CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by The University of Utah: J. Willard Marriott Digital Library A UNIVERSAL APPROACH TO PLAGUE EPIDEMICS IN FIFTEENTH CENTURY MAMLUK EGYPT AND SYRIA: CONTEMPORARY BIAS, CLASSICAL ISLAMIC MEDICINE, AND THE VOICES OF THE ULAMA by Melanie Alexxann Koskella A dissertation submitted to the faculty of The University of Utah in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Middle East Studies College of Humanities The University of Utah August 2014 Copyright © Melanie Alexxann Koskella 2014 All Rights Reserved The University of Utah Graduate School STATEMENT OF DISSERTATION APPROVAL The dissertation of Melanie Alexxann Koskella has been approved by the following supervisory committee members: Peter Von Sivers , Chair April 30, 2014 Date Approved Peter Sluglett , Member April 30, 2014 Date Approved M. Hakan Yavuz , Member May 15, 2014 Date Approved Asaad Al-Saleh , Member May 12, 2014 Date Approved Lee Min Lau , Member April 30, 2014 Date Approved and by Johanna Watzinger-Tharp , Chair/Dean of the Department/College/School of Middle East Studies and by David B. Kieda, Dean of The Graduate School. ABSTRACT Arabic historical narratives from fifteenth century Egypt allow a holistic exploration of the parallels and dichotomies inherent in debates regarding plague epidemics and etiology, classical Islamic medicine, and the fluid and yet precarious societal position of the ulama as historians of these epidemics. In a tenuous relationship, the ulama were bound not only to the sultan and his key associates for their livelihood, but also to the general population, over whom they exerted influence. Plague epidemics were recorded in the scholars’ narratives, reflecting the narrative voice of the ulama, their varying social networks, the context in which they acted, and the literary traditions of the period. Previous research concerning plague epidemics in Mamluk Egypt has too narrowly focused on a so-called rigid religious orthodoxy, and the rise and decline of the Golden Age of Islam paradigm. However, classical scholars were a loosely formed, but dynamic group of individuals from various walks of life who interpreted their society, and through their written narratives, asserted their independence. These authors worked during difficult times to record plague epidemics and relate events critical for their understanding of Islamic Tradition, classical medicine and people’s fear, misery and hope. Previous research has incorrectly portrayed these historical narratives as static and repetitive, confined by both Mamluk patronage and an undefined “Islam.” iv This dissertation seeks to explore the conundrum that is the Black Death, and ensuing plague epidemics in the Mamluk period. Descriptions of the interweaving of classical medical practices, the science and understanding of plague in the 21st century, and the multifaceted ulama networks and the narrative agency of the ulama are the pieces of this puzzle. The narratives, vis-à-vis plague epidemics, are varied and layered, and the content depends to a great extent on the social background of the author and the environmental context in which he wrote. This conundrum holds no single solution; however, a universal exploration of its various components allows a greater understanding of the social environment in Mamluk Egypt during these difficult periods, while simultaneously mirroring the difficulties that modern historians of medicine often face in research on historical plague epidemics. iv Dedicated to my husband, Josh, my children, Annika and Zach, my mother, Patricia and my late father, John. Thanks for the support and encouragement. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ………………………............................................................................iii NOTES ON ROMANIZATION, TERMINOLOGY, AND DATES………………..viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS…………………………………………..……….………...ix CHAPTERS 1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………..….1 . Issues Raised and Theoretical Background………………….…..…......1 . Literature Review…………………………………………………..…..3 . Summary of Chapters……………………… ……………...………..…8 2. CONTEMPORARY BIAS: THE BLACK DEATH AND ECHO EPIDEMICS: YERSINIA PESTIS OR A PERFECT STORM OF DISEASES AND BIOLOGICAL DISASTER?.............................................................................11 The Historiography of Epidemics and the Black Death….…...…........11 Dissecting Plague: Etiology, Symptomatology, and the Current State of Debate…………………………………………………………………15 Endemic to Epidemic: Volcanic Eruptions and Catastrophic Weather Events……………………………………………………………...….30 Plague Foci and Dissemination Patterns…………… ….......................38 Ancient DNA and the Continuing Uncertainty…….. ...........................42 Does It Matter?......................................................................................47 3. PARALLELS IN THE CLASSICAL MEDICAL ENVIRONMENT: DIFFERENT MEDIA, SIMILAR TREATMENTS………………………….55 Hippocrates, Galen, and Islamic Medicine.