Ganga River Basin Management Plan (GRBMP) Volume 2 Mission Reports

january 2015 cGanga Centre for Ganga River Basin Management and Studies Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur © cGanga & NMCG, 2020 Ganga River Basin Management Plan - 2015 National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) Ganga River Basin Management Plan NMCG is the implementation wing of National Ganga Council which was setup in October 2016 under the River Ganga Authority order 2016. Initially NMCG was registered as a society on 12th August 2011 (GRB MP) under the Societies Registration Act 1860. It acted as implementation arm of National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA) which was constituted under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act (EPA) 1986. NGRBA has since been dissolved with effect from the 7th October 2016, consequent to constitution of National Council for Restoration, Protection and Management of River Ganga (referred to as National Ganga Council). www.nmcg.in Volume 2 Centre for Ganga River Basin Management and Studies (cGanga) cGanga is a think tank formed under the aegis of NMCG, and one of its stated objectives is to make a Mission Reports world leader in river and water science. The Centre is headquartered at IIT Kanpur and has representation from most leading science and technological institutes of the country. cGanga’s mandate is to serve as think-tank Extended Summary in implementation and dynamic evolution of Ganga River Basin Management Plan (GRBMP) prepared by the Consortium of 7 IITs. In addition to this it is also responsible for introducing new technologies, innovations and January 2015 solutions into India. www.cganga.org by by Acknowledgment This document is a collective effort of a number of experts, institutions and organisations, in particular ConsortiumConsortium ofof 77 “Indian“Indian Insti Institutetute of ofTechnology”s Technology”s (IITs) (IITs) those who were instrumental in preparing the Ganga River Basin Management Plan which was submitted to the Government of India in 2015. Contributions to the photographs and images for this vision document by individuals are gratefully acknowledged. Suggested Citation GRBMP by cGanga and NMCG Authors IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT Vinod Tare Bombay Delhi Guwahati Kanpur Kharagpur Madras Roorkee Gautam Roy Contacts In Collaboration with Centre for Ganga River Basin Management and Studies (cGanga) Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur 208 016, Uttar Pradesh, India or National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) Major Dhyan Chand National Stadium, New Delhi 110 002, India IIT IIT CIFRI NEERI JNU PU NIT-K DU BHU Gandhinagar © cGanga & NMCG, 2020

NIH ISI Allahabad WWF

Roorkee Kolkata University India

GRBMP MISSIONS

01 Aviral Dhara

Nirmal Dhara 02

03 Ecological Restoration

04 Sustainable Agriculture

05 Geological Safeguarding

06 Basin Protection Against Disasters

07 River Hazards Management

Environmental Knowledge-Building 08 and Sensitization

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA IV Ganga River Basin Management Plan Message

I am delighted to note that the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) with the help of the Centre for Ganga River Basin Management and Studies, Kanpur (cGanga) is releasing the print version of the Compendium of Ganga River Basin Management Plan (GRBMP) and its constituent Reports for wide distribution among various government departments, agencies, academic institutions and other stakeholders. The GRBMP and its accompanying Plan Documents (Mission Reports and Thematic Reports) are among the most insightful assessments of the state of National River Ganga that helped formulate a cogent revival strategy for the river. The documents cover a wide range of issues on the status of the river vis-a-vis various anthropogenic activities in the Ganga River Basin that have affected the river over the last many decades. The issues covered in this Compendium are of critical importance not only for the Conservation and Restoration of River Ganga and other rivers of the country, but also for many other people- centric activities in the Ganga Basin under the government’s purview such as Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry, Hydropower, Industry, Infrastructure, Municipal Services, Sustainable Water Resource Management, and Urban Development, to name a few. It is, therefore, essential that such issues that are closely interlinked with the focus areas of various ministries and departments of the government (both Central and State governments), other stakeholders and researchers, are extensively disseminated among them. I commend NMCG and cGanga in taking this initiative to print the Compendium for wide distribution among various stakeholders, academics and international agencies. This will enable them to incorporate GRBMP’s views and recommendations in their forthcoming plans, programmes and activities. I also welcome further feedback from all concerned on the GRBMP framework and its recommendations.

(Gajendra Singh Shekhawat)

Office: 210, Shram Shakti Bhawan, Rafi Marg, New Delhi - 11001 MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA VI Ganga River Basin Management Plan Tel: No. (011 23711780, 23714663, 23714200, Fax: (011) 2371084 E-mail: [email protected] (GRBMP) prepared at the behest of the Indian government by a Consortium of Seven IITs is a sterling guide for this purpose. It not only details and analyses the various anthropogenic factor that have been affecting the river over the FOREWORD past two centuries, but also chalks out a comprehensive roadmap for the rejuvenation of our great river. The main Plan itself is based on scores of independent studies by experts from the seven IITs and other allied institutions India is the land of sacred rivers. Rivers, large and small, are of learning to provide a firm foundation to its recommendations. The GRBMP held in deep reverence by Indians for their profound material is, therefore, the culmination of a many-faceted effort that synthesizes and spiritual gifts to humankind. For rivers are not only an the diverse studies and perceptions of India’s most knowledgeable and endless source of freshwater – a fundamental necessity for stimulated minds. life –they also bring many other gifts for our sustenance from food such as fishes to energy in the form of hydropower, cost- Being in the lead for restoring and conserving the River Ganga as a great effective navigation and transport, the washing away of wastes river once again, I whole-heartedly recommend all students and scholars and surplus waters from the basin, supply of agricultural to peruse the GRBMP and its reports for their own subject interests as nutrients through irrigation waters, aesthetic beauty and, well as in the hope to get their feedback so that we can further fine-tune not the least, spiritual fulfilment. Among our sacred rivers, our knowledge and take remedial actions for improving River Ganga. In this River Ganga is the most important and universally worshipped in India. In task, we do not view the GRBMP as a static final Plan, but rather as a Plan recognition of the prime importance of River Ganga in our national life the that will evolve dynamically with our collective insights and knowledge. And Government of India not only conferred the status of National River on the such knowledge and insights can also help in the revival of our other rivers Ganga in the year 2008, it thereafter also launched the nationwide Namami and ecosystems. I am also sure that many students and researchers will find Gange programme focussed uniquely on the restoration and conservation much useful knowledge and leads in these documents to guide them in their of River Ganga. future researches and careers. These documents are, therefore, invaluable both for individual interests as well as for reviving our rivers and water bodies The National Mission for Clean Ganga has been at the forefront of the for a resurgent India. Namami Gange initiative ever since its launch. To understand our task in all its complexity it was necessary to harness the knowledge and understanding of a wide gamut of experts on what ails our National River and how best to redeem and preserve the river. The Ganga River Basin Management Plan Rajiv Ranjan Mishra

VIII IX Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Centre for Ganga River Basin Management and Studies Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur Department of Civil Engineering

cGanga IIT Kanpur Dr Vinod Tare Professor & Founding Head - cGanga

the Thematic and Mission Reports. It is hoped that this modular structure will Preface make the Plan easier to comprehend and implement in a systematic manner.

There are two aspects to the development of GRBMP that deserve special In exercise of the powers conferred by sub-sections (1) and mention. Firstly, the GRBMP is based mostly on secondary information (3) of Section 3 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (29 of obtained from governmental and other sources rather than on primary data 1986), the Central Government constituted the National Ganga collected by IIT Consortium. Likewise, most ideas and concepts used are River Basin Authority (NGRBA) as a planning, financing, not original but based on literature and other sources. Thus, on the whole, monitoring and coordinating authority for strengthening the GRBMP and its reports are an attempt to dig into the world’s collective the collective efforts of the Central and State Government wisdom and distil relevant truths about the complex problem of Ganga River for effective abatement of pollution and conservation of the Basin Management and solutions thereof. river Ganga. One of the important functions of the NGRBA is to prepare and implement a Ganga River Basin Management Secondly, many dedicated people spent hours discussing major concerns, Plan (GRBMP). A Consortium of seven “Indian Institute of issues and solutions to the problems addressed in GRBMP. Their dedication Technology”s (IITs) was given the responsibility of preparing the GRBMP led to the preparation of a comprehensive GRBMP that hopes to articulate by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), GOI, New Delhi. A the outcome of the dialog in a meaningful way. Thus, directly or indirectly, Memorandum of Agreement (MoA) was therefore signed between the 7 IITs many people contributed significantly to the preparation of GRBMP. The (IITs Bombay, Delhi, Guwahati, Kanpur, Kharagpur, Madras and Roorkee) and GRBMP therefore truly is an outcome of collective effort that reflects the MoEF for this purpose on July 6, 2010. cooperation of many, particularly those who are members of the IIT Team and of the associate organizations as well as many government departments The GRBMP is presented as a 3-tier set of documents. The three tiers comprise and individuals. of: (i) Thematic Reports (TRs) providing inputs for different Missions, (ii) Mission Reports (MRs) documenting the requirements and actions for specific missions, and (iii) the Main Plan Document (MPD) synthesizing background information with the main conclusions and recommendations emanating from Vinod Tare

X XI Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan GRBMP Work Structure Organizational SGRBMPtructur – January 2015: Extended Summarye

Ver for Preparing GRBMP (MM YYYY) Organizational Structure for Preparing GRBMP - - - 01 02 03 04 nn Sensitization Environmental Management River Hazards Basin Protection Knowledge-Building and Against Disasters T) Data (D A Mechanisms Methodology (MTH) Geological Analysis (ANL) Safeguarding Monitoring and Feedback Literature (SOA) Suggestions & Recommendations (S&R) Sustainable Agriculture Areas viral Ecological Restoration Schedule A Dhara Implementation PLG SEC Nirmal Dhara GDM ENB Strategy FGM COM WRM PIC Financial Layout EQP ork Packages EFL W GEN MIS Objetives & Goals

NGRBNGRBA:A: National National Ganga Ganga River River Basin Basin Authority EQP: EnvironmentalEQP: E nvironmentalQuality and Pollution Quality and Pollution NMCG:NMCG: National National Mission Mission for for Clean Clean Ganga Ganga WRM: WaterW ResourcesRM: Water Management Resources Management Ministry of Environment and Forests Ecology and Biodiversity MoEFMoEF:: Ministry of Environment and Forests ENB: ENB: Ecology and Biodiversity MHRD: Ministry of Human Resource and Development FGM: Fluvial Geomorphology MHRD:MoWR, Ministry RD&GR: of Human Ministry Resource of Water Resources,and Development River EFL: EnvironmentalFGM: FluvialFlows Geomorphology MoWDevelopmentR, RD&GR: Ministry and Ganga of Rejuvenation Water Resources, River SEC: Socio EconomicEFL: Environmental and Cultural Flows DevelopmentGRBMP: Ganga and Ganga River Basin Rejuvenation Management Plan PLG: Policy LawSE C:and Socio Governance Economic and Cultural GRBMIITC:P: GangaIIT Consortium River Basin Management Plan GDM: GeospatialPLG: Database Policy Law Management and Governance IITC: PMB:IIT Consortium Project Management Board COM: CommunicationGDM: Geospatial Database Management PMB:PICC: Project Project Management Implementation Board and Coordination COM: Communication Plan Vision Basin Missions PICC:Committee Project Implementation and Coordination Committee (GRBMP) Ganga River Management MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA iii X XI Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan

Project Management Board [PMB] Expert Members: Composition of Thematic  Sri Swami Avimukteshwaranand Saraswati  Dr Madhav A Chitale Groups  Dr Bharat Jhunjhunwala 1. Environmental Quality and Pollution (EQP) Lead: Purnendu Bose, IIT Kanpur Members: Shyam Asolekar, Suparna Mukherjee (IIT Bombay); A K Mittal, A K Nema, Arun Kumar, Project Implementation and T R Sreekrishanan (IIT Delhi); Ajay Kalmhad (IIT Guwahati); Saumyen Guha, Vinod Tare (IIT Kanpur); A K Gupta, M M Ghangrekar, Sudha Goel (IIT Kharagpur); Ligy Philip, Mukesh Doble, R Ravi Krishna, Coordination Committee [PICC] S M Shivnagendra (IIT Madras); A A Kazmi, B R Gurjar, Himanshu Joshi, Indu Mehrotra, I M Mishra, Vivek Kumar (IIT Roorkee); Anirban Gupta (BESU Shibpur); P K Singh (IIT BHU); Rakesh Kumar Representatives from IIT Consortium: (NEERI Nagpur); S K Patidar (NIT Kurukshetra); Sanmit Ahuja (ETI Dynamics New Delhi)  Dr Shyam Asolekar, IIT Bombay 2. Water Resources Management (WRM)  Dr A K Mittal, IIT Delhi Lead: A K Gosain, IIT Delhi  Dr Mohammad Jawed, IIT Guwahati Members: Rakesh Khosa, R Maheswaran, B R Chahar, C T Dhanya, D R Kaushal (IIT Delhi);  Dr Vinod Tare, IIT Kanpur Subashisa Dutta, Suresh Kartha (IIT Guwahati); Shivam Tripathi, Gautam Rai, Vinod Tare (IIT Kanpur); Anirban Dhar, D J Sen (IIT Kharagpur); B S Murty, Balaji Narasimhan (IIT Madras); C S P Ojha, P  Dr D J Sen, IIT Kharagpur Perumal (IIT Roorkee); S K Jain (NIH Roorkee); Pranab Mohapatra (IIT Gandhinagar); Sandhya Rao  Dr Ligy Philip, IIT Madras (INRM New Delhi)  Dr I M Mishra, IIT Roorkee 3. Fluvial Geomorphology (FGM) Thematic Group Leads: Lead: Rajiv Sinha, IIT Kanpur  Dr Purnendu Bose, Environmental Quality and Pollution (EQP) Members: Vinod Tare (IIT Kanpur); Vikrant Jain (IIT Gandhinagar); J K Pati (Allahabad University); Kirteshwar Prasad, Ramesh Shukla (Patna University); Parthasarthi Ghosh, Soumendra Nath Sarkar,  Dr A K Gosain, Water Resources Management (WRM) Tapan Chakarborty (ISI Kolkata); Kalyan Rudra (WBPCB); S K Tandon, Shashank Shekhar (University of  Dr R P Mathur, Ecology and Biodiversity (ENB) Delhi); Saumitra Mukherjee (JNU Delhi)  Dr Rajiv Sinha, Fluvial Geomorphology (FGM)  Dr Vinod Tare, Environmental Flows (EFL) 4. Ecology and Biodiversity (ENB) Lead: R P Mathur, IIT Kanpur  Dr S P Singh, Socio Economic and Cultural (SEC) Members: A K Thakur, Vinod Tare (IIT Kanpur); Utpal Bora (IIT Guwahati); M D Behera (IIT Kharagpur);  Dr N C Narayanan and Dr Indrajit Dube, Policy Law and Governance (PLG) Naveen Navania, Partha Roy, Pruthi Vikas, R P Singh, Ramasre Prasad, Ranjana Pathania (IIT Roorkee);  Dr Harish Karnick, Geospatial Database Management (GDM) Sandeep Behera (NMCG, MoWR, RD & GR, New Delhi)  Dr T V Prabhakar, Communication (COM)

XII XIII Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin

5. Socio Economic and Cultural (SEC) Management Plan - 2015 Lead: S P Singh, IIT Roorkee Members: Pushpa L Trivedi (IIT Bombay); Seema Sharma, V B Upadhyay (IIT Delhi); P M Prasad, Ganga River Basin Management Plan Vinod Tare (IIT Kanpur); Bhagirath Behera, N C Nayak, Pulak Mishra, T N Mazumder (IIT Kharagpur); (GRBMP) C Kumar, D K Nauriyal, Rajat Agrawal, Vinay Sharma (IIT Roorkee)

6. Policy Law and Governance (PLG) Lead: N C Narayanan, IIT Bombay and Indrajit Dube, IIT Kharagpur Members: Shyam Asolekar, Subodh Wagle (IIT Bombay); Mukesh Khare (IIT Delhi); Vinod Tare Mission 1: Avir al Dhara (IIT Kanpur); Deepa Dube, Uday Shankar (IIT Kharagpur); G N Kathpalia, Paritosh Tyagi (IDC New Delhi)

7. Geo-Spatial Database Management (GDM) Extended Summary Lead: Harish Karnick, IIT Kanpur Members: N L Sharda, Smriti Sengupta (IIT Bombay); A K Gosain (IIT Delhi); Arnab Bhattacharya, January 2015 Kritika Venkatramani, Rajiv Sinha, T V Prabhakar, Vinod Tare (IIT Kanpur) by by 8. Communication (COM) Lead: T V Prabhakar, IIT Kanpur Consortium of 7 “Indian Institute of Technology”s (IITs) Members: Purnendu Bose, Rajiv Sinha, Vinod Tare (IIT Kanpur) Consortium of 7 “Indian Institute of Technology”s (IITs)

9. Environmental Flows (EFL) Lead: Vinod Tare, IIT Kanpur Members: Shyam Asolekar (IIT Bombay); A K Gosain (IIT Delhi); P M Prasad, R P Mathur, Rajiv Sinha, Shivam Tripathi (IIT Kanpur); M D Behara (IIT Kharagpur); B S Murthy, N Balaji (IIT Madras); Pranab Mohaparta, Vikrant Jain (IIT Gandhinagar); S K Jain (NIH Roorkee); Nitin Kaushal (WWF-India, IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT Bombay Delhi Guwahati Kanpur Kharagpur Madras Roorkee New Delhi); Sandeep Behera (NMCG, MoWR, RD & GR, New Delhi); A P Sharma, K D Joshi (CIFRI Barrackpore); Ravindra Kumar (SWaRA-UP); Ravi Chopra (PSI Dehradun); Paritosh Tyagi (IDC New Delhi) In Collaboration with

IIT IIT CIFRI NEERI JNU PU NIT-K DU BHU Gandhinagar

NIH ISI Allahabad WWF

Roorkee Kolkata University India

XIV Ganga River Basin Management Plan

CONTENTS List of Figures Figure Page List of Figures and Table xvii 4.1 Major structural obstructions on River Ganga and Her tributaries within India 9 Abbreviations xviii 5.1 Reservoir Evaporation 18 5.2 Storm-water Runoff Storage Options – Concentrated and Distributed Storages 22 Summary 1 5.3 Location Map of Flow Monitoring Stations and E-Flows Sites 27 5.4 e-Flows Assessment – Conceptual Diagram 28 1. Introduction 2 5.5 River Cross-section at Ranari, Dharasu 29 5.6a e-Flows at Ranari, Dharasu 29 2. Objective 4 5.6b e-Flows during Non-Monsoon Season at Ranari, Dharasu 29 3. Importance of Aviral Dhara for Ganga River Basin Management 5 5.7 Some Existing and Under-Construction Barrages in Upper Ganga 31 4. Status of Aviral Dhara in the Ganga River Network 7 6.1 Groundwater Model Area of Ganga Basin 32 4.1 Dams and Barrages 6.2a Average (1969-2006) Annual Water Balance of the Modeled Ganga Basin 33 4.2 Water Withdrawals and Discharges 6.2b Average (1969-2006) Monthly Water Balance Components of the Basin 34 4.3 Hydrological Status of NRGB 6.3 Line Diagram of Ganga River Network 36 5. measures to Restore Aviral Dhara of National River Ganga 18 6.4a Annual Flow Contributions of Different Tributaries (sub-basins) to National 5.1 Water Storage River Ganga under Present Flow Conditions and under Virgin Flow Conditions 37 5.2 Water Use Efficiency 6.4b Wet Season Flow Contributions of Different Tributaries (sub-basins) to National 5.3 Water Resource Policy River Ganga under Present Flow Conditions and under Virgin Flow Conditions 37 5.4 environmental Flows 6.4c Dry Season Flow Contributions of Different Tributaries (sub-basins) to National River Ganga under Present Flow Conditions and under Virgin Flow Conditions 37 6. hydrological Modeling of GRBMP and Inferences 32 7.1 A Sediment Budget (in 106 tons/yr) for Ganga River Basin 39 7. Sediment Resources of National River Ganga 38 7.2 Comparison of the Annual Average Sediment Loads (for period 1999-2006) 8. Summary of Recommended Actions 43 at Different Locations of National River Ganga 40 7.3 Comparison of the Average Wet Season Sediment Loads (for period 1999-2006) References 45 at Different Locations of National River Ganga 41

7.4 Comparison of the Average Dry Season Sediment Loads (for period 1999-2006) Appendix I:  Hydrographs of 30 Years’ Maximum, Average and Minimum 10-Daily Flows at Different Locations of National River Ganga 41 Under Virgin and Actual (Present) Conditions for Sub-Basins of NRGB 50 Appendix II: Annual Sediment Load Variation in National River Ganga 59 List of Tables Table Page 4.1a Water Resources Potential (in Billion Cubic Metres) in Indian River Basins 13 4.1b Projected Water Demand in India in Billion Cubic Metres (BCM) 13 4.2 Groundwater Abstraction Rate and Depletion (with ranges of uncertainty) and Non-Renewable Irrigation Use per Country for Year 2000 17 5.1 Criteria for Permissibility of Dams and Other Projects on Rivers 19 5.2 Percentage of Virgin River Flow required as E-Flows at Ranari, Dharasu 28 7.1 Sediment Measuring Stations and Periods of Data Availability 40

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA XVI XVII Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Abbreviations and Summary Acronyms

1. BBM : Building Block Method The Ganga River Network was impounded reservoirs. (3) Increase 2. BCM : Billion Cubic Metres adopted in GRBMP as the primary in water use efficiency through indicator of health of National River (i) realistic pricing of fresh water, 3. CGWB : Central Ground Water Board Ganga Basin (NRGB), and human- (ii) incentives, technical assistance, 4. CWC : Central Water Commission technology-environment interactions and allocation of water rights and 5. E-Flows : environmental Flows were factored in to assess the entitlements to consumers, and 6. ET : evapo-Transpiration basin’s resource dynamics. While (iii) reuse and recycling of water. NRGB’s present water status is poorly (4) Governmental policy shift to bring 7. FAO : Food and Agricultural Organization understood, a broad hydrological NRGB’s water resources under natural 8. GRBMP : Ganga River Basin Management Plan review indicates declining water resource management, with emphasis 9. IITC : IIT Consortium availability in the river network due to on resource preservation, stakeholder large-scale water withdrawals from control, expert guidance and 10. MLY : Middle and Lower Yangtze (river) the basin’s rivers and aquifers over regulation. (5) Ensuring longitudinal 11. MoEF : Ministry of Environment and Forests many decades. Besides, the river river connectivity and environmental 12. MoEFCC : Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate Change network is extensively intercepted flows (of water, sediments and other by dams and barrages into disjointed natural constituents of flow) at 13. MoWR : Ministry of Water Resources channel stretches with highly altered dams, barrages and other manmade 14. MoWR, RD&GR : Ministry of Water Resources, River Development & water, sediment and nutrient flows, interferences, and adoption of new Ganga Rejuvenation thereby affecting river morphology criteria for approving such projects. 15. NCIWRD : National Commission on Integrated Water Resources and ecology. The depleted water (6) Control of water withdrawals Development availability of NRGB is borne out by in water-depleting regions. hydrological modelling. The present- (7) Assessment and monitoring of 16. NGO : Non-Governmental Organization day sediment loads are also found sediment resources of the network 17. NGRBA : National Ganga River Basin Authority to be much less than previous including assessment of quantity, 18. NMCG : National Mission for Clean Ganga estimates. The main recommendations quality and nutrient value of sediments are: (1) Determination of NRGB’s trapped behind dams. (8) Research 19. NRGB : National River Ganga Basin hydrological status more accurately to determine the ecological limits, 20. NRGBMC : National River Ganga Basin Management Commission and in greater detail. (2) Preparation thresholds and interconnections of 21. ROR : Run-of-the river of water resources plan for NRGB with NRGB’s water resources, and river emphasis on wetlands, forests and flow health assessments within the 22. UNEP : United Nations Environment Programme distributed groundwater and surface framework of ecohydrology. water storages rather than large

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA XVIII 1 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 1. Introduction

Indian civilization grew up under the care rich alluvial basin that hosts about 43% dynamics, a basin may be viewed as resource. Barring variations from year of River Ganga, nourished by her bounties of India’s population [MoWR, 2014]. a closely-connected hydrological- to year, the water in a basin follows an for thousands of years. The Ganga river It is fitting, therefore, that the Indian ecological system. Hydrological annual cycle of replenishment (primarily – along with her many tributaries and government declared River Ganga as connections include groundwater through atmospheric precipitation distributaries – provided material, spiritual India’s National River in the year 2008. flow, surface runoff, local/ regional and groundwater inflows) and losses and cultural sustenance to millions of But the declaration was none too early. evapotranspiration-precipitation cycles (primarily through river and groundwater people who lived in her basin or partook River Ganga had been degrading rapidly and areal flooding, while ecological links outflows, evaporation, transpiration, of her beneficence from time to time. To for a long time, and national concern are many and varied (such as the food and biological consumption). In contrast the traditional Indian mind, therefore, about her state had already become web and transport by biological agents). to water, formation of mature soils – River Ganga is not only the holiest of serious in the twentieth century. It was These linkages provide for extensive from the weathering of parent material rivers and savior of mortal beings, she is against this backdrop that the Ministry of material transfer and communication (rocks) to chemical decomposition also a living Goddess. Very aptly is she Environment and Forests (Govt. of India) between the river and her basin, and transformation – is a drawn- personified in Indian consciousness as assigned the task of preparing a Ganga which constitute the functional unity out process that may take hundreds “MOTHER GANGA”. This psychic pre- River Basin Management Plan (GRBMP) of a river basin. Directly and indirectly, or thousands of years [Jenny, 1994; eminence of River Ganga in the Indian to restore and preserve National River therefore, National River Ganga (along Wikipedia, 2014]; but, once formed, soils ethos testifies to her centrality in Indian Ganga to a “Consortium of Seven IITs”. with her tributaries and distributaries), can be fairly durable. Thus, changes in civilization and her supreme importance The outcome of this effort – the GRBMP is a definitive indication of the health of a basin’s water resource status tend to in Indian life. – evolved an eight-pronged action plan, the basin as a whole. Hence, GRBMP be relatively faster and easily detected, with each prong envisaged to be taken up adopted the Ganga River Network as while those of soils are slow and often The Ganga river basin is the largest for execution in mission mode. the primary environmental indicator of go unnoticed for long periods. However, river basin of India that covers a diverse the National River Ganga Basin (NRGB). soil and water are affected by each landscape, reflecting the cultural and A river basin is the area of land from which other through many biotic and abiotic geographical diversity of the India. It the river provides the only exit route for River basin management needs to processes. Being thus interrelated, is also a fertile and relatively water- surface water flows. For understanding its ensure that a basin’s natural resources degradation of either soil or water has (biotic and abiotic) are adequately a concurrent effect on the other; hence preserved over time. The main abiotic (or neither can be considered in isolation. physical) resources of a river basin are soil and water, along with a multitude of It is not only soil and water that are The GRBMP – evolved an eight- minerals and compounds bound up with mutually interactive, living organisms pronged action plan, with each prong envisaged to them. Now, water is a highly variable also interact with them and help shape be taken up for execution in mission mode.

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 2 3 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan The objective of Mission “Aviral Dhara” is 3. Importance of Aviral to ensure that the flow of water – along with sediments, nutrients and other natural constituents of the flow – Dhara for Ganga River are continuous and adequate throughout the Ganga Basin Management river network.

the basin’s environment. The biotic dynamics and human-technology- Climatically and geomorphologically probably even enhanced flood flows resources of a basin consist of plants, environment considerations in the NRGB is a large and diverse basin in the wet seasons – which have animals and micro-organisms. Since Basin Plan. For, with human activities characterized by a network of large gone hand-in-hand with various other biota evolve over time to achieve a stable multiplying and diversifying in the perennial rivers and smaller perennial changes in the natural resources of balance in a given environmental setting, basin, the resulting environmental or seasonal streams – the Ganga rivers, notably of sediments, nutrients the biotic resources of a river basin consequences have also been River Network – traversing from their and biodiversity. depend on its constituent ecosystems pronounced in recent times. In sum, upland sources to the sea. The basin – rivers, wetlands, forests, grasslands, GRBMP focuses on the basin’s overall is very fertile and has provided the The above changes are found to be etc. However, with significant human resource environment and the major natural resource needs of the basin’s linked to major anthropogenic activities activity in many ecosystems (as, for factors affecting it (especially diverse ecosystems and human settlements in the river basin rather than to natural example, in agro-ecosystems and urban anthropogenic activities), and seeks for ages. But the river network (and the processes. As a result, the Ganga ecosystems), the complexity of human- ways and means to protect the basin basin as a whole) has seen declining basin and its river network are being technology-environment systems has and its resources against identifiable water availability over the decades. In functionally worn-out and emaciated, increased manifold [Pahl-Wostl, 2006]. adverse impacts. For, only thus can we addition, there have been increasing as reflected in the loss of biodiversity Nonetheless, GRBMP attempts to secure the environmental foundation of spatial interruptions in river flows in the river network and the strain on incorporate interactive natural resource NRGB for the good of one and all. over many decades due to a host of goods and services emanating from manmade dams and barrages. The the rivers. This underscores the urgent overall changes in the flow regimes need to rectify or compensate for of the rivers of the network have been deleterious human activities in the basin lopsided – with greatly reduced lean in order to maintain “Aviral Dhara” in 2. Objective season flows, but undiminished or the river system.

The objective of Mission “Aviral Dhara” natural constituents of the flow – are is to ensure that the flow of water – along continuous and adequate throughout with sediments, nutrients and other the Ganga river network.

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 4 5 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 4. Status of Aviral Dhara in the Ganga River Network

For a given geological setting and Dams, barrages and other manmade climatic pattern, alluvial rivers – as structures block or constrict rivers, characterized by their morphologies, thereby interrupting the flow of water, drainage network and fluvial patterns sediments and aquatic species. While – achieve stability through long-term the short-term and local benefits of physical balance between various such structures can be reasonably dynamic parameters such as basin estimated, the long-term, basin-wide runoff and erosion rates, river water and environmental losses in terms of river sediment flow volumes, and influent/ instability, fertility of the river and its effluent seepage rates. “Aviral Dhara” is floodplains, ecological balance, nature a consequence of this long-term stability of flood events, health effects, and of rivers. Anthropogenic activities have other facets of basin performance are violated this aspect of Ganga river’s difficult to predict [UNEP, 2008; WWC, integrity in several ways – by erecting 2000]. Similar adverse effects are also obstacles to flow, by significant water caused by anthropogenic activities that withdrawals, by increased waste significantly alter river flows or sediment disposal into rivers, and by altering the loads. The UNEP document cited in Box natural water recharge/ outflow rates 4.1 discusses some of these aspects in into/ from the basin. Regarding the last terms of “river fragmentation” defined point, it may be noted that, since much as “the interruption of a river’s natural of the basin is hydraulically connected flow by dams, inter-basin transfers or by groundwater flow (besides other water withdrawal … by man.” However, hydrological connections), water it is not only interruptions or changes withdrawals/ recharges are not only in water flow rate that cause physical those directly from/ to the rivers but imbalance in a river; the balance may also those from/ to different parts of also be easily upset by alterations in the basin. Thus, while longitudinal sediment load and changes in seepage connectivity in the river network is an inflow/ outflow rates and overland essential first step to maintain “Aviral inflow rates. Dhara”, having adequate river flows depends much on the basin’s overall The two main anthropogenic factors water status. that have increasingly dented Aviral

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 6 7 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan supply, hydropower generation, flood study of their cumulative environmental river ecosystems is a misconception. Box 4.1 control and navigation. But these impact in the river sub-basins was In some cases, the cumulative impact “Damming and flood control can have negative impacts obstructions have divided National River made by the Wildlife Institute of India of small dams may be more damaging (in rivers), such as declining fish catches, loss of Ganga and her tributaries into small [Rajvanshi, 2012]. However, the study to river ecosystems than those of large freshwater biodiversity, increases in the frequency and segments, thereby interrupting the flow was limited in scope. For instance, dams of equivalent power generation severity of floods, loss of soil nutrients on floodplains, of water, nutrient, sediments and aquatic its focus did not extend beyond the capacity [Kibler and Tullos, 2013]. and increases in diseases such as schistosomiasis and species in the rivers. In the Upper Bhaghirathi and Alaknanda sub-basins, malaria. ... On the Mississippi River, the rising frequency Ganga Basin, the obstructions include so that the impact of the dams over the Downstream of the hydroelectric and severity of flooding – attributed to local flood control cascades of run-of-the-river (ROR) downstream river’s ecology remained projects in the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda structures – have reduced the river’s ability to support hydro-electric projects in the Bhagirathi unexplored. It may be also noted here basins, the on River native flora and fauna, while a dramatic increase in and Alaknanda head streams. Many that, while many of these dams are small, Ganga near diverts nearly floods on River Rhine has been attributed to increased of these projects are constructed or the common notion that small dams all the dry-weather flow of main Ganga urbanization, engineering, and the walling off of the planned end to end, i.e. the tail waters of have relatively insignificant impacts on river into the power channel of GRBMPChilla – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara river from its floodplain.” one project are head waters of the next UNEP [2008] one, so that the river gets transformed into a series of reservoirs. Moreover, the water stored behind a dam is Dhara in the Ganga River Network over sent through tunnels to turbines and the past two centuries are: (i) the large released as tail waters at downstream number of dams and barrages that have points of the rivers. Thus, long stretches interrupted the flow of water, sediments of rivers between dams and tail-water and nutrients in the river network, releases are almost devoid of water. and (ii) the excessive withdrawal of Overall, an estimated 86 km length of water for human needs from the river River Bhagirathi is thus without any network and the basin. Besides, there flow whatsoever [IITC, 2014a]. Besides, are other human factors (such as those sediments get trapped behind the dams, causing changes in land use and land thereby disrupting the downstream cover) that have, directly or indirectly, river’s water-sediment balance and affected Aviral Dhara in the National affecting nutrient flow and fertility of the River Ganga. The main factors are downstream river. discussed below. More than 70 hydropower projects 4.1 Dams and Barrages (large and small dams) have been Figure 4.1 shows major dams and conceived in the Upper Ganga barrages erected in the Ganga River Basin, many of which are still in the Network [MoWR, 2014]. Dams and planning stage. While there have been barrages often help to meet several environmental impact studies of some anthropogenic needs such as water individual dams, the only comprehensive FigureFigure 4.1: 4.1: Major Major StructuralStructural ObObstructionsstructions on RiverRiver GangaGanga andand H Herer Tributaries Tributaries within within India India [ M[MoWR,oWR, 2014] 2014]

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 8 9 Ganga River Basin Management Plan 7 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Dams and barrages trap much of the river sediments, converting the Barrage. Finally, as the river heads but the sediment has been captured for the estuarine reach, it is again behind the dam. The hungry water downstream river water into what bifurcated by the Farakka Barrage in gradually consumes the bed and banks is called hungry water – “hungry West Bengal, which diverts part of the of the river below the dam, resulting in flow into a canal to feed the Bhagirathi- entrenchment and armoring of the bed” water gradually consumes the bed Hooghly river. [Wampler, 2012]. The long-term effects and banks of the river below the of this process significantly affect the Besides the above operations on the main morphology of rivers and their floodplains dam, resulting in entrenchment and Ganga river, major dams and barrages [Graf, 2006; Gupta et al., 2012]. armoring of the bed.” on her tributaries include the Dam on Ramganga river in , In addition to the direct impacts of dams with the MLY stretch (about 2,000 km the , and barrages on river geomorphology, long below the Three Gorges Dam up and Hathnikund Barrage (and the the sediments trapped behind these to the estuary) getting little sediment upcoming ) on River structures may contain many mineral added in the MLY reach. Zhou et al.’s , the and Tons nutrients, thereby depriving the study reveals that by 2011 (i.e. within 10 Barrage on River Tons, the Dhandhraul downstream river stretches of essential years of operation of the Three Gorges Dam on Ghaghra river, Gandhi Sagar nutrients. It may be noted that, apart Project) the total sediment load in MLY Dam on Chambal river, the Rajghat, from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, at reduced to only 6% of its previous Parichha and Matatila Dams on Betwa least twenty five (and probably many long-term average, thereby resulting in river, the Rihand Dam on Rihand river in more) elements are essential for plants extensive scouring of the river channel. Uttar Pradesh, the Bansagar, Jawahar and animals (namely, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Moreover, nutrient-rich fine sediment Sagar and Ruthai Dams on Kali Sindh, S, Na, Cl, B, Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Mo, load reduced to only 8% of its long- the Chandil, Tenughat, Maithon, Panchet Li, I, Se, Cr, V, Si, F, As, and Sn, vide term average. As a result, the Total and Tilayia dams on the Suvarnarekha Graham, 2008). While knowledge of the P and Particulate P loads delivered and Damodar rivers in Jharkhand, and effects of micro-nutrient deprivation to the MLY reduced to only 23% and Power Station. The tail water of this the Durgapur Barrage on River Damodar in river ecosystems may be limited, 16.5% of their long-term values. Now power station joins the Ganga river in West Bengal [NIH, 2014]. Needless to the effect of deprivation of essential P had already been a limiting nutrient near Bhoopatwala. Thus, a distance of say, the innumerable intercepts in the macro-elements (like N and P) on river for the Yangtze river’s bioactivity before about 15 km from Pashulok barrage to Ganga river network have fragmented biota have been studied [refer Elser large dams came up on the river, hence the junction of the tail waters with the the once unified river network into et al., 2007]. In this context, a report its further reduction was critical for river has essentially no flow. Further disjointed stretches of flowing and by Zhou et al. [2013] on the effects of bioproductivity in MLY. downstream, Bhimgauda Barrage, stagnant waters. the Three Gorges Dam on phosphorus Madhya Ganga Barrage and Narora depletion in MLY (i.e. Middle and Lower 4.2 Water Withdrawals and Barrage intersect the river successively Dams and barrages trap much of Yangtze river) deserves mention. Until Discharges to divert water to the Upper, Middle the river sediments, converting the major dam constructions begun on Large anthropogenic water and Lower Ganga Canals. Further downstream river water into what is River Yangtze in the 1990s, the river abstractions are being effected from downstream, River Ganga is again called hungry water – “hungry water has discharged about 940 km3/yr water and the Ganga River Network all over the clipped at Kanpur by the Lav-Kush sufficient energy to transport sediment 478 Mt/yr of sediment into the East Sea, basin, thereby dehydrating the rivers

