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“Continuity of Pagan Religious Traditions in Tenth-Century ” JAAKKO HÄMEEN-ANTTILA

Published in Melammu Symposia 3: A. Panaino and G. Pettinato (eds.), Ideologies as Intercultural Phenomena. Proceedings of the Third Annual Symposium of the Assyrian and Babylonian Intellectual Heritage Project. Held in Chicago, USA, October 27-31, 2000 (Milan: Università di Bologna & IsIao 2002), pp. 89-108. Publisher: http://www.mimesisedizioni.it/

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HÄMEEN -A NTTILA C ONTINUITY OF PAGAN RELIGIOUS TRADITION IN IRAQ

JAAKKO HÄMEEN -A NTTILA Helsinki

Continuity of Pagan Religious Traditions in Tenth-Century Iraq

Perhaps nine tenths of sciences belong to the Nabateans and one tenth to all other nations together 1

t has long been known that Θ!""&$ conquerors never settled down en masse . remained a seat of pagan and Helle- Curiously enough, these traditions have Inistic religion deep into the Islamic remained very little studied. period. One of the leading authorities of Jewish and Christian communities Hellenistic religions in Syria, H.J.W. apart, the Islamization of rural areas was Drijvers, has written (1980: 129): a slow process, 2 and it was never com- Leaving aside the whole complicated tra- pleted in the swamp areas, where Man- dition about the of Harran, it can daeans have a continuous tradition from be stated that they represent a continua- before the Islamic conquest and ulti- tion of indigenous religion and that, mately leading back, at least in part, to however philosophically disguised their Mesopotamian religion. Despite their ef- doctrines may be, the sources of Sabian forts to appropriate the term ‘Sabians,’ belief and practice must be sought in the traditional religion of Harran. reserved in the Qur’ n for an obscure monotheistic group and thus approved of It is generally accepted that the local by Muslim authorities, were tradition of Θ!""&$ flourished, as a mix- very close to pagans in the eyes of Mus- ture of and Hellenistic philoso- lim observers. Yet they could find a way phy, till the 9th-10th centuries, as wit- to live as a separate religious community, nessed by authors such as an-Nad m and tolerated by Muslim rulers, through to al-Mas 

1 Ibn &! Ι()*++! , Kit b as-Sum

In fact, the existence of pagans in the tenth-century Islamic world, in the tenth-century Islamic world was well countryside of Iraq ( saw d) around Ba- known to contemporaries and caused no ghdad. problems to Muslim authors. Thus, even This is, in fact, curious because there a strict theologian like al-Ash ar simply are several important sources which in- stated the existence of modern Sabians in form us of the existence and importance his Maq lt, pp. 103-104, when speaking of a Sabian community or a group of about some Kh rijites who also called communities in the area. These sources, themselves Sabians: the Nabatean 5 corpus, are a group of He (their leader) claimed that the relig- books purported to be translations from ious community ( milla ) of that prophet “ancient Syriac” by Ibn &!Ι()*++! (see (whose appearance they awaited) was below), who calls these “other Sabians” sbbi’a – these are not the same Sabians bbil “Babylonian.” It is only because to which some people belong today [em- the Harranian Sabians were the first to phasis added, J.H-A], nor are they the draw the attention of scholars that Θ!", same as those mentioned by God in the Qur’ n (…). "&$ has been seen as the main centre of paganism during the Islamic period. The existence of Sabians under Islamic In his al- th r al-b qiya , p. 206, 6 al- domination was neither surprising nor B r

view is gratuitious and not supported by any evi- East Muslims were more tolerant than in later centu- dence. The theoretical structure of Islam, created by ries. For Mandaean evidence for this tolerance, see Muslim theologians, does not tolerate other religions Gündüz (1994): 70 (< Haran Gawaita). than those coming under the dhimma system (Christi- 4 See especially Green (1992) and Gündüz (1994). anity, Judaism, Magianism i.e. the Zarathustran re- 5 The term Nabatean ( naba # ) is a word used by Mus- ligion, and Sabianism), but this has rarely lead to any lim authors to denote the indigenous, practical measures against other religions, especially speaking population of especially Iraq. It does not in the countryside (cf. e.g. the peaceful coexistence refer to the inhabitants of Petra. I have kept the Ara- under Islamic rule of Muslims and Hindus, who were bic term to avoid being too precise on questions theoretically not tolerated). Moreover, the Islamic about which we know all too little. attitude became more rigid in time, and during the 6 The passage is duplicated on p. 318. first few centuries of Islamic domination in the Near

