borderlands Pomeranian-Prussian medieval rs Seetah Krish oiaBadura Monika lkadrPluskowski Aleksander G Biała 6 5 4 3 2 1 n iiayodr.Eiec o h rsneo ecat ugssBaaG Biała suggests merchants of monastic the presence with the associated kind for the Evidence of orders. buildings durable military indicate and tiles roof and bricks of caches upeetr aeili rvddoln thttp://antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/pluskowski341/ at online provided is material Supplementary earth Crusades. the Keywords: shadowed that network commercial the in outposts many ANTIQUITY C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity eateto nhoooy tnodUiest,Mi ud ulig5,40SraMl,Safr,CA Stanford, Mall, Serra 450 50, Building Quad, USA Toru Main 94035, University, 87-100 Stanford 44/48, Anthropology, Bydgoska of Szosa University, Department Copernicus Nicolaus Archaeology, Gda of of University Institute UK Archaeobotany, 9AG, Gda and EH8 80-308 Palaeoecology Edinburgh 59, of Place, Stwosza Laboratory Teviot Ecology, Edinburgh, Plant of of University Archaeology, Department and Classics History, of School Staro Malborku, (Email: w UK Zamkowe 6AB, Muzeum RG6 correspondence) Reading for Whiteknights, author Reading, [email protected]; of University Archaeology, of Department 8(04:8382http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/088/ant0880863.htm 863–882 (2014): 88 oeai,lwrVsua etncOdr rsds ryae tnct,dark ethnicity, Greyware, Crusades, Order, Teutonic , lower , 1 r:tefrotncln nthe in colony forgotten the ora: , ´ 6 4 lxne Brown Alexander & ailMakowiecki Daniel , s, nsk, ´ 1 bgiwSawicki Zbigniew , ´ sci sa1 220Mlok Poland , 82-200 1, nska ´ 863 1 5 ohPmrna n emnclnss and colonists, German and Pomeranian both with links strong show community. metalwork and borderland ethnicity Pottery this the of and economy into phases and insight expansionist detailed two provides the between G Teutonic Biała the resuming Vistula under Order. century before thirteenth lower stalled the process in the then a the which across by valley, in followed colonisation state was of Polish century the of tenth incorporation into The borderlands Pomerania . Christian Northern disputed of the century in thirteenth early AD or twelfth late the in G Biała iołw Zabilska-Kunek Mirosława , 2 r sasalstlmn founded settlement small a is 3 ora ´ iaMreShillito Lisa-Marie , r suuuli falling in unusual is 3 ora ´ r a n of one was 3 ora ´ ,Poland n, ´ s,Wita nsk, ´ 3 , 5 ,

Research Biała Gora:´ the forgotten colony in the medieval Pomeranian-Prussian borderlands

Figure 1. Location of the site in relation to the Vistula River and other sites mentioned in the text.

Introduction The lower Vistula lies at the heart of northern Poland, where the delta of this major European river punctuates a landscape of fens and floodplains (Figure 1). The earliest written sources describe this as the borderland between eastern Pomerania, also known as and inhabited by Slavic groups, and the adjacent territories of Pomesania and Pogesania, inhabited by Prussians. By the end of the tenth century AD, the expanding Polish Christian state was securing its control over this region with strongholds, accompanied by the development of religious infrastructure (Buko 2008: 196–99). The borderland became C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