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 10 11 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan to a considerable extent. Many of the operational in the mid-nineteenth 4.3 Hydrological Status of NRGB The above data give an indication of dams and barrages mentioned above century [UPID-FAO, 2008]. The water resources potential and water the critical status of water resources in are used to divert river flows for human use in India (and in NRGB) have been India (and in the NRGB), especially when use. After the start of the main stem of In addition to water withdrawals evaluated by nodal government agencies water demands are compared with the National River Ganga, the Bhimgauda directly from rivers, there has been under MoWR, GOI. Some relevant water resource potentials. The following Barrage diverts nearly all the river increased groundwater pumping in data are cited in Tables 4.1a and 4.1b points, however, are pertinent with water to the Upper Ganga Canal the basin in recent decades, resulting [CWC, 2008; CWC, 2010; Jain et al., 2007]. regard to these data: (having head discharge capacity of in falling water table in many places. about 300 cu.m/s) at Haridwar1 . Large Thus, one must take into account the water abstractions occur thereafter at additional sub-surface outflows from Table 4.1a: Water Resources Potential (in Billion Cubic Metres) in Indian River Basins Bijnor and Narora to divert river water (or reduced base flows into) rivers due Total Utilizable Water Resource Potential (BCM) Total Water Resource into the Middle and Lower Ganga to the lowering water table in the basin. River Basin Catchment Area (km2) Potential (BCM) Replenishable Ground Utilisable Surface Water Canals respectively. Abstraction of Water Potential (BCM) Resources (BCM) river waters also occurs at different Finally, it should be noted that water Ganga 861452 525 171 250 points for urban water supplies. In abstractions from the river network and Total Indian 3290000 1869 433 690 addition, many dams and barrages the river basin are generally high during on the tributaries of River Ganga lean flow seasons but very low during (mentioned in the previous section) the wet seasons. This results in the river Table 4.1b: Projected Water Demand in India in Billion Cubic Metres (BCM) are coupled with water diversion into channel carrying extremely low flows Sector Standing Sub-Committee of MoWR NCIWRD irrigation canals (such as the Yamuna, during the dry season but with the original Year 2010 2025 2050 2010 2025 2050 Sarda, Ramganga, Kosi and Sone high flows of the wet season almost Irrigation 688 910 1072 557 611 807 canal systems). Thus, even after the intact. In fact, peak runoff rates from the Drinking Water 56 73 102 43 62 111 confluence with River Yamuna near basin into the rivers may have increased Industry 12 23 63 37 67 81 Allahabad, the Ganga river flow is low in many places due to urbanization and Energy 5 15 130 19 33 70 and must be significantly less than land-use/ land cover changes over Others 52 72 80 54 70 111 what it was a century ago. Thus, large- the past one or two centuries, thereby Total 813 1093 1447 710 843 1180 scale water abstractions directly from increasing the river flood peaks from the river network have contributed their earlier levels. Overall, the extremes greatly to the mighty Ganga river of the river’s natural hydrological regime a) How Approximate are the Water depending on estimation methods becoming an emaciated stream during have certainly accentuated, thus Resources Potentials? Estimates of and measurement techniques. For most of the lean season ever since the exerting further pressure on its hydro- water resources potentials made at instance, ground water potential Upper Ganga Canal System was made geomorphological functioning. different times and/ or by different depends on estimating storages and government agencies are often very yields of complex aquifer systems different from each other [CWC, spread over large and diverse 1986; CWC, 2008]. While the likely regions. On the other hand, surface error margins are not indicated in water resource potentials do not the above documents, the figures include surface water bodies. In 1Note: The flow diverted into the Upper Ganga Canal is regulated at Mayapur head works. During lean seasons, only a little water is led back into the Ganga river downstream at Kankhal, with the stretch from Hardwar to Kankhal being nearly dry [IITC, 2014a]. have enough room for uncertainty reviewing the government water

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 12 13 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan The projected water demands are evidently computed variations of water resources if “water-stress” is based on the e) The projected water demands in without assessing the demand potentials cannot be gauged from the premise of per capita water availability Table 4.1b were evidently computed trends or other factors. But given above data. Such variations are large being less than 1000 m3/year (which without assessing the demand trends in NRGB considering the diversity seems to be the government norm, or other factors. But given binding binding constraints on water in physiographic and hydrological vide India-WRIS, 2012, whereas the constraints on water availability, availability, the growth in demand features of the basin. international norm for hydrological the growth in demand must get water stress is when a nation’s per constrained, implying a need for must get constrained, implying a c) As seen from Table 4.1a, India’s capita water availability falls below demand management [UNICEF, need for demand management. surface water resources potential 1700 m3/yr, vide FAO, 2012; UN-Water, 2013]. Moreover, the “demands” (1,869 BCM) as well as its “utilizable” 2013). In fact, as per CWC figures, the themselves are questionable. On balance estimates, Jain [2012] argued part (690 BCM) are significantly per capita water availability in India reviewing the demand data, Jain that the governmental estimates of greater than the ground water was 1588 m3/yr in 2010 (the per capita [2011] recommended that “a detailed ET (i.e. evapo-transpiration) in the potential (433 BCM). On the other water availability was significantly study to compute future water Ganga basin at 23% of precipitation hand, government estimates show higher in the Ganga basin at almost demand should be taken up.” In a is too low, and suggested that it that, “more than 90% of the rural 2000 m3/yr in 2010) and is expected more detailed review of NCIWRD’s should be considered instead as 60% and more than 50% of urban water to reduce to 1434 m3/yr in 2025 [CWC, estimates, Verma and Phansalkar of precipitation as in the case for supply is met by ground water… with 2010; India-WRIS, 2012]. Table 4.1 [2007] noted, “The commission’s ET of most other Indian basins. The an estimated annual groundwater also shows that the “utilizable” (i.e. NCIWRD’s) estimates of ‘water consequent estimates would reduce withdrawal of 221 BCM” [CGWB, water resources of India are only demand’ are built on the basis of India’s and NRGB’s water resources 2012]. Thus, groundwater usage 690 BCM. Likewise, NIH states that minimum norms set down by various potentials by huge amounts. In a is evidently much higher than India’s “utilizable” per capita water agencies … (instead of) the price more detailed and critical analysis, surface water usage, although availability reduced from 1,100 at which the water is supplied Garg & Hassan [2007] used the same surface water potential is much m3/yr in 1998 to 938 m3/yr in 2010, and the quality of the supply.” To government data and showed that higher than groundwater potential. and is expected to further reduce reiterate Verma and Phansalkar’s the above water resource potentials This differential usage needs to be to 814 m3/yr in 2025 [NIH, 2013]. recommendation on this issue, “A are actually highly overestimated considered in framing India’s water However, the terms “utilizable” and refined prognosis of India’s water – by up to 88%; hence the total resource management policies. “replenishable” are not quantitatively future must account for two critical utilizable water resource potential of explained, nor are the likely errors variables missed by the commission: India (with the same water reservoirs d) The information cited in the above in determining them indicated, thus (i) water demand (as against water deemed feasible) amounted to only paragraph also shows that India’s adding to overall confusion about the requirement) as a function of price, 654 BCM instead of 1123 BCM, which estimated “water usage” is much significance of the data. While clarity availability and quality of supply; is far short of even the present water less than half of the estimated “water on these data and their interpretations and (ii) coping mechanisms of demand of India, an issue that has demand” of 710 BCM or 813 BCM in are needed, it seems certain, the users of water.” In fact, the already been internationally noticed 2010 [vide Col.5 and Col.2 of Table however, that NRGB (like much of the estimated “demands” are not even [UNICEF et al., 2013]. 4.1b], which suggests that India was country) is under increasing water “requirements”; rather they seem to already under severe water-stress/ stress, which calls for major changes be estimates of “present water use” b) The above water estimates are water-scarcity in 2010. However, in how NRGB’s water resources are and hypothetical “future water use”. for very large regions, and spatial this conclusion seems untenable managed.

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 14 15 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan A reliable picture of the present water status of India and NRGB or its subbasins is unavailable. Evidently, Basin’s water status needs to be determined afresh and in considerably greater detail Table 4.2: Groundwater Abstraction Rate and Depletion (with ranges of uncertainty) and Non-Renewable in order to estimate its true potential and its changing Irrigation Use per Country for Year 2000 [Wada et al., 2012] Gross Crop Water Nonrenewable Country Abstraction (km3/yr) Depletion (km3/yr) impact on river flows. Demand (km3/yr) Abstraction (km3/yr) India 190 (±37) 71 (±21) 600 68 United States 115 (±14) 32 (±7) 203 30 China 97 (±14) 22 (±5) 403 20 Pakistan 55 (±17) 37 (±12) 183 35 f) The projected water demands are determined afresh and in considerably Iran 53 (±10) 27 (±8) 59 20 for human use only, and do not give greater detail in order to estimate its Mexico 38 (±4) 11 (±3) 71 10 any indication of the water needed true potential and its changing impact Saudi Arabia 21 (±3) 15 (±4) 14 10 to sustain healthy functioning on river flows. In NRGB, as for India as a Globe 734 (±82) 254 (±38) 2510 234 of the basin. Generally, in most whole, it is not only natural components governmental water resource like ET and groundwater recharge data assessments, no attempt is made that may be erroneous, reliable data on to reliably assess this requirement water use are also scarce. Apart from [2012]. Wada et al.’s data also show that certain, however, that human water and it is often ignored. Or, at best, a industrial water use which is declared India’s overall groundwater depletion demands have been increasing while token value is assumed. The same to be uncertain [MOWR, 2008], the and non-renewable groundwater dry-season river discharges and is the case in the above estimates. estimated irrigation water use in India abstractions for irrigation are ground water levels have been falling As noted by Verma and Phansalkar – the highest water consuming sector exceedingly high, with almost 20% of in many parts of NRGB, which implies [2007], “(NCIWRD) makes a ‘token at 83% of national water use [MOWR, the irrigation groundwater abstraction that the hydrological status of NRGB provision’ of 5, 10 and 20 BCM for 2008] – could be highly inaccurate due for the year 2000 being non-renewable. is shifting relentlessly towards a state water for floods, environment and to numerous un-monitored private tube- Other independent estimates [notably of critical imbalance. To overcome ecology (combined) for 2010, 2025 wells operating in the basin for many Tiwari et al., 2009] also reveal similar this impending crisis, it is imperative and 2050, respectively.” decades. International studies indicate unsustainable trends in India’s that either (i) water availability in the that, not only are India’s estimated groundwater extractions. basin is increased through increased Thus, a reliable picture of the present groundwater abstraction the highest in storages, or (ii) water consumption is water status of India and NRGB or its sub- the world, but that the uncertainty in this Notwithstanding errors and reduced through more efficient water basins is unavailable. Evidently, NRGB’s estimate is also the highest (± 37 km3/yr) uncertainties in the water resources use (or both options are simultaneously (and India’s) water status needs to be as shown in Table 4.2, vide Wada et al. estimates quoted above, it is fairly pursued).

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 16 17 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan losses from surface reservoirs are often Notwithstanding the above limitations, 5. Measures to Restore Aviral high, especially in tropical climates like dams often fulfill several needs other India’s. To give an example, as per the than consumptive water use, such as Dhara of National River Ganga annual water balance estimated for hydropower generation, flood control the Aswan Reservoir in Egypt, “10 km3 and navigation. Thus, though dams (and of the entire Nile flow at Aswan, i.e. 84 other hydraulic structures that fragment, 5.1 Water Storage significant costs for reservoir operation, km3, would (i.e. estimated to) be lost in constrict or otherwise mutilate rivers) Human interventions promote two types transportation of water to end-users, evaporation and seepage” [Awulachew may be undesirable in free-flowing of water storages, viz. concentrated human displacements, land inundation, et al., 2011]. As per UNESCO, globally rivers, their environmental impacts need (or centralized) storage and distributed ecological damage, and river mutilation. more water evaporates from reservoirs to be considered in full before adopting or (or decentralized) storage. Till date, In fact the poor efficiencies of surface than is used for industrial and domestic discarding specific projects. Accordingly governmental focus has been mainly irrigation systems in India (about needs (see Figure 5.1) [UNEP, 2008]. four broad categories of dams, barrages on “centralized storages” in the 35–40% in contrast to about 60% for NCIWRD assumed evaporation losses and other hydraulic structures have form of dammed reservoirs on rivers. groundwater irrigation systems, vide from large reservoirs at a flat rate of 15% been worked out in GRBMP [IITC, 2014d] While such storage systems have CWC, 2008) may be partly attributed [Verma and Phansalkar, 2007], which for environmental clearance based on the advantage of economy of scale to conveyance losses from reservoirs reflects the significant evaporation their individual environmental impacts for capital costs, they often involve to farmlands. Moreover, evaporation losses. as presented in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1: Criteria for Permissibility of Dams and Other Projects on Rivers [IITC, 2014d]

Category Type of Environmental Impact Environmental Clearance MAJOR LONG-TERM, IRREVERSIBLE IMPACTS: Break in Longitudinal River Connectivity leading to: (i) loss of habitat of rare or endangered species in river; and/or (ii) disruption in movement of biota along the river length; and/ or (iii) disruption in sediment transport in the river. Such projects should NOT

I be given Environmental Critical Flow Reductions leading to: inadequate Environmental flows Clearance*. needed to maintain river stability and ecological balance.

Land Inundation: causing loss of habitat of endangered/ rare terrestrial species living in the areas inundated. LONG-TERM, IRREVERSIBLE IMPACTS OF LESS IMPORT: Land Inundation resulting in: (i) loss of terrestrial biodiversity and other May be given Environmental ecological changes; and/ or (ii) loss of historical, religious and cultural Clearance* only after thorough II heritage sites. study and review by domain

experts. Geological Hazards such as: (i) seismic hazards; and/ or (ii) landslides, land subsidence, etc.

Figure 5.1: Reservoir Evaporation [UNEP, 2008]

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 18 19 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan The “distributed storage” concept should be Category Type of Environmental Impact Environmental Clearance recharge pits, trenches, etc. Enhancing POTENTIALLY REVERSIBLE LONG-TERM IMPACTS: May be given Environmental groundwater recharge would, however, applied to natural ecosystems of Land Acquisition and Inundation, leading to: dislocation of human habitat, loss Clearance subject to: need detailed basin surveying to identify of livelihood, marginalization, etc. NRGB, especially wetlands, forests (i) a comprehensive socio- suitable recharge zones. A recent report Construction Activities, leading to: ecological damage, disruption of local economic and environmental by CGWB [CGWB, 2014] in this regard and grasslands. These ecosystems hydrology, human dislocation, loss of livelihood, etc. impact assessment of the is a suitable starting point. In addition, project by an independent contribute significantly to Inadequate downstream water leading to: adverse effects on livelihood, agency; ponds and tanks (distributed surface tourism (including religious tourism) and recreational activities. storages) also need to be promoted in conservation of water and other (ii) formulation of a view of their broader environmental and Adverse socio-economic impacts: Demographic changes, changes in livelihood Rehabilitation/ Resettlement natural resources in the basin. patterns, unplanned “developmental activities”, tourism and other recreational Plan and an Environmental socio-economic usefulness. Taken up at activities, etc. Management Plan acceptable the level of small or micro-watersheds, cultural and other social activities they to all stakeholders; and POTENTIALLY REVERSIBLE SHORT-TERM IMPACTS: these measures have the advantage of support, and their inherent biodiversity Construction Activities that cause: noise, explosions, degradation of forests and (iii) formulation of a strong better decentralized management by value. … Experience shows that once agricultural land, pollution from debris, influx of outsiders, despoiling of nature, etc. monitoring mechanism to local bodies and end-user communities, seriously degraded, these systems ensure implementation of Potentially adverse socio-economic impacts: Increase in crime and other besides boosting groundwater levels and become difficult and costly to return to the EMP (Environmental social vices, tensions between local population and outsiders, etc. Management Plan). river base flows. However, both field- healthy conditions. It is therefore critical level technical help and relevant data for basin planning to incorporate an *A project not cleared from the environmental angle may, however, be allowed on the basis of overriding (climatic, topographic, soil profile, water understanding of the ecological limits, national interest. Conversely, a project which has been cleared from the environmental angle, may be table, etc.) should be made available by thresholds and interconnections of the disallowed on the basis of overriding national interest. All such decisions must be made at the highest government agencies to such users. entire basin water resources.” Prasad et political level. al. [2002] had emphasized the great need The “distributed storage” concept should to protect the existing wetlands in India, also be applied to natural ecosystems pointing out that “even a small country The study by Zhou et al. [2013] discussed and stretches of the Ganga river of NRGB, especially wetlands, forests like UK could designate 161 wetlands as in Section 4.1 is also of relevance here. network and identify the nutrient-starved and grasslands. These ecosystems Ramsar sites, India ... so far managed Their study showing the downstream stretches; and (ii) assess what nutrient contribute significantly to conservation to delineate a mere six sites till date.” effect of the Three Gorges Dam on elements are stored in the sediments of water and other natural resources in The number of Ramsar wetlands in phosphorous deprivation in the Yangtze trapped behind dams, and devise suitable the basin. For instance, wetlands, often India subsequently increased to 25 out river suggests that dams and barrages means to release the sediments to referred to as “kidneys of the earth”, not of more than 200,000 identified wetlands in the Ganga River Network may also nutrient-starved downstream reaches. only help in purifying wastewaters before in the country [SAC, 2011], but hundreds be causing deficiencies of essential they reach the rivers or groundwater, of other wetlands (including many in mineral nutrients in the downstream river The second option of “distributed water but also help in nutrient cycling, flood the NRGB) are in a state of pitiable reaches. Without adequate data of the storage” can be of much advantage in mitigation, and providing food, fibre degeneration on account of urbanization Ganga river’s nutrient levels, however, NRGB (see Figure 5.2). For NRGB has and fresh water during dry periods. As and land-use changes in their a definite conclusion cannot be drawn a vast groundwater storage capacity noted by Pegram et al. [2013] “healthy catchments, wetland encroachments, in this regard. Hence there is a need to: which can be annually replenished by and functioning aquatic ecosystems are water withdrawals, and agricultural, (i) assess the availability of essential capturing runoff and letting it percolate fundamental to rivers, in terms of the municipal and industrial pollution [Bassi nutrient elements in different branches down to the water table through goods and services that they provide, the et al., 2014; Dhandekar, 2011].

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 20 21 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan [Ellison et al., 2012]. Thus, even for the i) Realistic pricing of fresh water purpose of water budget only, forests (especially for urban, industrial, Ponds/ Tanks/ Lakes (Distributed Storage) can play a major role in improving the commercial and affluent agricultural Rain Clouds hydrological status of NRGB, especially consumers) and disincentives for in dry seasons. wastage of water. ii) Techno-economic assistance and River/ Stream Overall, the restoration and preservation incentives for poor and marginal of wetlands, forests and grasslands, sections (such as those engaged in combined with other water and soil subsistence agriculture) to improve conservation measures, are imperative water-use efficiencies. needs in NRGB. iii) Allocation of water rights and Ponds/ Tanks/ Lakes (Distributed Storage) Basin Outflow entitlements to stakeholders. On-Stream Reservoir Percolation 5.2 Water Use Efficiency iv) Direct reuse of water where possible, (Concentrated Storage) While water is a renewable resource, e.g. reuse of irrigation return flows. the renewal capacity of NRGB is v) Treatment and recycling/ reuse of Ground Water Table limited by the region’s precipitation domestic and industrial wastewaters (Distributed Storage) and physiographic factors. Increasing where feasible. water usage has led to progressively Figure 5.2: Storm-water Runoff Storage Options – Concentrated and Distributed Storages decreasing water availability and 5.3 Water Resource Policy growing water crises in parts of the The foregoing discussions strongly basin. More significantly, that fresh suggest that the government strategy water usage in the basin as a whole on managing NRGB’s water resources Forests and grasslands, too, have waters during floods and release them may be nearing the average annual needs some major changes. The desired reached minuscule proportions in the gradually later – has sometimes been water renewal capacity may not have policy changes may be stated as follows: NRGB except in high altitude regions questioned, but studies convincingly been realized by water-users, but this A) Government agencies usually [India-WRIS, 2012]. Like wetlands, show that forests minimize flood peaks is a distinct possibility. Fresh water deal with NRGB’s water resources natural vegetal covers provide multiple and increase dry season flows in rivers usage or demand control is therefore of independently of other natural environmental benefits including[see for example, Ogden et al., 2013]. On utmost importance, effective measures resources; but the basin waters biodiversity conservation, erosion the last aspect concerning the effect of for which are already `pursued by many are intimately linked with other vital control, nutrient cycling, air and water forests on precipitation, water resource developed and developing countries. resources of the basin, such as soil purification, maintenance of soil health, experts typically consider forests as China’s achievement in this regard is well- (and sediments), nutrients (organic increased groundwater recharge, flood water-guzzling ecosystems on account known to the Indian water establishment and inorganic) and biotic resources. mitigation, increased dry season flows, of the high transpiration rates from trees; [Iyer, 2012], and her continuing efforts It is imperative therefore that water and increased precipitation. The last what is ignored in the water balance – such as 3-tiered water pricing for resource management in NRGB three points are particularly relevant is the precipitation component of the urban domestic supplies [Spegele & should be assimilated into a broader for NRGB’s water resources. The so- regional hydrological cycle. But global Kazer, 2014] – are worth noting. Broadly, framework of natural resource called sponge effect of forests – namely field studies show that forests actually several measures are required to ensure management instead of the myopic the ability of forests to absorb excess increase the precipitation in a region efficient water use, viz.: water-only focus.

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 22 23 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan B) Thus far, governmental action on “centralized government control” to After reviewing several different holistic “water resources development” “decentralized stakeholder control” methods of estimating E-Flows and in Box 5.1 has meant extracting increasingly combined with “expert guidance consultation with stakeholders and Steps for Calculating E-Flows more water (and hydro-energy) and regulation” for regional balance expert groups, the Building Block Method 1. Generation of Stage-Discharge curve at the from the basin for human use. This and sustainability. (BBM) was found to be robust and E-Flows site using river cross section and emphasis on water and energy scientifically most suitable for rivers, as hydraulic modelling. abstractions has often led to the 5.4 Environmental Flows explained in the above report. But since 2. Identification of keystone species for the stretch water resource systems themselves Flow is one of the main drivers of it was found that the method results in that represents the E-Flows site. being endangered, as evident biodiversity in rivers, and a river’s flow Bigger Block governing E-Flows, BBM 3. Assessment of temporal variations in depth of from many vanishing wetlands and regime – the variation of high and low was considered to denote Bigger Block flow required to ensure survival and natural streams. Thus, if “development” and flows through the year as well as variation Method in GRBMP [IITC, 2011]. The growth of keystone species. “use” of water resources lead to over the years – exerts great influence method had been developed in South 4. Assessment of temporal variations in depth of their extinction, then it is evident that on its ecosystem. Environmental Flows Africa through numerous applications flow from geomorphological considerations government priority must shift from (or E-Flows) are a regime of flow in a in water resources development to factoring longitudinal connectivity in all seasons “development” and “conjunctive river that mimics the natural pattern address E-Flows requirements for and lateral connectivity of active flood plain for use” of surface and ground water of a river’s flow, so that the river can riverine ecosystems under conditions the historically observed number of days during resources to their “conjunctive at least perform its minimal natural of variable resources. Based on this monsoon season. preservation”. functions such as transporting water method, E-Flows were computed for 5. Assessment of minimum ecological depth of flow C) In recent decades, large-scale and solids received from its catchment different sites of interest in the Ganga (higher of steps 3 and 4 above) and generation of water (especially groundwater) and maintaining its structural integrity, River System. It should be noted here Minimum Ecological Flows hydrograph. abstractions from the environment functional unity and biodiversity along that the BBM method quantifies only 6. Determination of 10-daily Average Flows and are being effected by water- with sustaining the cultural, spiritual the lower bound on flow rates required 90% Dependable Flows from historical flow data. users themselves. Other aquatic and livelihood activities of people. As at different times to sustain the river, 7. Applying the trend of variation of 90% Dependable resources are also being directly per the Brisbane Declaration [2007], and does not specify other conditions to Flows with the estimated minimum ecological tapped by users. Yet, users are not “Environmental flows describe the be maintained in the river. One of these flow depths to obtain 10-daily E-Flows hydrograph entrusted with the maintenance of quantity, timing, and quality of water conditions is, of course, the connectivity for dry and wet seasons. water resource systems, thereby flows required to sustain freshwater in river flow. But maintaining the water- 8. Comparison of E-Flows and Ecolgical creating a contradiction between and estuarine ecosystems and the sediment balance is also an essential Requirements hydrograph with hydrographs for ownership and usage. The obvious human livelihoods and well-being that condition. In the absence of empirical average and 90% dependable virgin flows. need to give stakeholders the rights depend on these ecosystems.” In other data at specific sites, the required and responsibilities to maintain words, E-Flows describe the temporal water resource systems has been and spatial variations in quantity and advocated by many experts [e.g. quality of water required for freshwater ADB, 2009; Sen, 2009; Thakkar, and estuarine systems to perform their Flow is one of the main drivers of biodiversity 2012; UNICEF et al., 2013]. Broadly natural ecological functions (including in rivers, and a river’s flow regime – the variation of high in line with these suggestions, it is material transport) and support the and low flows through the year as well as variation over suggested that water resources spiritual, cultural and livelihood activities management should shift from that depend on them, vide IITC [2011]. the years – exerts great influence on its ecosystem.

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 24 25 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan sediment flux has not been computed; river species. For the spawning period of season as the minimum environmental flow for range would indicate a River in Good Health, it is suggested that E-Flows should keystone species, minimum ecological non-monsoon. For monsoon season, the 90% while flows below this range but above carry suspended load and bed load in flows corresponding to depth D2 Dependable Flow variation was mimicked by Ecological Requirements would indicate approximately the same proportions as are needed throughout the spawning first deducting the flows corresponding to D3 a River in Marginal Health; and below the present in the virgin flow. season. Further, from geomorphological and then adding the deducted values on the Ecological flow limit the river would be in considerations, increased discharges mimicked hydrograph. Grossly Unsatisfactory Health. It should To illustrate the E-Flows results, some corresponding to depth D3 are needed be noted, however, that this distinction of of the selected sites on Alaknanda and for 18 days during the monsoon season It may be noted that the above procedure River Health status pertains to hydrological Bhagirathi rivers of the Upper Ganga (preferably distributed over the season). identifies two separate limiting flow quantities only, and not to river water quality. Segment are shown in Figure 5.3. These To determine these requirements, the conditions. The lower limit of Minimum For quality aspects, the flow of sediments, sites were chosen as they are considered keystone species in the given river Ecological Requirement may be considered nutrients and other natural constituents to have high hydropower potential. The stretches were identified, and the essential for minimal river functioning (with need to be further accommodated. basic procedure for computing E-Flows required depths D1 and D2 were survival of biota), while the higher limit of is summarized in Box 5.1, and the detailed determined for these species. Since flow Environmental Flows would allow healthy The sample results for E-Flows and Minimum procedure is described in the concerned depths at pools are higher than at riffles, river functioning (allowing maintenance Ecological Requirements for a representative thematic report [IITC, 2014d]. The hence the critical E-Flows sites were of healthy biodiversity and production of site at Ranari, Dharasu are illustrated below, geomorphological and biological features selected at riffle sections, thus ensuring ecosystem goods and services by the river). excluding quantitative flow data (which are of the respective sites were analysed and that the flow depths in the entire reach Thus, actual river flows above the E-Flows classified government data). the sites were physically surveyed to map would not be less than D1 or D2. The flows the river cross-sections. The virgin river corresponding to D1 and D2 were then flows at these sites were considered for the read from the stage-discharge curves period of data availability from CWC for the for the given sites. To determine D3, the period 1972 to 1982 (prior to construction average virgin flows that were exceeded of when the rivers could be for 18 days during the monsoon considered ‘virgin’ or undisturbed). The (i.e. between June and October, but virgin flows at the E-Flows sites were generally between July and September) then estimated from the virgin flows at the were computed. This corresponds nearest measuring stations. to average virgin flows having 20% dependability during monsoons. The E-Flows at the sites selected depend depth D3 was then read from the stage- on ecological and geomorphological discharge curve and checked against the requirements and the minimum ecosystem available river depth at the site. The flows goods and services of the river (including computed thus constitute the minimum the cultural, spiritual and livelihood ecological requirements of the river. The requirements). Referring to Figure 5.4, Environmental Flows were obtained by basic ecological flows corresponding to mimicking the trend of annual variation of minimum depth D1 are required during all 90% Dependable Flow using the minimum seasons for general mobility of keystone ecological requirement for non-monsoon Figure 5.3: Location Map of Flow Monitoring Stations and E-Flows Sites

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 26 27 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Keystone Species Environmental Clearance D1 D2 D3 Snow Trout (Schizothorax richardsonii) 0.5 m 0.8 m 3.41 m Riffle and Pool Locations in Longitudinal River Profile Golden Mahseer (Tor putitora)

Computed E-Flows:

105 Average Virgin Flow 90% Dependable Flow 90 /s

3 Environmental Flows 75 Minimum Ecological Requirement

River Cross-Section at E-Flow Site 60

D1 – Depth of water required for mobility of keystone species during lean period. 45

D2 – Depth of water required for mobility of keystone species during spawning period. 30 D3 – Depth of water required to inundate some riparian vegetation for 18 days/year. 15

Figure 5.4: E-Flows Assessment – Conceptual Diagram m Normalized Discharge, 0

A. E-Flows at Site 1: Ranari, Dharasu (Lat 30°43’02”N, Long 78°21’17”E)

Geomorphic Attributes:  Confined, incised river channel with coarse bed material in Figure 5.6a: E-Flows at Ranari, Dharasu degradational regime in Himalayan steep valley.

Cross-Section at Site:

Figure 5.5: River Cross-section at Ranari, Dharasu Figure 5.6b: E-Flows during Non-Monsoon Season at Ranari, Dharasu

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 28 29 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Table 5.2: Percentage of Virgin River Flow required as E-Flows at Ranari, Dharasu

Period of Year (Season) Wet Period Dry Period Annual Minimum Ecological Requirement as percentage 32.59% 32.96 % 32.67 % of Average Virgin Flow E-Flows as percentage of Average Virgin Flow 46.13% 53.12 % 47.54 %

As seen from the above results, the ecological flows at a given site vary minimum ecological flows required to much less over the year if D1 and D2 are maintain river integrity are about one- of the same order of magnitude (in the third of the average virgin flows of sample case presented above, D1 and the river in both dry and wet seasons, D2 are 0.5 m and 0.8 m, respectively). while the E-Flows required are about Correspondingly, the mimicked E-Flows Singoli–Bhatwari Barrage Vishnuprayag Barrage Site half the average virgin flows. However, will also vary over a limited range. Hence, this fraction varies over the year and prima facie, it should be possible to allow Figure 5.7: Some Existing and Under-Construction Barrages in Upper Ganga is relatively higher during dry season, a river passage of adequate dimensions river flows being minimum in winter. through (or bypassing) a dam to transport sediment-laden E-flows and allowing bed deposits and enable bank wetting. here, however, that while river passage Adoption of E-Flows at Dams the natural migration of aquatic species. Hence these higher E-flows can be passed through a dam/ barrage can be designed and Barrages: For high flows needed 18 days a year through the gates of the dam/ barrage. and constructed integrally with the dam/ It is evident from the preceding results corresponding to depth D3, passage of barrage for new projects, for existing that, although river flows vary significantly aquatic species is not required, and that of It must also be noted that in the case dams/ barrages the required changes round the year, except for the high flows river sediments is not essential since their of discharges from hydropower plants, may be difficult; hence alternative means needed 18 days a year, the required primary purpose is to flush excess river contrary to the conventional practice of may need to be explored in such cases sudden and voluminous releases of tail to ensure river connectivity capable of waters, the releases should be moderated carrying E-Flows. in accordance with the river’s natural flow regime. It is suggested that, in general, the maximum rate of tail water discharge should be within the maximum flows in through dry and wet seasons respectively, with River passage allowance being made for discharges a dam/ barrage may have to corresponding to depths D1, D2, or D3 be designed and constructed being released through the dam or river passage. The moderation of tail water integrally with the dam/ barrage discharges can be suitably achieved by for new projects, for existing use of tail-end balancing reservoirs. ones alternative means may need To gauge the overall feasibility of the to be explored to ensure river proposed scheme, photos of some existing connectivity capable of carrying and under-construction barrages are Maneri Bhali–1 Barrage Srinagar Dam presented in Figure 5.7. It may be noted E-Flows.

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 30 31 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan model simulation was carried out for anthropogenic parameters such as 6. Hydrological Modeling of the period 1969–2006 (37 years) over land use and groundwater abstractions. the basin. The groundwater model was Subject to such constraints, the GRBMP and Inferences set up for the alluvium part of the basin computational model was calibrated (shown in Figure 6.1) using MODFLOW and validated against observed computer model. streamflow data at about 24 flow In order to obtain a quantitative picture subdivided into 1045 sub-basins for measuring stations and groundwater of the hydrological status of NRGB model computations. The model results The modeling effort was constrained data at about 100 observation wells. and its likely change under various were calibrated with observed river by data limitations such as absence of The summary outcome of surface scenarios, hydrological modeling was discharge data at 30 locations on the precipitation data for higher elevation water modeling is shown in Figure 6.2a carried out for the surface water and main stem and tributaries of the Ganga areas, of canal water diversions, in terms of the basin’s 37-year average ground water system of the combined river network. The raw data used and of crop management (irrigation) annual water balance components, Ganga basin area in India (i.e. NRGB) included static spatial data (digital practices. Besides, out of about viz.: (i) Total Streamflow (Water Yield) and Nepal covering 1,028,468,63 sq. km. elevation data, drainage network 206 dams/ reservoirs in the basin, consisting of surface runoff, lateral area [IITC, 2014c]. The SWAT (Soil and data, soil maps, soil characteristics, information was available on only 104 and base flow, (ii) Precipitation, and Water Assessment Tool) Model was and land use data), dynamic hydro- such structures, and canal command (iii) Evapotranspiration. The monthly adopted to simulate the surface water meteorological data, and water area information was also missing in variation of the average water balance response of the basin, the basin being demand and abstraction data. The some cases. Limitations are also likely components are shown in Figure 6.2b. on the quality of data used for other As evident from the figures, streamflow

Groundwater Recharge 274.8

Baseflow 202.4

Evapotranspiration 496.5

Snowmelt 12.2

Water yield 601.6

Rainfall 1167.5 0 500 1000 1500 Annual Value (mm)

Figure 6.1: Groundwater Model Area of Ganga Basin [IITC, 2014c] Figure 6.2a: Average (1969-2006) Annual Water Balance of the Modeled Ganga Basin

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 32 33 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 350 Rainfall The flow health scores have significantly 300 Water Yeild altered in several stretches of National River Ganga 250 Snowmelt and her tributaries due to the present system of river 200 Evapotranspiration water management. 150 Baseflow

Value (mm) Groundwater Recharge 100 and considering no groundwater June of following year), respectively. abstraction in the basin. The “virgin As evident from the figures, the 50 flows” of different rivers of the network differences between virgin and 0 and their contributions to the main present flows in most rivers are much stem of the river were thus obtained more pronounced in the dry season Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec for the hypothetical virgin conditions than the wet period, with dry season Figure 6.2b: Average (1969-2006) Monthly Water Balance Components of the Basin over a 30-year period of model run to flows having drastically reduced enable quantitative comparison with in some rivers such as Ramganga, actual flows over this period. The main Chambal, Yamuna and Damodar. and evapotranspiration are the two Ganga and her tributaries due to tributaries of the Ganga river network Thus, it can be definitively concluded main components of water outgo from the present system of river water (and some important flow and water that anthropogenic hydrological the modeled area. It may be noted that, management. However, the analysis quality measuring stations of CWC) interventions have significantly on an annual basis, the average ratio does not cover many aspects of river are shown in the line diagram of Figure curtailed the annual flows in the Ganga of evapotranspiration to precipitation health such as functional needs of 6.3. Based on the model results, Figure river network below the Himalayan is found to be about 41-42%, which ecosystems and habitats. Considering 6.4a shows the estimated changes in Upper Ganga Region, especially in is much higher than the government this work as a first step to understand annual flows of the major tributaries of the dry season. Further anthropogenic norm of 23% for the Ganga basin but the significance of hydrology on the the network. The results indicate that, uses must be immediately curtailed much lower than 60% suggested by health of National River Ganga, it is while the changes in flow volumes in critical sub-basins, and corrective Jain [2012] which were cited earlier in envisaged that a more comprehensive are very small in the headstreams of measures applied where possible. Section 4.3. assessment including ecological and National River Ganga, river flows are geomorphological considerations considerably reduced in her major The model simulation results were also Based on the above model results, an of river health can be developed in tributaries such as Yamuna, Ghaghra, analysed in further detail to compare analysis of the hydrologic flow health future within the broader framework of Gandak, Kosi, Chambal, Sone, etc., the average hydrographs of maximum of the Ganga river and its important ecohydrology. thereby reducing the flow in the 10-daily flows, average 10-daily flows and tributaries had also been carried out main Ganga river through most of her minimum 10-daily flows under virgin and to obtain annual “flow health scores” The hydrological model was also run reach. Figures 6.4b and 6.4c show present conditions, respectively in the of the rivers [IITC, 2014b]. In general, to simulate the hypothetical virgin the comparisons of average virgin major sub-basins. Appendix 1 presents the study showed that the flow health river flows under the present climatic flows and actual flows for the wet figures showing the comparative scores had significantly altered in and land-use conditions by switching season (mid-June to mid-October) changes, and their significance is self- several stretches of National River off all water resource projects and dry season (mid-October to mid- evident from the figures.