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ϖ*6! . They trace their origin back to extraneous influences. Thus, what he 7 An

7 One has to keep apart An

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done mainly because the Mandaeans are cal traditions. – There is also a further the only community which has kept its group of Sabians, often called in modern religion until today, and scholars have literature the Harranians of Baghdad, 11 been aware of only Harranians and Man- but this term is not used to refer to the daeans as the possible equivalents of the peasants around Baghdad, but to the Har- different Sabians. ranian scholars and philosophers, Th bit Some Islamic authors, though, do seem ibn Qurra among them, who were to have thought specifically of Man- brought by the Caliph to the capital to daeans. Al-Mas 

10 Throughout Mur

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to some extent consistent, although she, cities were soon Islamized – Christian too, has to admit that (p. 145) “none of and Jewish communities excepted – and the Muslim authors who purport to de- accordingly, the literature gives an illu- scribe traditional Harranian religion have sion that the whole area dominated by any first-hand knowledge of what was Muslims was free of paganism. Ibn being practiced in Harran during his own &!Ι()*++! is one of the very few authors lifetime.” to write about the largely non-Islamic, or Internal consistency and first-hand at most only nominally Islamic, country- knowledge would give us a more secure side of Iraq. ground in analyzing one Sabian sub- In the present paper, I shall concen- system and that would help us start trate on the Mesopotamian element in the building up a clearer view about who and local rural religion as decribed in the what the Sabians were and what relation Nabatean corpus, using two examples – I their religion had with the earlier relig- wish to be able to return to the question ions in the area. Concerning Iraqi Sabi- of the overall religious system of the anism we have some good sources which, Iraqi Sabians in a future study. in my opinion, fulfill these two condi- Before discussing the Mesopotamian tions, but which have been neglected due material transmitted to us by Ibn to problems in the dating and evaluation &!Ι()*++! , the date and the geographical of the material, viz. Ibn &!Ι()*++! ’s setting of the Nabatean corpus need to be “Nabatean corpus” from the early tenth discussed. In brief, the opinions con- century, consisting of al-Fil h^a an- cerning the corpus, and especially Fil hUa Naba #iyya “The Nabatean Agriculture” on which much of the discussion has (abbreviated in the following as Fil h^a), centred, have been divided into three po- Kit b as-Sum

14 I have been able to use the microfilms of these 16 None of these authors can be identified. In each of manuscripts in the Institut für Geschichte der ara- the books, there are also quotations from other books, bisch-islamischen Wissenschaften in Frankfurt. again unidentifiable. 15 This name is also read as ΀aghr th.

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ancient sages and that made the first, and Nabatean corpus). Most of those who clearly overenthusiastic, mid-19th-cen- hold this third position have dismissed tury European scholars see in the book a the texts as forgeries of little value. 18 remnant of Babylonian literature; Chwol- In my opinion, however, all of the sohn, the main advocate of this first po- three positions fail to confront the ulti- sition, even titled one of his studies mate problem. Forgeries the books may “Über die Überreste der altbabyloni- be, in the sense that they were written or schen Literatur in arabischen Übersetz- compiled in Arabic in the late ninth or ungen .” This position has been aban- the early tenth century and do not go doned by all serious scholars, especially back each to just one Aramaic source since the cuneiform texts have been de- which would have been translated by Ibn ciphered. &!Ι()*++! .19 On the other hand, they are The remaining two positions both have valuable documents of local traditions their advocates. Some scholars like Fuat circulating at the time and may contain Sezgin (in GAS III and IV), Toufic Fahd parts which go back to written Aramaic (1977 and several shorter publications, sources. The author quite obviously knew the most important collected in the third local informants and he may have had volume of his edition of Fil hUa) and Mi- access to some written sources; much of chael Moronyi (1991) take Fil hUa, and the material he adduces is not known more or less implicitly the other works of from elsewhere, or at least not in so de- the Nabatean corpus, to be what they tailed a form, yet it is genuine and con- purport to be, viz. translations from forms with what we know about late pa- Aramaic originals, which should thus be ganism and cannot thus be a fanciful in- dated somewhere roughly around the 5th vention of Ibn &!Ι()*++! ’s. Also the ag- century A.D. The problem with this is ricultural parts of Fil hUa – the religious that the books do not show any clear parts are a minority – show that he was traces of having been translated. familiar with and extremely well in- The third position is that of, among formed about the Iraqi countryside. others, Manfred Ullmann (1972), viz. Yet, in order to avoid the tangled that Ibn &!Ι()*++! , who, be it mentioned question of the date and provenance of in passing, made himself out to be a de- the texts, I wish to concentrate here es- scendant of Sennacherib ( <*$Ι&"P= ), 17 is pecially on a passage in Fil hUa, where in fact the author of Fil hUa (and obvi- Ibn &!Ι()*++! speaks as himself, the ously also of the other books of the translator, and which thus definitely