864 ielcto n xeto h utrlhorizon G cultural Biała the of extent and location Site lands the which tribal into Order, Prussian Teutonic conquer territories to the annexed decades by five the took led It re-organise Prussians 1233. and by the Vistula against lower war the reached holy had sanctioned (Jagodzi papally abandoned a east been settlements by had Pomeranian Nogat the River of all the pagan almost of and century, thirteenth Christian the By between escalated. tensions Prussians as colonists for dangerous increasingly a enietfidt h ot ftevlaeo ił G Biała of village the of north Kaliningrad the period Russian to transitional identified the the during been hiatus occupied Poland, has site north-eastern a However, archaeological Lithuania. modern south-western an the and within Oblast in castles with colonies ruined medieval associated and later (Pluskowski villages is theocracy the Christian of lands medieval Many the tribal and 2012). culture Prussian Baltic pre-Christian of the between conquest the century. and centre a over German-speaking its for predominantly at settlements Malbork) of new the of (today wave foundation became Marienburg second the frontier of sustaining a fenland colonists castle by the the accompanied 1309, with 1965), In polity, (Rozenkranz allies. new episcopal the its of and heartland Order Teutonic the by cfcs tvre infiatyi et ewe 0 n 0m,mrigit various into merging 500mm, and and 200 artefacts between of depth quantities in significant significantly varied containing It topsoil, ecofacts. current the below immediately ie akcicddwt natrto ntehdooia eieo h floodplain. the the of of regime use hydrological intensified the the in traces that alteration revealing suggested an investigated, discrete with stratigraphy was coincided of associated slope, bank The set the river wharf. of One base river 2c). the likely (Figure at a structures line of potential oblique an of in traces aligned and signals, of brick, concentrations and reflected excavation, metal following buried which, responses hectares— discrete revealed magnetic four survey high site—around The survey. with the gradiometer areas a of edge and extent walking western The field grove. its coring, Nogat. by that the pine delineated revealed was of small 2b) banks (Figure a former 2011 the by and to south 2008 extended the 2007, in to surveys and and the Marienwerder); Excavations to (formerly floodplain; between 20km the Kwidzyn over to extends and which down Heide), Malbork steeply Stuhmische (formerly drops which of Forest slope the natural by west a by north the to bordered htfnaetlytasomdteclue n adcpso h otenBli nthe in Baltic processes southern the the within of ‘Ecology it landscapes the situating and century. site, cultures of thirteenth unique the framework this transformed the by fundamentally played within that roles 2011 the Archaeology in of illustrate (Pluskowski excavations and Department project the Malbork research by in Crusading’ 2008 Museum of and 2007 Castle in the excavations of at sustained subject which the borderlands been Vistula has G the Biała unique century. in fourteenth a colony the rural into represents itself medieval It excavated voivodeship). an Pomeranian of County, example (Sztum Malbork of south-west h w hsso ooiainPmrna n emnaeotntetdseparately, treated often German—are and colonisation—Pomeranian of phases two The hs‘utrllyr tBaaG Biała at layer’ ‘cultural This r slctda h deo necrmn vrokn h oa odli.I is It floodplain. Nogat the overlooking escarpment an of edge the at located is 3 ora ´ lkadrPluskowski Aleksander r a nogncrc,dr rysn deposit sand grey dark organic-rich, an was 3 ora ´ r ,fis icvrddrn edsre n1972, in survey field a during discovered first 3, ora ´ 865 tal et 01 Fgr a.Terslsfo the from results The 2a). (Figure 2011) . Ordensstaat— si20) oa oflcswr replaced were conflicts Local 2004). nski ´ Ordensstaat tal. et r frel Weissenburg), (formerly ora ´ hortcsaegoverned state theocratic a r iil oa stowns, as today visible are C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity c 18km .

Research Biała Gora:´ the forgotten colony in the medieval Pomeranian-Prussian borderlands

Figure 2. a) Location of the site (marked with a red circle) in relation to the village of Biała Gora´ (scale 1:10 000); b) plan of the site showing excavated areas (scale 1:500). Each trench is marked with a number and field season year; c) gradiometer survey of the site with the 2007–2008 trenches indicated. features, mostly pits, cut into the natural sand beneath. It was thicker in the south-western part of the site and disappeared towards the east and south, with a corresponding decrease in artefact and ecofact density (Figure 3). This layer appeared similar to sediments described as ‘dark earth’ in many early urban settlements. This term used to be associated with ideas C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

866 aeili la niao fhmnatvt,adtemxo mde-ie inclusions ‘midden-like’ of mix the and activity, human of anthropogenic indicator with clear association in a fragments of bone is clustering and materials material charcoal different with of of variable, decay presence and is The degradation 4). grains to (Figure relate sand the may than the which the colour types, between in darker material material some a provided fine deposit is this The give information sand. material (further underlying fine remains the organic taken in features black were fragments amorphous pit micro-charcoal of blocks and and frequency four higher profiles The of preserved material). total supplementary well by online from a collected layer face were site; cultural Samples section the the deposit. the across this of from of blocks nature processes cutting the formation directly the assess understand to help conducted to and was micromorphology section Thin layer cultural the of analysis Micro-stratigraphic range wide a (MacPhail to refuse relating of as disposal recognised the now to is cultivation but from abandonment, activities and of decline urban earth’. of ‘dark the of extent the showing map, transect coring Soil 3. Figure aibebooia n eooia rcse cigo itr fdrlc ulig and use. buildings land recent derelict highly most of from the mixture formed from a deposits is on with earth’ acting debris, ‘dark associated processes that pedological identified and have biological studies variable These 2009). Crowther & lkadrPluskowski Aleksander 867 tal. et C tal. et niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity 03 MacPhail 2003; nsitu in

Research Biała Gora:´ the forgotten colony in the medieval Pomeranian-Prussian borderlands

Figure 4. a) Sandy matrix with glauconite grains XPL; b) fungal mass; c) highly degraded bone fragment; d) fragment of ceramic material, probably brick; e) fine organic material; f) degraded charcoal; g) clustering of crystalitic fine material, degraded mortar XPL; h) clustering of fine material; i) degraded charcoal and black amorphous fine material. All others are PPL unless stated otherwise. would support the interpretation of a shallow spread of middening. These observations fit with McPhail’s model of reworked ‘urban’ stratigraphy under waste grassland vegetation (MacPhail & Crowther 2009), and suggest that the site was intensively occupied for a short period of time. This characterisation is reinforced by the diversity and abundance of recovered material culture, and its associated chronology.