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 34 35 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Maneri Bhali-I Nandakini Maneri Bhali-II Bhilangana Pinder Tehri Mandakini Bhagirathi Alaknanda

Upper Ganga Canal Middle Ganga Canal Garhmukteshwar Lower Ganga Canal Gangan Kachlabridge Aril Fatehgarh Ramganga Kali Kalagarh Dam Figure 6.4a: Annual Flow Contributions of Different Tributaries (sub-basins) to National River Ganga Kosi Garal under Present Flow Conditions and under Virgin Flow Conditions Ankinghat Rind Kanpur Bhitaura Yamuna

Allahabad Sind Ken Tons Varanasi Sai Chambal Gomti Betwa Sarda Sahayak Canal Buxer Sarda Ghaghara Son Rapti Sarda Sahayak Dam Gandak Rihand Koel Punpun GandhiGhat Hathidah Figure 6.4b: Wet Season Flow Contributions of Different Tributaries (sub-basins) to National River Azmabad Ganga under Present Flow Conditions and under Virgin Flow Conditions CWC Station

4,00,000 Virgin Flow Dam/Barrage s / Farakka Feeder Canal 3 Present Managed Flow m Farakka-Barrage Canal 3,00,000 Farakka sc ha rge, 2,00,000 Padma Avg D i Hooghly

u al 1,00,000

Mayurakshi n A n Damodar 0 … … … … … i i… r r s a a a a a n o ti g d n d na … g i

Kasai os i w m hr a l Ka au l Son u a n Ke K a g o m nd e To n h a h hip r a i la k a D s G Be t B D P n Na A Ra m h M K G anda k Ya m G Figure 6.3: Line Diagram of Ganga River Network (with major dams/ barrages, canals, and flow and Ch am b al water quality measuring stations) Figure 6.4c: Dry Season Flow Contributions of Different Tributaries (sub-basins) to National River Ganga under Present Flow Conditions and under Virgin Flow Conditions MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 36 37 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 35 x 103 tons Ni, 41 x 103 tons Cu, and 7. Sediment Resources of 78 x 103 tons Zn). Given the known Apart from their geomor- deficiency of many of these micro- phological significance, river National River Ganga nutrients in agricultural soils in NRGB (vide Mission Report on Sustainable sediments deposited on plains Agriculture), the sediments deposited during floods replenish soils lost Water-borne sediments play a vital Apart from their geomorphological on flood plains would be a natural role in the dynamics and ecology of significance, river sediments mechanism to replenish such from the plains through erosion. the Ganga River Network. The river’s deposited on plains during floods nutrients. suspended sediment load – generally replenish soils lost from the plains characteristics – undoubtedly estimated at between 500 to 800 million through erosion. Besides, sediments Wasson [2003] conducted a sediment contribute the major sediment load T/yr (e.g. 524 million T/yr vide Tandon are also a potentially major source budget analysis and estimated that in the river network. Thus many of et al., 2008; 729 million T/yr vide Abbas of key nutrient elements such as most of the long-term sediment load the Himalayan tributaries of National & Subramanian, 1984) – is probably phosphorous as well as most of the in the Ganga river system derives River Ganga (such as the Kosi, the third highest among the world’s micro-nutrient elements discussed in from the Himalaya mountain range Ghaghra, and Gandak) are known to rivers, after the Yellow and Amazon Section 4.1. These elements provide (especially from the High Himalayas), carry enormous sediment loads, some rivers’ loads [Milliman & Meade, 1983; long-term fertility to the rivers and the with probably less than 10% coming of which tend to deposit on the plains Singh et al., 2003]. The total sediment delta (for maintaining healthy biota) as from the Siwaliks, plains and during floods. The Himalayan ranges load estimated at 2400 million T/yr well as to the plains by flood deposits peninsular regions of the basin, vide are therefore important not only for [IITC, 2012] is also very high for any [Dixit et al., 2008]. The possibility of Figure 7.1. While the exact figures the hydrological regime, but also for river, but since bed load measurements heavy metals being present in harmful may be uncertain, the Himalayas – the geomorphological stability and are few in the river network, the figure proportions in the sediments has also on account of their litho-tectonic fertility of the basin. is very uncertain. Wasson [2003] been studied in the field, but their reasoned that the long-term average concentrations in sediments from of total sediment load of the combined upland sources are generally found to Source Regions Sinks River Ganga Ganga-Brahmaputra rivers is between be benign in the Ganga river network Tethyan Himalaya < 10 % 794 65 To Downstream 1600 to 3500 million T/yr, which [Jha et al., 1988; Purushothaman & High Himalaya 80 + 10 % suggests that the total sediment load Chakrapani, 2007; Singh et al., 2003]. Floodplains of National River Ganga could be much In fact, considering the sediment load Lesser Himalaya 20 + 10 % 729 Farakka Siwaliks <10 % Into River Hooghly less than 2400 million T/yr. Nonetheless, at 744 million tons/ year, Singh et al.’s 328 the sediment load is exceptionally [2003] estimate includes significant Plain <10 % high, and it evidently plays a key role annual transport of many sedimentary Peninsular < 10 % 480 Bangladesh in maintaining the network of rivers in micro-nutrients to the Bay of Bengal dynamic equilibrium from their sources (e.g. 1.3 x 106 tons Mn, 30.0 x 106 tons to the delta. Fe, 110 x 103 tons Cr, 14 x 103 tons Co, Figure 7.1: A Sediment Budget (in 106 tons/yr) for Ganga River Basin [Wasson, 2003]

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 38 39 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara

only up to 2003, so the average of the 1999-2003 period was used for this station. For further reference, the annual sediment load data for different stations are shown in Appendix II. Table 7.1: Sediment Measuring St ations and Periods of Data Availability

Station No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Station Name Garhmukteshwar Kachlabridge Fatehgarh Ankinghat Kanpur Bhitaura Data Period 1981–2003 1981–2010 1981–2010 1981–2010 1981–2010 1981–2010

Station No. 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Station Name Allahabad Varanasi Buxer Gandhighat Hathidah Azimabad Farakka Data Period 1981–2010 1981–2010 2001–10 2001–10 2001–10 2001–10 1999-2006

225 100% Feeder Canal Sediment Load 200 Sediment Load 175 80% Avg Sediment Load 150 60% 125 Discharge(Normalized) 100 40% 75 50 20% 25 0 0% 1 2345 6789 10 11 12 13 Measuring Station Figure 7.2: Comparison of the Annual Average Sediment Loads (for period 1999-2006) at Di erent Locations of National River Ganga In view of the above available information, stations are too few. Based on data of it is first and foremost necessary to the preceding 13 stations, the average estimate the correct sediment loads in sediment loads at different stations for GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara 225 100% the Ganga River System. To this end, river the common period of data availability Feeder Canal Sediment Load discharges and suspended sediment (1999–2006) were computed for annual, 200 Sediment Load 80% concentrations measured continually wet season and dry season sediment 175 only up to 2003,at s13o tmeasuringhe averag stationse of talonghe 1999-2003the loads respectively,period w asand u arese dshown for thisin 150 Avg Sediment Load 60% station. For furtmainher stemrefere of thenc Nationale, the Riverannu Gangaal s ediFiguresment 7.2,lo a7.3d anddata 7.4. f or However, differ eitnt 125 Discharge for varying periods were availed from may be noted that at Garhmuketswar 100 stations are shown in Appendix II. 40% CWC. The said measuring stations and data were available only up to 2003, 75 the period of sediment data availability so the average of the 1999-2003 period Table 7.1: Sediment Measuring St ations and Periods of Data Availability 50 20% are given in Table 7.1 below. Data was used for this station. For further 25 reference, the annual sediment load Station No. were 1also available for 23 measuring 3 4 5 6 0 0% stations on tributaries, but these data for different stations are shown in Station Name Garhmukteshwar Kachlabridge Fatehgarh Ankinghat Kanpur Bhitaura 1 2 3456 789 10 11 12 13 have not been used here since such Appendix II. Data Period 1981–2003 1981–2010 1981–2010 1981–2010 1981–2010 1981–2010 Measuring Station FigureFigure 7.3:7.3: Comparison Compar of theison Average of the Wet SeasonAverage Sediment We Ltoads Se a(forson period Sedi 1999-2006)ment atLoa Differentds (f or GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara Table 7.1: Sediment Measuring Stations and Periods of Data Availability Locations of Nationalperiod River 1999-2006 Ganga ) at Di erent Locations of National River Ganga Station No. 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 StationStation Name No. Allahabad 1 Varanasi 2 Buxer 3Gandhigha4t Hathidah5 Azimab6ad Farakka Station Name Garhmukteshwar Kachlabridge Fatehgarh Ankinghat Kanpur Bhitaura 20 38 100% Data Period 1981–2010 1981–2010 2001–10 2001–10 2001–10 2001–10 1999-2006 Data Period 1981–2003 1981–2010 1981–2010 1981–2010 1981–2010 1981–2010 18 Feeder Canal Sediment Load 16 80% Sediment Load 225 100% 14 Feeder Canal Sediment Load 200 12 Avg Sediment Load 60% Sediment Load 175 80% Avg Sediment Load 10 Discharge 150 60% 8 40% 125 Discharge(Normalized) 100 6 40% 75 4 20% 50 20% 2 25 0 0% 0 0% 12345678910111213 1 2345 6789 10 11 12 13 Measuring Station Measuring Station FigFigureure 7.2:7.2 Comparison: Comp arof theiso Annnual of tAhveragee An Sedimentnual A vLoadserag (fore Speriodedim 1999-2006)ent Lo aatd Differents (for period FigureFigure 7.4: 7.4: Comparison of the A ofverage the Dry Average Season Sediment Dry L Seasonoads (for period Sediment 1999-2006) Loaat Differentds (for Locations of N1999-2006)ational River Ganga at Di erent Locations of National River Ganga Locationsperiod of National 1999-2006) River Ganga at Different Locations of National River Ganga

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 40 41 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Overall, it may be noted that the common periodGanga of River data Basin availab Managementility Plan is very 225 100% limited, hence the computed results are of limited significance. But some 200 Feeder Canal Sediment Load 175 Sediment Load 80% provisional conclusions can be drawn from the figures. Firstly, the average 150 Avg Sediment Load 60% 125 Discharge suspended sediment load at Farakka (i.e. passing the Farakka Barrage into the 100 40% Ganga/ Padma river as well as flowing into the canal feeding River 75 50 20% Bhagirathi/Hooghly) during the period 1999–2006 is only about 177 million 25 0 0% T/year which is much less than values between 500 to 800 million T/year 1 2 3456 789 10 11 12 13 commonly cited in literature. But, in consonance with observations cited in Measuring Station Figure 7.3: Comparison of the Average Wet Season Sediment Loads (for literature, most of the sediment load carried by the river occurs during the wet period 1999-2006) at Di erent Locations of National River Ganga season.

38 Secondly, the sediment load variation along the main river stem is somewhat intriguing, and they suggest varying aggrading–degrading stretches along the length of the river. Generally the load increases downstream, but it jumps sharply between Garhmukteswar and Kachla bridge (despite the Lower Ganga Canal taking off in this zone) and drops at Fatehgarh, suggesting a degrading river stretch before Kachla bridge and an aggrading stretch after it. Between Kanpur and Varanasi, the river stretch again appears to aggrade to some extent with the sediment load reducing downstream (despite the Yamuna river joining below Allahabad). After Varanasi, the sediment load increases steeply at Buxar (probably due to significant sediment inflows from the Tons and Gomti rivers) and increases progressively up to Hathidah (with major tributaries like Ghaghra, Sone, Gandak and Punpun joining National River Ganga). But the sediment load decreases before Azimabad (except in the dry

39 Overall, it may be noted that the common sediment load reducing downstream (despite period of data availability is very limited, the Yamuna river joining below Allahabad). 8. Summary of Recommended hence the computed results are of After Varanasi, the sediment load increases limited significance. But some provisional steeply at Buxar (probably due to significant Actions conclusions can be drawn from the figures. sediment inflows from the Tons and Gomti Firstly, the average suspended sediment rivers) and increases progressively up load at Farakka (i.e. passing the Farakka to Hathidah (with major tributaries like Barrage into the Ganga/ Padma river as Ghaghra, Sone, Gandak and Punpun joining The main recommendations of the water, incentives, technical well as flowing into the canal feeding River National River Ganga). But the sediment mission are summarized below: assistance, allocation of water rights Bhagirathi/Hooghly) during the period 1999– load decreases before Azimabad (except in 1. While water withdrawals and entitlements to stakeholders, 2006 is only about 177 million T/year which the dry season), again suggesting channel from rivers and aquifers have and promotion of water reuse and is much less than values between 500 to 800 aggradation in this zone. Finally there is affected the basin’s water status recycling. million T/year commonly cited in literature. some further increase in load at Farakka and accentuated the rivers’ 4. A major policy shift in NRGB’s water But, in consonance with observations cited in (presumably with sediment inputs from River hydrological extremes, NRGB’s resource management should literature, most of the sediment load carried Kosi.) It may be also seen that most of the present hydrological status is very bring it under the ambit of natural by the river occurs during the wet season. sediment outflow from Farakka barrage inadequately known, especially resource management in the carries over to the Ganga/ Padma river, with in terms of water availability and basin with emphasis on resource Secondly, the sediment load variation along only a very small fraction entering the feeder usage. The hydrological status preservation before exploitation, the main river stem is somewhat intriguing, canal of the Bhagirathi-Hooghly river. needs to be determined afresh decentralized stakeholder control, and they suggest varying aggrading– and in much greater detail in order and expert guidance and regulation. degrading stretches along the length of In summing up, the above discussions throw to estimate its true potential and 5. Dams and barrages have altered the river. Generally the load increases up many questions regarding National its changing impact on different or disrupted the flow of water, downstream, but it jumps sharply between River Ganga’s sediment resources. At the regions of the basin. sediments, nutrients and biota in Garhmukteswar and Kachla bridge (despite minimum, they underscore the need for long- 2. Considering the significant the Ganga river network, severely the Lower Ganga Canal taking off in this term monitoring of sediment loads in the costs of land inundation, human affecting the morphology and zone) and drops at Fatehgarh, suggesting a Ganga river system including all her major displacements, ecological damage, ecology of rivers, floodplains and degrading river stretch before Kachla bridge tributaries, sediment budget assessments operation, transportation, and river valleys. Hence, all dams/ and an aggrading stretch after it. Between of her major sub-basins, understanding the evaporation losses of large in- barrages must ensure longitudinal Kanpur and Varanasi, the river stretch again dynamics of sediment flow in the network, stream reservoirs, NRGB’s water river connectivity and environmental appears to aggrade to some extent with the and sediment quality estimates. resource management plan must flows (of water, sediments and adopt distributed water storage other natural constituents), and in the basin’s groundwater, lakes, new projects should be approved A major policy shift in NRGB’s water resource tanks and ponds, and promote or rejected on the basis of a set of wetlands and forests. 4 categories of their environmental management should bring it under the ambit of natural 3. Increasing anthropogenic water impacts as detailed in Table 5.1. resource management in the basin with emphasis on usage needs to be checked by 6. Hydrological model studies show increased water use efficiency significant anthropogenic effects resource preservation before exploitation, decentralized through realistic pricing of fresh in many sub-basins of NRGB and stakeholder control, and expert guidance and regulation.

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 42 43 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan NRGB as a whole. Increasing water to be assessed, and nutrient-rich withdrawals must be checked on a sediments need to be delivered to References priority basis in critical regions. downstream river stretches and 7. The sediment resources of the floodplains. Ganga river system need monitoring 8. Major research needs include the 1. Abbas, N. & V. Subramanian [1984], 6. CGWB (Central Ground Water on a long-term basis and assessed determination of ecological limits, “Erosion and Sediment Transport Board, MoWR, GOI) [2012], comprehensibly in terms of both thresholds and interconnections of in the River Basin (India),” “Aquifer Systems of India”. quantity and quality. The quantity water resources in NRGB, and river Journal of Hydrology, Vol. 69, pp 7. CWC (Central Water Commission, and nutrient value of sediments flow health assessments within the 173–182. MoWR, GOI) [1986], “Ganga Basin trapped behind dams also need framework of ecohydrology. 2. ADB (Asian Development Bank) Water Resources Development – A [2009], “Water Resources Perspective Plan”, Vol. 1/1. Development in India”. [Accessed 8. CWC (Central Water Commission, May 09, 2013 from: http://www. Govt. of India) [2008], “Integrated indiaenvironmentportal.org. Water Resources Development and in/reports-documents/water- Management”, Water Resources resources-development-india- Day–2008: Theme Paper. critical-issues-and-strategic- 9. CWC (Central Water Commission) options.] [2010], “Water and Related 3. Awulachew, S. B. [2011], Statistics”. [Accessed May 09, “Hydrological Water Availability, 2013 from: www.cwc.nic.in/ISO_ Trends and Allocation in the Blue DATA_Bank/W&RelatedStatatics_ Nile Basin”, in “Nile River Basin: 2010.pdf]. Hydrology, Climate and Water Use” 10. Dhandekar, P et al. [2011], “India’s by A.M. Melesee (editor), Springer, Wetlands in Peril”, South Asia pp 283–296. Network on Dams, Rivers and 4. Bassi, N. et al. [2014], “Status of People. [Accessed May 06, wetlands in India: A review of 2013 from http://www.sandrp.in/ extent, ecosystem benefits, threats rivers/Indias_wetlands_in_peril_ and management strategies,” Jour. Feb_2011.pdf.] of Hydrology: Regional Studies 2, 11. Dixit, A. et al. (2008), “Costs and pp 1–19. Benefits of Flood Mitigation in 5. Brisbane Declaration [2007], the Lower Bagmati Basin: Case “Environmental Flows are Essential of Nepal Tarai and North Bihar,” for Freshwater Ecosystem Health From Risk to Resilience – Working and Human Well-Being”, 10th Paper No. 6, Institute for Social and International River Symposium and Environmental Transition - Nepal International Environmental Flows and ProVention, Kathmandu. Conference, Brisbane.

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 44 45 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 12. ellison, D., M.N. Futter and K. in reducing sediment fluxes: A 26. Jain, S. K. [2011], “Population rise 34. NIH (National Institute of Bishop [2012], “On the forest case study of large Asian rivers”, and growing water scarcity in India Hydrology) [2014], “Ganga Basin.” cover–water yield debate: from Journal of Hydrology, 464–465, pp – revised estimates and required [Accessed April 28, 2014 from: demand- to supply-side thinking”, 447–458. initiatives”, Current Science, Vol. http://www.nih.ernet.in/rbis/ Global Change Biology, 18, pp 18. IITC [2011], “Environmental Flows: 101 No.3, pp 271–276. basin%20maps/ganga_about.htm] 806–820. State-of-the-Art with special 27. Jain, S. K. [2012], “India’s Water 35. Pahl-Wostl, C. [2007], “The 13. elser, J.J. et al. [2007], “Global reference to Rivers in the Ganga balance and evapotranspiration”, implications of complexity analysis of nitrogen and River Basin”, Report Code: 022_ Current Science, Vol. 102 No.7, pp for integrated resources phosphorus limitation of primary GBP_IIT_EFL_SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec 914–967. management”, Environmental producers in freshwater, marine 2011 28. Jain, S. K., P. K. Agarwal and V. P. Modelling & Software, Vol. 22, pp and terrestrial ecosystems”, 19. IITC [2012], “Riparian Vegetation in Singh [2007], “Hydrology and Water 561–569. Ecology Letters, Vol.10, Issue 12, pp Ganga River Basin”, 032_GBP_IIT_ Resources of India”, Springer 36. Ogden, F. L., T. D. Crouch, R. F. 1135–1143. ENB_DAT_10_Ver 1_Jun 2012 (Netherlands). Stallard, and J. S. Hall [2013], 14. Garg, N.K. & Q. Hassan [2007], 20. IITC [2014a], “Measures for 29. Jha, P. K., V. Subramanian & R. “Effect of land cover and use on “Alarming Water Scarcity in India,” Ecological Revival of River Ganga”, Sitasawad [1988], “Chemical dry season river runoff, runoff Current Science, Vol.93, No.7, pp 054_GBP_IIT_ENB_DAT_14_Ver and Sediment Mass Transfer in efficiency, and peak storm runoff 932–941. 1_May 2014 the Yamuna River – A Tributary in the seasonal tropics of Central 15. Graf, W.L. [2006], “Downstream 21. IITC [2014b], “Hydrological Flow of the Ganges System”, Jour. Of Panama”, Water Resources hydrologic and geomorphic effects Health Assessment of the River Hydrology, Vol. 104, pp 237–246. Research, Vol. 49, pp 8443–8462. of large dams on American rivers, ” Ganga”, 056_GBP_IIT_ WRM_ 30. Jenny, H. [1994], “Factors of soil 37. Prasad, S.N. et al. [2002], Geomorphology, Vol. 79, ANL_02_Ver 1_Jun 2014 formation: a system of quantitative “Conservation of Wetlands of India pp 336–360. 22. IITC [2014c], “Surface and pedology”, Dover Publication. – A Review”, Tropical Ecology, 16. Graham, R.D. [2008], “Micronutrient Groundwater Model of the Ganga [Accessed May 28, 2014 from: Vol. 43(1), pp 173–186. [Accessed Deficiencies in Crops and River Basin”, 057_GBP_IIT_ WRM_ http://www.soilandhealth. February 21, 2013 from: http:// Their Global Significance”, in ANL_01_Ver 1_Aug 2014 org/01aglibrary/010159.Jenny.pdf.] www.ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/ “Micronutrient Deficiencies 23. IITC [2014d], “Assessment of E 31. Kibler, K.M. and D.D. Tullos [2013], water/paper/Conservation_of_ in Global Crop Production”, Flows at Some Selected Sites in “Cumulative Biophysical Impact wetlands_of_India.pdf] by B.J. Alloway (editor), Upper Ganga Segment” Report of Small and Large Hydropower 38. Pegram, G. et al. [2013], “River Springer Science Business Code: 073_GBP_IIT_EFL_ANL_01_ Development in Nu River, China”, Basin Planning: Principles, Media PV [Accessed June 19, Ver 1_Dec 2014. Water Resources Research, Vol. Procedures and Approaches 2014 from: http://download. 24. India-WRIS (MoWR, GOI) [2012], 49, pp 3104–3118. for Strategic Basin Planning”, springer.com/static/pdf/442/ “River Basin Atlas of India – 2012”, 32. Milliman, J. D. & R. H. Meade UNESCO, Paris. bok%253A978-1-4020-6860-7. RRSC-West, NRSC, ISRO, [1983], “Worldwide Delivery of River 39. Purushothaman, P. & G.J. pdf?auth66=1424436865_ Jodhpur, India. Sediments to the Oceans”, Jour. of Chakrapani [2007], “Heavy Metals f8436f00a92bcdcee9d45- 25. Iyer, R.R. [2012], “River Linking Geology, Vol. 91, No.1, , pp 1–21. Fractionation in Ganga River 15d2e5f3369&ext=.pdf.] Project – A Disquieting 33. MoWR (Min. of Water Resources, Sediments, India,” Environ Monit 17. Gupta, H., S-J. Kao and M. Dai Judgement”, Economic & Political Govt. of India) [2014], “Ganga Basin Assess, Vol. 132, pp 475–489. [2012], “The role of mega dams Weekly, Vol.XLVII, No.14, pp.33–40. – Version 2.0”.

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 46 47 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 40. Rajvanshi, A. et al. [2012], 45. Singh, M., I.B. Singh & G. Muller 51. UPID-FAO [2008], “Main Ganga in Motion”, Nature Education “Assessment of Cumulative Impacts [2007], “Sediment Characteristics Canal System”, Uttar Pradesh Knowledge 3(10):18. [Accessed of Hydroelectric Projects on Aquatic and Transportation Dynamics of the Irrigation Dept. & FAO, Meerut. April 02, 2014 from: http://www. and Terrestrial Biodiversity in Ganga River,” Geomorphology, Vol. [Accessed May 01, 2014 from: nature.com/scitable/knowledge/ Alaknanda and Bhagirathi Basins, 86, pp 144–175. http://www.fao.org/nr/water/ library/rivers-and-streams-water- Uttarakhand”, Wildlife Institute 46. Spegele, B. & W. Kazer [2014], “To docs/masscote/applications/ and-26405398.] of India. Conserve Water, China Raises masscotemeerutreport.pdf] 55. Wasson, R.J. [2003], “A Sediment 41. SAC (Space Application Centre, Prices for Top Users” The Wall 52. Verma, S. & S.J. Phansalkar Budget for the Ganga-Brahmaputra ISRO) [2011], “National Wetland Street Journal, January 08, 2014. [2007], “India’s Water Future Catchment,” Current Science, Vol. Atlas”, Ahmedabad. [Accessed [Accessed February 02, 2014 from: 2050: Potential Deviations from 84, No. 8, pp 1041–1047. May 10, 2013 from: http://www. http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1000 ‘Business-as-Usual’”, Intl. Journal 56. Wikipedia [2014], “Soils“. indiawaterportal.org/sites/ 14240527023038707045792974103280 of Rural Management, Vol. 3(1), [Accessed May 28, 2014 from: indiawaterportal.org/files/NWIA_ 66466.] pp 149–179. (Note: A modified http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil.] National_atlas.pdf.] 47. Thakkar, H. [2012], “Water Sector and updated version of the article 57. WWC (World Water Council) 42. SANDRP (South Asia Network Options for India in a Changing also available at http://www.iwmi. [2000], “World Water Vision – on Dams, Rivers and People) Climate”, South Asia Network on cgiar.org/Publications/Other/PDF/ Chap. 2: The Use of Water Today”. [2012], “WII’s Cumulative Impact Dams, Rivers and People (SANDRP). Paper%202%20of%20NRLP%20 [Accessed March 19, 2013 from: Assessment of Ganga Hydel [Accessed May 09, 2013 from: http:// series%201.pdf – accessed on http://www.worldwatercouncil.org/ Projects on Biodiversity: A Small sandrp.in/wtrsect/Water_Sector_ September 03, 2014). fileadmin/ world_water_council/ Step in the Right Direction, a Options_India_in_Changing_ 53. Wada, Y., L.P.H. van Beek documents_old/Library/WWVision/ Long Way to Go”, Dams, Rivers Climate_0312.pdf]. & M.F.P. Bierkens [2012], Chapter2.pdf.] and People, Vol.10, Issue 3-4-5. 48. Tiwari, V.M., J. Wahr & S. “Nonsustainable groundwater 58. zhou, J., M. Zhang, & P. Lu [2013], [Accessed April 28, 2014 from: Swenson [2009], “Dwindling sustaining irrigation: A global “The effect of dams on phosphorus http://sandrp.in/drp/April_May_ groundwater resources in assessment”, Water Resources in the middle and lower Yangtze June_2012.pdf]. northern India, from satellite Research, Vol. 48, W00L06, river”, Water Resources Research, 43. Sen, S. [2009], “Water Resource gravity observations”, Geophysical doi:10.1029/2011WR010562. Vol. 49, pp 3659–3669. Management: Social Discourse, Research Letters, Vol. 36, L18401, 54. Wampler, P.J. [2012], “Rivers and Governance & Technology doi:10.1029/2009GL039401. Streams - Water and Sediment Development”, Pre-Proceedings 49. UNEP (United Nations Environment of Intl. Conference on Water Program) [2008], “Vital Water Harvesting, Storage & Conservation, Graphics”, 2nd Ed. [Accessed May IIT, Kanpur. 10, 2013 from: http://www.unep.org/ 44. Singh, M., G. Muller & I. B. Singh dewa/vitalwater/rubrique21.html] [2003], “Geogenic distribution and 50. UNICEF, FAO and SaciWATER [2013], baseline concentrations of heavy “Water in India: Situations and metals in sediments of the Ganges Prospects”. [Accessed June 11, River, India,” Jour. Of Geochemical 2013 from: http://www.unicef.org/ Exploration, Vol. 80, pp 1–17. india/Final_Report.pdf.]

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 48 49 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara Appendix I Appendix I Appendix I Hydrographs of 30-Years’ Maximum, Average and Minimum 10-Daily Flows Hydrographs of 30-Years’ Maximum, Average and Minimum 10-Daily Flows Under UnderHydrographs Virgin and of 30-Years’ Actual (Present) Maximum Conditions, Average for and Sub-Basins Minimum of NRGB 10-Daily Flows Virgin Underand A Virginctual and(Present) Actual Conditions(Present) Conditions for Sub-Basins for Sub-Basins of NRGB of NRGB

Figure A1.3: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Chambal Figure A1.3: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Chambal Figure A1.1: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Alaknanda Figure A1.1: 10-DailyFigure A1.1:Hydrographs 10-Daily for Hydrogr River Alaknandaaphs for River Alaknanda

Figure A1.2: 10-DailyFigure H ydrographsA1.2: 10-Daily for River Hydrographs Betwa for River Betwa Figure A1.4: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Damodar Figure A1.2: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Betwa Figure A1.4: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Damodar 50 MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 50 50 51 Ganga River Basin Management Plan 51 Ganga River Basin Management Plan GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara

Figure A1.5: Figure10-Daily A1.5: Hydrographs 10-Daily for Hydrographs River Dhauliganga for River Dhauliganga Figure A1.7: 10-DailyFigure H A1.7:ydrographs 10-Daily for RiverHydrographs Gomti for River Gomti

Kali

Figure A1.6: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Ghagra Figure A1.8: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Kali Figure A1.6: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Ghaghra Figure A1.8: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Kali

MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 52 53 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 53

52 GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara

Ken Kshipra

Figure A1.11: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Kshipra Figure A1.9: 10-DailyFigure Hydrographs A1.9: 10-Daily for River HydrographsKen for River Ken Figure A1.11: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Kshipra Figure A1.9: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Ken Figure A1.11: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Kshipra Mandakini Kosi

Figure A1.12: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Mandakini Figure A1.10: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Kosi Figure A1.12: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Mandakini Figure A1.10: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Kosi MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA Figure A1.12: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River MandakiniMISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 54 Figure A1.10: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Kosi 55 Ganga River Basin Management Plan 55 Ganga River Basin Management Plan

54 55 54 GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara

Ramganga Nandakini

Figure A1.15: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Ramganga Figure A1.15: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Ramganga Figure A1.15: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Ramganga Figure A1.13: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Nandakini Figure A1.13: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Nandakini

Pinder Tons

Figure A1.16: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Tons Figure A1.16: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Tons Figure A1.14: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Pinder Figure A1.16: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Tons Figure A1.14: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Pinder MISSION 1: AVIRALFigure DHARA A1.14: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Pinder MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 56 57 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 57

57

56 56 GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara Appendix II GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara Appendix II Appendix II Annual Sediment Load Variatnio in National RAppendixiver Gang aII Annual Sediment Load Variatnio in National River Ganga Yamuna AnnualAnnual Sediment Sediment Load Variation LSeodiadment LVoa inariad Nationaltnio in N Riveratio Ganganal River Ganga 60 SeAvdigm Sedent iLmentoad Load 100% Discharge (% of Max Flow) 60 AvSge Seddimiementnt Loa Loadd 100% 50 Discharge (% of Max Flow) 80% 5600 Avg Sediment Load 100% 40 Discharge (% of Max Flow) 80% 4500 60% 30 60%80% 3400 40% 20 40%60% 2300 20% 10 40% 1200 20% 0 0% 20% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 100 03 % 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0% 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 Figure A2.1: Annual Sediment Lodsa (in million metric tons) at0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 Figure A2.1: Annual Sediment Lodsa (in million metric tons) at 2 Figure A2.1: Annual Sediment Loads (in million metric tons) at Garhmukteswar Figure A2.1: Annual GSGeaardihrmemhmuktntukte Losedswsawa (rin a r million metric tons) at

Garhmukteswar Sediment Load 200 Sediment Load 120% 200 AvgAvg Sed Sedimentiment Load Load 120% DischarSDischaredimgee (ng%te L o(oaf% Max dof Max Flow F)low) 100%100% 125000 120% Avg Sediment Load 80%80% Discharge (% of Max Flow) 100% Figure A1.17: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Yamuna 110500 60%60% 80% Figure A1.17: 10-Daily Hydrographs for River Yamuna 40%40% 15000 60% 20%20% 40% 500 0% 0% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 2 1 4 8 7 6 5 4 3 5 3 2 1 0 9 6 5 4 7 7 6 8 8 9 9 0 0 2 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 20% 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 8 8 0 8 8 8 8 8 8 0 8 9 9 9 9 0 9 9 0 9 9 0 9 1 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 0% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Figure A2.2: Annual Sediment Loads (in million metric tons) at Kachlabridge 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Figurere AA22..2:2: A Annualnnual S Seedidimementnt Lo dsLodsa a(in (in m millionillion metric metric tons) tons) atK a atKcha lcahblraibd2 gried g e

Figure A2.2: Annual Sediment Lodsa (in million metric tons) atKa chlabridge SediSmedienmt eLnoat Ldoad 90 AvgAv Sedg Sedimentiment Loa Ldoad 120%120% DischarSedimgee (n%t Lofoa Maxd Flow) 80 Discharge (% of Max Flow) Avg Sediment Load 100% 7900 112000%% 70 Discharge (% of Max Flow) 6800 80% 60 18000%% 5700 50 60% 4600 8600%% 40 3500 40% 30 6400%% 2400 20 20% 1300 4200%% 10 200 0% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 9 0 200%% 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 1 9 9 2 3 9 4 9 9 5 6 9 7 9 9 8 9 9 0 9 9 1 2 9 3 0 0 4 5 0 6 0 0 7 8 0 9 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 9 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 0% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Figure A2.3: Annual Sediment Loads (in million metric tons) at Fatehgarh 0 1 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 60 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 60 2 2 MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 58 60 59 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan

58 GRGBRMBMP –P J–a Jnuanuarya ry20 2105:1 M5:i sMsiisonsi on1 – 1 A –vir Aavirl Dahla Drha a ra GGRRBBMMPP –– JJaanunuaaryry 22001155::: MMiiisssisionon 11 –– AAvirviraalll DDhhaarraa

Figure A2.3: Annual Sediment Ldoas (in million metric tons) atFatehgar h Figure A2.3: Annual Sediment Ldoas (in million metric tons) atFatehgar h FigureFigure A2A2..6:6: AnnualAnnual SSeedimendimentt LoaLoa dsds (in(in mmillionillion metricmetric tons)tons) atat BhitauBhitaurraa 80 120% 80 Sediment Load 120% 4400 115500%% 70 AvgS eSeddimimentent L oaLoadd SSeedidimmeenntt LLoaoadd AAvvgg SSeeddiiimmeenntt LLoaoadd DDiiisscchaharrggee ((%% ooff MMaaxx FFlllowow)) 70 DischarAvg Sedge (i%ment of Max Load Flow) 100% 60 Discharge (% of Max Flow) 100% 30 60 30 100% 60 80% 100% 50 80% 50 2200 40 60% 50% 40 60% 10 50% 30 10 30 40% 20 40% 00 00%% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 20 0 0 0% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 20% 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1

20% 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9

10 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 1 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0

20% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

10 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 0% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0% 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2

3 Figure A2.7: Annual Sediment Loads (in million metric tons) at Allahabad 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 FiFigguurree A2.7A2.7:: AnnualAnnual SSeedidimmeenntt LLoaoa ddss (in(in mmillionillion mmetricetric tons)tons) atat AllahabaAllahabadd 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 Figure A2.7: Annual Sediment Loa ds (in million metric tons) at Allahabad 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 FigureFigu Are2.4: A2.4: Annual Annual Sediment Sdimente Loads Loads (in million (in millionmetric tons) metri atc A tons)nkinghat Ankinat ghat Figure A2.4: Annual Sdimente Loads (in million metric tons) Ankinat ghat SSeedidimmeenntt LLoaoadd AAvvgg SSeeddiiimmeenntt LLoaoadd DDiiisscchaharrggee ((%% ooff MMaaxx FFlllowow)) 5500 112200%% 120 Sediment Load Avg Sediment Load 120% 100% 4400 100% 120 Sediment Load Avg Sediment Load 120% 100 100% 8800%% Discharge (% of Max Flow) 3300 100 100% 6600%% 80 Discharge (% of Max Flow) 80% 2200 80 80% 4400%% 60 60% 10 10 2200%% 60 60% 20% 40 40% 00 00%% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 0 0% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 40 40% 1 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 20% 0 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 20 0% 20% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Figure A2.8: Annual Sediment Loads (in million metric tons) at Varanasi 1 1 1 1 1

0 1 1 0% 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Figure A2.8: Annual Sediment Loa ds (in million metric tons) at Varanasi 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Figure A2.8: Annual Sediment Loa ds (in million metric tons) at Varanasi 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Figure A2.5: Annual Sediment Loads (in million metric tons) at Kanpur 2 Figure A2.5: Annual Sediment Loads (in million metric tonsKanpur) at 300 120% 300 SSeeddiiimmeenntt LLooaadd 120% Figure A2.5: Annual Sediment Loads (in million metric tonsKanpur) at AAvvgg SSeeddiiimementnt LLLooaadd 120 120% 225500 110000%% Sediment Load Avg Sediment Load DiscDischhaarrgege (%(% ofof MMaaxx Flow)Flow) 1020 Discharge (% of Max Flow) 100%120% Sediment Load Avg Sediment Load 220000 8800%% 1800 Discharge (% of Max Flow) 80%100% 115500 6600%% 680 60%80% 110000 4400%% 460 40%60% 50 20% 240 20%40% 50 20%

20 0% 20% 0 0% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 0 0% 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 0 0% 1 3 2 7 6 5 4 9 8 3 2 1 0 6 5 4 7 9 8 2 1 0 3 5 4 8 7 6 9 0 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Figure A2.9: Annual Sediment Loads (in million metric tons) at Buxar 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Figure A2.6: Annual Sediment Loads (in million metric tons) at Bhitaura 0 Figure A2.9: Annual Sediment Load s (in million metric tons) at Buxar 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Figure A2.9: Annual Sediment Load s (in million metric tons) at Buxar 61 MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 60 61 Ganga River Basin Management Plan 61 Ganga River Basin Management Plan