17 An-Nad m, Fihrist, p. 378 (Dodge 1970: 731). The phers into the capital; Th bit ibn Qurra (d. 901) was name Sennacherib was very popular in the tenth the most famous of the Harranian scholars and trans- century. For an Armenian prince of this name, see lators in Baghdad. His production also shows that Ullmann (1978): 43. translations from ancient languages were in vogue at 18 It has even been claimed that Ibn Wa Ιshiyya is an the time. invented character and his student Ibn az-Zayy t the One should also remember the flourishing of esoteric real author, but this is based on mere guesswork, see Islamic movements at the same time: the Ismailis, on Hämeen-Anttila (1999). the ascendance for the whole of the 10th century, 19 Note that this period was full of Arabic pseudepi- were the most influential of these movements but less grapha, e.g. the Daniel Apocalypse or the Sa # f known esoteric trends also existed, see Halm (1982) Apocalypse (see Hämeen-Anttila 2000), as well as and Hämeen-Anttila (2001). anonymous works showing interest in esoteric tradi- Note also Pingree (1968): 1ff., for ancient esoteric tions like the slightly later Ras ’il Ikhw n a $-\af . texts refound and translated at about the time of Ibn Likewise, it saw the coming of Harranian philoso- Wa Ιshiyya.

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dates to the early tenth century. to be taken into account. Thus, he is The religious material in Fil hUa has an likely to have misunderstood things, and overall resemblance to the Harranian re- he clearly wishes to present the material ligion and it has earlier been discussed as in a form as acceptable to Muslims as Harranian paganism by the few who be- possible, which may at least partly ex- lieve in the authenticity of Fil h^a, such plain the passages emphasizing the un- as Fahd. Yet the book clearly describes derlying monotheism of the Sabian re- the situation in Iraq, not Θ!""&$ . The ligion. 21 author is very consistent in using geo- As an aside, one might mention that graphical names, and all places which he the interest of Muslim authors in the mentions as his own or neighbouring re- Sabians had flourished since the late gions, are in Iraq, close to Baghdad. ninth century, especially after the coming Other Islamic sources do confirm that of the Harranian scholars to the capital. the Saw d of Iraq – an unfortunately The interest in the local inhabitants as a vague term meaning roughly “arable source for possible esoteric wisdom must countryside” – was the main area of the have grown in the ninth century, and the Sabians. The slightly later al-B r

20 For a possible case of such writings circulating in of B b (Rosenthal 1962). both Arabic and Syriac versions, cf. the Prophecies 21 See also Hämeen-Anttila (1999).

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fect Islam may have had on this point: an ments, consists of popular rites, magic, openly polytheistic cult would more folklore, aetiologies, etc., and taps the probably have raised opposition than one autochthonous Mesopotamian tradition, which was ultimately monotheistic, as it whereas the latter concentrates on philo- is possible to consider the lesser deities sophical speculation on planetary move- merely as emanations from the One God. ments, their meaning and influence, and As in Mandaean religion and many is heavily in debt to Hellenistic thought – Gnostic sects, the astral deities are far whether and to what extent itself depend- from being simply good. In fact, the de- ent on Mesopotamian models is another scription ( Fil h^a, pp. 10-12) of an of- question. Whether the philosophical ele- fering and invocation to Zuh ®al, Saturn ment was completely restricted to the that is (or Nergal), makes it clear that the learned Sabians or whether it had any deity is a nefarious one. – It should also relevance among the farmers and laics is be mentioned that there are no traces of a difficult question which we cannot an- any or lustrations in Fil h¥a, ex- swer at present. cept for just one mention of “living wa- The weeping for Tamm

22 Note also that weeping for the dead, which is a Malak Ϡ’

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sak nas had all wept for Tamm

28 The equation with Hebrew eshk 0l, made already by 30 Note the Islamic focus, although also fifth and Ewald (1857): 151, note, is unwarranted and there is sixth-century authors were aware of a temple of nothing to connect this temple with Dionysos. A Nishr  in Arabia, see Hawting (1999): 115. reading worth considering might also be Bayt * al- 31 A well-known pagan god, mentioned in the Qur’ n uthk

