact building .rally wirh three adjoining wings encompassing an extensive courtyard. The open fourth :x: set side bordered the moat, which separated it from the former commander's castle,

ODlC henceforth called the High Castle. The new building on the former outer bailey, :ssed meanwhile, began to be called rhe Middle Castle. The High Castle retained its laIlY function as the headquarters of the convent, which, as a consequence of the presence asde of the Grand Master, considerably increased in numbers. Hence the need for year aseries of modifications to the structure of the building. The most extensive was aced the enlargement of the chapel by lengthening it to the east into the area of the outer and ward beyond the oudine of the outer walls of the casde. Its ground floor part housed rder, the burial chapel for the Grand Masters dedicated to St. Anne. The buildings erected in the Middle Castle were intended to be used for rom functions connected with the new status of Marlenburg (Malbork) as the residence 'Upe of the Grand Master and also with its role as the organisational, political and ruch administrative centre of rhe Order and its state. The whole west wing of the Middle lied Castle was devoted to the needs of the Grand Master and his retinue. The actual was residence of this dignitary was at the somh end of this wing. The main part was rder a srately edifice pardy protruding ro the west beyond the !ine of the rest of the wing. mer Its architectural form displays a monumental aniculation of the fa<;:adeas weH as a sophisticated manner of creating a multi-storey interior, particularly as regards and rhe vaulting. This building, usuaHy called the Palace of the Grand Master, is )Uld regarded as being one of the foremost historical monuments of European residential acts architecture. In its artistic forms, English and French influences can be seen, and even mat reminiscences of certain motifs of dle original Middle Eastern residence of the Grand :nce Masters in Montfort. tary, The greater part of the upper floor of the palace was taken up by representative ghts rooms for court ceremonies owing to the status of the Grand Master as the highest mer representative of the Order and its powerful state in Prussia. Of these rooms, two mc ceremonial halls were of the greatest importance: one called the Summer, and the other, the Winter Refectory. Adjoining the representative part of the building

73 Part One - Prussia

from the north was a group of smaller rooms intended as the living quarters for the Grand Master and his aides. Here, there was also a private chapel. TI1e lower Hoors were used Ior administrative purposes and presumably the archive and creasury of the Order were also to be found here. In the pan of the west wing further ro the north was the Great Refecrory, impressive in its size (15 x 30 rn), unprecedented in loeal architecture, and its unusually high level of architectural forms, especially the beautiful and bold vaulting. This hall, together with the adjacent kitchen on the north side, guaranteed that cerernonies organised by the Grand Master in honour of foreign envoys and knights not only ran srnoothly but also had a festive air. In the western pan of the north wing of the Middle Casde was the infirmary, while the eastern part housed rooms occupied by the Grand Commander. In the central part of this wing was a gate permitting access from the new outer bailey to the Middle Cascle and on to the High Cascle. In the east wing were the guest rooms for non-resident members of the Order coming to Malbork on matters of business and also for lay knights received by the Grand Master. The chape! of Sr. Bartholomew, at the southern corner of the east wing, was intended for their use. The new outer bailey housed several stores, workshops, stables, sheds, etc. They were not only the economic base of the castle but also the main logistical centre of the Teutonic army. Also here, near the southern section of the western part of the perimeter wall, Sr. Lawrence's chapel was erected for the casde servants and ~--_ guests of lower rank. ~ "..__ There were still some casdes inside the Teutonic state in Prussia that be!onged to the local church hierarchy. Each Bishop of the four local dioceses had his own casde, or even castles, of which one was his main seat. The Bishop of Kulm (Chdmno) resided in Läbau (Lubawa), the Bishop of Ermland in Heilsberg ~ (Lidzbark Warminski), the Bishop of Pomesania in Riesenburg (Prabuty), and the Bishop of Sambia in Fischhausen (Primorsk). The Chapters of these dioceses -- also had [heir own castles. The main castle of the Kulm (Chdmno) Chapter was Kauernik (Kurzt;tnik), that of the Ermland's Chapter was Allenstein (Olsztyn) of the Pomesanian Chapter was Schänberg (Szymbark), and of the Sambian Chapter was Saalau (Kamenskoye). There does not seem to be a common stylistic denorninator for all of these eastles. The architectural forms of a group of them, e.g. Heilsberg, Allenstein and Marienwerder (Kwidzyn), despite the differences in their functions, were clearly influenced by Teutonic conventual cascles. However, some other fonified buildings that were the property of the church hierarchy, for example, Schänberg and Frauenburg (Frombork), defY any attempt to find analogies for them. The architecture of fortified buildings in Prussia is a phenomenon on the European scale. Apart from the many values described above, one more

74 for rer

ms ue gh ler by

ey tre ur Ild

us m

Fig. I 5. Site plan of the castle in Marienburg (Malbork) including High Casde (to ehe fight) and Middle Cascle (lefc) (afrer C. Steinbreche) or

is, ed td

In Part One - Prussia partieularly visible feature which contributes to its unique position is its arehitectural uniformity, of course not in any pejorative sense. Ir is decidedly a reflection ofPrussia's characteristic political situation meaning thar all of rhe fortifieations were erected on the initiative of and to meet the needs of rhe investor, meaning the Teutonie Order, the state power. Its architecture also had an enormous influenee on the shape of the casdes belonging to the loeal chureh hierarchy, which was dependent on it particularly in military matters. This srylistically homogeneous picture was not disturbed by the presence of castles belonging (0 orher entiries, especially major knightly clans. Ir was they who introduced a great variety of architecrural forms into fortified buildings in other European regions. The cause of this was the rather disadvanrageous politieal, social and eeonomic status of the loeal knighthood. Ir meant that only a few of its representatives reinforced their headquarters - usually using fairly primitive wood and earth struetures. One of the many exarnples is the knighdy sear in Klementsburg (Plemiety) in Kulmerland which survives as a relie that ean be detected archaeologically. On the basis of the archaeological reconnaissanee of its remains, it can be concluded thar it represented the most common type of fortifications ealled a motte and bailey castle. Such forralices were erected for the seeurity of the owners and foe their state prestige. Sometimes they were even of importanee for the defenee of the country, but they quickly disappeared from the face of the earth, leaving no visible trace disrurbing the homogeneous general picrure of loeal forrified arehitecture. Such far- reaehing homogeneity was not attained by orher known groupings of state castles in Europe - suffice it to mention the assemblages of fortified buildings of Frederick II of Hohenstaufen in Italy, and Edward II in Wales.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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77 Part One - Prussia

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