Chronology Dating of the site was crucial to situating it within the extended process of colonisation in the lower Vistula valley. A number of methods were used; seeds from features were sent for AMS dating, coins and boat sintels provided relatively specific date ranges and other forms of material culture were situated in a broader, relative chronology. Phases of occupation at the site were dated by AMS and by artefact typology, including coins. The earliest date range is cal AD 1171–1268 (seed from feature 99, GU29835); Table 1) and the latest is cal AD 1307–1421. A silver bracteate minted by the , found at the base of a rubbish pit (feature 102), was dated to the first quarter of the fourteenth century, with layer 120b dated to cal AD 1255–1305 (GU29833). The other two layers in the pit provided much C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

868 rc ulig;tecoetprlesaelkl hs on nGda in potentially found and those timber be of to consisting likely settlement are open parallels an closest been the have buildings; to brick appears site The early the deposits to and through Buildings fourteenth the of from activity. phase dated in intensive reduction be most a can the sees phase and Teutonic is final centuries, and and The fifteenth Pomeranian contexts site. same by the the characterised at in activity is appearing half phase culture second latter the material This to Order with century. dating associated thirteenth phase century subsequent the thirteenth chronology: a the of multi-phase and of a half settlement, mid twelfth/first Pomeranian propose the late pre-Crusade to than the the used later to be no dating can to phase dateable initial dates were an of keys range and This spurs as century. such the buckles, fourteenth artefacts sintels, of of boat categories quarter of several broadly first whilst majority be centuries, the the fourteenth could and to assemblage thirteenth dated ceramic the to extensive be dated the could other 2009); Four Order (Paszkiewicz Teutonic 1281–1395. century AD the fourteenth cal by of minted range total bracteates a silver encompassed both and probabilities, lower osbet u-iietecrmc notoctgre:tes-ald‘rdtoa’tp and type ‘traditional’ so-called is the it categories: but largely two on-going, pits, into currently and ceramics artefacts is layer the Analysis of cultural sub-divide ploughing. category the to by was largest possible from up there recovered broken the pits although were partially Two far sherds fragments bone, By sand. 000 small animal practices. 10 natural of disposal Over the deposits ceramics. waste into was largest in ceramics 1.5m the patterning bone, cutting evident contained animal pit no 82) of deepest and mixture the 25 a with (features typically artefacts, refuse, metal contained and features of majority colonisation The and ethnicity of culture material The Fgr ) ncmaio otedmnin fbik rmvrospae tMalbork at phases various from bricks of recovered dimensions were G fragments the Biała brick to the scattered Castle, comparison and tiles In roof stones), 5). and fragments burnt bricks (Figure with of partially caches along including Three which, buildings. also of timber postholes (one pits of as presence of interpreted the consisted indicated were pugging, majority number of the The a at profiles. and documented irregular depths, were and varying features characterise u-shaped 105 which semi-circular, a ditches settlements. with of or contemporary site, survey embankments of presence field for features the A evidence defensive 2001). to no the (Paner linked revealed century transects been twelfth coring mid has and the superstructure from oak community an merchant German with houses of introduction lmsadrd.Wt h xeto fahat,n te oetcsae eeclearly were spaces domestic other construction no timbers, hearth, joining a for of clamps exception plan. hinges, in the nails, identifiable With iron rods. lock as and and well plates clamps door-handle as bronze fittings, included buildings frame to and linked north- elements corner north-western Other running the site. trench in were the uncovered foundation was and of brick, wall of site, probable fragments another containing a south-west, to of to east remnant transportation One were for behind. materials perhaps left building piles, The ultimately discrete 2002). (Brykowska in century stacked thirteenth deliberately the of decades later the r rcs(esrn 299 (measuring bricks ora ´ lkadrPluskowski Aleksander 869 × 146 × tal. et 3m a etplgclydtdto dated typologically be can 83mm) C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity s,weethe where nsk, ´

Research Biała Gora:´ the forgotten colony in the medieval Pomeranian-Prussian borderlands ) σ 1364–1385 (7.9%) 1343–1395 (52.2%) 1344–1394 (52.3%) 1385–1421 (38.1%) ) Age range (cal AD, 2 ‰ C( 13 δ 29 –21.22826 1281–1326 –25.1 (43.2%) –23.0 1171–1268 1307–1363 (57.3%) 2828 –22.7 –26.2 1281–1325 (43.1%) 1255–1305 (87.5%) + − + − + − + − + − 649 570 649 816 , Secale , Agrostemma Triticum aestivum , and githago Triticum Secale Secale Fallopia convolvulus Galium spurium Table 1. AMS radiocarbonfaces dates. of Materials excavated dated features. are all charred seedsLab derived no. from bulk samples taken from cut-back and cleanedGU29832 section Trench/feature/sample Tr.6 / F94GU29833 / 120a Depth (cm) Tr.6 / F94 / Material 120b dated 60–70 60–70GU29836 Age (BP) Tr. 8 / F102 / Cerealia 189 0–10 713 GU29834 Tr.6 / F94 / 116 20–30 GU29835 Tr. 8 / F99 / 187 0–15