6622 GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara

Sediment Load 400 Avg Sediment Load 120% Discharge (% of Max Flow) 350 100% 300 80% 250 200 60% 150 40% 100 20% 50 0 0% 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Figure A2.10: Annual Sedimentoad L s (in million metric tons)t a Gandhighat

400 Sediment Load Avg Sediment Load Discharge (% of Max Flow) 120% 350 100% 300 80% 250 200 60% 150 40% 100 20% 50 0 0% 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara

GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara Figure A2.11: Annual Sediment Lodas (in million metric tons) a Ht athidah Sediment Load Sediment Load 400 Avg Sediment Load 120% 250 Avg Sediment Load 120% Discharge (% of Max Flow) Sediment Load Discharge (% of Max Flow) 350 Avg Sediment Load 100% 400 1001%20% 200 Discharge (% of Max Flow) 300 350 80%100% 80% 23500 150 80% 60% 2050 60% 150 100 200 40%60% 40% 1050 40% 50 20% 20% 15000 20% 500 0% 0 0% 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 0 0% 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Figure A2.10: Annual Sediment Loads (in million metric tons) at Gandhighat Figureigure A2.12: A2.12: Annual Annual Sediment S eLoadsdime (innt million Lodas metric(in m tons)illio nat meAzimabadtric tons) a At zimabad Figure A2.10: Annual Sedimentoad L s (in million metric tons)t a Gandhighat GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 1 – Aviral Dhara Figure A2.10: Annual Sedimentoad L s (in million metric tons)t a Gandhighat 63 400 Sediment Load Avg Sediment Load Discharge (% of Max Flow) 120% 450 Sediment Load 100% 400 120% 350 Sediment Load Avg Sediment Load Discharge (% of Max Flow) Avg Sediment Load 90% 100% 400 350 300 100% 350 Discharge (% of Max Flow) 80% 300 80% 70% 250 300 80% 60% 250 250 200 60% 50% 200 60% 200 150 40% 150 40% 40% 150 100 30% 100 20% 100 20% 50 20% 50 50 10% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 11999999 22000000 22000011 2200022 20200303 20200404 20200505 2020060620027007200280082002900920120010 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Figureigurere A 2.11: A2.11:A2.11: Annual AnnualAnnual Sediment S Se edLoadsdimeime (inntnt millionL Lodoadsa s(in metric(in m milli itons)lolino nme at me Htathidahritcr itco tnosn) sa )Ht aath Ht athidahidah Figureigure A2.13: A2.13: Annual Annual Sediment S Leoadsdime (innt million Ldsoa metric(in m tons)illio nat meFarakkatric (includingtons) aFarakkat Feeder Canal) SeSdiemdiemnet nLtoa Load d (including Feeder Canal) 250 120% 250 AvAvg Sedg Sedimentiment Load Load 120% DischarDischargeg (e% ( o%f oMaxf Max Flo Flwo) w) 1001%00% 200

80%80% 150 60%60% 100 MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 62 40% 63 Ganga River Basin Management Plan 40% Ganga River Basin Management Plan 50 50 20% 20%

0 0% 0 0% 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Figure A2.12: Annual Sediment Lodas (in million metric tons) a At zimabad Figure A2.12: Annual Sediment Lodas (in million metric tons) a At zimabad

63 63

64 MISSION 1: AVIRAL DHARA 64 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan - 2015 Ganga River Basin Management Plan (GRB MP)

mission 2: nir mal Dhara Extended Summary January 2015 by by ConsortiumConsortium ofof 77 “Indian“Indian Insti Institutetute of ofTechnology”s Technology”s (IITs) (IITs)

IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT Bombay Delhi Guwahati Kanpur Kharagpur Madras Roorkee

In Collaboration with

IIT IIT CIFRI NEERI JNU PU NIT-K DU BHU Gandhinagar

NIH ISI Allahabad WWF

Roorkee Kolkata University India

13. Important Projects from MND Perspective 23 CONTENTS 13.1 Examples: Projects in Priority Level I 13.2 Examples: Projects in Priority Level II 13.3 Examples: Projects in Priority Level III List of Figures and Tables vi 14. Other MND Projects 29 Abbreviations and Acronyms v 14.1 Examples: Projects in Priority Level IV 14.2 Examples: Projects in Priority Level V Summary 1 14.3 Projects in Priority Level VI 1. Introduction 4 14.4 Projects in Priority Level VII 15. MND Projects: Financial Structuring, Project Management 2. Objective 6 and Sustainability 32 3. Importance of Nirmal Dhara for Ganga River Basin Management 7 16. MND: Cost of Implementation 34 4. Ganga River System: Sources of Pollutants 9 17. MND: Immediate Actions 37 5. Ganga River System: Pollutant Ingress 11 18. MND: Budget Outlay 39 6. Ganga River System: Pollution Status 12 19. Financing MND Projects 48 7. mission ‘Nirmal’ Dhara: Broad Plan of Action 15 19.1 Projects that can Utilize a PPP Structure 8. mnD: Implementation Strategy 16 19.2 Projects that can only be Funded through Government 8.1 Category A: Management of Solid and Liquid Waste Generated from Financing Mechanism Domestic/Commercial Sources 19.3 Projects that can be Delivered through an Annuity Model 8.2 Category B: River-frame Development, Floodplain Management and 19.4 Projects that can be Funded through Sale or Leasing of Assets Rejuvenation of Water Bodies 19.5 Projects that can be Funded through a Licensing Mechanism 8.3 Category C: Management of Solid and Liquid Waste Generated from 19.6 enabling the PPP Framework Industrial Sources 19.7 Local Area Water Markets 8.4 Category D: Management of Polluted Agricultural Runoff 19.8 Addressing Industrial Effluent Treatment 19.9 Government Created Financial Frameworks 9. Coordination: National River Ganga Basin Management Commission (NRGBMC) 19 20. MND Projects: Monitoring and Feedback 55 10. Project Planning: Urban River Management Plan (URMP) 20 References 58 11. Project Planning: Other Cases 22 12. MND Projects: DPR Preparation and Implementation 22

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA II MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA III Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan List of Figures Abbreviations and

Figure Page Acronyms 4.1. Various Types of Waste Generated in Ganga River Basin 9 1. CGWB : Central Ground Water Board 6.1. Variation in 5-year average Fecal Coliform at Various Locations 2. CWC : Central Water Commission along the Ganga River 12 3. DBFO : Design-Build-Finance-Operate 6.2. Variation in 5-year Average BOD5 at Various Locations along the Ganga River 14 4. E-Flows : environmental Flows 17.1. Most Polluted Stretches and their Pollution Sources in 5. IITC : IIT Consortium National River Ganga Basin 38 6. FAO : Food and Agricultural Organization 7. GRBMP : Ganga River Basin Management Plan List of Tables 8. MND : Mission Nirmal Dhara 9. MoEF : Ministry of Environment and Forests Table Page 10. MoEFCC : Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate Change 1. Total Cost of Providing Sanitation in NRGB 35 2. Cost Estimates on Solid Waste Management in GRB 36 11. MoWR : Ministry of Water Resources 12. MoWR, RD&GR : Ministry of Water Resources, River Development & Ganga Rejuvenation 13. NGO : Non-Governmental Organization 14. NGRBA : National Ganga River Basin Authority 15. NIH : National Institute of Hydrology (India) 16. NMCG : National Mission for Clean Ganga 17. NRGB : National River Ganga Basin 18. NRGBMC : National River Ganga Basin Management Commission 19. PPP : Public-Private Partnership 20. SRI : System of Rice Intensification 21. UNEP : United Nations Environment Programme 22. URMP : Urban River Management Plan

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA IV MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA V Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Summary

The Ganga River System consists of open defection results in the general of all rivers in the NRGB, including accumulation of filth on the NRGB the main stem of river Ganga and all landmass. This waste is entrained in its tributaries/ distributaries. The the surface runoff during rainy season health of the Ganga River System is and becomes a source for non-point an important indicator of the overall pollution in the NRGB. The agricultural condition of NRGB. The water quality sector is also a major source for non- of Ganga River System has been point pollution in NRGB. Fertilizers significantly impacted by disposal of and pesticides applied on agricultural wastes from anthropogenic sources fields are leached into irrigation return into the rivers. This includes solid and flows or storm runoffs. liquid wastes of both hazardous and non-hazardous types from domestic, The MND provides a plan to gradually industrial and agricultural sources. minimize the ingress of pollutants into the Ganga river system. This will require The objective of Mission Nirmal Dhara prohibiting and restricting certain (MND) is to ensure that the flow in activities in the NRGB. The prohibited the Ganga River System is bereft of activities include; discharge of sewage manmade pollution; hence the river (either treated or untreated) from water quality should not be affected Class I towns; discharge of industrial by human activities. effluents (either treated or untreated) from any large, medium or cluster Anthropogenic pollutant ingress into of small industries; direct injection the Ganga River System is from both of sewage and industrial effluents point and non-point (i.e., distributed) (either treated or untreated) into the sources. The liquid and solid waste subsurface; disposal of un-burnt and disposed into the Ganga River System partially burnt corpses and animal from Class I, Class II, Class III towns, carcasses in rivers; open defecation villages and various industries in and dumping of municipal/ industrial the NRGB are the point sources of solid wastes or sludge in any river or pollution. In addition, accumulation of its active flood plain; and construction garbage and the widespread practice of new residential, commercial or

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA VI MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 1 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan industrial structures in river flood activities to be promoted are grouped carried out by the National Mission for Ganga River System (Priority Level plains. The restricted activities under the following categories: Clean Ganga (NMGC), an executive III). All funds budgeted by the central/ include; discharge of sewage (either (A) Management of Solid and Liquid arm of the National Ganga River Basin state/ local governments for Ganga treated or untreated) from Class II and Wastes Generated from Domestic/ Authority (NGRBA) presently attached Rejuvenation over the next 15 years smaller towns and villages; disposal Commercial Sources; (B) River-frame to the Ministry of Water Resources, must be only used for above types of sewage or industrial sludge except Development, Floodplain Management River Development and Ganga of projects. in secure landfills/ hazardous waste and Rejuvenation of Water Bodies; Rejuvenation. sites; discharge of industrial effluents (C) Management of Solid and Liquid Projects related to MND may be (either treated or untreated) from Waste Generated from Industrial Project planning should begin with conceived by the central, state, local small scale industry; disposal and/ or Sources; and (D) Management preparation of detailed Urban River governments, NGOs and other private discharge of mining and construction of Polluted Agricultural Runoff. Management Plans (URMPs) for Class organizations/ industries. Financing debris in any river or its floodplains; Actions consistent with the above I towns, and subsequently also for of these projects may be through river bed farming and agricultural recommendations should be Class II and Class III towns. The URMPs funds budgeted by central/ state activities in the active flood plain; ritual undertaken in the NRGB to achieve should be followed by preparation of governments for Ganga Rejuvenation, immersion of idols; and floral and other the objectives of MND. These DPRs, following which funds should be local revenue, corporate and private offerings in rivers, washing of clothes, actions should be undertaken in a allocated for project implementation. donations and grants, low cost debt vehicles, etc., in rivers, and usage of de-centralized phase-wise manner Fund allocation should be prioritized from multinational organizations, chemical fertilizers and agrochemicals through the implementation of for projects designed to prevent commercial debts from banks and in the farming sector. numerous projects. direct discharge of large quantities private equity. Wherever possible, of liquid waste into the River System project implementation including Enforcement of the above Effective co-ordination of these (Priority Level I), followed by projects operation and maintenance should admonishments will require major activities is envisaged through a high- designed to prevent direct discharge be contracted to ‘service providers’, improvements in the solid and level constitutional body tentatively of large quantities of solid waste into i.e., public/ private agencies with liquid waste management practices named the ‘National River Ganga the River System (Priority Level II), relevant expertise. Payments must be prevalent in domestic/ commercial, Basin Management Commission’ followed by projects concerning river- released to the ‘service provider’ only industrial and agriculture sectors (NRGBMC). Until the NRGBM Bill frame development and restoration after monitoring by an independent in NRGB. This may be achieved by is considered by the appropriate of floodplain in urban areas along the third-party. promoting certain activities in NRGB. legislature bodies and NRGBMC is The recommendations regarding formed, the role of NRGBMC may be

Preparation of URMPs (Urban River Management Plans) for Class I towns, and subsequently also for Class II and Class III towns is essential for Project Planning

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 2 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 3 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan a river basin are soil and water, along with a wetlands, forests, grasslands, etc. 1. Introduction multitude of minerals and compounds bound However, with significant human activity up with them. Now, water is a highly variable in many ecosystems (as, for example, in resource. Barring variations from year to agro-ecosystems and urban ecosystems), Indian civilization grew up under the care of (GRBMP) to restore and preserve National year, the water in a basin follows an annual the complexity of human-technology- River Ganga, nourished by her bounties for River Ganga to a “Consortium of Seven IITs”. cycle of replenishment (primarily through environment systems has increased thousands of years. The Ganga river – along The outcome of this effort – the GRBMP – atmospheric precipitation and groundwater manifold [Pahl-Wostl, 2006]. Nonetheless, with her many tributaries and distributaries evolved an eight-pronged action plan, with inflows) and losses (primarily through river GRBMP attempts to incorporate interactive – provided material, spiritual and cultural each prong envisaged to be taken up for and groundwater outflows, evaporation, natural resource dynamics and human- sustenance to millions of people who lived execution in mission mode. transpiration, and biological consumption). In technology-environment considerations in in her basin or partook of her beneficence contrast to water, formation of mature soils the Basin Plan. For, with human activities from time to time. To the traditional Indian A river basin is the area of land from which – from the weathering of parent material multiplying and diversifying in the basin, mind, therefore, River Ganga is not only the the river provides the only exit route for (rocks) to chemical decomposition and the resulting environmental consequences holiest of rivers and savior of mortal beings; surface water flows. For understanding transformation – is a drawn-out process have also been pronounced in recent she is also a living Goddess. Very aptly is its dynamics, a basin may be viewed as a that may take hundreds or thousands of times. In sum, GRBMP focuses on the she personified in Indian consciousness closely-connected hydrological-ecological years [Jenny, 1994; Wikipedia, 2014]; but, basin’s overall resource environment and as “MOTHER GANGA”. This psychic pre- system. Hydrological connections include once formed, soils can be fairly durable. the major factors affecting it (especially eminence of River Ganga in the Indian ethos groundwater flow, surface runoff, local Thus, changes in a basin’s water resource diverse anthropogenic activities), and seeks testifies to her centrality in Indian civilization evapotranspiration-precipitation cycles status tend to be relatively faster and easily ways and means to protect the basin and and her supreme importance in Indian life. and areal flooding, while ecological links detected, while those of soils are slow and its resources against identifiable adverse are many and varied (such as the food web often go unnoticed for long periods. However, impacts. For, only thus can we secure the The Ganga river basin is the largest and transport by biological agents). These soil and water are affected by each other environmental foundation of NRGB for the river basin of India that covers a diverse linkages provide for extensive material through many biotic and abiotic processes. good of one and all. landscape, reflecting the cultural and transfer and communication between the Being thus interrelated, degradation of either geographical diversity of the India. It is also a river and her basin, which constitute the soil or water has a concurrent effect on the fertile and relatively water-rich alluvial basin functional unity of a river basin. Directly other; hence neither can be considered that hosts about 43% of India’s population and indirectly, therefore, National River in isolation. GRBMP focuses [MoWR, 2014]. It is fitting, therefore, that the Ganga (along with her tributaries and on the basin’s overall resource Indian government declared River Ganga as distributaries), is a definitive indication of It is not only soil and water that are India’s National River in the year 2008. But the health of the basin as a whole. Hence, mutually interactive, living organisms also environment and the major factors the declaration was none too early. River GRBMP adopted the Ganga River Network interact with them and help shape the affecting it, and seeks ways and Ganga had been degrading rapidly for a long as the primary environmental indicator of basin’s environment. The biotic resources time, and national concern about her state the National River Ganga Basin (NRGB). of a basin consist of plants, animals and means to protect the basin and its had already become serious in the twentieth micro-organisms. Since biota evolve resources against identifiable adverse century. It was against this backdrop that the River basin management needs to ensure over time to achieve a stable balance impacts. For, only thus can we secure Ministry of Environment and Forests (Govt. that a basin’s natural resources (biotic and in a given environmental setting, the of India) assigned the task of preparing abiotic) are adequately preserved over time. biotic resources of a river basin depend the environmental foundation of NRGB a Ganga River Basin Management Plan The main abiotic (or physical) resources of on its constituent ecosystems – rivers, for the good of one and all.

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 4 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 5 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 2. Objective 3. Importance of Nirmal The objective of Mission “Nirmal Dhara” manmade pollution; hence the river Dhara for Ganga River Basin (MND) is to ensure that the flow in water quality should not be affected by the Ganga River System is bereft of human activities. Management

Ganga river’s water quality had been Coolness, sweetness, transparency, acclaimed in ancient times. Its life- high tonic property, wholesomeness, giving and healing qualities are potability, ability to remove evils, ability evident from the following description to resuscitate from swoon caused by in Rajanirghanta ( ~300 AD) meaning dehydration, digestive property and “The qualities of Ganga water are: ability to retain wisdom”

vL;k tYL; xq.kk% ‘khrRoe~]LoknqRoe] LoNRoe] vR;Ur:P;Roe~] iFrRoe~] ikouRoe~] ikigkfjRoe~] r`”.kkeksg/oalRoe~] nhiuRoe] izKk/kkfjRoap] bfr jktfu?kZ.V%

The properties of Ganga river’s waters the following edict in Sanskrit prohibited of earlier times quoted above are fourteen types of human actions: remarkable, to say the least. But, at (1) defecation, (2) gargling, (3) shampooing present, the river water quality is abysmal, (4) throwing of used religious offerings, posing a grave threat to life in the region. (5) rubbing of filth, (6) flowing bodies (human or animal), (7) frolicking; (8) acceptance of The change in water quality may have donations; (9) obscenity; (10) considering been occurring over many centuries. other shrines to be superior, (11) praising Ancient scriptures had cautioned against other shrines, (12) discarding garments; misusing the Ganga river. For instance, (13) hurting anyone, and (14) making noise.

xaxka iq.;tyka izkI; prqnZ’k footZ;sr~ A ‘kkSpekpeua ds’ka fuekZY;a ey?k”kZ.ke~ A xk=laokguea ØhM+ka izfrxzgeFkksjfre~ A vU;rhFkZjfrpSo% vU;rhFkZ iz’kalue~ A oL=R;kxeFkk?kkra lUrkjap fo’ks”kr% AA

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 6 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 7 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 4. Ganga River System: Sources of Pollutants

Various types for waste generation in Non-hazardous solid waste is generated NRGB have been identified in Figure 4.1. mostly from domestic, commercial and Two broad types of wastes generated agricultural sources. Industrial activity in the NGRB, whose improper disposal may result in the generation of both non- adversely impact water quality of the hazardous and hazardous solid waste. Ganga system are, 1) solid wastes and 2) liquid wastes. Liquid waste is produced when pollutants are intentionally dissolved or Solid waste can be broadly classified suspended in water for transport away as, 1) non-hazardous and 2) hazardous. from their point of generation. Such point

WASTES

Irrigation Hazardous Non Return Flows It is possible that such strictures describing the Mission ‘Nirmal’ Solid Liquid got diluted over time. But, the Dhara (MND). Non-Hazardous Point Storm Runoff environmental significance of many of these precautions is obvious to the The necessary condition for restoration modern mind. And, what is equally of ‘Nirmal Dhara’ in River Ganga and her significant, they convey a sense of deep tributaries, i.e., the Ganga river system, Point respect for National River Ganga. is the prevention of the ingress of pollutants into the rivers. It was realized The vision statement of GRBMP affirms that pollutant ingress into the Ganga Cities Domestic Villages Textile Industrial Others the restoration of ‘Nirmal’ dhara River system cannot be controlled

(unpolluted flow) in River Ganga and unless certain solid and liquid waste Class II Tanneries Pulp & Paper her tributaries as one of the goals of management and other practices in the Class I Class III Sugar and GRBMP. Measures to be implemented NGRB were modified. This realization Distillery to achieve this objective have been was the origin of the basin-wide specified in the present document approach for the formulation of MND. Figure 4.1: Various Types of Waste Generated in Ganga River Basin

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 8 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 9 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 5. Ganga River System: Pollutant Ingress

Pollutant ingress into the Ganga The origin of polluted non-point river system occurs in three ways, surface discharge into the Ganga 1) by direct discharge of pollutants, river system are twofold, i) surface 2) discharge of polluted surface runoff runoff containing leached fertilizers into rivers, and 3) seepage of polluted and pesticides applied on agricultural subsurface flows into rivers. fields and ii) surface runoff containing entrained solid waste, i.e., garbage, Direct discharge of pollutants into rivers industrial waste, human and animal occur due to, i) discharge of liquid wastes feces, etc. generated from point sources into rivers, ii) dumping of municipal and industrial Some portion of the liquid waste sources of liquid waste generation are The accumulation of garbage and the solid waste, devotional offerings, animal generated from both point and non- attributable to domestic, commercial widespread practice of open defection carcasses, un-burned/partially burned point sources described above and industrial activities. Thus all Class results in the general accumulation human bodies, etc. into rivers, and infiltrates into the subsurface and I, Class II, Class III towns and villages of filth in the NRGB landmass. This iii) non-ritual bathing with the intention pollute the groundwater. Seepage of in the NRGB are point sources for liquid is entrained in the surface runoff of cleaning body dirt, direct defecation, this polluted ground water also results waste. Inaddition, the industries in during rainy season and becomes a washing of clothes, washing of vehicles, in pollution of the Ganga river system. NRGB including, sugar and distillery, source for non-point pollution in the washing/wallowing of animals, etc. pulp and paper, tannery, textiles and NRGB. The agricultural sector is also others are also major point sources of a major source for non-point pollution liquid waste. in NRGB. Fertilizers and pesticides applied on agricultural fields are Liquid waste is also generated from leached into irrigation return flows or non-point (i.e., distributed) sources. storm runoffs.

Pollutant ingress into the Ganga river system occurs in three ways, (i) by direct discharge of pollutants, (ii) discharge of polluted surface runoff into rivers, and (iii) seepage of polluted subsurface flows into rivers.

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 10 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 11 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 6. Ganga River System: Pollution Status

Examination of Ganga water quality coliform numbers are 1000 times or The organic loading, as indicated by the Barrage on river Yamuna in Delhi. The data indicates that at Dev Prayag more than acceptable levels. Fecal Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is high nutrient loading is attributable (confluence of rivers Bhagirathi and coliforms are bacteria normally also high in some places of the Ganga to, i) point discharges of untreated/ Alaknanda) and further downstream, found in human feces. Discharge of, river system (Figure 6.2). High BOD partially treated sewage and industrial the fecal coliform numbers in Ganga i) untreated/ partially treated domestic levels may result in low dissolved oxygen effluents and ii) non-point loading of River are on an average, 100 times sewage into the river, and ii) storm (DO) concentrations in water, which is fertilizer, fecal and solid waste residues more than the levels acceptable for runoff contaminated with human feces injurious to the aquatic life in the rivers. through surface runoff and seepage bathing (Figure 6.1). Downstream is mainly responsible for the high fecal The source of such pollution is mainly of groundwater. A ballpark estimation of large cities like Kanpur, the fecal coliform numbers observed. the point discharges of untreated/ of pollutant load contributed through partially treated domestic sewage and sewage generation in Class I and Class

industrial effluents into the rivers. II towns (assuming that all sewage 1.00E+10 gets collected) in various NRGB states 1.00E+09 The nutrient, i.e., nitrogen and and NRGB Sub Basins is presented 1.00E+08 phosphorus loading are also high in in Thematic Reports prepared by 1.00E+07 some places in the middle and lower Consortium of 7 IITs [IITC, 2014a-k]. 1.00E+06 reaches of the Ganga river system. High 1.00E+05 nutrient loading leads eutrophication The issues of inorganic salt loading (Log scale) 1.00E+04 of the river, i.e., excessive growth of into the Ganga river system is mainly Fecal Coliform (MPN/100 ml) 1.00E+03 algae and aquatic plants, leading to the due to discharge of industrial effluents. 1.00E+02 choking of the river. A glaring example Such loading is particularly high near

1.00E+01 of this can be seen at upstream of Okhla tannery clusters in the Kanpur region.

1.00E+00 123 456789 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 Locations

1986-1990 1991-1995 1996-2000 2001-2005 2006-2010

1 Uttarkashi u/s (Bhagirathi) 15 Bijnore u/s (Ganga) 29 D/s Deehaghat 43 Hajipur u/s (River Gandak) 57 Sultanganj d/s 2 Uttarkashi d/s (Bhagirathi) 16 Bijnore d/s (Ganga) 30 Vindhyachal, PakkaGhat 44 Hajipur d/s (River Gandak) 58 Bhagalpur u/ s 3 Devprayag u/s (Bhagirathi) 17 Garhmukteshwar u/s 31 Varanasi u/s 45 Patna u/s 59 Bhagalpur d/s 4 Devprayag u/s (Alaknanda) 18 Garhmukteshwar d/s 32 DashashawmedhGhat 46 Patna d/s 60 D/s Champanala inorganic salt loading into 5 Devprayag d/s (Ganga) 19 Anoopshahr u/s (Ganga) 33 D/s at Kaithy 47 Fatuha u/s 61 Kahalgaon u/s The issues of 6 Ranipur u/s (Ganga) 20 Anoopsh ahr d/s (Ganga) 34 Near Malviya Bridge 48 Fatuha d/s 62 Kahalgaon d/s 7 Ranipur d/s (Ganga) 21 Fatehgarh u/s 35 Tarighat 49 Barh u/s 63 D/s NTPC Drain the Ganga river system is mainly due to discharge of 8 Rishikesh u/s 22 Kannauj u/s (a/c with Ramganga & b/c with Ka li) 36 Buxar u/s 50 Barh d/s 64 Sahebganj u/s 9 Rishikesh d/s 23 Kannauj d/s (a/c with Kali) 37 Buxar d/s 51 Mokama u/s 65 Sahebganj d/s 10 u/s 24 Kanpur u/s (Bi thoor) 38 Chapra u/s (Ghaghra) 52 Mokama d/s 66 Rajmahal d/s industrial effluents. Such loading is particularly high 11 Har-ki-Paudi 25 Kanpur d/s (Shuklaganj) 39 Chapra d/s (Chapra) 53 D/s Bata - McDowell 67 Berhampore (Middle) 12 Lalta Rao 26 Kanpur d/s (Jane Village) 40 Arrah u/s (River Gangi) 54 Munger u/s 68 Palta (Middle) 13 Dam Kothi 27 Allahbad u/s (U jahni, Fatehpur) 41 Arrah d/s (R iver Gangi) 55 Munger d/s 69 Dakshineswar (Middle) near tannery clusters in the Kanpur region. 14 Mishrpur 28 Bathing Ghats at Sangam 42 Koliwar (River Sone) 56 Sultanganj u/s 70 Uluberia (Middle)

Figure 6.1: Variation in 5-year average Fecal Coliform at Various Locations along the Ganga River

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 12 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 13 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan

12

10 7. Mission ‘Nirmal’ Dhara: 8 Broad Plan of Action 6 BOD (mg/l) The MND provides a plan to gradually jettys/ ghats and hydraulic structures for 4 minimize the ingress of pollutants into the storage/ diversion/ control/ chanelisation

2 Ganga river system. This is to be achieved of river waters. using a simultaneous two-pronged 0 1 234 5678 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 approach, i) by prohibiting/ restricting Further, certain activities must be gradually Loca�ons 1986-1990 1991-1995 1996-2000 2001-2005 2006-2010 Class A Classes B & C certain activities in the NRGB, and ii) by restricted, i.e., permitted only with adequate 1 U�arkashi u/s (Bhagirathi) 15 Bijnore u/s (Ganga) 29 D/s Deehaghat 43 Hajipur u/s (River Gandak) 57 Sultanganj d/s promoting certain activities in NRGB through safeguards or even prohibited in future. The 2 U�arkashi d/s (Bhagirathi) 16 Bijnore d/s (Ganga) 30 Vindhyachal, PakkaGhat 44 Hajipur d/s (River Gandak) 58 Bhagalpur u/s 3 Devprayag u/s (Bhagirathi) 17 Garhmukteshwar u/s 31 Varanasi u/s 45 Patna u/s 59 Bhagalpur d/s 4 Devprayag u/s (Alaknanda) 18 Garhmukteshwar d/s 32 DashashawmedhGhat 46 Patna d/s 60 D/s Champanala implementation of numerous projects. list of restricted activities in NRGB include, 5 Devprayag d/s (Ganga) 19 Anoopshahr u/s (Ganga) 33 D/s at Kaithy 47 Fatuha u/s 61 Kahalgaon u/s 6 Ranipur u/s (Ganga) 20 Anoopshahr d/s (Ganga) 34 Near Malviya Bridge 48 Fatuha d/s 62 Kahalgaon d/s 7 Ranipur d/s (Ganga) 21 Fatehgarh u/s 35 Tarighat 49 Barh u/s 63 D/s NTPC Drain 8 Rishikesh u/s 22 Kannauj u/s (a/c with Ramganga & b/c with Kali) 36 Buxar u/s 50 Barh d/s 64 Sahebganj u/s To achieve the objectives of MND, certain 1) Discharge of sewage (either treated 9 Rishikesh d/s 23 Kannauj d/s (a/c with Kali) 37 Buxar d/s 51 Mokama u/s 65 Sahebganj d/s 10 Haridwar u/s 24 Kanpur u/s (Bithoor) 38 Chapra u/s (Ghaghra) 52 Mokama d/s 66 Rajmahal d/s activities must be prohibited in the NRGB or untreated) from Class II town and 11 Har-ki-Paudi 25 Kanpur d/s (Shuklaganj) 39 Chapra d/s (Chapra) 53 D/s Bata - McDowell 67 Berhampore (Middle) 12 Lalta Rao 26 Kanpur d/s (Jane Village) 40 Arrah u/s (River Gangi) 54 Munger u/s 68 Palta (Middle) as soon as possible. The list of prohibited smaller towns and villages, either 13 Dam Kothi 27 Allahbad u/s (Ujahni, Fatehpur) 41 Arrah d/s (River Gangi) 55 Munger d/s 69 Dakshineswar (Middle) 14 Mishrpur 28 Bathing Ghats at Sangam 42 Koliwar (River Sone) 56 Sultangan/s 70 Uluberia (Middle) activities in the NRGB include, directly or indirectly, into any river; 1) Discharge of sewage (either treated or 2) Disposal of sludge derived through Figure 6.2: Variation in 5-year Average BOD at Various Locations along the Ganga River untreated) from Class I towns, either treatment of sewage and industrial directly or indirectly, into any river; effluents except in secure landfills/ 2) Discharge of industrial effluents (either hazardous waste sites; The data regarding loading of other 70 percent of the volumetric pollution treated or untreated) from any large, 3) Discharge of industrial effluents (either pollutants i.e., pesticides and heavy load on the Ganga river system is medium or cluster of small industries, treated or untreated) from small scale metals into the Ganga river system from domestic/commercial sources, either directly or indirectly, into any river; industry into any river; is scanty [IITC, 2011b]. However, i.e., from human urine/feces and solid 3) Direct injection of sewage and industrial 4) Fisposal and/ or discharge of mining and preliminary estimates indicate that waste. Major polluting industries effluents (either treated or untreated) construction debris in any river’s flood concentration of pesticides and heavy along river Ganga are pulp and paper, into the subsurface; plain, river bank or the river itself; metals in Ganga river system is low in sugar and distillery, tannery, textiles, 4) Disposal of un-burnt and partially burnt 5) River bed farming and agricultural activities most locations [IITC, 2011b]. etc. together with agricultural pollution corpses and animal carcasses in any in the active flood plain of any river; contribute the remaining 30 percent river or riverbank; 6) Ritual immersion of idols, and floral and Finally, it is estimated that approximately pollution load to the river. 5) Open defecation and dumping of other offerings in any river; municipal/ industrial solid wastes or 7) Wallowing of domestic animals, washing sludge in any river or its active flood plain; of clothes, vehicles, etc., in any river; 6) Construction of new permanent structures 8) Widespread use of chemical fertilizers in river flood plains for residential, and pesticides in agriculture, horticulture, commercial and industrial purposes, but aquaculture, animal husbandry, forestry, excluding bridges and associated roads, etc. in NRGB.

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 14 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 15 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan and villages should be collected drainage and for promotion of 8. MND: Implementation and either recycled or disposed in a recreational/ commercial activities. scientifically acceptable manner. 3) Slum clusters and other Strategy 6) Arrangements must be made for encroachments should be removed stoppage of practices like open from river flood plains at all places. defecation, disposal of un-burnt/ Wherever possible, river flood plains Enforcement of the admonishments Class I, II and III cities and villages are half-burned human remains and may be used for the development regarding prohibited and restricted the following, animal carcasses in river banks/ of ecological parks, surface water activities stated above will require 1) All new colonies/ townships and floodplains or into the rivers. recharge structures, etc. major improvements in the solid and large multi-storied complexes 7) Adequate arrangements must be 4) Agricultural activity in the river liquid waste management practices must adopt a zero-liquid discharge made for activities such as disposal floodplains and riverbeds must be prevalent in domestic/ commercial, policy, wherein domestic sewage and/or discharge of mining and properly managed. industrial and agricultural sectors in generated within the complex must construction debris in river flood NRGB. Simultaneously, river-frame be treated and recycled/reused plain, river bank or the river itself 8.3 Category C: Management development, restoration of natural within the complex itself. and ritual immersion of idols, floral of Solid and Liquid Waste drains (‘nala’)/ other surface water bodies 2) Domestic sewage generated from and other offerings, wallowing Generated from Industrial and management of river flood plains all other sources should be collected of domestic animals, washing of Sources need to be carried out in a coordinated and transported in closed conduits clothes, vehicles, etc., in river Broad recommendations for manage- manner. This can be achieved by for treatment followed by reuse/ banks/ floodplains or in the rivers. ment of wastes generated from promoting certain broad activities in recycle. industrial sources are the following, NRGB. The specific activities to be 3) In cases where reuse/ recycle is not 8.2 Category B: River-frame 1) All large industries in the NRGB, i.e., promoted for implementation of MND possible, the treated sewage must Development, Floodplain tannery, sugar and distillery, pulp and have been grouped under four categories be used for rejuvenation of surface Management and Rejuvenation paper and textiles, etc. should adopt a as follows. water bodies and/ or for irrigation. of Water Bodies zero liquid discharge (ZLD) policy with 4) Toilets must be provided in villages Broad recommendations for river-frame recycle/ reuse of treated effluent. 8.1 Category A: Management and in slums in urban areas, such development, floodplain management 2) Combined Effluent Treatment Plants of Solid and Liquid Waste that open defecation is eliminated. and rejuvenation of water bodies are (CETPs) to be set up for industrial Generated from Domestic/ The waste/ sewage generated from the following, clusters/ estates based on ZLD Commercial Sources such toilets must be collected and 1) River-frame in urban centers should principles. Broad recommendations for treated in an acceptable manner. be cleared of encroachments and 3) Arrangements made for stoppage of management of wastes generated from 5) Solid waste, sludge and septage developed to encourage pilgrimage, the discharge of industrial effluent domestic/ commercial sources from generated in Class I, II, III towns commercial/ recreational activities into municipal sewers. and tourism. 4) Suitable infrastructure to be provided 2) Ingress of domestic sewage into for conveyance of effluent from Enforcement of the admonishments regarding prohibited natural drains, canals, ponds, etc. dispersed small-scale industries to and restricted activities will require major improvements in the solid and in urban areas should be prevented CETPs or for efficient management liquid waste management practices. Simultaneously, river-frame development, and these water bodies must be of ETPs. A cluster of ETPs could be restoration of natural drains / other surface water bodies and management of restored for improvement of urban managed by a single Service Provider. river flood plains need to be carried out in a coordinated manner. MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 16 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 17 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 9. Coordination: National River Ganga Basin Management Commission (NRGBMC)

Coordinating the activities concerning all the participation by non-governmental missions of GRBMP (including MND) is organizations (NGOs) and others in the a complex task that requires dedicated implementation and monitoring of various and specialized expertise. It is proposed projects related to MND. In addition it is that the central government enacts envisaged that the NRGBMC shall have legislation in parliament to constitute a quasi-judicial powers for ensuring that constitutional body tentatively named the the admonishments in the MND report ‘National River Ganga Basin Management regarding prohibited/ restricted activities Commission’ (NRGBMC). NRGBMC is in the NRGBB are enforced. envisaged as a non-executive body which shall act as the ‘voice’ of River Ganga and Projects related to MND may be conceived thus will be the custodian of NRGB and by the central, state, local governments, responsible for implementation of GRBMP NGOs and other private organizations/ (including MND). A draft “National River industries. The detailed project proposals Ganga Basin Management Bill” has been (DPRs) vetted by NRGBMC for technical prepared as a part of GRBMP. soundness and overall relevance to the objectives of MND will be termed “MND 5) All solid waste generated from 2) Increased use of organic fertilizers NRGBMC shall ensure coordination Projects” and will receive due consideration industries to be disposed as per and pesticides in agriculture, between various ministries/ departments for funding under Ganga rejuvenation scientifically accepted norms/ horticulture, aquaculture, animal of the central, state and local governments programmes (e.g. Namami Gange). principles. husbandry, forestry, etc. in NRGB. as required for the efficient implementation of MND. Specifically, it shall have the Until the NRGBM Bill is considered by 8.4 Category D: Management of Actions consistent with the above responsibility for, i) overall monitoring the appropriate legislative bodies and Polluted Agricultural Runoff recommendations should be of the implementation of various NRGBMC is formed, the role of NRGBMC Broad recommendations for undertaken in the NRGB to achieve projects related to MND, ii) providing may be carried out by the National Mission management of polluted agricultural the objectives of MND. These project management and technical for Clean Ganga (NMGC), an executive runoff are the following, actions should be undertaken in a advice to public/ private organizations arm of the National Ganga River Basin 1) Introduction of organic farming for de-centralized phase-wise manner entrusted with the responsibility of Authority (NGRBA) presently attached to agricultural activities in the active through the implementation of executing projects related to MND, and, the Ministry of Water Resources, River flood plain and river bed. numerous projects. iii) acting as an interface for facilitating Development and Ganga Rejuvenation.