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of Yanb

35 From this passage till the end the text is given as 39 Cf. Syriac and Mandaic dukhr n. For which Man- Ibn Wa Ιshiyya’s explanatory addition to the “ancient daean dukhr n “a sacramental commemoration of a Syriac” text. person or persons by reciting their name” (Gündüz 36 The passage remotely resembles the frame story of 1994: 82), see Rudolph (1960-1961): 287-296. The Thousand and One Nights . 40 The name is curiously close to that of the god or 37 Twin prophets with the same name are also found demon Jirj s mentioned in Ras ’il Ikhw n a $-$af  elsewhere in the material describing Sabian prophets; IV: 296; see also Green (1992): 208-213. For the e.g. al-Mas 

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they changed the name of J

41 St. George’s feast is on the 23rd of April. 45 Yq

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In other words, the weeping for Tam- was uncritical; magic was part and parcel m

48 Naturally we should not let statements like “I have 49 Naturally, there was also a missionary literature in tried this” to lead us astray. For the genre of magical Manichaeism, see, e.g., Lieu (1985): 54-90. “empirica,” see Ullmann (1978): 110.

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Asr r al-falak (fol. 87b, from the Preface writing of Ab <

50 Throughout this late copy, Daw ny is written R a- despite the later reference in Fihrist to goats. The wyy; the copyist obviously had no idea how to reference to Dozy I:162, is also erroneous: Dozy only pronounce the name. codifies the variants thulla and thilla , with their plu- 51 Written SNT, with T instead of t’ marb <#a. rals thulal and thilal . Reading “the Lady of the 52 Written both here and later THMWDY, obviously Flocks” would thus need an emendation, either to a contamination from Tham

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(…) than he wanted to confess: after all, his informants had, so Ibn &!Ι()*++! him- Finally, there are two confused men- self, forgotten the story behind the ritual tions of an idol called Tamm

ble to read allat qabilat Tamm

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his physical condition ( badan ) will col- the same premonition as the ordinary lapse after the Birthday. They have a farmers and tillers ( al-akara wa’l- premonition of this and because of their fall hU

60 Kh $$ iyya , i.e. magical property. 61 Var. mouths.

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following year. Dodge understands the touching of the All the people in the clima of B bil do abdomen as follows (note 91): “This evi- like this without exception, and I do not dently refers to women who wish to be- know which is more wondrous: that they say that az-Zuhara has an old servant or come pregnant.” Yet, the fuller version that this servant should go around that of Ibn &!Ι()*++! makes it clear that the very night visiting everyone or that she touching is to make sure that they have would make their subsistence narrow the properly eaten, i.e. feasted on the New coming year? How come she would have Year’s Eve – proper eating on festive such power so as to make people’s sub- nights belongs both to Jewish and to sistence narrow or wide? Where does this lady come from and who is she? Muslim customs. All these prodigies ( u‘j

62 See also Picatrix, quoted in Hjärpe (1972): 125. – Vénus”(…).” Ibn Wa Ιshiyya is an impostor, nothing Hjärpe’s comments, incidentally, are a good example more! of the attitude of many earlier scholars towards Ibn 63 Cf. the so-called Laylat al-Qadr , already men- Wa Ιshiyya: “(…) l’imposteur Ibn Wa Ιš ya me n- tioned in the Qur’ n (97:1-3), although the original tionne, en rapport avec un rite magique chez les meaning of the passage is not necessarily identical “nabatéens,” une vielle femme “appelée servante de with how it was later understood.

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author’s own community, whereas the Naturally, it should not be forgotten that belief in the Servant of Venus is given as Judaism, Christianity and Islam are all a “Sethian” belief. equally significant inheritors of the Fil hUa seems to imply that the eating Mesopotamian religious tradition. of hadhart y and the belief in the Ser- The Nabatean corpus has hitherto been vant of Venus are parallel phenomena, neglected and has remained little known. and as both of them contain features that It is my hope to publish a translation of would fit New Year’s festivities, it gives selected passages of the Nabatean cor- us some reason to suggest that there may pus, pertinent to religious beliefs, and I have been different calendars in use, and hope that the present paper has made it consequently the different information obvious why such a project is necessary, provided by Fihrist and al-B r

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ARABIC SOURCES

al- H()!"P , Maq lt al-isl miyy n wa-khtil f al-mus ^all n = Abu l- Θ!(!$ H6PE *=$E I(J&P6E !6, H !"P , Die dogmatischen Lehren der Anhänger des Islam . Hrsg. Hellmut Ritter. Bibliotheca Islamica 1. Dritte Auflage. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz 1980. al-B r

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