C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

870 atr oeai rmtetefht al hrenhcnuis lhuhte differ they W although of centuries, stronghold thirteenth nearby the early at to assemblage twelfth the the from from Pomerania present eastern period technologies a different and two suggests with traditional strongly time, both pits same the same site. of the at the presence at produced with within The were diverse, contexts types lids. more both same and much when the pitchers is in forms handled ceramics vessel pot, Greyware tempered Greyware of fabric, of compact types range homogenous different limited The a reducing is a by sand. in characterised forms fine-grained fired is vessel was with and hand, of kiln other range the a on The within Greyware, temper. atmosphere The pots. grog standardised and of consists gravel and conditions, sand, uncontrolled or coarse-grained oxidising a in firing with by characterised but are wheel-thrown, fragments were traditional Both centuries. the fourteenth and thirteenth the to dateable ‘Greyware’ 105). feature 8; (trench cache stone and tile roof Brick, 5. Figure aiu te kle rus hs odesadclnssoiiae rmdfeetregions different from originated colonists and their 1283, soldiers and These until and groups. Order lasted smiths skilled carpenters, which the other sailors, tribes of various artisans, Prussian merchants, knights including the colonists: colonists, against non-combatant of Crusades and groups the in different in resulted participants of region period Vistula retinues, arrival lower Crusading the protracted the in Order the during Teutonic the in arrived of who activities the groups 1230, From heterogeneous . the with associated is opooial,tetaiinlcrmc r oprbet otr on oal in locally found pottery to comparable are ceramics traditional the Morphologically, lkadrPluskowski Aleksander 871 tal. et gy ryae nteohrhand, other the on Greyware, egry.  C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity

Research Biała Gora:´ the forgotten colony in the medieval Pomeranian-Prussian borderlands in the eastern provinces of the Holy Roman Empire, and predominantly spoke German (Tandecki 2009: 440–44). Wheel-thrown, kiln-fired, hard Greyware (Harte Grauware) appears in the vicinity of Lubeck¨ around 1200, and differs from contemporary Slavic pottery. It is subsequently found on various sites across the Baltic with documented German colonisation, shadowing Crusading events and the development of the Hanse. There has been extensive discussion of the problematic link between material culture, ethnicity and migration, especially in the early medieval period (summarised in Curta 2011). In the case of Greyware, interpretations have changed in recent years. The link between ceramic traditions and ethnicity in the German province of Brandenburg, which saw a gradual of the Slavic population from the twelfth to fourteenth centuries, has been challenged; the adoption of Greyware on Slavic sites is no longer seen as necessarily reflecting the presence of German colonists (Jeute 2007). At the extreme periphery of German colonisation, in Novgorod, the introduction of Greyware and the abandonment of earlier forms of ceramics have been linked to the interaction of both German and Russian potters, but with the former responsible for initially introducing the technology (Brorsson 2012: 433–34). This issue concerns the relationship between technological choice and social identity, and is relevant to all categories of material culture during the Crusading/colonisation period. To what extent can the widespread presence of a new technology be correlated with the presence of a new social group? In the case of the medieval Vistula fenlands, the distinction between Pomeranian and German groups is clearly made in the documentary record of town charters, place names, personal names and various forms of correspondence (Biskup 1991), and is consistently paralleled in certain categories of material culture, including architecture (Pluskowski 2012). In Elblag (Elbing), just over 40km north-east of Biała Gora,´ there is no evidence of material culture associated with Prussians or Pomeranians in the newly founded thirteenth-century town, where the abundance of excavated Greyware vessels can be readily linked to the presence of colonists from specific German-speaking (Marcinkowski 2003). Whilst the Elblag assemblage is the best known example from the Teutonic Order’s urban colonies, Greyware is regularly associated with sites founded by the Order and its allies in Prussia, to the extent that it marks a noticeable archaeological hiatus between the indigenous pre- Christian Baltic culture and that of the medieval Ordensstaat. On the other hand, because of this ethnic association, the surviving indigenous Prussians, who may well have adopted the trappings of the incomers, are in danger of becoming archaeologically invisible in the post-Crusade period. In Elblag, for example, documentary sources suggest Prussians made up 3 per cent of the old town’s population and were also present in the new town (Czaja 2009: 447). Biała Gora´ is an unusual example of a rural site with an assemblage of diverse material culture that is otherwise associated with contemporary urban communities such as Gdansk´ and Kołobrzeg. In both of these cases, the introduction of Greyware has been linked to the documented presence of German colonists, whether they are directly involved in production or indirectly disseminating its use (Kruppe´ 1981: 102–103; Rebkowski 1995). While it is difficult to reconstruct the ethnic composition of the settlement at Biała Gora,´ the presence of Greyware, alongside traditional forms of vessels, can be synchronised with the well-documented process of colonisation in this region, which intensifies from the last two decades of the thirteenth century (Długokecki 2009). C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