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 18 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 19 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan (all in Uttar Pradesh), Indore, Ujjain, for preparing URMPs and subsequently 10. Project Planning: Dewas (all part of most polluted guides the process of URMP preparation Kshipra Sub-Basin of NRGB in Madhya for the abovementioned towns. This Urban River Management Pradesh), Patna, Bhagalpur (both in will ensure that the IITC vision on Bihar), Kolkata and Delhi NCR, are the implementation of MND will get Plan (URMP) most suitable for preparing the initial transferred in a proper manner to the URMPs. It is also highly desirable that ground level. Using the above URMPs the Consortium of 7 IITs (IITC) actively as templates, the process of preparing engages with the concerned Central, URMPs for all other towns in NRGB can As a prelude to conception and implementation of State and Local agencies in selecting be continued and completed as soon MND projects, all Class I towns of the NRGB must a panel of professional organizations as possible. compulsorily prepare Urban River Management Plans (URMP). The URMPs should have all relevant data regarding the water availability, sewage generation, solid-waste disposal, sanitation conditions, drainage conditions, etc. prevalent in the town. Further details on URMP are available elsewhere [IITC, 2010a]. Additionally, the URMPs should also provide a complete analysis regarding measures which need to be implemented in a town as per the recommendations of MND. These measures must be listed in the form of work packages, which can later be developed as detailed project reports (DPRs) for implementation as MND projects. Central and state funding should be made available to all Class I towns in the NRGB for reimbursement of the cost for preparing URMPs. URMPs should be prepared by professional organizations with the cooperation of urban local bodies (ULBs).

For a start, URMPs for some towns, selected on the basis of geographical, topographical, socio- cultural and industrial distinctiveness, should be prepared most urgently. Towns like Uttarkashi, Shrinagar, Rishikesh, Haridwar (all in Uttarakhand), Garhmukteshwar, Mathura, Vrindawan, Agra, Moradabad, Lucknow, Kanpur, Allahabad, Varanasi

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 20 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 21 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan and training must be provided to the recommendations listed in Category B 11. Project Planning: Other Cases project proponents for adopting this role should be mostly conceived by local or as project administrators. state governments. Projects concerning It is desirable that in addition to generated within their premises as per recommendations in category C should Class I towns, URMPs should gradually MND recommendations. Implementation Projects concerning recommendations be conceived by individual industries/ be prepared for all Class II and Class of MND recommendations in rural areas listed in Category A should be conceived industry clusters/industry associations. III towns of the NRGB and government will mainly be through projects concerning by local governments, or by authorities Projects concerning recommendations in funds must be available for this purpose. i) provisioning of toilets, ii) septage and set up for administering new urban Category D should be conceived by state Further, all industries and industry clusters solid waste management, iii) provisioning developments. Projects concerning governments. in NRGB should individually come up with of low cost sewage conveyance systems, comprehensive plans for management and iv) provisioning of natural biological of industrial effluent and solid waste systems for sewage treatment.

12. MND Projects: DPR 13. Important Projects from Preparation and Implementation MND Perspective

Data available in URMPs and other for preparation of such DPRs by expert It is important to prioritize projects for Ganga rejuvenation must be spent sources should be used to prepare the agencies in deserving cases. on which the funds available for on above types of projects. DPRs for various projects. In order implementation of MND are utilized. to receive due consideration under Project implementation will start after Projects which are designed to 13.1 Examples: Projects in the Ganga rejuvenation program as approval of DPRs by NGRBMC and prevent direct discharge of large Priority Level 1 ‘MND projects’, the DPRs need to be arrangement of funds. Wherever quantities of liquid waste into the Projects dealing with management of of high quality and vetted by NRGBMC possible, project implementation Ganga River System must be given the liquid waste from Class I and Class II towns for technical soundness and overall including operation/ maintenance should highest priority (Priority Level I) for and large/ medium industrial units fall in relevance to the objectives of MND. be contracted to ‘service providers’, i.e., implementation. Projects designed this category. The MND vision regarding The skilled manpower required for public/ private agencies with relevant to prevent direct discharge of large this is as follows, 1) discharge of such preparation of high quality DPRs for ‘MND expertise. However, the primary quantities of solid waste into the wastes into natural drains in Class I and projects’ may not be readily available responsibility for contract administration, Ganga River System are to be given Class II cities must be stopped and the at all levels. Hence it is recommended and release of payments to the ‘service the next level of priority (Priority drains must be re-converted into storm that these responsibilities should be, providers’ must remain with the project Level II). Projects concerning river- water drains, 2) STPs must be renovated/ wherever possible, contracted to proponent. Payments must be released frame development and restoration of constructed to treat all the sewage ‘service providers’, i.e., reputed public to the ‘service provider’ only after floodplain in the urban areas along the generated in Class I and Class II towns to or private sector entities with relevant monitoring of the progress of the project Ganga River System must be next in the tertiary levels suitable for recycle/reuse, expertise. It is proposed that Ganga implementation by an independent third- priority level (Priority Level III). Ideally, 3) provisions for use of treated sewage rejuvenation funds may be set aside party. If required, adequate sensitization for the next 15 years, all available funds for rejuvenation of natural surface water

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 22 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 23 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan bodies or for irrigation must be made, must be diverted to at multiple locations and 4) all large/ medium industrial units along the drain to existing STPs must adopt the ZLD concept, wherein the with spare capacity. Alternatively, industrial effluent is treated and reused. decentralized STPs may be constructed Basis and justification for this is given in the vicinity of the drains or over the elsewhere [IITC, 2010b; IITC, 2011a; IITC, drains. All STPs must treat sewage up 2011c; IITC, 2012; IITC, 2014m]. Typical to tertiary levels. The treated water from projects in this class are as follows, such STPs must be recycled/ reused or used for other beneficial purposes. After • Restoration of natural drains in Class diversion of sewage, the drains may be I and Class II towns: Currently most cleaned and restored for carrying storm natural drains (‘nalas’) carry untreated/ drainage. There should be no discharge partially treated domestic sewage and from such drains into rivers during dry industrial effluent into the Ganga River season. Disposal of solid waste into or System from all Class I and Class II along the banks of such drains must be towns in NRGB. This situation must prevented. The restored drains and the discharged, either directly or indirectly, industrial/ commercial effluents. The be changed such that these nalas are area surrounding such drains may be into the river. The plan for utilization objective is to make sewage treatment recovered to drain storm water with cleared of encroachments and utilized of the treated sewage must be clearly sustainable without continuous long term minimal or no urban flooding, and during for recreational/ commercial purposes. specified in the project. support from Central/ State Government. the non-monsoon season remain dry or carry only tertiary treated sewage. • Sewage treatment in Class I and Class • Reuse/ recycling of treated sewage in • Use of treated sewage for restoration/ Ideally, all such nalas should become II towns using ZLD system: Projects Class I and Class II towns: Considering creation of surface water bodies: In habitat for freshwater organisms. It for renovation of existing sewage the goal that no discharge of treated areas with limited opportunities of reuse is recommended that projects must treatment plants (STPs) in Class I and sewage into rivers is allowed in Class of treated sewage projects for use of be conceived for restoration of such Class II towns of the NRGB for tertiary I and Class II towns, projects must treated sewage for restoration/ creation drains. This would involve preventing level treatment of sewage are welcome. be conceived for reuse/ recycling of of surface water bodies is encouraged. sewage discharge into such drains All new treatment plants constructed at tertiary treated sewage in Class I and Direct injection (i.e. without surface by constructing intercepting sewers sewer outfalls or other places must be Class II towns. Such reuse may be storage and subsequent percolation parallel to the drains. The sewage designed for tertiary level treatment of either for commercial, industrial or through soils) of treated sewage/ collected in the intercepting sewers sewage. The treated sewage cannot be horticultural purposes that generate industrial effluents into sub-surface/ revenue stream for partially or fully ground – waters should invariably be not meeting the expenditure on sewage allowed, i.e., is prohibited. Nalas must be recovered to drain storm treatment. Makeup water for industrial/ water with minimal or no urban flooding, and during the commercial applications must invariably • Use of treated sewage for irrigation: be tertiary treated sewage. To achieve Projects facilitating release of treated non-monsoon season remain dry or carry only tertiary this condition, the price of freshwater sewage into canals (flowing away treated sewage. Ideally, all such nalas should become for such applications must be kept from rivers) for irrigation purposes are habitat for freshwater organisms. much higher than the cost of recycling encouraged.

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 24 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 25 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan • Zero-liquid discharge (ZLD) systems for Note on Sewage Management: large/ medium industries, including TDS Note on Sewage Management: All STPs and associated sewage pumping stations in management: Projects for implementation All STPs and associated sewage pumping stations in the NGRB should be operated by ‘service the NGRB should be operated by ‘service providers’, of ZLD systems in large/ medium industries providers’, i.e. public or private agencies with expertise in such activities. It is also desirable i.e. public or private agencies with expertise in such and industrial clusters, (including CETPs) that STPs should be funded using innovative financing models such as design-build-finance- activities. It is also desirable that STPs should be are encouraged. The treated effluent operate (DBFO) wherein the ‘service provider’ makes the initial capital investment in the STP funded using innovative financing models such as from such systems must be reused in the (including VGF, if any) and is paid back in annuities, based on satisfactory operation of the design-build-finance-operate (DBFO) wherein the industry itself. The proposed systems must created infrastructure. Further, our vision is that all sewage generated in Class I and Class ‘service provider’ makes the initial capital investment include, if necessary, a comprehensive II towns of NGRB will be treated to tertiary levels as above and reused for various beneficial in the STP (including VGF, if any) and is paid back plan for TDS management. Major share purposes. It is also envisaged that a business model involving sale of treated sewage may be in annuities, based on satisfactory operation of the of funding for such projects must be borne developed to partially or fully defray the cost of sewage treatment. created infrastructure. Further, our vision is that all by the project proponents. However, sewage generated in Class I and Class II towns of concessional loans, etc. may be made NGRB will be treated to tertiary levels as above and available for some projects in a case-by- case basis. 13.2 Examples: Projects in reused for various beneficial purposes. It is also Priority Level II envisaged that a business model involving sale of Note on Effluent Management in Large/ Medium Industries in NGRB: treated sewage may be developed to partially or Projects dealing with dumping of solid All large and medium industries/industrial clusters, fully defray the cost of sewage treatment. Note on Sewage waste and other undesirable activities Management in New/ in river, riverbank and river floodplains in etc. in the NRGB must adopt a ZLD policy. Industries Existing Colonies/ Class I and Class II towns and from large/ must form SPVs for implementing this policy. The Townships: medium industrial units fall in this category. SPVs must appoint expert ‘service providers’ for • Sewage management in new/ We envisage an accelerated pace The MND envisages stoppage/ control effluent treatment. E ffluent treatment plants may be existing colonies, housing societies of urbanization in NGRB in the of the following activities, 1) dumping of set up by the ‘service providers’ using DBFO or other using ZLD system: Projects for onsite next few decades. This should solid and industrial waste, 2) disposal of financing models. The treated effluent will be sold sewage management as per the not put additional load on sewage corpses and animal carcasses, 3) open back to the industries at a contracted price, such that ZLD system in existing/ new housing infrastructure in place. It is hence defecation, 4) disposal of mining waste the ‘service provider’ is adequately compensated. colonies/ apartment complexes and recommended that all large and construction debris, 5) immersion of townships are encouraged. However, planned urban developments, idols, floral and other offerings, wallowing major share of funding for such i.e., townships, housing colonies, of domestic animals, washing of clothes, cremation facilities, improved disposal of projects must be borne by the project large multi-storied apartment vehicles, etc., and 6) movement of stray animal carcasses, etc. with an objective proponents. The projects must ensure complexes, etc. adopt a ZLD and domesticated animals, e.g., cows, of eliminating such practices, will be that there is no discharge of treated policy, wherein all sewage pigs, dogs, etc. Typical projects in this given due consideration sewage outside the premises. To generated in such entities should class are as follows, achieve this, the price of freshwater be treated and reused within the • Prevention of open defecation in must be kept much higher than the cost complex itself. Similar policy • Prevention of disposal of corpses/ river, riverbank or river floodplain in of recycling sewage. should be extended to existing human remains and animal carcasses Class I and Class II towns: Projects colonies also, wherever possible. in river, riverbank or river floodplain: involving construction of public/ Projects concerning improvements in community toilets and associated public

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 26 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 27 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan awareness campaign for prevention of and Class II towns: Projects concerning open defection, with the objective of development and implementation of 14. Other MND Projects eliminating such practices, will be given alternative arrangements for immersion due consideration. of idols, floral and other offerings, Implementation of projects in the • Hazardous and non-hazardous wallowing of domestic animals, washing priority levels IV-VII will reduce the industrial solid waste management: • Removal of stray (e.q., dogs) and of clothes, vehicles, etc. to be given due relatively small direct pollution loads Projects concerning collection, domesticated animals (e.g., cows, consideration. and also the diffused pollution load transport, disposal and recycle/ reuse of buffaloes, pigs, etc.) from river, from surface runoff and sub-surface industrial solid waste will be given due riverbank or river floodplain in Class I 13.3 Example: Projects in seepage to the Ganga River System. consideration. and Class II towns: Projects involving Priority Level III The impact of these projects vis-a- the development of the infrastructure Projects dealing with comprehensive vis the MND objectives is somewhat • CETPs for small industrial clusters and systems for capture and relocation of river-frame restoration and development limited. Hence, implementation of based on ZLD concept: Projects stray animals and relocation of domestic and river floodplain management these types of projects has a lower concerning CETPs for clusters of small animals will be given due consideration. in Class I and Class II towns will priority vis-à-vis the goals of MND. industries or ETP Clusters for small be given due consideration. MND Funds earmarked for MND should be industries in industrial estates/ clusters • Prevention of disposal of municipal envisages 1) comprehensive river released for these projects only when will be given due consideration. and industrial solid waste in river, frame development with due aesthetic the funding requirements of projects riverbank or river floodplain in Class considerations, and, 2) restoration of in priority levels I-III have been largely • Effluent collection and treatment from I and Class II towns: Projects for river floodplain in all Class I and Class II addressed. dispersed small industries: Projects construction of municipal and hazardous towns. Typical projects in this class are concerning separation of industrial waste landfills or other facilities as an as follows, 14.1 Examples: Projects in and domestic waste streams in mixed alternative to disposal of such wastes on Priority Level IV neighborhoods and collection and river banks and floodplains shall be given • River-frame restoration and Projects dealing with management of treatment of industrial effluent in such due consideration. development in Class I and liquid effluents from small industrial cases will be considered. Class II towns: Projects concerning clusters and dispersed small industrial • Prevention of disposal of mining and comprehensive river-frame restoration units, and solid waste from all industrial construction debris in river, riverbank and development including removal of sources in NGRB fall in this category. or river floodplain: Projects concerning encroachments, developments of ghats, The MND vision for such industrial units Projects concerning scientific disposal/ reuse of construction walkways, etc., development of pilgrimage is, 1) liquid effluent generated must be development and implementation and mining debris as an alternative to and tourist spots, recreational and discharged separately, i.e., not allowed disposal of such wastes on river banks commercial activities will be considered. to mix with domestic sewage, 2) the of alternative arrangements for and floodplains shall be given due collected effluent must be treated in- immersion of idols, floral and consideration. • River floodplain restoration in Class I house or in CETPs as per ZLD norms and Class II towns : Projects concerning and recycled in the industries itself, other offerings, wallowing of • Control of activities such as immersion removal of encroachment from river flood 3) all hazardous and non-hazardous solid domestic animals, washing of of idols, floral and other offerings, plain and development of projects such waste must be collected and reused/ wallowing of domestic animals, as ecological parks, water recharge disposed as per norms. Typical projects clothes, vehicles, etc. to be given washing of clothes, vehicles in Class I structures, etc. will be considered. in this class are as follows, due consideration.

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 28 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 29 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Projects may be formulated for providing small-bore sewer systems 14.2 examples: Projects in • Septic tank effluent and septage in old congested areas/ unauthorized colonies/ urban villages, etc. where providing Priority Level V management in Class I and Class II conventional sewer systems may not be possible. Provision of interceptor tanks and septage Implementation of projects of this type will towns: Projects may be formulated management must be an integral part of such proposals. lead to general improvement of sanitation for providing small-bore sewers for and general cleanliness in Class I and Class conveyance of septic tank effluents must be collected and transported through • Solid waste and septage management II towns and hence are essential from the and septage management, including closed conduits, 2) open defecation must in Class III towns/ rural areas: Projects urban renewal/ development perspective. evacuation, conveyance and treatment. be completely eliminated, and 3) proper formulated for municipal solid waste The MND vision for Class I and Class II systems for solid waste collection and collection and disposal, including towns is that, 1) all sewage generated • Provision of community/ public toilets management must be developed, and recycling/reuse and waste to energy must be collected and transported through in urban slums in Class I and Class II 4) systems for septage collection and projects and other innovative solutions will closed conduits, 2) open defecation must towns: Projects may be formulated for management must be developed. Typical be given due consideration. be completely eliminated, and 3) proper providing community toilets where many projects in this class are as follows, systems for solid waste collection and households may not have toilets. Projects 14.4 Projects in Priority management must be developed, and may also be formulated for providing public • Provision of toilets in Class III towns/ Level VII 4) systems for septage collection and toilets for itinerant or homeless population. rural areas Implementation of projects of this type management must be developed. Typical Such toilets must be either pour flush Projects may be formulated for providing will result in the control of pollution from projects in this class are as follows, or mechanical flush type with complete toilets in households without toilets, agricultural sources, i.e., reduction in provision of fecale sludge and/or sewage or community toilets in areas where nutrient and pesticide loading to the • Conventional sewer systems in urban management. many households may not have toilets. Ganga River System. However, projects areas in Class I and Class II towns: Such toilets must provide a sustainable of this type should only be undertaken Projects may be formulated for laying • Municipal solid waste collection and sanitation solution. once pollution ingress into the Ganga sewers in un-sewered areas, renovation disposal in Class I and Class II towns: River system from domestic/ commercial of existing sewers, replacement of open Projects formulated for municipal solid • Sewage collection in Class III towns/ and industrial sources is largely drains with sewers, etc. In addition waste collection and disposal, including rural areas controlled. Typical projects in this class projects concerning construction of recycling/ reuse and waste to energy Projects may be formulated for providing are as follows, trunk sewers, pumping stations, etc. will projects and other innovative solutions will small-bore sewer systems in areas were also be given due consideration. be given due consideration. sewage generation is not sufficient to • Promotion of sustainable riverbank support a conventional sewage network farming: Projects promoting organic • Sewage collection systems in 14.3 Projects in Priority or in congested areas where laying farming and other sustainable farming congested urban areas in Class I and Level VI conventional sewers is impossible. practices on dry riverbeds and flood plains Class II towns: Projects may be formulated Implementation of projects of this type Provision of interceptor tanks and will be given due consideration. for providing small-bore sewer systems will lead to general improvement of septage management must be an integral in old congested areas/ unauthorized sanitation and general cleanliness in part of such proposals. • Promotion of use of bio-fertilizers colonies/ urban villages, etc. where Class III towns and rural areas and such and bio-pesticides in agriculture, providing conventional sewer systems may projects are desirable for overall sanitation • Sewage treatment in Class III towns/ horticulture, aquaculture, forestry, etc: not be possible. Provision of interceptor and cleanliness even in smaller human rural areas: Projects formulated for using Projects designed to minimize nutrient tanks and septage management must be habitations. The MND vision for such natural biological systems/ pond systems and pesticide loading from agricultural an integral part of such proposals. cases is that, 1) all sewage generated for sewage treatment may be considered. activities to the rivers will be considered.

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 30 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 31 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 15. MND Projects: Financial Structuring, Project Management and Sustainability

Funding patterns for MND projects can during sanctioning of the project. The Various modes of financing such PPP infrastructure. Investment of private vary depending on the type of project present recommendation is that MND ventures may be explored, including the equity in such projects is desirable. and availability of funds from different projects must be sanctioned only design-build-finance-operate (DBFO) sources. Funding may come from after enforceable commitments are model, wherein the ‘service provider’ Category C Recommendations: various sources; Ganga rejuvenation obtained regarding funding availability provides the initial investment (with or Projects dealing with Category C fund budgeted by the central for both construction and operation/ without viability-gap funding) and is recommendations concerning liquid government, funds available with other maintenance phases over at least 15 assured of returns on the investment and solid waste management in the ministries/ departments of central/ years from the project inception. based on performance appraisal industrial sector should mostly be state governments, local revenue, though the construction and operation/ funded by industries themselves. corporate and private donations and Category A Recommendations: For maintenance phases of the project. However, central funds or low cost loans grants, low cost debt from multinational projects dealing with implementation of from multi-national organizations may organizations/ banks, commercial Category A recommendations concerning Category B Recommendations: For be available for this purpose to small- debts from banks and private equity. liquid and solid waste from domestic/ projects dealing with implementation scale industries/ industrial clusters on a Generally for all projects, the project commercial sources, central funds of Category B recommendations case-by-case basis. Industrial clusters proponents must be willing to bear at available under Ganga rejuvenation concerning river-frame development may form special-purpose-vehicles least some cost of the project using program and low cost debts from and river floodplain management, the (SPVs) for implementation of such local resources. multi-national organizations may form availability of central funds should be projects. Individual industries/ SPVs a substantial part of the project cost. limited. Such projects should mostly should employ specialized ‘service Funds will not only be required for However, additional funds from state depend on state and local funds or providers’ for designing, building, initial capital cost of the infrastructure and local governments and a revenue low cost loans from multi-national operating and maintaining the created but also for operation/ maintenance generation model from such projects organizations. A strong revenue model infrastructure. and renovation/ reinvestment in may also be required. The present is desired for river-frame development the created infrastructure. Many recommendation is that such projects projects. River-frame development Category D Recommendations: projects in related areas have failed must be implemented in the public-private projects must be implemented in the Projects dealing with Category D in the past because no enforceable partnership (PPP) mode by specialized public-private partnership (PPP) mode recommendations concerning control guarantee for operation/ maintenance ‘service providers’ who are skilled by specialized ‘service providers’ of agricultural pollutants should and renovation/ reinvestment in the in designing, building, operating and who are skilled in designing, building, mostly be funded by central and state created infrastructure was forthcoming maintaining the created infrastructure. operating and maintaining the created governments

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 32 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 33 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 16. MND: Cost of Implementation

The total cost of providing sanitation treated sewage for irrigation purposes, and management projects are expected is desirable in river frame restoration facilities, 1) including toilets (if 4) river-frame management and to vary widely from project to project. projects. The projects for the abatement necessary), 2) sewage conveyance in restoration, 5) river floodplain manage- Some support from central government of agricultural pollution are of a relatively closed conduits, 3) ‘nala’ restoration ment and restoration, 6) industrial liquid is required for such projects. However, low priority at the present time. works, including the necessary sewage and solid waste management, and substantial infusion of private equity interception and diversion works for 7) abatement of agricultural pollution, protection of natural water bodies, could not be calculated due to wide 4) sewage pumping, and 5) sewage site specific variations in the cost of Table 1: Total Cost* of Providing Sanitation in NRGB treatment to tertiary levels in all urban implementation of such projects. and human areas of the NGRB have been CAPEX Population CAPEX OPEX TOTAL State (annualized) calculated (see Table 1). Further details The cost of supply of treated sewage (millions) Rs. (crore) Rs. (crore/yr) Rs. (crore/yr) Rs. (crore/yr) are available elsewhere [IITC,2013]. The for various beneficial purposes should Uttar Pradesh 200.95 89278 21372 34908 56280 overall cost for domestic/ commercial be between 10 – 50 percent of the cost Himachal P 6.87 2966 710 1229 1939 liquid waste management amounts to of sewage treatment. It is envisaged Uttarakhand 10.16 4531 1085 1776 2861 Rs. 7.75/person/day (present prices). that this cost may be fully or partially Haryana 25.35 11843 2835 4442 7277 recovered from the users, once proper Delhi 19.25 8448 2022 2894 4916 Similarly total cost of providing municipal incentive and regulatory structure for Rajasthan 68.75 31508 7543 12263 19806 solid waste management facilities, this purpose is put into place. The cost of Bihar 104.48 45827 10971 18435 29406 including, 1) cost of collection, 2) cost industrial waste management, including West Bengal 92.67 41391 9909 15935 25844 of transport, 3) cost of restoring existing reuse/ recycle of treated sewage is to be Jharkhand 33.28 15220 3644 5846 9489 dumpsites including those along rivers largely borne by the industries themselves Chhattisgarh 25.66 11882 2844 4563 7408 and in floodplains, and 4) cost of solid with minimal support from central/ state Madhya P 73.64 33367 7988 12835 20823 waste disposal in the NRGB have also governments. Our preliminary studies Total 661.06 296260 70922 115125 186047 been calculated (see Table 2). Further show that the industries can absorb Note: * Total Cost covers cost for management of all liquid waste generated from domestic and commercial details are available elsewhere [IITC, such costs and in long run this will help sources in both rural and urban areas. This includes cost of sewage conveyance in closed conduits, sewage 2014l]. The overall cost for municipal in sustained growth of industries through pumping and sewage treatment in all types of human settlements including congested/ unauthorized colonies, solid waste management thus amounts internalizing the environmental costs. slums and rural areas. It also includes the cost of septage management, conveyance and treatment of septic tank to Rs. 1.15/person/day (present prices). Some indications on expenditures for effluent and providing community/public toilets as required; *annualized over 15 year period assuming an interest achieving Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) rate of 10% p.a. The overall cost of other projects for some of the industrial sectors (e.g. associated with MND, including, Tanneries in Kanpur and Pulp and Paper 1) reuse/ recycle of treated sewage, industries in NRGB) are given elsewhere 2) use of treated sewage for construction/ [IITC, 2011c; IITC, 2014m]. The costs of rejuvenation of water bodies, 3) use of river-frame and flood plain restoration

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 34 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 35 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Table 2: Cost Estimates on Solid Waste Management in GRB

CAPEX 17. MND: Immediate Actions Population CAPEX OPEX TOTAL State (annualized) (millions) Rs. (crore) Rs. (crore/yr) Rs. (crore/yr) Rs. (crore/yr) Ganga rejuvenation works should be in these towns using data available Uttar Pradesh 200.95 9978 2180 6281 8461 phased in a manner such that visible in UPMPs and other sources. The Himachal P 6.87 341 74 214 289 improvements in the condition of some required time period for this activity Uttarakhand 10.16 504 110 317 428 rivers of NRGB are visible within 4 years is 4 months. Haryana 25.35 1258 275 792 1067 of the start of implementation of MND. 3. Vetting of the DPRs by competent Delhi 19.25 956 176 601 778 The most polluted portion of the NRGB agencies and arrangement of funds. Rajasthan 68.75 3413 746 2148 2894 with associated streams/ rivers, towns The required time period for this Bihar 104.48 5188 1133 3265 4399 and industrial sectors are shown in activity is 3 months. West Bengal 92.67 4601 1005 2896 3902 Figure 17.1. Thus the initial MND projects 4. Implementation of DPRs concerning Jharkhand 33.28 1652 359 1040 1399 must be taken up in areas/ sectors which i) ‘Nala’ restoration, ii) construction Chhattisgarh 25.66 1274 278 802 1080 exhibit gross pollution. of STPs, and iii) reuse/ recycle and Madhya P 73.64 3657 799 2302 3101 Total 661.06 32826 71340 20663 27802 other beneficial uses of tertiary It is thus proposed that MND projects treated sewage. The required time Note: Includes cost of collection, conveyance and treatment; *annualized using 12% interest over 5 years for must immediately be implemented for period for construction phase is 24 – equipment and machinery and 12% interest over 20 years period for infrastructure and construction work. reducing domestic sewage ingress into 36 months. Ganga River system in the following towns of NRGB, In addition, MND projects must be • In Kshipra Sub-basin of NRGB as undertaken immediately for the reduction of a pilot covering Indore, Ujjain and gross pollution to the Ganga River system Dewas towns; from industrial sources. The industries to • On Yamuna river: Delhi, Faridabad, be targeted for this purpose are the paper Vrindavan, Mathura and Agra; and pulp, sugar and distillery, tannery and • On Ramganga river: Moradabad; pharmaceutical industries in Uttarkhand • On Gomati river: Lucknow; and Uttar Pradesh. Industrial effluent • On Ganga river: Haridwar, treatment for these industries should be Garhmukhteshwar, Kanpur, based on ZLD concept (including salt Allahabad and Varanasi; management) and recycle of treated industrial effluent within the industry itself. The steps in the implementation All above industries (including CETPs schedule include, associated with such industries) must 1. Preparation of URMPs for above be required to prepare comprehensive towns. The required time-period for plan for management of industrial this activity is 18 months. effluent and should be required to move 2. Preparation of DPRs by expert towards installation of ZLD system within agencies for Priority Level I projects 24-36 months.

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 36 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 37 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 2 – Nirma l Dhara

18. MND: Budget Outlay

In addition to the immediate actions outlay for Ganga Rejuvenation over next above, other projects under Ganga 15 years has been suggested with the Rejuvenation program should be assumption that all projects associated undertaken as per the recommendations with recommendations in Priority Levels in this report in a phase-wise manner I-III will be funded within the next 15 over the next 15 years. This shall years. The proposed budget outlay for constitute the Phase I of MND. The specific ‘project types’ is given in the proposed Central Government budget next few pages.

Project Type: Restoration of natural drains in Class I and Class II towns of NRGB [Priority Level I]

Activities: Natural drains (‘Nalas’) carry untreated/ partially treated domestic sewage and industrial effluent into the Ganga River System from all Class I and Class II towns in NRGB. It is recommended that projects must be conceived for restoration of such drains. This would involve preventing sewage discharge into such drains by constructing intercepting sewers parallel to the drains. The sewage collected in the intercepting sewers must be diverted to multiple locations along the drain to existing STPs with spare capacity. Alternatively, decentralized STPs may be constructed in the vicinity of the drains or over the drains. Treated sewage cannot be discharged back into the ‘nalas’. After diversion of sewage, the ‘nalas’ may be cleaned and restored for carrying storm drainage. Thus, there should be no discharge from such drains into rivers during dry season. Disposal of solid waste into or around such drains must be prevented. The area surrounding such drains may be cleared of encroachments and utilized for recreational/commercial purposes. Budget under Ganga Rejuvenation Program:

Values as on date (in Rs. Crore) for the CAPEX and OPEX for restoration of ‘nalas’ in Class I Towns: 247 towns Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total Figure 17.1: Most Polluted Stretches and their Pollution Sources in National River Ganga Basin Figure 4: Most Polluted Stretches and their Pollution Sources in NationalRiver Ganga Basin CAPEX 1080 2160 2160 2160 2160 2160 1080 1080 1080 1080 1080 1080 1080 1080 1080 21615 OPEX 0 305 915 1525 2135 2745 3355 3660 3964 4269 4574 4879 5184 5489 5794 48794 Total 1080 2465 3075 3685 4295 4905 4435 4740 5045 5350 5655 5960 6265 6570 6875 70409

35 After 15 years, Rs. 6100 crore/yr (value as on date) will be required for operation/ maintenance (including renovation) of the created infrastructure

Values as on date (in Rs. Crore) for the CAPEX and OPEX for restoration of ‘nalas’ in Class II Towns: 139 towns Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total CAPEX 97 194 194 194 194 194 97 97 97 97 97 97 97 97 97 1940 OPEX 0 30 91 152 213 274 335 365 395 426 456 487 517 548 578 4867 Total 97 225 286 346 407 468 432 462 493 523 553 584 614 645 675 6810 After 15 years, Rs. 608 crore/yr (value as on date) will be required for operation/ maintenance (including renovation) of the created infrastructure

Source of Funds: 90% of the project costs (including CAPEX and OPEX over 15 years) will be available from the above budget allocated by central government under the Ganga Rejuvenation program

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 38 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 39 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Project Type: Tertiary sewage treatment in Class I and Class II towns of NRGB [Priority Level I] Project Type: Use of treated sewage for restoration/ creation of surface water bodies [Priority Level I]

Activities: In addition to STPs associated with ‘nala’ restoration, projects for construction of new STPs and renovation of existing STPs at Activities: In areas with limited requirement of treated sewage for reuse, projects for use of this treated sewage for restoration/ creation of sewer outfalls and other locations in Class I and Class II towns of the NRGB are welcome. All STPs (including associated sewage surface water bodies in the immediate vicinity is encouraged. pumping stations and other appurtenances) must be designed for tertiary level treatment of sewage. The treated sewage cannot be discharged, either directly or indirectly, into the river. The plan for utilization of the treated sewage must be clearly specified in Budget under Ganga Rejuvenation Program: the project proposal. Values as on data (in Rs. Crore) for the CAPEX for rejuvenation/ creation of surface water bodies in Class I Towns: 247 towns Budget Under Ganga Rejuvenation Program: Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total Values as on date (in Rs. Crore) for the CAPEX and OPEX for tertiary sewage treatment in Class I Towns: 247 towns CAPEX 50 250 250 250 500 500 500 250 250 250 250 100 100 100 50 3650 Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total *OPEX (including renovation cost) to be pledged by the state/ local government CAPEX 270 540 540 540 540 540 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 5404 OPEX 0 76 229 381 534 686 839 915 991 1067 1144 1220 1296 1372 1449 12198 Values as on date (in Rs. Crore) for the CAPEX for rejuvenation/ creation of surface water bodies in Class II Towns: 139 towns Total 270 617 769 922 1074 1227 1109 1185 1261 1338 1414 1490 1566 1643 1719 17602 Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total CAPEX 5 25 25 25 50 50 50 25 25 25 25 10 10 10 5 365 After 15 years, Rs. 1525 crore/yr (value as on date) will be required for operation/ maintenance (including renovation) of the created infrastructure *OPEX (including renovation cost) to be pledged by the state/ local government

Values as on date (in Rs. Crore) for the CAPEX and OPEX for tertiary sewage treatment in Class II Towns: 139 towns Source of Funds: 90% of the project cost (only CAPEX) will be available from the above budget allocated by central government Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total under the Ganga Rejuvenation program. However, funds will be sanctioned only when an enforceable guarantee for the OPEX CAPEX 24 49 49 49 49 49 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 486 (including renovation cost) for at least 15 years is available. OPEX 0 8 23 38 53 68 84 91 99 106 114 122 129 137 144 1217 Total 24 56 71 87 102 117 108 116 123 131 138 146 154 161 169 1702 After 15 years, Rs. 152 crore/yr (value as on date) will be required for operation/ maintenance (including renovation) of the created infrastructure Project Type: Use of treated sewage for irrigation [Priority Level I]

Source of Funds: 90% of the project cost (including CAPEX and OPEX) over the first 15 years will be available from the above Activities: In areas with limited demand for reuse of treated sewage, projects facilitating release of treated sewage into canals (flowing away budget allocated by central government under the Ganga Rejuvenation program from river) for irrigation purposes are encouraged.

Project Type: Reuse/recycling of treated sewage in Class I and Class II towns [Priority Level I] Budget under Ganga Rejuvenation Program: Values as on date (in Rs. Crore) for the CAPEX for use of treated sewage for irrigation in Class I Towns: 247 towns Activities: Considering that no discharge of treated sewage into rivers is allowed from any STP, projects must be conceived for reuse/recycling of tertiary treated sewage in Class I and Class II towns. Such reuse may be either for commercial, industrial or horticultural Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total purposes such that the generated revenue stream can be used for partially or fully meeting the operating expenditure for reuse/ CAPEX 30 150 150 150 300 300 300 150 150 150 150 60 60 60 30 2190 recycling schemes and sewage treatment. This would make sewage treatment sustainable without continuous long term support *OPEX (including renovation cost) to be pledged by the state/ local government from Central Government. Budget under Ganga Rejuvenation Program: Values as on date (in Rs. Crore) for the CAPEX for use of treated sewage for irrigation in Class II Towns: 139 towns Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total Values as on date (in Rs. Crore) for the CAPEX for reuse/recycle of treated sewage in Class I Towns: 247 towns CAPEX 3 15 15 15 30 30 30 15 15 15 15 6 6 6 3 219 Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total *OPEX (including renovation cost) to be pledged by state/ local government CAPEX 100 500 500 500 1000 1000 1000 500 500 500 500 200 200 200 100 7300 *OPEX (including renovation cost) to be recovered from the revenue generated from the sale of treated sewage. Source of Funds: 90% of the project cost (only CAPEX) will be available from the above budget allocated under this head by central government under the Ganga Rejuvenation program. However, funds will be sanctioned only when an enforceable Values as on date (in Rs. Crore) for the CAPEX for reuse/recycle of treated sewage in Class II Towns: 139 towns guarantee for the OPEX (including renovation cost) for at least 15 years is available. Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total CAPEX 10 50 50 50 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 20 20 20 10 730

*OPEX (including renovation cost) to be recovered from the revenue generated from the sale of treated sewage.

Source of Funds: 90% of the project cost (only CAPEX) will be available from the above budget allocated by central government under the Ganga Rejuvenation program. However, funds will be sanctioned only when an enforceable guarantee for the OPEX (including renovation cost) for at least 15 years is available from other sources.