……………...……..….....55 Prophetic Medicine and Hadith………………………………….....…70 Folklore and Mysticism: Magic, Numerology, and Astrology……….78 4. ADMIRATION AND DISDAIN: A TENSE SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP THE ULAMA AND THE RULING ELITE………………………….……....88 Introduction…………………………………………………….....…..88 Who Were the Mamluks?……………………………………….........89 ............. The Social Classes of the Mamluk Period…………..……………......97 ............. The Ulama and the Textual Environment……………….………..…102 5. AVOIDING RIGIDIFYING CATEGORIES: MAQRIZI, IBN HAJAR ASQALANI, AND IBN TAGHRIBIRDI ON PLAGUE EPIDEMICS….....105 Narrative Identity Approach: Constellations of Relationships and the Mamluk Ulama as Active Interpreters of their Society.......................105 Three Prominent and Diverse Ulama…………….…………….....…109 Taqi al-Din Maqrizi (765/1363-846/1442)…………………….....…110 Ibn Hajar ‘Asqalani (773/1372-852/1448……………...………...….122 Ibn Taghribirdi (812/1410-875/1470)…………..……...……………129 6. THE PRODUCTION AND DISSEMINATION OF INFORMATION: EARLY FIFTEENTH CENTURY PLAGUE EPIDEMICS……………………….…136 . 1419…………………………………………………………...……..140 . 1429-1430……………………………………………………………157 . 1437-1438……………………………………………………………178 CONCLUSION: THE DIVERSITY AND AGENCY OF THE ULAMA, AND THE AMBIGUITY OF CLASSICAL ISLAMIC MEDICINE AND MODERN PLAGUE RESEARCH………………………………………………….........................….…..195 BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………………...208 vii NOTES ON ROMANIZATION, TERMINOLOGY, AND DATE Arabic terms commonly used in English such as caliph, Quran, and imam are formatted without italics or diacritics. For well-known place names, regions, and dynasties, diacritics are also omitted: Cairo, Damascus, ‘Abbasids, and Mamluks. Proper nouns are not italicized and diacritics are used only in the first instance of introduction; with subsequent usage, diacritics are omitted for readability: initially Abū al-Maḥāsin Yūsuf Ibn Taghrībirdī, and then ibn Taghribirdi. Latin terms are italicized and Romanization follows the IJMES Translation and Transliteration Guide (http://web.gc.cuny.edu/ijmes/pages/transliteration.html) except for tā’ marbūṭah, displayed as ah, and ʿayn displayed as (ʿ) and hamza as (ʾ). For well-known terms such as ulama, hadith or Mamluk, the Arabic term, whether singular or plural will be used with a final s added for the plural. As an example, the more popular hadith/hadiths (not hadith/ahadith) and Mamluk/Mamluks not Mamluk/mamālīk) and for the classical period, the Hijri date is presented, followed by the Gregorian date. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am indebted to many individuals for their assistance and encouragement along the way. I offer my sincere gratitude to the members of my committee for their assistance and guidance in my graduate studies: Professors Peter Sluglett, Asaad al-Saleh, Hakan Yavuz, and Lee Min Lau. I am particularly indebted to my committee Chair, Dr. Peter Von Sivers, the breadth and depth of his knowledge, his patience, and his insightful comments have been invaluable in this endeavor. I also offer thanks to Dr. Leonard Chiarelli, director of the Middle East Library, and his staff, for their kind assistance and encouragement over the year. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Issues Raised In the last century, research on the Black Death1 and subsequent plague epidemics2 in late classical Egypt has focused on the repetitive and almost uniform nature of many of the historical narratives describing these catastrophic events. The ulama (sing. ālim), as the authors of these narratives, are lumped into one static group and described as adhering to a rigid religious orthodoxy, evident in their descriptions of the Black Death and subsequent plague epidemics, or echo epidemics. The inference is that these authors were mired in the so-called intellectual stagnation of the later Circassian (1382-1517) Mamluk period and its military patronage, and “the authors’ close reliance on previous historic narratives, which they supposedly merely reproduced in more or less 1 The irreconcilable debates as to whether the Black Death was different clinical manifestations of plague, a perfect storm of plague and other diseases, all spurred by environmental upheavals is explored in the next chapter. In the fourteenth and fifteenth century Mamluk historical narratives plague is referred to as ṭaʿūn and the more general pestilence or epidemic is called wabā’. This dissertation will use this terminology in translation from Arabic to English and focus on epidemics where the authors use the term ta’un. See Conrad’s “Taʿūn and Wabā’: Conceptions of Plague and Pestilence