872 omnyecutrduiiainatfcsi eivlstlmnsaeio nvs n at most and the its knives, Among iron and river. are the centuries settlements of G medieval fourteenth importance Biała in and the artefacts as thirteenth utilitarian well complexity encountered the as economic commonly resources, in and natural site social varying the the to to access occupying point community alone the These excavation. of during recovered of been has seasons artefacts three metal of the quantity significant A trade. and manufacturing G Biała at settlement trade The and industry of culture material The cm. in Scales (right). rivets with (left), site the from recovered Knives 6. Figure hrenhadfutet etre Caa20) h rsneo ecat ttesite, the at merchants of presence The later the 2006). the in (Czaja during particularly centuries commerce, resources 1996). fourteenth for military (Vlierman important and centuries supporting equally thirteenth fifteenth and and the Prussia, moving to in for could and period essential few Crusading thirteenth a was the whilst Vistula of ‘D’), lower half group The first (Vlierman’s the century quarter to fourteenth last dated late the iron be to the of belonged to majority be number thirteenth could The a the and 8). recovered rivets, (Figure of were grounds boat caulking, typological Alongside hair) on animal site. dated (or the securely hemp at together fasten boats to of used presence sintels, the by (see underlined site is the at present also were probably were furriers tools, and antler stock, 7). as dead (Figure well of below) is as supply bone-working comb, regular for a the Evidence and from amber. awls sourced raw bone scissors die, and iron antler lead by an of although represented pieces limited, is whorls, spindle activities clay industrial drills, small-scale and for Evidence recovered. also aebe nepee sGra mot,atiue oteitgaino hs oite into functions societies these of (Mugur of network range integration trading the a Hanseatic to the attributed for imports, used German as been interpreted one been have diversity in have would the and, below), by right) (see paralleled 6 bone (Cowgill (Figure are animal rivets which on iron blades, cut-marks four antler multi-purpose of and to These wooden three rivets. partial with bronze and tangs example, Complete to length. attached in complete were 195mm incomplete; handles is to and 105mm 250mm from measures range blade blades largest The 6). (Figure handles tanged omrecerypae nipratrl n h infiac ftervri hsrespect this in river the of significance the and role important an played clearly Commerce r hr r xmlso ml,mdu n ag lds swl srvtd scale- riveted, as well as blades, large and medium small, of examples are there ora ´ tal. et 00.Fnso cl-agdhnldbae lehr nteesenBaltic eastern the in elsewhere blades handled scale-tanged of Finds 2000). r per ohv a pca cnmcfntos ouigon focusing functions, economic special had have to appears ora ´ lkadrPluskowski Aleksander evi ¯ s20:1011.Anme fhn-tnswere hone-stones of number A 100–101). 2008: cs ˇ 873 tal. et C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity

Research Biała Gora:´ the forgotten colony in the medieval Pomeranian-Prussian borderlands

Figure 7. Artefacts associated with daily life at the site (left: bone comb; right: antler and amber dice). Scales in cm.

or at least individuals handling traded commodities, is hinted at by an iron seal decorated with a stylised ship (or anchor) design. Its perforated end suggests it would have hung from a cord. A number of keys for use on mounted locks and padlocks, as well as examples of the latter, are indicative of a level of security for valued commodities. On the other hand, imported artefacts have not been found, and it seems the site was oriented more towards export. A military presence, which can be expected at such a frontier colony, is clearly attested by several tanged crossbow bolts, socketed and tanged arrowheads, three spearheads, caltrops and a small fragment of armour (Figure 9). Equestrian equipment is represented by bridle fittings, horseshoes and spurs, and the presence of war-horses is further suggested by the character of the faunal assemblage (Figure 10). The high number of recovered horse bones may be partially related to the military and equestrian elite presence at the site, although horses would also have been used as draught and pack animals. It is clear that whole horse carcasses were processed here, and several sizes of animal were observed. The largest were represented by hoof bones, which corresponded to those recovered from medieval contexts in the outer bailey of the castle at Malbork (Maltby et al. 2009); at the opposite end of the scale were pony-sized animals. Local horses were comparatively small, and the Teutonic Order is known to have introduced significantly larger animals during the Crusading period (Ekdahl 1998). The presence of knights at the site is also suggested by a miniature bronze heraldic shield interpreted as a dress accessory, and other higher status commodities include fragments of bronze vessels, amber and glass beads, a bronze ring with an amber setting, and a diverse range of buckles, strap ends and other belt fittings (Figure 11). The artefacts recovered to date from Biała Gora´ point to a composite community, with the presence of small-scale industry, commerce and military personnel. The caches of bricks and roof tiles can be linked to significant investment in durable buildings, associated in this region with the Cistercians and the Teutonic Order (Brykowska 2002). Our understanding of how this community sustained itself in the turbulent frontier region of the lower Vistula can be significantly refined by examining how it was provisioned. C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