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 40 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 41 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Project Type: Sewage management in housing colonies/ societies and large multi-stories Project Type: Prevention of disposal of corpses/ human remains and animal carcasses in river, complexes using ZLD system [Priority Level I] riverbank or river floodplain. [Priority Level II]

Activities: Projects for onsite sewage management as per the ZLD system in existing/new housing colonies/ apartment complexes and Activities: Projects concerning improvements in cremation facilities, improved disposal of animal carcasses, etc. will be given due townships are encouraged. However, major share of funding for such projects must be borne by the project proponents. The consideration projects must ensure that there is no discharge of untreated/ treated sewage outside the premises. Budget under Ganga Rejuvenation Program: Budget under Ganga Rejuvenation Program: Values as on date (in Rs. Crore) for the CAPEX and OPEX for projects concerning prevention of disposal of corpses/ human remains and Values as on date (in Rs. Crore) for the CAPEX for installation of ZLD systems in colonies/housing complexes animal carcasses in river, riverbank or river floodplain. Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total in Class I Towns: 247 towns CAPEX 3 15 15 15 30 30 30 15 15 15 15 6 6 6 3 219 in Class II Towns: 139 towns Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total *OPEX (including renovation cost) to be pledged by the state/ local government CAPEX 55 111 111 111 111 111 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 1108 OPEX 0 17 52 87 122 157 192 209 227 244 262 279 296 314 331 2789

Values as on date (in Rs. Crore) for the CAPEX for rejuvenation/creation of surface water bodies in Class II Towns: 139 towns After 15 years, Rs. 349 crore/yr (value as on date) must be budgeted for operation/ maintenance (including renovation) of the created infrastructure Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total Source of Funds: 90% of the CAPEX and 50% of the OPEX (including renovation cost) over 15 years will be available from the CAPEX 5 25 25 25 50 50 50 25 25 25 25 10 10 10 5 365 above budget allocated by central government under the Ganga Rejuvenation program. However, funds will be sanctioned *OPEX (including renovation cost) to be pledged by the project proponents only when an enforceable guarantee for the balance CAPEX and OPEX for at least 15 years is available.

Source of Funds: In most cases, the entire project cost (including CAPEX and OPEX) to be borne by the project proponents themselves. However, some budget (as above) is available for funding of the CAPEX of demonstration projects for existing colonies/ housing projects etc., up to a maximum of 50% of the CAPEX. However, such funds will be sanctioned only when an Project Type: Prevention of open defecation in river, riverbank or river floodplain in Class I and enforceable guarantee for the OPEX (including renovation cost) for at least 15 years is available. Class II towns. [Priority Level II]

Activities: Projects involving construction and operation/ maintenance of public/ community toilets and associated public awareness Project Type: Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) systems for large/ medium industries, including campaign and other actions leading to the prevention of open defection will be given due consideration. TDS [Priority Level I] Budget under Ganga Rejuvenation Program:

Activities: Projects for implementation of ZLD systems in large/ medium industries and industrial clusters (including in associated CETPs) is Values as on date (in Rs. Crore) for the CAPEX and OPEX for projects concerning prevention of open defecation in river, riverbank or encouraged. The treated effluent from such systems must be reused in the industry itself. The proposed systems must include, river floodplain in Class I and Class II towns. if necessary, a comprehensive plan for TDS management. Major share of funding for such projects must be borne by the in Class I Towns: 247 towns project proponents. in Class II Towns: 139 towns Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total Budget under Ganga Rejuvenation Program: CAPEX 55 111 111 111 111 111 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 1108 Values as on date (in Rs. Crore) of the CAPEX for zero-liquid discharge (ZLD) systems for large/ medium industries, OPEX 0 35 105 174 244 314 384 418 453 488 523 558 593 628 662 5579 including TDS management After 15 years, Rs. 697 crore/yr (value as on date) must be budgeted for operation/ maintenance (including renovation) of the created infrastructure Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total CAPEX 30 150 150 150 300 300 300 150 150 150 150 60 60 60 30 2190 Source of Funds: 90% of the CAPEX and 50% of the OPEX (including renovation cost) over 15 years will be available from the above budget allocated by central government under the Ganga Rejuvenation program. However, funds will be sanctioned *OPEX (including renovation cost) to be pledged by project proponents only when an enforceable guarantee for the balance CAPEX and OPEX for at least 15 years is available. Source of Funds: 30% of the project cost (only CAPEX) may be available from the above budget allocated by central government under the Ganga Rejuvenation program. However, funds will be sanctioned only when an enforceable guarantee for the remaining CAPEX and OPEX (including renovation cost) for at least 15 years is available.

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 42 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 43 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Project Type: Removal of stray (e.g., dogs) and domesticated animals (cows, buffaloes, pigs, Project Type: Prevention of disposal of mining and construction debris in river, riverbank or etc.) from river, riverbank or river floodplain in Class I and Class II towns [Priority Level II] river floodplain [Priority Level II]

Activities: Projects involving the development of the infrastructure and systems for capture and relocation of stray animals and relocation of Activities: Projects concerning scientific disposal/ reuse of construction and mining debris as an alternative to disposal of such wastes on domestic animals will be given due consideration. river banks and floodplains shall be given due consideration. Budget under Ganga Rejuvenation Program: Budget under Ganga Rejuvenation Program:

Value as on date (in Rs. Crore) for the CAPEX and OPEX for projects concerning removal of stray (e.g., dogs) and domesticated animals Values as on date (in Rs. Crore) for the CAPEX and OPEX for projects concerning prevention of disposal of mining and construction (cows, buffaloes, pigs, etc.) from river, riverbank or river floodplain in Class I and Class II towns debris in river, riverbank or river floodplain in Class I Towns: 247 towns in Class I Towns: 247 towns in Class II Towns: 139 towns in Class II Towns: 139 towns Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total CAPEX 28 55 55 55 55 55 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 554 CAPEX 28 55 55 55 55 55 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 554 OPEX 0 17 52 87 122 157 192 209 227 244 262 279 296 314 331 2789 OPEX 0 17 52 87 122 157 192 209 227 244 262 279 296 314 331 2789

After 15 years, Rs. 349 crore/yr (value as on date) must be budgeted for operation/ maintenance (including renovation) of the created infrastructure After 15 years, Rs. 349 crore/yr (value as on date) must be budgeted for operation/ maintenance (including renovation) of the created infrastructure

Source of Funds: 90% of the CAPEX and 50% of the OPEX (including renovation cost) over 15 years will be available from the Source of Funds: 90% of the CAPEX and 50% of the OPEX (including renovation cost) over 15 years will be available from the above budget allocated by central government under the Ganga Rejuvenation program. However, funds will be sanctioned above budget allocated by central government under the Ganga Rejuvenation program. However, funds will be sanctioned only when an enforceable guarantee for the balance CAPEX and OPEX for at least 15 years is available. only when an enforceable guarantee for the balance CAPEX and OPEX for at least 15 years is available.

Project Type: Prevention of disposal of municipal and industrial solid waste in river, riverbank Project Type: Control of activities such as immersion of idols, floral and other offerings, wallowing or river floodplain in Class I and Class II towns [Priority Level II] of domestic animals, washing of clothes, vehicles, non-ritual bathing, etc. in Class I and Class II towns [Priority Level II] Activities: Projects for construction of municipal and hazardous waste landfills or other facilities as an alternative to disposal of such wastes on river banks and floodplains shall be given due consideration. Activities: Projects concerning development and implementation of alternative arrangements for immersion of idols, floral and other offerings, Budget under Ganga Rejuvenation Program: wallowing of domestic animals, washing of clothes, vehicles, non-ritual bathing, etc. to be given due consideration. Budget under Ganga Rejuvenation Program: Values as on date (in Rs. Crore) for the CAPEX and OPEX for projects concerning prevention of disposal of municipal and industrial solid waste in river, riverbank or river floodplain in Class I and Class II towns Values as on date (in Rs. Crore) for the CAPEX and OPEX for Projects Concerning Control of activities such as immersion of idols, floral in Class I Towns: 247 towns and other offerings, wallowing of domestic animals, washing of clothes, vehicles, non-ritual bathing, etc. in Class I and Class II towns in Class II Towns: 139 towns in Class I Towns: 247 towns Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total in Class II Towns: 139 towns CAPEX 55 111 111 111 111 111 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 1108 Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total OPEX 0 52 157 262 366 471 575 628 680 732 785 837 889 941 994 8368 CAPEX 55 111 111 111 111 111 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 1108

After 15 years, Rs. 1046 crore/yr (value as on date) must be budgeted for operation/ maintenance (including renovation) of the created infrastructure OPEX 0 35 105 174 244 314 384 418 453 488 523 558 593 628 662 5579

Source of Funds: 90% of the CAPEX and 50% of the OPEX (including renovation cost) over 15 years will be available from the After 15 years, Rs. 697 crore/yr (value as on date) must be budgeted for operation/ maintenance (including renovation) of the created infrastructure above budget allocated by central government under the Ganga Rejuvenation program. However, funds will be sanctioned Source of Funds: 90% of the CAPEX and 50% of the OPEX (including renovation cost) over 15 years will be available from the only when an enforceable guarantee for the balance CAPEX and OPEX for at least 15 years is available. above budget allocated by central government under the Ganga Rejuvenation program. However, funds will be sanctioned only when an enforceable guarantee for the balance CAPEX and OPEX for at least 15 years is available.

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 44 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 45 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan

100 200 1900 3800 8000 5090 Total 10000 46288 67075 27894 170,346

15 Project Type: River-frame restoration and development in Class I and Class II towns 15 [Priority Level III] 14956

Activities: Projects concerning comprehensive river-frame restoration and development including removal of encroachments, developments 14 of ghats, walkways, etc., development of pilgrimage and tourist spots, recreational and commercial activities will be considered. 14 14544 Budget under Ganga Rejuvenation Program:

13 Values as on date (in Rs. Crore) for the CAPEX for projects concerning river-frame restoration and 13 development in Class I and Class II towns 13900 in Class I Towns: 247 towns

in Class II Towns: 139 towns 12 12

Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total 13257

CAPEX 250 500 500 500 500 500 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 5000 11 11

*OPEX (including renovation cost) to be pledged by the project proponents 13306

Source of Funds: 70% of the CAPEX will be available from the above budget allocated by central government under the Ganga 10 Rejuvenation program. However, funds will be sanctioned only when an enforceable guarantee for the balance CAPEX and 10 12662 OPEX (including renovation costs) for at least 15 years is available.

9 9 9 12018 12018 Project Type: River floodplain restoration in Class I and Class II towns [Priority Level III]

xt 15 years underGanga Rejuvenation Program

8 8

Activities: Projects concerning removal of encroachment from river flood plain and development of projects such as ecological parks, water 11376 recharge structures, etc. on the floodplains will be considered. in Class I Towns: I in Class 247 towns Towns: in Class II Towns: 139 towns Towns: 139 II in Class

Budget under Ganga Rejuvenation Program: 7 7 7 12009

Values as on date (in Rs. Crore) for the CAPEX and OPEX for Projects concerning river floodplain ‘MND Projects’ for Allocation

restoration in Class I and Class II towns 6 Allocation for DPR Preparation and Vetting

in Class I Towns: 247 towns 13199 6 Allocation for URMP Preparation and Vetting Vetting URMP Preparationand Allocation for in Class II Towns: 139 towns

Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total 5 5 CAPEX 250 500 500 500 500 500 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 5000 11912

OPEX 0 50 150 250 350 450 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 8000 4 4 After 15 years, Rs. 1000 crore/yr (value as on date) must be budgeted for operation/ maintenance (including renovation) of the created infrastructure 9470 Values as on date (in Rs. Crore) of the CAPEX and OPEX for Projects in Priority Levels I – III in NRGB III in I – Levels inPriority Projects for OPEX CAPEX and of the Crore) on date (in Rs. as Values

Source of Funds: 90% of the CAPEX and 50% of the OPEX (including renovation costs) over 15 years will be available from the 3 3 above budget allocated by central government under the Ganga Rejuvenation program. However, funds will be sanctioned 8183

only when an enforceable guarantee for the balance CAPEX and OPEX for at least 15 years is available. 2 2 Proposed Budget (value as on date) for the ne as on date) Budget (value Proposed 6895 5 5 10 10 10 4 20 10 20 10 20 5 20 20 5 16 5 10 5 10 5 10 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 0 50 150 250 350 450 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 0 419 1258 2096 2935 3773 4613 5031 5449 5868 6288 6708 7126 7546 7965 0 174 523 872 1220 1569 1918 2092 2266 2441 2615 2789 2964 3138 3312 1 95 95 190 190 190 76 190 380 190 380 380 95 380 95 380 95 304 190 95 190 95 190 95 190 95 190 190 95 190 95 190 500 500 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 277 277 554 554 554 554 554 227 227 227 227 227 227 227 227 227 1702 1702 4098 4098 4098 5253 5253 3781 2626 2626 2626 2626 1933 1933 1933 1702 2659 Year TOTAL

I CAPEX I CAPEX I OPEX II CAPEX CAPEX II OPEX II III CAPEX CAPEX III III OPEX Priority Level Year 1 46 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA URMP Preparation Vetting URMP DPR Prep. Support DPR Vetting Ganga River Basin Management Plan 19. Financing MND Projects

The financing of every single aspect of the the PPP structure is to ensure creation • Public toilets where no user fee is 19.5 Projects that can be rejuvenation of River Ganga is a gigantic of a robust risk management model to possible Funded through a Licensing task requiring large amounts of capital enable increased capital flow into the • Encroachment removal from river Mechanism running into lakhs of crores of rupees. underlying projects. Projects that fall floodplain In cases where PPP models are not The Government as a source of finance, under this category include: • Maintenance/ construction of applicable but where there is a clear although significant, cannot be depended • Industrial effluent treatment surface water bodies/ water revenue stream associated, a licensing upon as the only source. Efforts must be • Sewage treatment where there is a recharge structures mechanism can generate substantial made to tap into global capital pool so as clear revenue model resources for the Government to finance to ensure timely delivery of capital. Delay • Solid waste management 19.3 Projects that can be projects. Examples include licensing fee in financing not only results in opportunity • Public toilets where a user-fee is Delivered through an generated through vendors, hawkers, cost but can also lead to redundant possible Annuity Model kiosks, tourism operators and other efforts since the physical conditions of These are typically brown-field projects service providers that operate on the the projects might have changed. 19.2 Projects that can only be or those that require a long term banks of the rivers. Projects that fall Funded through Government operations and maintenance of assets. under this category include Financing of projects mustn’t also Financing Mechanism Projects that fall under this category • Keeping riverside clean be set in a monolithic framework. There are projects in which there is include: • Prevention of disposal of corpses/ The diverse nature of the problems no clear revenue model and must only • Retrofitting existing and poorly human remains within NRGB requires multitudes of be financed through the Government operating STPs/ ETPs financing structures to be established. sources. Although the Government • Operations & maintenance of STPs/ 19.6 Enabling the PPP The structures are better devised and will finance these projects, it must ETPs Framework implemented if assessed through their also adopt a Total Lifecycle Cost In order to develop and deliver an needs and categorized as follows. (TLC) approach so that all elements 19.4 Projects that can be effective PPP framework, the most including capital expenditure (Capex), Funded through Sale or crucial element that all stakeholders 19.1 Projects that can Utilize a operational expenditure (Opex), repairs Leasing of Assets PPP Structure and maintenance are factored into the The land owned by Government at Projects that have a clear revenue financial planning of the asset. This various locations along the river belt can generation model are best funded through approach will ensure that the assets are be sold or given out on a long-term lease a PPP structure. It is recommended well managed and deliver the desired model to private/ third-party developers. Financing of projects that a large portion of total projects results. Projects that fall under this The sale of proceeds can be utilized to mustn’t be set in a monolithic are funded through this mechanism as category include: finance a number of projects. Projects it puts the onus of successful delivery • Restoration of natural drains (nalas) that fall under this category include: framework. The diverse nature onto the investor/ financier. This will • Constructing and managing a • River-frame development of the problems within NRGB result in better design of projects from sewerage network • Restoration of ghats requires multitudes of financing both technological as well as economic • Sewage treatment plants (where • River floodplain restoration standpoint. The Government’s role in there is no clear revenue model) • Cremation facilities structures to be established.

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 48 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 49 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan need to address is the risk within the 19.7 Local Area Water Markets operate such an ETP. It will recover its The developer will also charge a premium system. All parties involved in the In order to establish a revenue model investment and the return on capital and build that into the tariff agreement to project are responsible for identifying for treated wastewater, the ULBs must by entering into a long term agreement recover its cost and the return on capital and mitigating these risks. It is the establish the local area water market with the industry needing such an investment. It is prudent that the developer Government’s primary responsibility framework. This process will identify ETP. An effluent treatment or a water does an open book accounting and cost of to develop a market framework that the producers of wastewater and bulk purchase agreement will have to be capital modeling with upfront ROI targets attracts private sector investment into buyers. Each ULB can do this exercise in signed between the two parties clearly agreed by the industry owner. the project. a relatively short span of time which will listing the base tariff and escalation help it identify the market stakeholders parameters. However bankability of Mutual trust and collaborations are the Financing wastewater treatment as well as create an effective market. such projects will remain a challenge keywords underpinning this relationship. projects using a PPP construct, be it for entities that have relatively poor sewage or industrial effluents, is only 19.8 Addressing Industrial credit rating. The following steps can 2. Having Skin in the Project: The project possible if payments to the ‘service Effluent Treatment be employed to make such projects developer is taking a significant risk by provider’ is guaranteed through For industrial units without proper more bankable: setting up such a project which is not a enforceable contracts. There must be Effluent Treatment Plant E( TP), factoring standalone business. If things go sour clear and well enforced guidelines by the CAPEX and OPEX of the ETP into 1. Open Book Planning: Engineering, it isn’t that the developer can simply the Government that prevents discharge the economic model of the business Procurement and Construction (EPC) costs dismantle the plant and take it away of sewage or industrial effluent (either may come as an unwelcome surprise. depend on quantity and characteristics elsewhere. It is important for the industry treated or untreated) to the rivers. In case Some industries will find the cost of effluents. A realistic assessment of owner to co-invest with the project of industries, the polluter must deploy increase rather difficult to absorb whilst these costs is essential or the financing developer in the setting up of the ETP. a zero liquid discharge framework. others will simply not be able to spare of the project will remain a challenge. Although it is fairly evident that the main In case of municipal wastewater, the or raise adequate capital to fund the Neither party should try to conceal or driver behind such a project relationship Urban Local Body (ULB) must first try establishment of the ETP. hide any facts or truths from one another. is of industry owner’s lack of capital, even to sell treated sewage before using for The industry owner must be open and a small contribution to the tune of 20% of other purposes. If anyone is discharging The BOOT (Build-Own-Operate-Transfer) forthcoming about their actual effluent developer’s capital investment will go a untreated wastewater then there must framework can help such businesses discharge volumes and characteristics. If long way in demonstrating confidence. be a heavy penalty which will act that find financing the ETP a challenge. the fundamental objective is to treat 100% as a deterrent. A third party developer will assume the of the effluent coming out of the plant with 3. Waterfall Revenue Arrangement and responsibility to design, finance and subsequent capacity expansion, then the Pooling: Just because the ETP is at the developer has to take these into account very end of the process chain doesn’t when scoping the capacity and other mean that it is at the very end of the chain parameters of the plant that have a direct when receiving its income through the Financing wastewater treatment impact on the cost of setting one up and agreed tariff. It is important that the ETP is projects using a PPP construct, be it sewage or operating it. considered as one of the most important industrial effluents, is only possible if payments to the elements of an industrial process and that Similarly the developer must also be the tariff for the plant should be set aside ‘service provider’ is guaranteed through enforceable fully transparent on its true Engineering, as soon as the revenues of the industrial contracts. Procurement and Construction (EPC) costs. unit owner are received.

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 50 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 51 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 4. Resource Allocation: Well structured quantify the level of risk and ascertain These come in various forms such as of instruments that will enable greater EPC and O&M contracts that provide for a premium as per the rating. export guarantee, equipment financing flow of investments into addressing a buffer in case of any payment defaults or straight non-recourse concessionary the restoration and rejuvenation of will help improve the credit rating of the Not having a credit rating, no matter how project lending. Procuring equipment river Ganga. project. The parties should keep aside good the project is, can adversely affect strategically from such markets will also 6-12 months of O&M tariff through use its bankability. increase the probability of financing the 1. Ganga Bonds: Issuing long term bonds of resource allocation instruments projects. in Indian or international capital markets such as Letters of Credit (L/C) or an 8. Take-out Financing through Bond can generate significant capital base escrow account. Issuance: Commercial lenders are 19.9 Government Created for the Government. These long term mostly unable to lend for longer tenures. Financial Frameworks bonds can finance most of the sewage 5. Default Backstops through Therefore if a project has a commercial The Government may also take treatment plants and sewerage network Counterparty Guarantee: In the event rating, its developers should consider proactive measures and create a slew that needs to be built in the NRGB. the industry owner defaults, winds the issuing a bond so that the fixed income business down or is unable to make the investors can then take the banks out at payments, there should be recourse to the end of the tenure. other assets within the group. This is one of the most important points that will 9. Global Green Capital: There is improve the bankability of the projects. ample capital available for good quality In case the off-taker is a Government environmental projects. The project agency, the backstop arrangement can developers should look at global be provided through a sovereign or sub- sources to mobilize such capital through sovereign guarantee. dedicated green- infra-funds, development finance institutions and 6. Project Insurance: Putting in place a other quasi Governmental agencies. robust insurance policy that is globally These agencies will take a more positive recognized will give a lot of comfort to view to financing the projects than normal lenders and investors of the project. commercial institutions and their risk There are a number of specialist brokers appetite level will also be much larger. who can source such a policy. 10. Better Procurement through 7. Credit Rating: Once a number of Export Credit Assistance Schemes: aforementioned credit enhancement Many developed nation economies mechanisms are put in place, the are facing a slower growth and the project developers should get the Governments are putting measures project rated through a credible ratings and schemes to boost exports through agency. This will greatly enhance the providing various financial instruments bankability as project lenders can to either the exporter or the project.

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 52 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 53 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 2. Technology Upgrade Fund: A This will bring significant fiscal discipline specialist fund targeted at MSME and improve the quality of underlying 20. MND Projects: industry segment that find it challenging credit thereby attracting both domestic to access to best technologies and and international lenders/ investors. Monitoring and Feedback global best practices. 7. Take-Out Financing: One of the 3. Shadow Tariffs: If industry is unable most crucial instruments, take-out- The overall objective of Mission to pay for the entire O&M tariff for the financing is long term capital that “Nirmal Dhara” (MND) is to ensure efficient operation of the industrial comes in after the commercial lenders that the flow in the Ganga River effluent treatment plant, then a shadow finish their tenures. This is crucial to be System is bereft of manmade tariff mechanism paid through a specialist put in place right at the beginning so pollution, such that water quality fund can help bring the requisite revenues that it gives comfort to the lenders and of the Ganga River System is not to the plant owner/ operator. investors. substantially affected by human activities in NRGB. Ingress of all 4. Long-term Low Cost Loans: 8. Water Quality Trading: This anthropogenic pollutants into the Government can provide long term low instrument can effect major Ganga River System must ultimately cost loans to entities willing to set up transformation in the water sector. be eliminated to achieve this goal. effluent treatment facilities. Lowering It is based on the same principles the cost of capital will reflect in lower of carbon trading but is applied However, the more limited objective tariffs that will lower the burden on at a very local level. The trading of MND over the next 15 years is industry or other users paying for happens between two parties that to implement numerous projects in treatment of water. are discharging different quantities the industrial and domestic/ commercial required for ‘MND projects’ must be of effluents. The one below the pre- (Class I and II towns) sectors designed available from Ganga Rejuvenation 5. Foreign Currency Hedging: Many defined threshold level sells credits to, A) prevent direct discharge of large funds earmarked by the central industry units will be able to borrow to the one that is above the threshold quantities of liquid waste into the Ganga government. In case of industries, through external commercial borrowing level. The thresholds can be applied River System, B) prevent direct discharge majority of the required funding must route. If Government helps in absorbing both on quality and quantities. This of large quantities of solid waste into the come from industries itself. the hedging costs or fixing the foreign creates a local market which can be Ganga River System, and C) promote currency conversion rates, then it will monitored by a Government agency. river-frame development and restoration DPRs for relevant projects will be allow industry owners to tap into a larger of floodplain in Class I and II towns along presented by project proponents for pool of capital which will also lower the 9. Credit Risk Pooling: A government the Ganga River System. vetting and approval to NGRBMC. cost of finance. sponsored credit pool can allow High quality DPRs consistent with the either municipalities and/ or The amount of funding available objectives of MND will be approved 6. Credit Rating: Government should industrial effluent treatment plant for MND projects over the next 15 as ‘MND Projects’ and hence will be make it mandatory for all parties to managers to pool their risk into a years is obviously a big determinant eligible for partial funding from the credit-rate their projects and achieve a single vehicle. This diversifies risk for the ultimate success of MND. Ganga rejuvenation budget. A DPR will minimum credit rating if they are to avail for the insurer and thereby reduces In case of Class I and II towns only be given the final ‘green signal’ for of the Government sponsored facilities. the cost of capital. in NGRB, major share of funding implementation when an enforceable

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 54 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 55 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan guarantee for funding (CAPEX, OPEX The overall success of MND over next and renovation/ re-investment cost) is 15 years will ultimately depend on the finalized for at least 15 years from the success of towns and large/ medium time of project commencement. scale industries and industrial clusters in NGRB in implementing ‘MND projects’. All ‘MND projects’ will have an in-built It is recommended that NGRBMC should mechanism for announced/ unannounced come up with suitable metrics related to independent third-party inspections project outcomes to assess the success coordinated by NGRBMC. NGOs and other of MND at the level of individual towns, civil society organizations (CSOs) may be industries and even states as a whole. The involved in this effort. The payments to scores obtained against these metrics the contractor/ ‘service provider’ should can be published each year such that be closely linked to the results of such comparisons can be made across towns, inspections. industries and even states regarding the effectiveness of MND implementation.

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 56 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 57 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 063_GBP_IIT_EQP_DAT_07_Ver River Basin”, M Tech Thesis References 1_Dec 2014. of Smriti Gupta Submitted to 14. IITC [2014g], “Assessment of Environmental Engineering and Domestic Pollution Load from Urban Management Programme, IIT 1. IITC [2010a], “Guidelines for 7. IITC[2013], “Assessment of Some Agglomerations in Ganga River Kanpur; Adopted as IIT Consortium the Preparation of Urban River Aspects of Provisioning Sewerage Basin: West Bengal”, 064_GBP_IIT_ Report on GRBMP; 071_GBP_IIT_ Management Plan (URMP) Systems”, 039_GBP_IIT_ EQP_DAT_08_Ver 1_Dec 2014. EQP_S&R_05_Ver 1_Dec 2014. for Class I Towns in Ganga EQP_S&R_02_Ver 1_Dec 2013. 15. IITC [2014h], “Assessment of 20. IITC [2014m], “Assessment of River Basin”, 002_GBP_IIT_ 8. IITC [2014a], “Assessment of Domestic Pollution Load from Approaches for Eliminating Use EQP_S&R_01_Ver 1_Dec 2010. Domestic Pollution Load from Urban Urban Agglomerations in Ganga of Fresh Water in Tanneries at 2. IITC [2010b], “Sewage Treatment Agglomerations in Ganga River River Basin: Yamuna Sub-Basin”, Jajmau, Kanpur”, M Tech Thesis in Class I Towns: Recommendation Basin: Uttarakhand”, 058_GBP_IIT_ 065_GBP_IIT_EQP_DAT_09_Ver of RajatVerma Submitted to and Guidelines”, 003_GBP_IIT_ EQP_DAT_02_Ver 1_Dec 2014. 1_Dec 2014. Environmental Engineering and EQP_S&R_02_Ver 1_Dec 2010. 9. IITC [2014b], “Assessment of 16. IITC [2014i], “Assessment of Management Programme, IIT 3. IITC [2011a], “Review of Domestic Pollution Load from Domestic Pollution Load from Kanpur; Adopted as IIT Consortium Wastewater Reuse Projects Urban Agglomerations in Ganga Urban Agglomerations in Ganga Report on GRBMP; 072_GBP_IIT_ Worldwide: Collation of Selected River Basin: Haryana”, 059_GBP_ River Basin: Ramganga, Kali and EQP_S&R_06_Ver 1_Dec 2014. International Case Studies and IIT_EQP_DAT_03_Ver 1_Dec 2014. Gomti Sub-Basins”, 066_GBP_IIT_ 21. Jenny, H. [1994], “Factors of soil Experiences”, 012_GBP_IIT_EQP_ 10. IITC [2014c], “Assessment of EQP_ DAT_10_Ver 1_Dec 2014. formation: a system of quantitative SOA_01_Ver 1_Dec 2011. Domestic Pollution Load from Urban 17. IITC [2014j] “Assessment of pedology”, Dover Publication. 4. IITC [2011b], “Emerging Agglomerations in Ganga River Domestic Pollution Load from [Accessed May 28, 2014 from: Contaminants in Ganga River Basin: Uttar Pradesh”, 060_GBP_ Urban Agglomerations in Ganga http://www.soilandhealth. Basin with Special Emphasis on IIT_EQP_DAT_04_Ver 1_Dec 2014. River Basin: Gandak and Kosi org/01aglibrary/010159.Jenny.pdf.]. Pesticides”, 013_GBP_IIT_EQP_ 11. IITC [2014d], “Assessment of Sub-Basins”, 067_GBP_IIT_EQP_ 22. MoWR (Min. of Water Resources, SOA_02_Ver 1_Dec 2011. Domestic Pollution Load from DAT_11_Ver 1_Dec 2014. Govt. of India) [2014], “Ganga Basin 5. IITC [2011c], “Pulp and Paper Urban Agglomerations in Ganga 18. IITC [2014k], “Assessment of – Version 2.0”. Industries in Ganga River Basin: River Basin: Rajasthan”, 061_GBP_ Domestic Pollution Load from 23. Pahl-Wostl, C. [2007], “The Achieving Zero Liquid Discharge”, IIT_EQP_DAT_05_Ver 1_Dec 2014. Urban Agglomerations in Ganga implications of complexity 014_GBP_IIT_EQP_S&R_04_Ver 12. IITC [2014e], “Assessment of River Basin: Hooghly Sub-Basin”, for integrated resources 1_Dec 2011. Domestic Pollution Load from 068_GBP_IIT_EQP_DAT_12_Ver management”, Environmental 6. IITC [2012], “Water Quality in Urban Agglomerations in Ganga 1_Dec 2014. Modelling & Software, Vol. 22, pp the Ganga River and Efficacy of River Basin: Bihar”, 062_GBP_IIT_ 19. IITC [2014l], “Assessment of 561–569. Sewage Treatment Processes EQP_DAT_06_Ver 1_Dec 2014. Provisioning an Appropriate Solid 24. Wikipedia [2014], “Soils”. in Coliform Removal: A Case for 13. IITC [2014f], “Assessment of Waste Management Approach in [Accessed May 28, 2014 from: Adopting Tertiary Treatment”, 023_ Domestic Pollution Load from Urban Agglomerations in Ganga http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil.]. GBP_IIT_EQP_ANL_01_Ver 1_ Urban Agglomerations in Ganga Jun 2012. River Basin: Madhya Pradesh”,

MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 58 MISSION 2: NIRMAL DHARA 59 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan

Ganga River Basin Management Plan - 2015 Ganga River Basin Management Plan (GRB MP)

Mission 3: Ecological Restoration Extended Summary January 2015 by by ConsortiumConsortium ofof 77 “Indian“Indian Insti Institutetute of ofTechnology”s Technology”s (IITs) (IITs)

IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT Bombay Delhi Guwahati Kanpur Kharagpur Madras Roorkee

In Collaboration with

IIT IIT CIFRI NEERI JNU PU NIT-K DU BHU Gandhinagar

NIH ISI Allahabad WWF

Roorkee Kolkata University India

CONTENTS List of Figures

List of Figures and Tables iii Figure Page 3.1. Decline of Fish Catch per km at Allahabad between 1950 to 2010 6 Abbreviations and Acronyms iv 4.1. Biodiversity of River Ganga at a Glance 9 5.1. Major Structural Obstructions on River Ganga and Her Tributaries within India 14 Summary 1 1. Introduction 2 List of Tables 2. Objective 5 Table Page 3. why Ecological Restoration is Important for 4.1. Indicative Biological Profile of Different Stretches of River Ganga 10 Ganga River Basin Management 5 5.2. Major Hydro-Electric Projects on National River Ganga’s Head-Streams 12 4. ecological Status of National River Ganga 8 5. Threats to Biodiversity of National River Ganga and their Remediation 11 5.1 Habitat Fragmentation 5.2 Habitat Shrinkage 5.3 Habitat Alterations 5.4 Habitat Pollution 5.5 Habitat Invasion by Alien Species 5.6 Habitat Encroachment 5.7 Habitat Disturbances 5.8 Habitat Malnutrition 6. Summary of Recommended Actions 23 References 25

Mission 3: Ecological Restoration Mission 3: Ecological Restoration II III Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Abbreviations and Summary Acronyms

The Ganga River Network was adopted bed farming; (vii) Habitat Disturbances 1. CF : Cat Fish as the primary indicator of health of the by plying of noisy vessels, dredging, 2. GRBMP : Ganga River Basin Management Plan National River Ganga Basin (NRGB) etc.; and (viii) Habitat Malnutrition by in GRBMP, and human-technology- the trapping of nutrient-rich sediments 3. IITC : IIT Consortium environment factors were considered behind dams. Hence, the measures 4. IMC : Indian Major Carp (fish) to assess the basin’s resource recommended are: restoration of 5. MOA : Ministry of Agriculture dynamics. Ecological restoration longitudinal connectivity along with of National River Ganga is urgently E-flows across dams/ barrages; 6. MoEF : Ministry of Environment and Forests needed since river biodiversity is being maintenance of lateral connectivity 7. MoEFCC : Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate Change rapidly lost. Eight main factors affecting across floodplains; restoration of 8. MoWR : Ministry of Water Resources (Govt. of India) the river habitat are identified for this unpolluted river flows; restrictions on loss: (i) Habitat Fragmentation by dams river bed farming, gravel and sand 9. MoWR, RD&GR : Ministry of Water Resources, River Development & and barrages; (ii) Habitat Shrinkage mining, plying of vessels, dredging, and Ganga Rejuvenation due to increased water diversions and bed and bank modifications; control of 10. NGO : Non-Governmental Organization withdrawals; (iii) Habitat Alterations alien species invasions, overfishing 11. NGRBA : National Ganga River Basin Authority by constructing embankments, and fishing during spawning seasons; levees, guide walls, etc.; (iv) Habitat river nutrient assessment and release 12. NMCG : National Mission for Clean Ganga Pollution by influx of municipal, of dammed sediments into the river; 13. NRGB : National River Ganga Basin industrial and agricultural wastes; bio-monitoring of Ganga river network; 14. RET : Rare, Endangered, Threatened (species) (v) Habitat Invasion by alien river and synergising actions with the species; (vi) Habitat Encroachment by ongoing Dolphin Conservation Action 15. ROR : Run-Of-the-River constructions in floodplains and river Plan. 16. UNEP : United Nations Environment Programme 17. UPID : Uttar Pradesh Irrigation Department

Ecological restoration of National River Ganga is urgently needed since river biodiversity is being rapidly lost.

Mission 3: Ecological Restoration Mission 3: Ecological Restoration IV 1 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan River basin management needs to ensure of a basin consist of plants, animals and 1. Introduction that a basin’s natural resources (biotic micro-organisms. Since biota evolve over and abiotic) are adequately preserved time to achieve a stable balance in a given over time. The main abiotic (or physical) environmental setting, the biotic resources Indian civilization grew up under the care Environment and Forests (Govt. of India) resources of a river basin are soil of a river basin depend on its constituent of River Ganga, nourished by her bounties assigned the task of preparing a Ganga and water, along with a multitude of ecosystems – rivers, wetlands, forests, for thousands of years. The Ganga river River Basin Management Plan (GRBMP) minerals and compounds bound up with grasslands, etc. However, with significant – along with her many tributaries and to restore and preserve National River them. Now, water is a highly variable human activity in many ecosystems (as, distributaries – provided material, spiritual Ganga to a “Consortium of Seven IITs”. resource. Barring variations from year for example, in agro-ecosystems and and cultural sustenance to millions of The outcome of this effort – the GRBMP to year, the water in a basin follows an urban ecosystems), the complexity of people who lived in her basin or partook of – evolved an eight-pronged action plan, annual cycle of replenishment (primarily human-technology-environment systems her beneficence from time to time. To the with each prong envisaged to be taken up through atmospheric precipitation has increased manifold [Pahl-Wostl, traditional Indian mind, therefore, River for execution in mission mode. and groundwater inflows) and losses 2006]. Nonetheless, GRBMP attempts to Ganga is not only the holiest of rivers and (primarily through river and groundwater incorporate interactive natural resource savior of mortal beings, she is also a living A river basin is the area of land from which outflows, evaporation, transpiration, dynamics and human-technology- Goddess. Very aptly is she personified the river provides the only exit route for and biological consumption). In contrast environment considerations in the Basin in Indian consciousness as “MOTHER surface water flows. For understanding to water, formation of mature soils – Plan. For, with human activities multiplying GANGA”. This psychic pre-eminence of its dynamics, a basin may be viewed from the weathering of parent material and diversifying in the basin, the resulting River Ganga in the Indian ethos testifies as a closely-connected hydrological- (rocks) to chemical decomposition and environmental consequences have also to her centrality in Indian civilization and ecological system. Hydrological transformation – is a drawn-out process been pronounced in recent times. In sum, her supreme importance in Indian life. connections include groundwater that may take hundreds or thousands of GRBMP focuses on the basin’s overall flow, surface runoff, local/ regional years [Jenny, 1994; Wikipedia, 2014]; but, resource environment and the major The Ganga river basin is the largest evapotranspiration-precipitation cycles once formed, soils can be fairly durable. factors affecting it (especially diverse river basin of India that covers a diverse and areal flooding, while ecological links Thus, changes in a basin’s water resource anthropogenic activities), and seeks landscape, reflecting the cultural and are many and varied (such as the food web status tend to be relatively faster and easily ways and means to protect the basin and geographical diversity of the India. It and transport by biological agents). These detected, while those of soils are slow its resources against identifiable adverse is also a fertile and relatively water- linkages provide for extensive material and often go unnoticed for long periods. impacts. For, only thus can we secure the rich alluvial basin that hosts about 43% transfer and communication between the However, soil and water are affected environmental foundation of NRGB for the of India’s population [MoWR, 2014]. river and her basin, which constitute the by each other through many biotic and good of one and all. It is fitting, therefore, that the Indian functional unity of a river basin. Directly abiotic processes. Being thus interrelated, government declared River Ganga as and indirectly, therefore, National River degradation of either soil or water has India’s National River in the year 2008. Ganga (along with her tributaries and a concurrent effect on the other, hence It is not only soil and water But the declaration was none too early. distributaries), is a definitive indication neither can be considered in isolation. River Ganga had been degrading rapidly of the health of the basin as a whole. that are mutually interactive, for a long time, and national concern Hence, GRBMP adopted the Ganga River It is not only soil and water that are living organisms also interact about her state had already become Network as the primary environmental mutually interactive, living organisms also with them and help shape the serious in the twentieth century. It was indicator of the National River Ganga interact with them and help shape the against this backdrop that the Ministry of Basin (NRGB). basin’s environment. The biotic resources basin’s environment.