874 iue8 rnba itl.Saei cm. in Scale sintels. boat Iron 8. Figure G Biała at staples dietary The colony the Provisioning iue9 reat soitdwt iiaypeec ttest lf:sered;rgt rsbwblsadarrowheads). and bolts crossbow right: spearheads; (left: site the at presence military a cm. with in Scales associated Artefacts 9. Figure fcraspriual y n alyadwesidctsacs opraetrotational permanent to access indicates weeds barley—and and rye cereals—particularly of r ol aebe eie rmcliae lns h range The plants. cultivated from derived been have would ora ´ lkadrPluskowski Aleksander 875 hc ersn 2prcn fidentifiable of cent mammals, per 92 domestic represent by which dominated insofar is settlement it medieval as a of typical 2008 in is recovered fragments after teams bone 2841 assemblage plough of The likely the 435). 2009: in most (Makowiecki replaced were years, they three–five slaughtered at individuals many at with site, slaughtered the and bred most species second the important as feature which cattle, by G Biała sourced been woodland. nearby have the of also fringes the present could from nuts site the and at fruits The local agriculture. in hiatus significant a represent not do (Brown periods comm medieval early later the in and vicinity the from within cultivation profile cereal in palynological continuity suggests Parpary nearby processing The cereal site. and on harvesting Finds point local certainly crop gauge. to quernstones and to of sickles imported difficult of intensity is to the production perhaps although or grain, systems field h ed tlsdb h omnt at community the by utilised fields The tal. et ) h vnso h rsdn period Crusading the of events the .); r eems rbbyploughed probably most were ora ´ C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity pers.

Research Biała Gora:´ the forgotten colony in the medieval Pomeranian-Prussian borderlands

Table 2. Mammal and bird bones recovered from the site of Biała Gora.´ Common name Latin name NISP

Domestic mammals Pig Sus scrofa 554 Cattle Bos taurus 381 Goat Capraa.hircus 1 Sheep/goat Ovis aries/Capra a. hircus 71 Horse Equus caballus 68 Dog Canis familiaris 8 Cat Felix catus 5 Wild mammals Red deer Cervus elaphus 22 Roe deer Capreolus capreolus 5 Cervid (sp.) Cervus 3 Beaver Castor fiber 40 Fox Vulpes vulpes 4 Bear Ursus arctos 2 Hare Lepus europaeus 2 Polecat Mustela putorius 1 Marten Martes martes 2 Otter Lutra lutra 1 Rat Rattus rattus 6 Shrew Sorex araneus 4 Mole Talpa europaea 1 Water vole Arvicola terrestris 2 Unidentified mammal (cattle-sized) 803 Unidentified mammal (pig/sheep-sized) 757 Birds Domestic fowl Gallus gallus 22 Goose Anser anser 3 Mallard Anas platyrhynchos 1 Rook Corvus frugilegus 1 Unidentified bird 63

Note: excludes over 2000 fragments of small mammal bone flakes recovered through careful collection and sieving. bone fragments (Table 2). Within this category, the most represented species is pig, closely followed by cattle and a significantly smaller number of sheep and goat bones, as well as horse, dog, cat and poultry. The high proportion of pig remains is a trend associated with both Pomeranian and Prussian sites in the region (Makowiecki 2009: 430), and one that can be linked to the nearby wooded landscape. Most anatomical elements were present, indicating that whole carcasses were processed at the site, with a prevalence of older individuals kept for the purposes of breeding. Few individuals were slaughtered before 12 months, with only a single neonatal pig bone identified. Although pork and beef represented the main forms of meat at the colony, beaver evidently formed part of the diet at the site, as indicated by a clear large-blade chop mark across the shaft of a femur (Figure 12C), and medieval Christian C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

876 omnte nteesenBli etil osdrdbae eta ibeLne food Lenten viable a as meat beaver considered certainly (M Baltic eastern the in communities n i,tidpaax(ofbn) clsi cm. in Scales horseshoe bone). spurs, (hoof phalanx bottom: third to bit, top and Equestrianism; 10. Figure h vdnefrsinn,termiso e er(nldn anate ie,wl boar, wild tine), antler sawn a (including deer red of thirteenth remains the Alongside the 435). skinning, 2009: for before (Makowiecki evidence commensals Poland the these of northern numbers rising changes in with ecological associated accompanying frequently are and settlement less human of intensification occur the when Cats century, centres. urban and n 2004). and ¨ lkadrPluskowski Aleksander 877 odradstsfo h wlt century twelfth W (e.g. the from Pomeranian sites on borderland known already are knives n sdfrbutchering for used at and developed tools specific metal-working the than rather suggest site, on quality the and employed of species of been availability range have full These the B D). particular, good- 12A, (Figure & in of knives present; sharp-bladed suite thin, was cut-marks diverse tools of a quality range that The butchers indicate colony. professional the for at evidence no there is present at although standardisation, u eoa,awdl bevdatvt in proto-urban European activity Northern observed medieval for widely skinning a removal, reflecting evidence fur cut-marks included fur fine cats of commercial least at individual the of three one from of mandible At a end hierarchy, marten. lower pine and the polecat otter, pelts harvesting from included which working, preferences. culinary even or meat, to attached values commercial shared reflect may portions certain of knives. standardisation The multi-purpose with scale small a conducted on was metal processing meat good-quality but blades, forging at and butchery bringing of G character Biała The press). the in indicate (Seetah cleavers heavy tools of introduction extant both and where state, cut-marks Order’s is Teutonic the castles blades, and in riveted towns with as associated typically well as butchery equipment, specialist of introduction the but h uceydt ugssadge of degree a suggests data butchery The hr sas ies vdnefrfur- for evidence diverse also is There tal. et gy rpna20:10 a.260), cat. 120, 2004: Trupinda egry;  r ugssta ooit were colonists that suggests ora ´ C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity e se. per Long-bladed tal. et

Research Biała Gora:´ the forgotten colony in the medieval Pomeranian-Prussian borderlands

Figure 11. Dress accessories and personal adornments (left to right: heraldic shield, amber ring and buckles). bear, fox and possibly wolf, also point to the exploitation of the nearby woodland. The presence of both hare and roe deer can be linked to more open landscapes, whilst bones from rat, shrew, vole, water vole and frog reflect a variety of specialised habitats. Rooks are also attested in the assemblage, and would have been drawn to nearby meadows and pasture (Kasprzykowski 2003: 29). The exploitation of wild mammals in the ‘economic hinterland’ of the site points to opportunistic exploitation rather than sustained harvesting. This corresponds with the frontier location of the colony prior to and during the Crusading period, and the presence of merchants at the site suggests this was one of many outposts in the commercial network shadowing the Crusades. With the establishment of the Teutonic Order’s state, the exploitation of the woodland would be managed by specialised manors or Vorwerks (Polish folwarks) situated around the Forest of Sztum, subservient to the convent at Marienburg (Chec´ 2003, 2009). The assemblage of fish bones, numbering 989 fragments (Table 3), as well as a significant quantity of fish scales, finds of fish hooks of varying sizes and fishing weights, indicates that diverse fishing was practised at the site, during a period of intensification in fishing associated with the emergence of the Teutonic Order’s state. Freshwater, migratory and marine species, including sturgeon and cod, are evident at the site. The latter are relatively small in size (300–600mm), derived from the population in local Baltic waters. The presence of cod is first evident in Gdansk´ from the end of the thirteenth century/early fourteenth century whilst carp, present in the town from the thirteenth century, is documented at the Marienburg convent in 1396 and subsequently in the fifteenth century (Makowiecki 2003: 116; Chec´ 2009). This situates the most intensive phase of the Biała Gora´ colony within the provisioning networks promoted by the Order and its allied merchants during and after the Crusades against the Prussian tribes.

Conclusion Excavations at Biała Gora´ have revealed the presence of intensive settlement associated with the protracted process of colonisation and Christianisation of the lower Vistula valley. C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

878 ihapsil hr n abu,srtgclylctdbtentervradteexpansive the and settlement river open the an between been located have strategically harbour, to G and appears Biała wharf this possible at instead a fortifications; activity with of of that evidence lower intensity no co-existence the the across is of warfare There backdrop intermittent period this and a Against Crusade valley. Prussian with the the Vistula colonists, of from events new present the community, by with absence Pomeranian coincides the replenished a alongside was suggests culture, century, occupation, material thirteenth of the phases of and the character segregated complex of The of and a century. suite river remained fourteenth until that a the Order early Teutonic region the the of by and a Prussians Slavs, within proximity supported Pomeranian between shelter The frontier activities, natural military dynamic trade. with industrial site international of the and provided range woods local a and in resources engaged natural were colonists The on marks skinning on fine-blade marks d) blade consumption?); fine (for b) femur joint; beaver hock a the chop cm. at to in disarticulation used Scales gross blade mandible. of large cat indicative of a astragalus evidence cattle c) a phalanx; on horse marks a Blade a) 12. Figure lkadrPluskowski Aleksander 879 tal. et C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity r sremarkable. is ora ´

Research Biała Gora:´ the forgotten colony in the medieval Pomeranian-Prussian borderlands

Table 3. Fish bones recovered from the site of Biała Gora.´ Common name Latin name NISP