Mission 3: Ecological Restoration Mission 3: Ecological Restoration 2 3 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 2. Objective

The objective of Mission “Ecological provide an enabling environment for Restoration” is to restore the ecological endemic flora, fauna and microorganisms balance of National River Ganga and to thrive in the Ganga river network. 3. Why Ecological Restoration is Important for Ganga River Basin Management

Significant loss of species biodiversity and non-anthropogenic factors affecting in the Ganga river network has been it. Broadly stated, an ecosystem is a observed over the past many decades, community of living organisms (plants, with many important aquatic species animals and microbes) in conjunction and (fishes, dolphins, ghariyals, turtles, etc.) interacting with nonliving components of having dwindled or disappeared from their environment [Wikipedia, 2013]. The river stretches in recent history. Now, biotic and abiotic components are linked a river ecosystem – with its intrinsic together through nutrient cycles and biodiversity – plays a crucial role in the energy flows: energy and carbon enter functional health of the river basin and the ecosystems through photosynthesis, the ecosystem services provided by the while mineral nutrients are mostly river. A basic idea of the biodiversity recycled within the ecosystems. Now loss in a part of National River Ganga ecosystems are controlled both by may be inferred from Figure 3.1 showing external factors (or “state factors” the progressive loss of fish catch at such as climate, underlying geological Allahabad since 1950. material, topography and time) and internal factors (such as decomposition, To grasp the biodiversity changes in periodic disturbances, species National River Ganga and devise suitable competition and human activities). Since means to restore her ecological balance, ecosystem processes are driven by it is necessary to understand the the types and number of species in an dynamics of the Ganga river ecosystem ecosystem and the relative abundance and assess the possible anthropogenic of organisms within these species, hence

Mission 3: Ecological Restoration Mission 3: Ecological Restoration 4 5 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan GRBMP – January 2015: Mission3 – Ecological Restoration

1600 1400 1343.64 an overarching role on River Ganga. For (6) flowing bodies (human or animal), 1200 while a river’s ecosystem boundary may (7) frolicking; (8) acceptance of donations; 1168.03 be nominally demarcated by the river (9) obscenity; (10) considering other 1000

(kg) banks, there are varying degrees of (but shrines to be superior, (11) praising often close) biotic and abiotic interactions other shrines, (12) discarding garments;

km 800 / 664.88 of the river with her riparian zones, flood (13) hurting anyone, and (14) making noise. 600 plains and drainage basin. The saturated h Catc 361.5 sub-surface zone under the river bed It is possible that such strictures got 400 529.7 also forms a unique habitat (termed diluted over time. But, the environmental “hyporheic biotope”) for a diverse group significance of many of these 200 332.57 300 of fauna, which also provides temporary precautions is obvious to the modern 0 refuge for aquatic organisms in times mind. And, what is equally significant, of adversity and plays an important role they convey a sense of deep respect for 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 in the processing of river nutrients and National River Ganga. Decades interacting with groundwater [Gopal and Chauhan, 2013]. Without detailed The vision statement of GRBMP affirms Figure 1: DecFigureline 3.1:of DeclineFish C ofa Ftishch Catch per per km km a att AAllahabadllahab betweenad be 1950twe toe 2010n 1 9[IITC,50 2014]to 2010 [IITC, 2014] primary studies of these components the restoration of ‘Nirmal’ dhara and the interactive processes in the river (unpolluted flow) in River Ganga and In general, ecosystems canspecies be a sbiodiversitysessed eithplayse anr inimportant term s ofshred the leaf s litterervices – is an important(or goods structural and services) basin, only a general understanding of her tributaries as one of the goals of role in ecosystem functioning. metric for ecosystem health assessment the river’s ecological balance is possible GRBMP. Measures to be implemented they provide to humans, or in terms of “ecosystem structu[Palmerre” and (i. eFebria,. me asur2012].a bThus,le athettribut es of a from available historical data. to achieve this objective have been least impacted or referenceIn statgeneral,e ofecosystems the ecos can ybes tem).assessed However, species biodiversity as noted of bay riverPa lmeris an and Febria specified in the present document [2008], the former as indicatoreither inof terms ecosy of thest eservicesm health (or goods is animportant oversi indicatormpli ca of theti functionalon of t healthhe e cosystems The properties of Ganga river’s waters describing the Mission ‘Nirmal’ services concept; on the otherand services) hand theyuniv provideersa toll yhumans, applic ora blofe riverstr uecosystems.ctural m Restoringetrics theof Gangariver health are of earlier times quoted above are Dhara (MND). in terms of “ecosystem structure” (i.e. river’s biodiversity to its earlier state is remarkable, to say the least. But, at yet to be developed. Nonemeasurabletheless, attributes the la oftt era least ap impactedproach itherefores more of prcriticaleva limportanceent, and for th thee taxonomic present, the river water quality is abysmal, The necessary condition for restoration composition of aquatic biotora reference– from statemicrobes of the ecosystem).that in ueecologicalnce decomp balance oofs theition river tonetwork. aquatic animals posing a grave threat to life in the region. of ‘Nirmal Dhara’ in River Ganga and her that shred leaf litter – is However,an import as notedant struby Palmerctural andme tric for ecosystem health assessment tributaries, i.e., the Ganga river system, Febria [2008], the former as indicator of The Ganga river being a diverse The change in water quality may have is the prevention of the ingress of [Palmer and Febria, 2012]. ecosystemThus, th healthe speci is an eoversimplifications biodiversit ylandscape-scale of a river is ecosystem, an import it isa ntnot indicator of been occurring over many centuries. pollutants into the rivers. It was realized the functional health of riveofr theec ecosystemsosystems. services Restoring concept; onthe Gangaeasy to decipher river’ sher b iecologyodive rins itydetail. to its earlier Ancient scriptures had cautioned that pollutant ingress into the Ganga state is therefore of critical theim pootherrt ahandnce funiversallyor the ec applicableological Tobalanc start with,e of the the river river traverses network. three against misusing the Ganga river. For River system cannot be controlled structural metrics of river health are distinct climatic-geographical zones instance, the following edict in Sanskrit unless certain solid and liquid waste The Ganga river being a yetdiv toe rsebe developed.landsca Nonetheless,pe-scale etheco syfromstem, the snow-clad it is not and alpineeasy Himalayan to de cipher her prohibited fourteen types of human management and other practices in the ecology in detail. To start latterwith, approach the ri isv emorer trav prevalent,erses and thr ereachese dist toin thect tropicalclima alluvialtic-g eplainsogr untilaphi cal zones actions: (1) defecation, (2) gargling, NGRB were modified. This realization the taxonomic composition of aquatic she enters the estuarine zone and meets (3) shampooing (4) throwing of used was the origin of the basin-wide from the snow-clad and alpine Himalayan reaches to the tropical alluvial plains until she enters biota – from microbes that influence the sea. Ecologically, the diversity of the religious offerings, (5) rubbing of filth, approach for the formulation of MND. the estuarine zone and meetsdecomposition the sea. to aquatic Ecologica animals thatlly, thebasin diversit within eachy ofclimatic the zonebasin plays w ithin each climatic zone plays an overarching role on River Ganga. For while a river’s ecosystem Mission 3: Ecological Restoration Mission 3: Ecological Restoration boundary may 6be nominally demarcated by the river banks, there are varying degrees of (but 7 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan often close) biotic and abiotic interactions of the river with her riparian zones, ood plains and drainage basin. The saturated sub-surface zone under the river bed also forms a unique habitat (termed “hyporheic biotope”) for a diverse group of fauna, which also provides temporary refuge for aquatic organisms in times of adversity and plays an important role in the processing of river nutrients and interacting with groundwater [Gopal and Chauhan, 2013]. Without detailed primary studies of these components and the interactive processes in the river basin, only a general understanding of the river’s ecological balance is possible from available historical data.

4. Ecological Status of National River Ganga

National River Ganga and her tributaries are home to a wide variety of aquatic organisms (from microscopic ora and fauna to higher invertebrates and vertebrates) and visited periodically by many other creatures from far and near. The status of ora and fauna of River Ganga and her riparian zones has been documented in several Thematic Reports of GRBMP [IITC, 2011; IITC, 2012a-g; IITC, 2014.]. Basic information culled from these documents is presented here to

3 Figure 14: Decline of Fish Catch per km at Allahabad between 1950 to 2010

4. Ecological Status of Overall Biological Profile of Ganga River

National River Ganga

Phytoplankton Periphyton Zooplankton Zoobenthos Fish Higher Vertebrates 1. National River Ganga and her tributaries Himalayan mountainous region in the are home to a wide variety of aquatic upper reach, the Gangetic plains in the organisms (from microscopic flora middle reach, and the estuarine region 1163 Taxa 294 Taxa 294 Taxa and fauna to higher invertebrates and (including the Hooghly-Matlah delta) in 15 Protozons 73 Families of Insects 24 Hard and soft vertebrates) and visited periodically the lower reach. These regions – apart 380 Diatoms (Bacillariophyceae) 120 Rotifers 113 Molluscs Turtles species 362 Green algae (Chlorophyceae) by many other creatures from far and from differing climatically – also have 74 Cladocerans 18 Echinoderms < 200 Ghariyal 349 Blue green algae (Myxophyceae) near. The status of flora and fauna of different geologic characteristics and 31 Copepods 88 Annelids 1382 Gangatic 72 others (Chrysophyceae, Cryptophyceae, 24 Crustaceans* 186 Arthropods** Dolphins River Ganga and her riparian zones has evolutionary histories. Thus, while the Xanthophyceae, Rhodophyceae, 26 Cnidarians been documented in several Thematic overall biological profile of the river Euglinophyceae, Dianophyceae, 4 Chaetognaths Reports of GRBMP [IITC, 2011; IITC, covers a vast spectrum, the biota differs Phaeophyceae) 2012a-g; IITC, 2014.]. Basic information significantly in different reaches. * Other crustaceans; ** Arthropods including (Crustacea, Ostracoda and Arachnida) culled from these documents is

presented here to inform the specific It should be noted here that Figure 2 Figure 4.1: Biodiversity of River Ganga at a Glance eco-restoration measures needed for is based on secondary information the river. The overall biological profile of obtained from published and River Ganga is depicted in Figure 4.1. The unpublished literature (including biodiversity of River Ganga is unique, technical reports and academic as an approximate representation of with distinctive characterization of as it synthesizes three major eco- theses) which generally do not the ecological profile of River Ganga biotic species in the stretches. The regions of India situated along different pertain to the present- day river but to before the construction of dams/ ecological parameters which are climatic gradients, namely: the National River Ganga at different times barrages in the upper Ganga region. conspicuous by their presence or and in different places. Therefore, absence have been examined. And, not only are the data fragmentary, On the basis of available data, the though comparative historical data but many investigations may have present ecological scenario for are not available, reasonable desired The biodiversity missed out the identities of some four stretches of the main Ganga levels of the main river species are species (especially small organisms river are presented in Table 4.1, indicated in the table. of River Ganga is unique, as it in sediments and/ or sediment water synthesizes three major eco- interface) due to procedural and instrumental limitations then prevalent. regions of India situated along Thus the above information may not be different climatic gradients. complete, but can only be considered

Mission 3: Ecological Restoration Mission 3: Ecological Restoration 8 9 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan tic tic

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L 11 End a M Ganga River Basin Management Plan Table 5.2: Major Hydro-Electric Projects on National River Ganga’s Head-Streams [IITC, 2014] Besides the above operations on the Project Installed capacity (MW) Status River main Ganga river, major dams and It is necessary to ensure Vishunprayag 400 On Alaknanda barrages on her tributaries include Maneri Bhali I 99 On Bhagirathi the on Ramganga longitudinal connectivity Maneri Bhali II 304 On in Uttarakhand, Asan Barrage, – along with adequate Tehri 1000 On Bhagirathi-Bhilangna Dakpathar Barrage and Hathnikund water and sediment flows – Confluence Barrage (and the upcoming Lakhwar Koteshwar 400 On Bhagirathi Dam) on River Yamuna, Ichari Dam throughout the Ganga river and Tons Barrage on River Tons, the network. Dhandhraul Dam on Ghaghra river, have been environmental impact Downstream of the hydroelectric Gandhi Sagar Dam on Chambal river, river water into “hungry water studies of some individual dams, the projects in the Bhagirathi and the Rajghat, Parichha and Matatila because it has sufficient energy to only comprehensive study of their Alaknanda basins, the Pashulok Dams on Betwa river, the Rihand Dam transport sediment but the sediment cumulative impact on aquatic and barrage on River Ganga near Rishikesh on Rihand river in Uttar Pradesh, the has been captured behind the dam. terrestrial biodiversity in the river sub- diverts nearly all the dry-weather flow Bansagar, Jawahar Sagar and Ruthai The hungry water gradually consumes basins was attempted by the Wildlife of main Ganga river into the power Dams on Kali Sindh, the Chandil, the bed and banks of the river below Institute of India [Rajvanshi, 2012]. channel of Chilla Power Station. The Tenughat, Maithon, Panchet and the dam, resulting in entrenchment However, the study may have had tail water of this power station joins Tilayia dams on the Suvarnarekha and armoring of the bed” [Wampler, some shortcomings [SANDRP, 2012]. the Ganga river near Bhoopatwala. and Damodar rivers in Jharkhand, 2012]. The long-term effects of this Moreover, it was limited in scope: Thus, a distance of about 15 km from and the Durgapur Barrage on River process are significant not only for for instance, its focus did not extend Pashulok barrage to the junction of Damodar in West Bengal [NIH, 2014]. river morphology [Graf, 2006; Gupta et beyond the Bhaghirathi and Alaknanda the tail waters with the river has no Needless to say, the innumerable al., 2012], but also for the benthic and sub-basins, so that the impact of the flow. Further downstream, Bhimgauda intercepts on the Ganga river network hyporheic biota as well as aquatic dams over the downstream river’s Barrage, Madhya Ganga Barrage have fragmented the once unified creatures that depend on river bed ecology remained unexplored. It and Narora Barrage intersect the river habitat into disjointed ecological and bank sediments for spawning, may be also noted here that, while river successively to divert water to stretches. Attempts to provide shelter, scavenging or other needs. many of these dams are small, the the Upper, Middle and Lower Ganga ecological connectivity by means of common notion that small dams have Canals. Further downstream, River fish passages is also often ineffective In view of the above problems, it is relatively insignificant impacts on Ganga is again clipped at Kanpur by [see e.g. Brown et al., 2013]. Dams and necessary to ensure longitudinal river ecosystems is a misconception. the Lav-Kush Barrage. Finally, as the barrages are also notable for trapping connectivity – along with adequate In some cases, the cumulative impact river heads for the estuarine reach, high quantities of river sediments, water and sediment flows – throughout of small dams may be more damaging it is again bifurcated by the Farakka thereby converting the downstream the Ganga river network. to river ecosystems than those of large Barrage in West Bengal, which diverts dams of equivalent power generation part of the flow into a canal to feed the capacity [Kibler and Tullos, 2013]. Bhagirathi-Hooghly river.

Mission 3: Ecological Restoration Mission 3: Ecological Restoration 12 13 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan

5.2 Habitat Shrinkage occur thereafter at Bijnor and Narora Large anthropogenic water abstractions to divert river water into the Middle are being effected from the Ganga River and Lower Ganga Canals respectively. Network all over the basin, thereby Abstraction of river water also occurs at considerably shrinking the aquatic different points for urban water supplies. space of river species. Many of the dams In addition, many dams and barrages on and barrages on the rivers are used to the tributaries of River Ganga noted in the [MoWR, [MoWR, 2014]

a i divert river flows, which includes the previous section are coupled with water d n I

Tehri reservoir that supplies significant diversion into irrigation canals (such n i

h amounts of River Bhagirathi’s water for as the Yamuna, Sarda, Ramganga, Kosi t i

w urban needs. After the start of the main and Sone canal systems). Thus, even

s

e stem of River Ganga, the Bhimgauda after the confluence with River Yamuna i r a GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 3 – Ecological Restoration Restoration Ecological 3 – Mission 2015: January – GRBMP

t Barrage diverts nearly all the river water near Allahabad, the Ganga river flow is u b

i to the Upper Ganga Canal (having head low and significantly less than what it r t

r discharge capacity of about 300 cu.m/s) was a century or two ago. Thus, large- e h

at Haridwar . Large water abstractions scale water abstractions from the river d n a

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e r u g i F er Tributaries within India [ M o W R, 2014] F igure 3: M ajor Structural O bstructions on River Ganga and H er Tributaries

Mission 3: Ecological Restoration Mission 3: Ecological Restoration 14 15 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan network have milked the mighty Ganga Finally, it should be noted that river river constriction through levees, sediments. These pollutants can be river to an emaciated stream during water abstractions are generally high embankments, guide walls and even largely attributed to anthropogenic most of the lean season ever since during lean flow seasons but low (or nil) bridges . Many of these alterations in sources – domestic wastes, industrial the Upper Ganga Canal System was during the wet seasons. This results in river morphologies adversely affect wastes and agricultural runoff. The made operational in the mid-nineteenth the river channel carrying extremely low benthic flora and fauna, fish breeding high levels of such pollutants in the century [UPID-FAO, 2008]. flows during the dry season but with the sites and the egg laying sites of soft river have their own fatal effects original high flows of the wet season and hard shell turtles. A complete on river biota. A rigorous check on While the effect of water abstractions almost intact. In fact, peak runoff rates end to any further anthropogenic anthropogenic pollution of the Ganga from National River Ganga on her biota from the basin into the rivers may alterations to river habitat is therefore river system is therefore of urgent may not have been extensively studied, have increased in many places by a prime requirement for ecological need for the river’s ecological revival. similar studies elsewhere indicate the way of increased runoff rates due to restoration in the Ganga river network. serious threat they pose to riverine urbanization and land-use changes over 5.5 Habitat Invasion by species. To cite, studies on the Indus the past one or two centuries, thereby 5.4 Habitat Pollution Alien Species River System in Pakistan show that increasing the river flood peaks from Pollution from domestic and industrial Exotic species of fish, notably the water abstraction is the single most their earlier levels. Overall, the extremes wastes is extensive in the Ganga common carp (Cyprinus carpio) important cause for the decline and of the river’s natural hydrological regime river downstream of Haridwar, and and Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), extirpation of the Indus River Dolphin have certainly accentuated, thus it assumes alarming proportions have invaded River Ganga’s waters (biological name “Platanista gangetica exerting considerable further survival below Kannauj (after the confluence downstream of Allahabad, after minor”) in many stretches of River Indus pressures on the biota. Restoring of Ramganga and Kali rivers) at least having swamped the Yamuna river. [Braulik et al., 2014]. It may, therefore, National River Ganga’s flow regimes up to Varanasi. As noted in GRBMP Downstream of Allahabad they have be easily surmised that shrinkage of to states comparable to their original Thematic Reports on Water Quality, greatly populated the river, largely the Ganga river habitat due to river (undisturbed) flow regimes is, therefore, the discharge of treated and untreated displacing Indian Major Carps (IMC) water abstractions may also have had an essential need for ecological revival municipal wastes from many Class I and other indigenous fishes of River dire consequences for various aquatic of the river. and Class II towns of NRGB in the river Ganga. In all, seven species of exotic species of National River Ganga. If is rampant, resulting in high levels of fish have been reported in river one considers the additional sub- 5.3 Habitat Alterations organic pollutants and pathogens (like Ganga including the Thai magur, surface outflows from (or reduced While dams and barrages have much fecal coliforms) and probably some (Clarias gariepinus) and Grass carp base flows into) rivers due to increased altered the Ganga River Network, the emerging pollutants also. Added to (Ctenopharyngodon idella). But it is groundwater pumping in the basin, the river morphologies have undergone these are untreated or semi-treated not only the middle and lower reaches shrinkage of the riverine habitat over the other anthropogenic alterations too. industrial wastes from various past one-and-a-half centuries is likely to Notably, unrestrained gravel and sand manufacturing units. Thus, residues have been grievous for the biodiversity- mining from river beds combined with of organochlorines including DDT While the effect of water rich Ganga river that existed earlier. the dumping of construction wastes (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), abstractions from National River In fact, the extirpation of the Gangetic in rivers have altered river forms HCH (hexachlorocyclohexane), Ganga on her biota may not have been Dolphin from the Middle Ganga Stretch drastically in places, besides also endosulfan and their metabolites are up to Allahabad may also be due to probably contributing to river pollution. common in the river water. Presence extensively studied, similar studies the diminished dry season flows in this Other alterations include those caused of organophosphates and heavy elsewhere indicate the serious threat stretch [Sinha et al., 2010]. by manmade structures such as metals are also reported in water and they pose to riverine species.

Mission 3: Ecological Restoration Mission 3: Ecological Restoration 16 17 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan the river network be eliminated and 5.7 Habitat Disturbances appropriate control measures be Frequent disturbance of the Ganga devised against introduction of any river habitat by humans has received new alien species. little attention, but this is a definite threat to riverine creatures. In 5.6 Habitat Encroachment particular, dredging and plying Human beings have been encroaching of noisy ships, especially in the upon rivers since long ago especially Hooghly river stretch of the Lower by occupying much of the flood Ganga, have evidently affected major plains and parts of river banks for aquatic animals such as the Gangetic various purposes. In modern times, dolphin so significantly that they have however, the encroachments have vanished from these reaches [Sinha become extensive – with widespread et al., 2010]. With the possibility of construction activities on floodplains commercial navigation in much of the and even farming on river beds Middle and Lower Ganga stretches during lean flow seasons. On the one in future, the issue is of considerable hand, the increased constructions importance. In this regard, the recent on flood plains have led to altered invasion of the upper reaches of runoff patterns into rivers, increased the Danube river in Europe by the pollution inflows with runoff, reduced round goby fish (plus other exotic that have been invaded. The sighting rivers to which indigenous species groundwater recharge and hence goby species, snails, mussels and of another exotic fish – the brown are not well adapted. As shown by decreased base flows in rivers, and amphipods) is a pointer: the increased trout (Salmo trutta fario) downstream Leprieur et al. [2008], globally, the curtailed ecological linkages between frequency of passing ships combined of Jhala – is an important signal of the biogeography of alien fish invasions the river, its floodplains, and floodplain with the straightening, deepening and presence of invasive species reaching in rivers correspond to the impact wetlands. On the other hand, river reinforcing of riverbanks are believed up to Bhagirathi. of enhanced human activities in the bed farming together with modern to be major factors for the invasion respective river basins. Hence, habitat chemical pesticides such as DDT and by round goby, which is not really an Now, invasion of ecosystems by alien invasion of the Ganga River Network HCH [Hans et al., 1999], have polluted alien fish in the Danube river but was species can occur only after their by alien species is also essentially the river bed, thus affecting the health earlier confined to only the lower introduction into the ecosystem, which of anthropogenic origin. The adverse of aquatic creatures, especially the reaches [TUM, 2013]. Evidently, the is often anthropogenic. But, even after consequences of such invasions hyporheic biota, and disturbing the native fishes of the Upper Danube their introduction, alien species have include the propagation of new breeding sites of higher aquatic region were not as well adapted as to out-compete native species in the diseases and parasitic organisms, animals. Hence anthropogenic the round goby and other exotic goby ecosystem. Often, this competitive and disruption of the river’s ecological habitat encroachments of the fishes to river disturbances. It is clear advantage in river ecosystems balance. It is, therefore, imperative Ganga river network must be curbed that similar possibilities exist in the accrues from manmade changes in that exotic species that have invaded at the earliest. Ganga river network too. And, besides

Mission 3: Ecological Restoration Mission 3: Ecological Restoration 18 19 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan opposite phenomenon of nutrient glaciers) also carries significant depletion is often overlooked. In upland sediments with its flow. Now, particular, dams, as noted earlier, trap until major dam constructions begun large quantities of river sediments that on River Yangtze in the 1990s, the river may contain many mineral nutrients, discharged about 940 km3/yr water and the reduced sediment flux can and 478 Mt/yr of sediment into the starve the downstream river stretches East Sea. The MLY stretch (below the of essential nutrients. Now, apart from Three Gorges Dam) up to the estuary Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen, at least is about 2,000 km long but gets very twenty five (and probably many more) little sediment added in the MLY elements are known to be essential for reach. The Three Gorges Project (with plants and animals [namely, N, P, K, Ca, several large dams constructed in the Mg, S, Na, Cl, B, Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, upland river basin) began operating Mo, Li, I, Se, Cr, V, Si, F, As, and Sn, vide since 2003. Zhou et al.’s study reveals Graham, 2008]. While knowledge of that by 2011 (i.e. within 10 years of the effects of the deprivation of micro- operation of the Three Gorges Project) nutrient elements in river ecosystems the total sediment load in MLY reduced may be limited, many studies have been to only 6% of its previous long-term conducted on deprivation of essential average (thereby resulting in extensive macro-elements (like N and P) and scouring of the river channel), while synergistic co-limitation of multiple nutrient-rich fine sediment load elements on primary producers in reduced to only 8% of its long-term the passage of ships, frequent or 5.8 Habitat Malnutrition freshwater ecosystems [Elser et al., average. As a result, the Total P and intermittent dredging of the river bed While anthropogenic pollution – or 2007; Harpole et al., 2011]. Thus, the Particulate P loads delivered to the (usually done to improve navigability in increase of harmful substances – in the effect of dams on nutrient availability MLY reduced to only 23% and 16.5% of the river) is also harmful as it disrupts Ganga river habitat is a matter of grave in downstream reaches of rivers is of their long-term averages. Now P had not only the benthic and hyporheic flora concern, the reverse phenomenon of obvious significance. already been a limiting nutrient for the and fauna, but also aquatic animals anthropogenic nutrient deprivation in Yangtze river’s bioactivity, hence its that depend on the river bed and river the river has received little attention. In the above context, a report by Zhou further reduction was a matter of grave bank for spawning, shelter, scavenging The general notion of anthropogenic et al. [2013] on the effects of the Three or other needs. effects on nutrient concentrations in Gorges Dam on phosphorus depletion rivers is that of nutrient enrichment, in MLY (i.e. Middle and Lower Yangtze In view of the problems, In view of the problems discussed i.e. increased concentrations of river) deserves mention. The study is above, anthropogenic disturbances of nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P) and relevant not only for its quantification anthropogenic disturbances of the Ganga river network must therefore other nutritional elements commonly of P deprivation due to the Three the Ganga river network must be completely stopped (or at least present in agricultural, domestic Gorges Dam, but also because – like minimized). and industrial wastewaters. But the National River Ganga – the Yangtze therefore be completely stopped river of China (originating from Tibetan (or at least minimized).

Mission 3: Ecological Restoration Mission 3: Ecological Restoration 20 21 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan concern. Zhou et al. concluded: “When Moreover, in the Ganga river network, P is trapped with sediment in upstream while macronutrients like N and P may 6. Summary of Recommended reservoirs and depleted from riverbed actually get compensated (or even resuspension, the nutrient regime in more than compensated) due to their Actions the MLY is altered. Extremely high increased influx from anthropogenic and further elevated ratios of nitrogen wastewaters, the same may not be true to P can reduce the bioproductivity of the many essential micronutrients if Based on the above threat assessment, the vii) Restrictions on anthropogenic disturbances and promote unusual algal blooms in their main supply to the river ecosystem following essential actions are envisaged to of river habitat by frequent plying of vessels, downstream waters.” is through sediments from upland restore the ecological balance of National dredging of river bed, etc. reaches. In the absence of quantitative River Ganga: viii) Control of overfishing and fishing during It is evident from the above that the data, the threat of nutrient deprivation to spawning seasons, ban on commercial trapping of sediments behind dams National River Ganga’s biodiversity can i) Restoration of longitudinal connectivity fishing, and protection of the spawning in the upland reaches of the Ganga only be guessed. Hence the imperative along with maintenance of environmental and breeding grounds of fish. River Network may also be starving need is to: (i) assess the availability of flows and sediments throughout the Ganga ix) Assessment of essential nutrient elements the downstream river reaches of some essential nutrient elements in different river network. available in different river stretches and essential mineral nutrients. Without branches and stretches of the Ganga ii) Maintenance of lateral and vertical in sediments trapped behind dams, and comprehensive data of the river’s river network and identify the nutrient- connectivity across rivers and floodplains devising suitable means to release the nutrient levels, a definite conclusion starved stretches; and (ii) assess what to provide breeding sites of fish and other trapped sediments into downstream river cannot be drawn in this regard. But, essential nutrient elements reside in aquatic/ amphibious animals as well as reaches. in the light of the above study, there the sediments trapped behind dams, the periodic exchange of river biota with x) Continuous bio-monitoring of the entire is a distinct possibility of nutrient and devise suitable means to release floodplain wetlands. Ganga river and her important tributaries, imbalance in the Ganga river system the sediments to nutrient-starved iii) Restoration of unpolluted flow in the and dissemination of information in public due to the damming of river sediments. downstream river reaches. river by appropriate measures to control domain. anthropogenic pollution as envisaged xi) Synergising the eco-restoration measures under Mission Nirmal Dhara. proposed above with the Dolphin iv) Restrictions on anthropogenic alterations Conservation Action Plan initiated by of river morphology by gravel and sand MoEF in 2010. mining as well as by river bed and river bank modifications by structural measures. Finally, it needs to be stressed that the v) elimination of alien invasive species from ecology of large rivers is globally inadequately It is highly desirable to conduct comprehensive the Ganga river network and establishing understood. While the amount of descriptive norms to prevent future introductions of information is large, comprehensive studies research to understand the ecological dynamics of exotic species. that integrate hydrology, bio-geochemistry, National River Ganga. vi) Control of habitat encroachment by and community ecology are rare [Melack, humans for riverbed farming, riparian 1987]. Hence, In addition to the above actions, activities and permanent constructions in it is desirable to conduct comprehensive floodplains. research to understand the ecological dynamics of National River Ganga.

Mission 3: Ecological Restoration Mission 3: Ecological Restoration 22 23 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan References

1. Braulik, G.T. et al. [2014], “Habitat 2 of “Environmental Flows: An Fragmentation and Species Introduction for Water Resources Extirpation in Freshwater Managers,” by B. Gopal (ed.), Ecosystems; Causes of Range National Institute of Ecology, Decline of the Indus River Dolphin New Delhi. (Platanista gangetica minor).” PLoS 7. Gupta, H., S-J. Kao and M. Dai ONE, Vol. 9 Issue 7. [2012], “The role of mega dams in 2. Brown, J.J. et al. [2013], “Fish and reducing sediment fluxes: A case hydropower on the U.S. Atlantic study of large Asian rivers”, Journal coast: failed fisheries policies of Hydrology, 464–465, pp 447–458. from half-way technologies”, 8. Hans, R.K. et al. [1999], “Agricultural Conservation Letters, Vol. 6, pp Produce in the Dry Bed of the River 280–286. Ganga in Kanpur, India – A New 3. elser, J.J., et al. [2007], “Global Source of Pesticide Contamination analysis of nitrogen and phosphorus in Human Diets”, Food and limitation of primary producers in Chemical Toxicology, Vol. 37, freshwater, marine and terrestrial pp 847-852. ecosystems”, Ecology Letters, 9. Harpole, W.S., et al. [2011], Vol.10, Issue 12, pp 1135–1143. “Nutrient co-limitation of primary 4. Graf, W.L. [2006], “Downstream communities,” Ecology Letters, hydrologic and geomorphic effects pp.1–11. [doi: 10.1111/j.1461- of large dams on American rivers ”, 0248.2011.01651.x] Geomorphology, Vol. 79, pp 336–360. 10. IITC [2011], “Floral and Faunal 5. Graham, R.D. [2008], “Micronutrient Diversity of Upper Ganga”, GRBMP Deficiencies in Crops and Thematic Report - Report Code: Their Global Significance”, in 020_GBP_IIT_ENB_DAT_01_Ver “Micronutrient Deficiencies in 1_Dec 2011. Global Crop Production”, by B.J. 11. IITC [2012a], “Floral and Faunal Alloway (editor), Springer Science + Diversity of Middle Ganga”, GRBMP Business Media B.V. Thematic Report – Report Code: 6. Gopal, B. and M. Chauhan [2013], 024_GBP_IIT_ENB_DAT_02_Ver “The River Ecosystems and their 1_Jun 2012. Natural flow Regimes”, Chapter

Mission 3: Ecological Restoration Mission 3: Ecological Restoration 24 25 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 12. IITC [2012b], “Floral and Faunal 19. Jenny, H. [1994] “Factors of soil 26. Pahl-Wostl, C. [2007], “The to the Danube ecosystem: A fast Diversity of Lower Ganga: Part formation: a system of quantitative implications of complexity for fish with a huge impact,” Research A – Varanasi to Farakka”, GRBMP pedology”, Dover Publication. integrated resources management”, News. [Accessed December 14, Thematic Report – Report Code: [Accessed May 28, 2014 from: Environmental Modelling & 2013 from https://www.tum.de/en/ 025_GBP_IIT_ENB_DAT_03_Ver http://www.soilandhealth. Software, Vol. 22, pp 561-569. about-tum/news/press-releases/ 1_Jun 2012. org/01aglibrary/010159.Jenny.pdf.] 27. Palmer, M.A. and C.M. Febria [2012], short/article/31047/]. 13. IITC [2012c], “Floral and Faunal 20. Kibler, K.M. and D.D. Tullos [2013], “The Heartbeat of Ecosystems”, 32. UPID-FAO [2008], “Main Ganga Diversity of Lower Ganga: Part B – “Cumulative Biophysical Impact Science, Vol. 336, pp 1393-94. Canal System”, Uttar Pradesh Farakka to Ganga Sagar”, GRBMP of Small and Large Hydropower 28. Rajvanshi, A. et al. [2012], Irrigation Dept. & FAO, Meerut Thematic Report – Report Code: Development in Nu River, China”, “Assessment of Cumulative Impacts [Accessed May 01, 2014 from: 026_GBP_IIT_ENB_DAT_04_Ver Water Resources Research, Vol. 49, of Hydroelectric Projects on http://www.fao.org/nr/water/ 1_Jun 2012. pp 3104–3118. Aquatic and Terrestrial Biodiversity docs/masscote/applications/ 14. IITC [2012d], “Status of Higher 21. Leprieur, F. et al. [2008], “Fish in Alaknanda and Bhagirathi Basins, masscotemeerutreport.pdf]. Aquatic Vertebrates in the Ganga invasions in the world’s river Uttarakhand”, Wildlife Institute 33. Wampler, P.J. [2012], “Rivers and River, India”, GRBMP Thematic systems: When natural processes of India. Streams - Water and Sediment Report – Report Code: 027_GBP_ are blurred by human activities”, 29. SANDRP (South Asia Network in Motion”, Nature Education IIT_ENB_DAT_05_Ver 1_Jun 2012. PLoS Biology, Vol. 6, Issue 2. on Dams, Rivers and People) Knowledge 3(10):18. [Accessed 15. IITC [2012e], “Hilsa : An assessment 22. Melack, J.M. [1987], “Large Rivers”, [2012], “WII’s Cumulative Impact April 02, 2014 from: http://www. in lower Ganga river basin, India”, Ecology, Vol. 68, No. 3, pp 756-757. Assessment of Ganga Hydel nature.com/scitable/knowledge/ GRBMP Thematic Report – Report 23. Mishra, M. [2013], “Ecological time Projects on Biodiversity: A Small library/rivers-and-streams-water- Code: 028_GBP_IIT_ENB_DAT_06_ bomb ticking in Chitrakoot,” TNN, Step in the Right Direction, a Long and-26405398]. Ver 1_Jun 2012, 2012. Aug. 12, 2013 [Accessed February Way to Go”, Dams, Rivers and 34. Wikipedia [2013], “Ecosystem”. 16. IITC [2012f], “Status of Fish and 06, 2014 from: http://timesofindia. People, Vol.10, Issue 3-4-5, 2012. [Accessed November 26, 2013 Fisheries of River Ganga”, GRBMP indiatimes.com/home/environment/ [Accessed April 28, 2014 from: from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Thematic Report – Report Code: developmental-issues/Ecological- http://sandrp.in/drp/April_May_ Ecosystem]. 029_GBP_IIT_ENB_DAT_07_Ver time-bomb-ticking-in-Chitrakoot/ June_2012.pdf]. 35. Wikipedia [2014], “Soils“. 1_Jun 2012. articleshow/21769927.cms.] 30. Sinha, R. K., Behera, S. and [Accessed May 28, 2014 from: http:// 17. IITC [2012g], “Riparian Vegetation 24. MoWR (Min. of Water Resources, Choudhary, B.C. [2010], “The en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil]. in Ganga River Basin”, GRBMP Govt. of India) [2014], “Ganga Basin Conservation Action Plan for the 36. zhou, J., M. Zhang, and P. Lu [2013], Thematic Report – Report Code: – Version 2.0”. Gangetic Dolphin 2010–2020,” Min. “The effect of dams on phosphorus 031_GBP_IIT_ENB_DAT_09_Ver 25. NIH (National Institute of Hydrology) of Environment and Forests, in the middle and lower Yangtze 1_Jun 2012. [2014], “Ganga Basin.” [Accessed Govt. of India. river”, Water Resources Research, 18. IITC [2014], “Measures for April 28, 2014 from: http://www.nih. 31. TUM (Technische Universität Vol. 49, pp 3659–3669. Ecological Revival of River Ganga”, ernet.in/rbis/basin%20maps/ganga_ München) [2013], “Major changes GRBMP Thematic Report – Report about.htm] Code: 054_GBP_IIT_ENB_DAT_14_ Ver 1_May 2014.