Pike Esox lucius 32 Cyprinids Cyprinidae 269 Roach Rutilus rutilus 10 Roach/rudd Rutilus rutilus/Scardinius erythrophthalmus 6 Rudd Scardinius erythrophthalmus 3 Ide Leuciscus idus 5 Asp Aspius aspius 1 Tench Tinca tinca 22 Bream Abramis brama 51 Sichel Pelecus cultratus 1 Crucian carp Carassius carassius 4 Carp Cyprinus carpio f. domestica 1 Catfish Silurus glanis 78 Perches Percidae 18 Perch Perca fluviatilis 28 Pike-perch Sander lucioperca 21 Sturgeon Acipenser sp. 1 Eel Anguilla Anguilla 3 Cod Gadus morhua 5 Flatfishes Pleuronectidae 1 Total 560 Unidentifiable 430 woodland. In the later half of the thirteenth century, the colony was re-founded or further developed by a new wave of settlers who introduced a different type of firing technology, represented by significant quantities of Greyware. Within the context of the emerging commercial networks shadowing the crusading campaigns, the site at Biała Gora´ 3 can be tentatively characterised at the very least as a trading post, engaged in the exploitation of a diversity of natural resources, fur processing, metal-working, and artefact and ceramic production. In contrast to the more successful trading centres established by the Teutonic Order and its allies, this outpost was neither planned as a town nor developed urban characteristics, perhaps as it was a relatively short- lived appropriation of an existing Pomeranian settlement which outlived its primary function with the dissolution of this frontier. In the absence of any evidence for destruction, the decline in activities at the site can instead be linked to the transformation of the frontier zone into a political heartland within the Ordensstaat. In 1309 the international headquarters of the Teutonic Order was relocated to Marienburg, accelerating the reconfiguration of the management of the surrounding landscape—a process that had already begun in the 1280s with the designation of the early castle as a convent (Jo´zwiak´ & Trupinda 2007). This scenario provides the strongest evidence for tentatively associating the site at Biała Gora´ with the historically documented Santir—a Pomeranian Cistercian missionary outpost functioning from 1235–36 and subsequently a Teutonic Order commandery centre (rendered as Zantyr/Zantir) that was officially relocated to Marienburg c. 1280. The C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

880 C 09 utmnhpadhnigwaosin weapons hunting and Huntsmanship 2009. – B B B B References G Biała at excavations The G Biała and Zantyr between association yteNtoa cec etei oad htgah fatfcsb ehOko Lech the by artefacts from of funding financed Photographs 2012/05/B/ST10/00243, Poland. received project in parallel Centre has the Science within results National out the these Part carried by been 263735. to has no. work agreement leading archaeobotanical grant the research under of The (FP7/2007-2013) Programme done Reading). Framework was Seventh of Union’s sections European thin (University micro-morphological Jack of John Preparation gradiometer. by fluxgate Waldemar particular dual in 601-2 participated, Grad who Bartington those all thank to like would Jaszczy authors the and Malborku), w Zamkowe ntefrigo e oit ntesuhesenBaltic. Acknowledgements south-eastern the in synchronised society were new environments a local of to forging adaptation the and heartland, in commerce economic crusading, and political how a of into and frontier fenland Vistula which colonisation the of transformed waves multiple eventually the potential of significant understanding and River our retains to site the extensively waves—Pomeranian unique of contributing This for east centuries. two colonies thirteenth to founding of eleventh at the attempts consisting from Nogat sustained simply of number than a were Rather German—there borderland. this within oa naiat noteegtet etr,adrmistems ieylcto o the for location likely most the remains (Pollak centre and century, commandery early eighteenth the into inhabitants local UKO RYKOWSKA RORSSON ISKUP H E h iea ił G Biała at site The  ´ Ł rhooizyhihsoyzyh pr historycznych, i archeologicznych nK Gr K. in epn natqiyadteMdl Ages Middle the and antiquity in hunting weapons and hunt the Historicae: (ed.) Archaeologiae Maik J. in commandery, Malbork icvre,hptee,interpretations hypotheses, Discoveries, Zugeh i eciheMte-udOstdeutschlands und Mittel- Geschichte die Forschung. der Stand Zum Preußen. otrtamlosig w malborskiego komturstwa context E. (ed.) & Makarov Nosov N. Brisbane, M. in foreign influences, and traditions local region: Novgorod uemZmoewMalborku. w Zamkowe Muzeum Europy srodkowo-wschodniej .Mierzwi M. zasi krzy C ´ od ´ .2008. A. , .20.Flak krzy Folwarki 2003. A. , .19.DsPolmdrethnischen der Problem Das 1991. M. , si h rdoee uvywscnutdb ai hrly(nvriyo edn) sn a using Reading), of (University Thornley David by conducted was survey gradiometer The nski. ´ ge rhtkuycgae,i .Arszy M. in ceglanej, architektury egiem  :Pls cdm fSciences. of Academy Polish z: ´ zackie ˙ .21.Pteypouto nthe in production Pottery 2012. T. , rgeti itllelce adsa in Landesbau mittelalterlichen im origkeit ¨ 2–4 xod Oxbow. Oxford: 425–34. : .20.Sui a wschodnim nad Studia 2002. 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Received: 15 July 2013; Accepted: 18 September 2013; Revised: 27 September 2013

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