Mission 3: Ecological Restoration Mission 3: Ecological Restoration 26 27 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Mission 3: Ecological Restoration Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga RiverGanga Basin Mana Rivergem entBasin Plan Management(GRBM P)Plan - 2015

Mission 4: Sustaina ble Agriculture

Extended Summary January 2015 by by ConsortiumConsortium ofof 77 “Indian“Indian Insti Institutetute of ofTechnology”s Technology”s (IITs) (IITs)

IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT Bombay Delhi Guwahati Kanpur Kharagpur Madras Roorkee

In Collaboration with

IIT IIT CIFRI NEERI JNU PU NIT-K DU BHU Gandhinagar

NIH ISI Allahabad WWF

Roorkee Kolkata University India

CONTENTS List of Figures

List of Figures and Tables iii Figure Page 4.1. Geographical Delineation of Significant Agricultural Area of NRGB 8 Abbreviations and Acronyms iv 4.2. Average Crop Output Value per District in NRGB between Summary 1 1962-65 to 2003-06 9 4.3. Average Crop Yield (Rs. 000/ hectare of Gross Cropped Area) per 1. Introduction 2 district in GRB, 1962-65 to 2003-06 [IITC, 2011] 9 4.4. Average Gross Cropped Area (thousand hectares) per District in 2. Objective 5 NRGB between 1962-65 to 2003-06 10 4.5. Average Gross Irrigated Area (1000 hectares) per District in NRGB 3. why Sustainable Agriculture is Important for Ganga between 1962-65 to 2003-06 10 River Basin Management 5 4.6. Average Fertilizer Consumption (1000 tonnes) per District in NRGB 4. Status of NRGB’s Agro-ecosystems 7 between 1962-65 to 2003-06 11 4.7. Region-wise Trends in use of Chemical Fertilizers per Hectare 11 5. agro-ecosystem Concerns in NRGB 13 5.1. Share of Different Types of Land Degradation in India 13 5.1 Soil Erosion 5.2. Global Phosphate Reserves: 2009 and 2011 estimates 17 5.2 Soil Nutrients 5.3. Micronutrient Deficiencies in Indian Soils 18 5.3 Soil Biodiversity 5.4. Soil Fertility Management Models – (A) Conventional Simplistic Model. 5.4 Water Usage (B) Realistic Model based on Soil Biodiversity 19 6. measures to Implement Sustainable Agriculture in NRGB 22 6.1 Conservation Agriculture 6.2 Organic Farming List of Tables 6.3 Water and Nutrient Management Techniques in Rice Cultivation Table Page 6.4 Additional Resource Conservation Technologies 5.1. essential Plant Nutrient Elements and their Primary form Utilized by Plants 15 6.5 Resource Optimization Measures 5.2. Typical Nutrient Value of Soil Organic Matter 19 6.6 Regional (Landscape-scale) Resource Conservation Measures 6.7 Scoping Future Advancements 3. Key Biological Functions, the Groups of Soil Biota Principally Responsible for them, and Management Practices that Most Affect them 21 6.8 Policy Issues 4. Global Extent of No Tillage Cultivation in 2007-08 23 6. Summary of Recommended Actions 29 References 32

Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture II III Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Abbreviations and Summary Acronyms The Ganga River Network was adopted term soil fertility and agricultural 1. FAO : Food and Agricultural Organisation as the primary indicator of health of the output, especially in degrading lands. National River Ganga Basin (NRGB) (2) Adoption of Organic Farming where 2. GRBMP : Ganga River Basin Management Plan in GRBMP, and human-technology- economically feasible or essential. 3. IFDC : International Fertilizer Development Center environment aspects were factored (3) Improved water and nutrient 4. IITC : IIT Consortium in to assess the basin’s resource management techniques in rice dynamics. Modern agricultural cultivation. (4) Promoting other specific 5. MOA : Ministry of Agriculture practices have been major causes resource conservation technologies 6. MoEF : Ministry of Environment and Forests of soil degradation and fertility loss, wherever possible. (5) Resource 7. MoEFCC : Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate Change pollution of water bodies and natural use optimization by extensive soil resource depletion in NRGB. Hence testing for balanced management 8. MoWR : Ministry of Water Resources (Govt. of India) transition to sustainable agriculture is of nutrients and soil amendments. 9. MoWR, RD&GR : Ministry of Water Resources, River Development & urgently needed to maintain NRGB’s (6) Promoting regional (landscape- Ganga Rejuvenation ecosystem services. Though arable scale) resource conservation 10. NGRBA : National Ganga River Basin Authority land is a limiting constraint in NRGB, measures to mollify agroecosystem NRGB’s agricultural growth almost impacts. (7) Infusing experimentation, 11. NMCG : National Mission for Clean Ganga quadrupled in forty years since the adaptability and flexibility in NRGB’s 12. NPK : Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Potassium 1960s by adopting high-yield crops agricultural practices. (8) Devising 13. NRGB : National River Ganga Basin with high fertilizer and water inputs. appropriate policy measures to But extensive use of water, chemical achieve the above goals within the 14. NRGBMC : National River Ganga Basin Management Commission fertilizers and pesticides, soil tillage, existing socio-cultural, economic and 15. SOM : Soil Organic Matter and mono-cropping have increased institutional framework. 16. SRI : System of Rice Intensification soil erosion and degradation, depleted 17. UNEP : United Nations Environment Programme soil nutrients and biodiversity, dwindled the basin’s waters, and Modern agricultural polluted its ecosystems. The main practices have been major agricultural reforms recommended in NRGB are therefore identified as causes of soil degradation and follows: (1) Adoption of Conservation fertility loss, pollution of water Agriculture (involving no tillage, crop diversification, and permanent bodies and natural resource organic soil cover) to enhance long- depletion in NRGB.

Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture IV 1 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan River basin management needs to ensure 1. Introduction that a basin’s natural resources (biotic and The main abiotic abiotic) are adequately preserved over time. The main abiotic (or physical) resources of (or physical) resources of a river Indian civilization grew up under the care Environment and Forests (Govt. of India) a river basin are soil and water, along with basin are soil and water, along of River Ganga, nourished by her bounties assigned the task of preparing a Ganga a multitude of minerals and compounds with a multitude of minerals and for thousands of years. The Ganga river River Basin Management Plan (GRBMP) bound up with them. Now, water is a highly – along with her many tributaries and to restore and preserve National River variable resource. Barring variations from compounds bound up with them. distributaries – provided material, spiritual Ganga to a “Consortium of Seven IITs”. year to year, the water in a basin follows an and cultural sustenance to millions of The outcome of this effort – the GRBMP annual cycle of replenishment (primarily micro-organisms. Since biota evolve people who lived in her basin or partook of – evolved an eight-pronged action plan, through atmospheric precipitation over time to achieve a stable balance in her beneficence from time to time. To the with each prong envisaged to be taken up and groundwater inflows) and losses a given environment, the biotic resources traditional Indian mind, therefore, River for execution in mission mode. (primarily through river and groundwater depend on the constituent ecosystems Ganga is not only the holiest of rivers and outflows, evaporation, transpiration, of the basin – rivers, wetlands, forests, savior of mortal beings, she is also a living A river basin is the area of land from which and biological consumption). In contrast grasslands, etc. However, with significant Goddess. Very aptly is she personified the river provides the only exit route for to water, formation of mature soils – human activity in many ecosystems in Indian consciousness as “MOTHER surface water flows. For understanding from the weathering of parent material (as, for example, in agro-ecosystems GANGA”. This psychic pre-eminence of its dynamics, a basin may be viewed (rocks) to chemical decomposition and and urban ecosystems), the complexity River Ganga in the Indian ethos testifies as a closely-connected hydrological- transformation – is a drawn-out process of human-technology-environment to her centrality in Indian civilization and ecological system. Hydrological that may take hundreds or thousands of systems has increased manifold in recent her supreme importance in Indian life. connections include groundwater years [Jenny, 1994; Wikipedia, 2014]; but, times [Pahl-Wostl, 2006]. Nonetheless, flow, surface runoff, local/ regional once formed, soils can be fairly durable. GRBMP attempts to incorporate the The Ganga river basin is the largest evapotranspiration-precipitation cycles Thus, changes in a basin’s water resource interactive resource dynamics and river basin of India that covers a diverse and areal flooding, while ecological links status tend to be relatively faster and easily human-technology-environment landscape, reflecting the cultural and are many and varied (such as the food web detected, while those of soils are slow considerations in the Basin Plan. For, geographical diversity of the India. It and transport by biological agents). These and often go unnoticed for long periods. with human activities multiplying and is also a fertile and relatively water- linkages provide for extensive material However, soil and water are affected diversifying in the basin, the resulting rich alluvial basin that hosts about 43% transfer and communication between the by each other through many biotic and environmental consequences have also of India’s population [MoWR, 2014]. river and her basin, which constitute the abiotic processes. Being thus interrelated, been pronounced in recent times. In sum, It is fitting, therefore, that the Indian functional unity of a river basin. Directly degradation of either soil or water has GRBMP focuses on the basin’s overall government declared River Ganga as and indirectly, therefore, National River a concurrent effect on the other, hence resource environment and the major India’s National River in the year 2008. Ganga (along with her tributaries and neither can be considered in isolation. factors affecting it (especially diverse But the declaration was none too early. distributaries), is a definitive indication of anthropogenic activities), and seeks River Ganga had been degrading rapidly the health of the basin as a whole. Hence, It is not only soil and water that are ways and means to protect the basin and for a long time, and national concern GRBMP adopted the Ganga River Network mutually interactive, living organisms also its resources against identifiable adverse about her state had already become as the primary environmental indicator of interact with them and help shape the impacts. For, only thus can we secure the serious in the twentieth century. It was the National River Ganga Basin (NRGB). basin’s environment. The biotic resources environmental foundation of NRGB for the against this backdrop that the Ministry of of a basin consist of plants, animals and good of one and all.

Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture 2 3 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 2. Objective

The objective of Mission “Sustainable productivity can remain sufficiently Agriculture” is to ensure that high and enduring without fouling or agriculture remains environmentally depleting the natural resources of sustainable in NRGB, i.e. agricultural the basin.

3. Why Sustainable Agriculture is Important for Ganga River Basin Management

Soil and water are the main physical considers only the sown area, the area resources of a river basin that support would be even less – about 0.14 ha per all life in the basin. Over the last several capita. More significantly, India accounts millennia, human civilization has been for only about 2.4% of the world’s increasingly using these resources geographical area and 4% of the world’s in agriculture to sustain and expand water resources, but supports about human communities. Thus, if shifting 17% of the world’s human population cultivation needed 2–10 ha of land to [MOA, undated; MoWR, 2008]. Thus, with feed a person and early floodplain-based respect to world averages, India’s per agricultural societies used 0.5–1.5 ha, capita water availability is only about modern agriculture needs only about 23% and per capita land availability is 0.25 ha to feed each person, with the just 14%. In NRGB (which occupies about world’s most intensively farmed regions 26% of India’s land area, hosts about 43% using just 0.1–0.2 ha to support a person of her population, and has about 28% [Montgomery, 2007]. India is among such of her water resources, vide GRBMP – “most intensively farmed” regions in the Main Plan Document) the corresponding world. The total area under cropland in figures are more telling – only about 16% India was nearly 190 million ha in 2000 for water and 8-9% for land. Thus, in terms [MOA, undated], indicating a per capita of global averages, not only is water a cropland of only about 0.18 ha. If one meagre resource, but land – and hence

Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture 4 5 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 4. Status of NRGB’s Agro-ecosystems

An agroecosystem is an interactive Product during the 1980s and 1990s [IITC, group of biotic and abiotic components, 2014]. The general picture is probably only some of which are under the same for NRGB, given its intensively human control. Agroecosystems are cultivated farmlands. In addition to intentionally disturbed ecosystems that, general soil degradation in terms of through human influences, are forced edaphic parameters is the depletion into states different than the natural of soil nutrients and biota, information systems from which they are derived on which is limited. Such depletions [Elliot and Cole, 1989]. The change in the have necessitated increased inputs of state of an agroecosystem is essentially chemical fertilizers and pesticides to soil – is an even more critical resource. microorganisms and organic matter, due to change in the state of its soils. compensate for the loss of soil fertility and This double constraint underlies the can support greater plant growth.” The effect of modern agricultural pest resistance, whose consequences overwhelming difficulty in sustaining Thus, apart from soil erosion, regular on soils has been negative in many on NRGB’s agroecosystems are obvious. agricultural productivity in NRGB. tillage and the extensive use of chemical ways, with alarming soil erosion and As noted in the IITC [2014] “the high fertilizers and pesticides have affected land degradation in many parts of the input-intensive farm practices followed Sustainable agriculture integrates soil fertility by debilitating soil’s nutrient world. Globally, the rate of soil erosion by farmers in the basin have caused environmental viability, economic cycles and leading to progressive soil from conventional agricultural lands is depletion in the groundwater table, profitability and social equity [IITC, degradation. In water-constrained estimated to average 1.54 (±0.32) mm/ deterioration in the quality of soil and 2014]. But, among these three aspects, areas, increased crop water use has year whereas the rate of soil formation water… .” The direct adverse effects of environmental sustainability is the most also led to water crises in many parts of is only about 0.075 (±0.05) mm/year these “high input” and “intensive” farm important, since the latter two goals the region. While these issues are global, [Parikh & James, 2012]. Additionally, practices are on the agricultural land are contingent upon it. Now, as noted the extreme land and water constraints deterioration of soil properties has led itself – loss of valuable topsoil, depletion by Montgomery [2007], “conventional of NRGB’s agriculture have speeded to many types of soil degradation. of nutrients, decimation of soil biota, and agriculture has dramatically increased up the degradation of its agricultural degeneration of soil structure. These soil erosion around the world. … With lands, with eroded soils and nutrients In India, a large area of about 120.40 million effects, in turn, affect the entire ecozone. global agricultural soil erosion outpacing running into the Ganga river network and ha (out of India’s total geographical area Agriculture is the main source of soil production by a wide margin, modern seriously affecting the rivers and other of 328.73 million ha) is reportedly affected livelihood of about half of the population conventional agriculture is literally ecosystems. Thus, there is an urgent by land degradation, with annual soil loss of NRGB and the majority of its rural mining soil to produce food. ... (Moreover) need to devise and promote appropriate of about 5.3 billion tonnes through erosion population [IITC, 2014]. Considering the soil productivity involves nutrient sustainable agricultural practices to [MOA, undated]. In economic terms trend, pattern, influence, ascendancy, budgets, not just soil loss. Ecologically protect the basin and its agricultural India’s soil degradation ranged from problems, and prospects etc., the productive soils, those with more soil lands from any further damage. 11 to 26 percent of her Gross Domestic significant agricultural areas of NRGB

Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture 6 7 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 4 – Sustainable Agriculture

were assessed to comprise the states The Borlaug seed-fertilizer technology of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar ushered into India in the 1960s raised and West Bengal, vide FIgure 4.1 [IITC, crop outputs rapidly in India (including 2011]. There has been significant the NRGB). The average value of crop agricultural growth in the above output in the delineated NRGB area regions of NRGB over the last 4–5 grew almost four-fold from Rs. 1.97 decades. But, on the whole, the growth billion during 1962-65 to Rs. 5.24 billion has been limited by land constraints during 2003-06 (at 1990-93 prices), rather than of water or other natural vide Figure 4.2 [IITC, 2011]. The growth resources. Most of the arable land was enabled by crop yields more than has already been brought under doubling from Rs. 4,300 to Rs.9,900 per Figure 2:Figure Average 4.2: Average Crop Crop Output Output Value Value per per District District in NRGB in between NRGB 1962-65betwee to n2003-06 1962-65 [IITC, 2011] cultivation, while the land demand for hectare of gross cropped area from to 2003-06 [IITC, 2011] non-agricultural uses has increased. 1962-65 to 2003-06 (at 1990-93 prices), In contrast, irrigation water supplies vide Figure 4.3 [IITC, 2011]. The Green have been increasingGRBMP rapidly –through January 2015:Revolution’s Mission impact4 – Sustainable on agricultural Agriculture groundwater usage. yields were evidently limited in the first

Figure 3:Figure Average 4.3: Average Crop Crop Yield Yield (Rs.1000/ hectare hectare of Gross of Cropped Gross A Croppedrea) per district Area) in N perRGB, 1962-65 to 2003-06district [IITC, in 2011 NRGB, 1962-65 to 2003-06 [IITC, 2011]

couple of decades, but accelerated 1,700 to 76,300 tonnes per district (vide since the 1980s. The gross cropped Figure 4.6) [IITC, 2011], with consistently area during the four decades from the increasing trends of fertilizer usage mid 1960s grew by about 20% from 502 in different regions of NRGB (see to 599 thousand hectares per district Figure 4.7) [IITC, 2014]. Thus, it is (vide Figure 4.4), but the gross irrigated obvious that the remarkable agricultural area more than tripled from about 134 growth in NRGB was sustained by to 411 thousand hectares per district rapidly increasing agricultural inputs (vide Figure 4.5), while average fertilizer rather than significant increase in FigureFigure 1: 4.1: Geographical Geographical Delineation Delineat of Significantion of Agricultural Significant Area ofAgricultural NRGB [IITC, 2011] Area of consumption grew many-fold from cropping area. NRGB [IITC, 2011] Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture 8 9 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Figure 4: Average Gross Cropped Area (thousand hectares) per District in The Borlaug seed-fertilizer technology ushered into India in the 1960s raised NRGB between 1962-65 to 2003-06 [IITC, 2011] crop outputs rapidly in India (including the NRGB). The average value of crop output in the delineated NRGB area grew almost four-fold from Rs. 1.97 billion during 1962-65 to Rs. 5.24 billion during 2003-06 (at 1990-93 prices), vide Figure 2 [IITC, 2011]. The growth was enabled by crop yields more than 7 doubling from Rs. 4,300 to Rs.9,900 per hectare of gross cropped area from 1962-65 to 2003-06 (at 1990-93 prices), vide Figure 3 [IITC, 2011]. The Green Revolution’s impact on agricultural yields were evidently limited in the first couple of decades, but accelerated since the 1980s. The gross cropped area during the four decades from the mid 1960s grew by about 20% from 502 to 599 thousand hectares per district (vide Figure 4), but the gross irrigated area more than tripled from about 134 to 411 thousand hectares per district (vide Figure 5), while average fertilizer consumption grew many-fold from 1,700 to 76,300 tonnes per district (vide Figure 6) [IITC, 2011], with consistently increasing trends of fertilizer usage in different regions of NRGB (see Figure 7) [IITC, 2014]. Thus, it is obvious that the remarkable agricultural growth in NRGB was sustained by rapidly increasing agricultural inputs rather than significant increase in cropping area.

6 GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 4 – Sustainable Agriculture

GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 4 – Sustainable Agriculture

GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 4 – Sustainable Agriculture Figure 2: Average Crop Output Value per District in NRGB between 1962-65

to 2003-06 [IITC, 2011]

Figure 5: Average Gross Irrigated Area (1000 hectares) per District in NRGB

between 1962-65 to 2003-06 [IITC, 2011] Figure 3: Average Crop Yield (Rs.1000/ hectare of Gross Cropped Area) per Figure 5: Average Gross Irrigated Area (1000 hectares) per District in NRGB district in NRGB, 1962-65 to 2003-06 [IITC, 2011] between 1962-65 to 2003-06 [IITC, 2011]

Figure 4.4: Average Gross Cropped Area (thousand hectares) per District in NRGB between Figure 4.6: Average Fertilizer Consumption (1000 tonnes) per District in NRGB between GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 4 – Sustainable Agriculture 1962-65Figure to 4: 2003-06 Average [IITC, 2011] Gross Cropped Area (thousand hectares) per District in Figure1962-65Figure 6: to 6: Average 2003-06 Average [IITC, Fertilizer 2011] Fertilizer Consumption Consumption (1000(1000 tonnes) tonnes) per per Dist District rictin NRGB in NRGB NRGB between 1962-65 to 2003-06 [IITC, 2011] betweenbetween 1962-65 1962-65 to to 2003-06 2003-06 [IITC,[IITC, 2011] 2011]

210 210 196 196 182.1182.1 182.6182.6 167.6167.6 167 165.5167 7 160 150 165.5 160 150 127.4 127.4 143 127.4 120 127.4 125 143 108.2 120 125 110 108.2 125 123.4 110 100 125 110.8 123.4 70.2 80 100 110.8 80 75 86.6 80.6 6070.2 48 55 75 86.6 80.6 42 42.1 60 52.7 32.9 26.8 33.3 40.955 42 42.1 48 14.6 19.3 33.3 10 52.7 32.9 26.8 40.9 14.6 1980-81 1984-8519.3 1990-91 1994-95 2000-01 2004-05 2007-08 10 FFigureigure 4.5: 5: A verage Average Gross IrrGross igated Irrigated Area (1000 Areahectares) (1000 per District hectares) in NRGB per between District in NRGB 1980-81Southern 1984-85 Region 1990-91Central 1994-95 Region 2000-01Uttar 2004-05 Pradesh 2007-08 1962-65 to 2003-06 [IITC, 2011] Eastern Region N Upper Ganga Plain N Upper Ganga Plain between 1962-65 to 2003-06 [IITC, 2011] Southern Region Central Region Uttar Pradesh Eastern Region N Upper Ganga Plain N Upper Ganga Plain Figure 7: Region-wise Trends in use of Chemical Fertilizers per Hectare [IITC, 2014] FigureFigure 7: Region-wise4.7: Region-wise Trends Trends in use in of useChemical of Chemical Fertilizers per Fertilizers Hectare [IITC, per2014] Hectare [IITC, 2014] 8

Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture 10 11 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 8

Figure 6: Average Fertilizer Consumption (1000 tonnes) per District in NRGB between 1962-65 to 2003-06 [IITC, 2011]

210 196 182.1 182.6 167.6 167 165.5 160 150 127.4 127.4 143 120 108.2 125 110 125 123.4 100 110.8 70.2 80 75 86.6 80.6 60 48 55 42 42.1 52.7 32.9 26.8 33.3 40.9 14.6 19.3 10 1980-81 1984-85 1990-91 1994-95 2000-01 2004-05 2007-08 Southern Region Central Region Uttar Pradesh Eastern Region N Upper Ganga Plain N Upper Ganga Plain

Figure 7: Region-wise Trends in use of Chemical Fertilizers per Hectare [IITC, 2014]

8 5. Agro-ecosystem Concerns in NRGB

As evident from the preceding section, effects. These goals together comprise current agricultural practices in NRGB the parameters defining the need for have had diverse negative impacts on sustainable agriculture in NRGB. They the region’s ecosystems that make it are in fact universally acknowledged in nearly impossible to maintain agriculture today’s world. As summed up by Brodt growth (and perhaps even the present et al. [2011], “a sustainable agriculture agricultural output) in the long run. Urgent approach seeks to utilize natural reforms are needed to prevent (or at least resources in such a way that they can minimize) soil erosion and maintain soil regenerate their productive capacity, fertility (soil structure, nutrient base and and also minimize harmful impacts on biodiversity), besides also protecting the ecosystems beyond a field’s edge.” The region’s various other natural resources main concerns about NRGB’s evolving (including water, nutrients, biodiversity agroecosystems are outlined below in 5.1. Soil Erosion and forests) from agriculture’s adverse further detail.

The above data indicate the extent note is that fertilizer usage is far from of growth of agricultural inputs balanced, with Nitrogen fertilizers and outputs in NRGB. It may be comprising about 75% of the total also noted here that rice, wheat fertilizer usage [IITC, 2014]. Farm and sugarcane constitute the bulk mechanization also grew rapidly over of agricultural crops in the basin. the decades. The consequence of the Out of these, rice and sugarcane composite agricultural developments are high water-consuming crops, in NRGB’s agroecosystems can easily whose growth depended not only on be surmised to have increased soil mineral fertilizer inputs, but also on erosion and reduced soil fertility, escalating groundwater irrigation besides dispatching eroded soils (e.g. groundwater irrigation covered and much of the nutrients beyond the about 80% of the gross irrigated area croplands and adversely affecting in the Middle Ganga Basin in 2007- the basin’s ecosystems (including the 08, vide IITC, 2014). A second point of Ganga river network). FigureFigure 8:5.1: Share Share ofof Different Types Types of of L and Land Degradation Degradation in India in India [MOA [MOA,, undated] undated] Among the major types of land degradation in India, soil erosion is reported to Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture 12 th 13 Ganga River Basin Management Plan be the most important, causing nearly 4/5 of the degradation, videGanga Figure River 8 Basin Management Plan [MOA, undated]. Much of this erosion is from agricultural lands, with agricultural soil erosion being largely related to soil tillage (besides topography, soil texture, soil composition, etc.). Minimizing soil tillage is, therefore, a key step in erosion control.

5.2 Soil Nutrients

Plant nutrient requirements include many chemical elements needed by plants in varying quantities. There are at least 17 essential elements required for plant growth as listed in Table 1. The lack of any of these essential nutrients can result in a severe limitation of crop yield. Of the 17 or more essential elements, the non-mineral elements C, H and O are obtained from air and water, but the mineral elements must be available in the soil as water-soluble

10 5.1 Soil Erosion macronutrients (Ca, Mg and S) needed in Table 5.1: Essential Plant Nutrient Elements and their Primary form Utilized by Plants [Parikh et al., 2012] Among the major types of land degradation smaller quantities, are typically sufficiently Essential plant element Symbol Primary form in India, soil erosion is reported to be the present in soil, and hence are seldom Non-Mineral Elements: th most important, causing nearly 4/5 of limiting for crop growth. The remaining 8 Carbon C CO2 (g) the degradation, vide Figure 5.1 [MOA, elements – Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, Mo, Cl and Hydrogen H H2O (l), H+

undated]. Much of this erosion is from Ni – are micronutrients (or trace nutrients), Oxygen O H2O (l), O2(g) agricultural lands, with agricultural soil that are needed in very small amounts, and Mineral Elements: + - erosion being largely related to soil tillage can be toxic to plants if in excess. Besides Primary Macronutrients Nitrogen N NH4 , NO¬3 Phosphorus P HPO 2-, H PO - (besides topography, soil texture, soil these 17 elements, Silicon (Si) and sodium 4 2 4 + composition, etc.). Minimizing soil tillage (Na) are also essential elements, but due Potassium K K Secondary Calcium Ca Ca + is, therefore, a key step in erosion control. to their ubiquitous presence in soils they 2 Macronutrients Magnesium Mg Mg + are never in short supply [Epstein, 1994; 2 Sulfur S SO 2- 5.2 Soil Nutrients Parikh and James, 2012]. In addition to the 4 Micronutrients Iron Fe Fe3+, Fe2+ Plant nutrient requirements include many above micronutrients, cobalt (Co) is also Manganese Mn Mn2+ chemical elements needed by plants in an essential micro-element required by Zinc Zn Zn2+ varying quantities. There are at least 17 nitrogen-fixing plants [Graham, 2008]. Copper Cu Cu2+ essential elements required for plant Boron B B(OH)3 growth as listed in Table 5.1. The lack of any It should be noted here that the above 17 2- Molybdenum Mo MoO4 of these essential nutrients can result in a or 18 elements are the ones known to be Chlorine Cl Cl- severe limitation of crop yield. Of the 17 or essential for plants in general, but there are Nickel Ni Ni2+ more essential elements, the non-mineral likely to be more essential elements that elements C, H and O are obtained from air are still unknown or those that are required and water, but the mineral elements must by specific plant species. The possible The mere presence of nutrient elements soil is generally high, and little available be available in the soil as water-soluble additions include at least 8 more elements in soil does not assure their adequate N accumulates in the soil. Conversely, compounds suitable for plant uptake. known to be essential for animals (including supply to plants. Some nutrients, such P availability near plant roots is critical Among the 14 mineral elements, N, P and K humans), viz. selenium (Se), iodine (I), as N and P, are often present in the soil for its uptake, and the loss of P from are primary macronutrients that are needed chromium (Cr), tin (Sn), fluorine (F), lithium in large amounts but are made available soils usually requires erosion of the in the greatest quantities. Secondary (Li), silicon (Si), arsenic (As) and vanadium to plants only very slowly. Others, such soil itself. However, recent evidence (V) [Graham, 2008]. Since these additional as K, are readily available for plant indicates that significant amounts of microelements are sourced by humans uptake. An important parameter of soluble P can also be lost in runoff from and animals mainly through plants (directly nutrient availability in soil is its relative fields when the soil becomes saturated Much of this erosion is from or indirectly through the food chain) and mobility, which is high for N, S and B but with excessive soil test phosphorus agricultural lands, with agricultural since billions of people worldwide are low for P and most micronutrients. In levels [PSU, 2013]. estimated to have been already affected general, as nutrient mobility increases, soil erosion being largely related by their deficiency – especially of Se and its location in the soil becomes less In recent times, the two major fertilizer to soil tillage (besides topography, I [Graham, 2008], the availability of these important for plant uptake, but the inputs N and P have been a cause for elements in soil should also be considered potential for nutrient loss increases. soil degradation and environmental soil texture, soil composition, etc.). essential for human and ecosystem health. Thus, the potential for N loss from the pollution in many parts of the world. On

Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture 14 15 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Algeria Not available 2009 China Even old estimates put 2011 Morocco in the lead the one hand, overuse of N fertilizers can [UNEP-WHRC, 2007; Bodirsky et al., 2014]. Jordan lead to acidification of croplands1, which Morocco/ has already happened significantly in It is also worth noting that, while N Western Sahara China [Guo et al., 2010]. On the other fertilizers are manufactured from Russia hand, N and P fertilizers tend to damage petroleum, P and K fertilizers are South Africa Previously overlooked neighbouring ecosystems. For instance, produced from ores, whose reserves Syria geological reports from many forests have been severely affected have been steadily declining worldwide. the 1980s bumped up by the excessive use of N fertilizers in P fertilizers, in particular, are a matter United States estimates modern agriculture [Nosengo, 2003]. As of concern due to globally limited P Other noted by Goulding et al. [2008], “N is a reserves [Elser and Bennett, 2011; 0 10 20 30 40 50 particular problem. Its importance as a Vacari, 2009]. P ores are available at only growth- and yield-determining nutrient a few places on earth, and 85% of the Phosphate rock reserves (billion tonnes) known reserves are concentrated in just has led to large and rapid increases in Figure 5.2: Global Phosphate Reserves: 2009 and 2011 estimates [Elser & Bennett, 2011] application rates, but with often very 3 countries, with the bulk of the reserves (Note: India’s phosphate reserves being negligible, phosphate fertilizers are almost entirely poor efficiencies. … (And) the view being in Morocco and its disputed import-dependent in India.) that P is strongly held in soils and so territory of West¬ern Sahara [Elser and applying more than enough P is ‘money Bennett, 2011], vide Figure 5.2. For India, in the bank’ has resulted in the build- which is almost entirely dependent on IITC, 2014] could be damaging for some soils, plus possibly even those of up of excessive P levels in some soils, imports for P fertilizers, the limited and of NRGB’s agroecosystems. macronutrients like calcium as evident resulting in enhanced leaching… (and) skewed global P reserves are a matter of from cattle produce [Singh, 2009]. loss by erosion.” Globally, only 30–50% special concern, and this is an additional A further cause for concern is the Where micronutrients are not actually of applied nitrogen fertilizer and about reason for restrained and efficient use of growing deficiencies of micronutrients deficient in soil, their availability 45% of phosphorus fertilizer is taken up P fertilizers. in Indian soils, especially since may still be limited by soil acidity or by crops. A significant amount of the the onset of Green Revolution. The applied N (and a smaller portion of the In terms of the primary macronutrients increasing deficiencies are largely applied P) is lost from agricultural fields. (N, P and K), India’s overall soil fertility due to excessive mining of soil amount of These nutrient losses as well as gaseous status is probably satisfactory, but there micronutrients by agricultural crops, A significant nitrogen oxides (NOX) emitted from are significant variations across different whose output increases aided by NPK the applied N is lost from agricultural fertilized soils harm off-site ecosystems, states (including in NRGB) [Pathak, fertilizer inputs are not complemented fields. This nutrient loss as well water quality and aquatic ecosystems, 2010]. And there are likely to be even with corresponding micronutrient and increase atmospheric ozone to more significant variations between inputs. Figure 5.3 depicts the extent of as gaseous nitrogen oxides (NOX) damaging levels [Tilman et al., 2002]. The different parts of each state. Hence, a deficiencies of some micronutrients emitted from fertilized soils harm off- increasing amounts of reactive nitrogen uniform recommendation of fertilizer in India [Singh, 2004]. Among the in the environment due to N fertilizers application of 120:60:30 NPK kg/ha dose micronutrients shown, zinc is the site ecosystems, water quality and have in fact become a global issue (in 4:2:1 ratio) for wheat/ rice crop [vide most common deficiency in India’s aquatic ecosystems, and increase and NRGB’s soils. But there are atmospheric ozone to deficiencies of other micronutrients 1Note: As seen from Figure 8, nearly 15% of the 21% non-eroded degraded land in India is acidic; hence possible acidification of more agricultural lands due to N fertilizers is of concern in India. (like boron and sulphur) also in NRGB’s damaging levels.

Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture 16 17 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 4 – Sustainable Agriculture

a uniform recommendation of fertilizer application of 120:60:30 NPK kg/ha dose (in 4:2:1 ratio) for wheat/rice crop [vide IITC, 2014] could be damaging for some of NRGB’s agroecosystems.

A further cause for concern is the growing deficiencies of micronutrients in Indian soils, especially since the onset of Green Revolution. The increasing deficiencies are largely due to excessive mining of soil micronutrients by GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 4 – Sustainable Agriculture agricultural crops, whose output increases aided by NPK fertilizer inputs are not complemented with corresponding micronutrient inputs. Figure 10 depicts of ways in which soil constituents can be processed and transformed by a diverse soil microbial community provides an energy-efficient, nonleaky, self- the extent of deficiencies of some micronutrients in India [Singh, 2004]. Among regulating system that can adapt to changing environments.” But not only soil the micronutrients shown, zinc is the most common deficiency in India’s and micro-organisms, invertebrates (such as earthworms and macro-arthropods) NRGB’s soils. But there are deficiencies of other micronutrients (like boron and present in the soil are extremely useful for robust soil structure and nutrient sulphur) also in NRGB’s soils, plus possibly even those of macronutrients like recycling – by building large and stable organo-mineral structures, and by breaking up large organic litter. Soils rich in organic matter contain many calcium as evident from cattle produce [Singh, 2009]. Where micronutrients thousands (or even millions) of species of micro-flora such as bacteria are not actually deficient in soil, their availability may still be limited by soil (including actinomycetes), fungi and algae plus micro-fauna such as protozoa acidity or alkalinity [FAO, 2000]. Comprehensive measures to ensure balanced and nematodes. The microbes decompose the active component of soil nutrient fertility in NRGB’s soils are, therefore, essential. organic matter (or SOM) composed of fresh plant or animal material, thereby releasing nutrients for plant uptake [Giller et al., 1997; Hoorman & Islam, of fresh plant or animal material, a typical case of soils containing 2010]. Without adequate microbial activity, the nutrients would remain 60 Acidic Non Acidic thereby releasing nutrients for plant 1% SOM, the macronutrients in the inaccessibleuptake [Giller toet plants.al., 1997; ForHoorman a ty picaltopsoil case have of been soils valued containing at about US 1% SOM, the 50 macronutrients& Islam, 2010]. inWithout the topsoil adequate ha ve $been 680, vide valued Table 2.at The about table illustratesUS $ 68 0, vide Table microbial activity, the nutrients would the economic importance of soil 40 2. remain The tableinaccessible illustrates to plants. the For economic biodiversity importance for maintaining of soil soil fertility. biodiv ersity for maintaining soil fertility. 30

20

10

0 Zn Cu Fe Mn B Mo

Figure 5.3: Micronutrient Deficiencies in Indian Soils [Singh, 2004] Figure 10: Micronutrient Deficiencies in Indian Soils [Singh, 2004]

alkalinity [FAO, 2000]. Comprehensive community provides an energy- measures to ensure balanced nutrient efficient, nonleaky, self-regulating 5.3 Soil Biodiversityfertility in NRGB’s soils are, therefore, system that can adapt to changing essential. environments.” But not only soil micro- Soil biodiversity plays a key role in soil fertility,organisms, vide Figuinvertebratesre 11 (such(although as the 5.3 Soil Biodiversity earthworms and macro-arthropods) FigureFigure 5.4: 11: Soil Soil Fertility Fertility Management Management Models – (ModelsA) Conventional – (A) SimplisticConventional Model. Simplistic(B) Realistic figure depicts the roleSoil of biodiversity soil biota plays ain key nutrient role in soil movementspresent in the soilof Care and extremely N only). As Model based Model.on Soil Biodiversity (B) Realistic [Scholes Model and Scholes, based 2013] on Soil Biodiversity [Scholes noted by Scholes andfertility, Scholes vide Figure [2013 5.4 ],(although “the thekey usefulto understanding for robust soil structure the behaviourand and Scholes, 2013] figure depicts the role of soil biota in nutrient recycling – by building large Table 5.2: Typical Nutrient Value of Soil Organic Matter [Hoorman & Islam., 2010] nutrient movements of C and N only). and stable organo-mineral structures, of life-supporting elements in soils lies not in the absolute amounts present, but Assumptions: 2,000,000 pounds soil in top 6 inches As noted by Scholes and Scholes and by breaking up large organic litter. Nutrients 1% organic matter = 20,000 # 50% in the fluxes between[2013], their “the various key to understanding forms, modulated the Soils rich byin organicbiology matter. ... contain The variety Carbon, C:N ratio = 10:1 behaviour of life-supporting elements many thousands (or even millions) of Nitrogen 1000 # * $0.50/#N = $500 in soils lies not in the absolute amounts species of micro-flora such as bacteria Phosphorus 100# * $0.70/#P = $70 present, but in the fluxes between their (including actinomycetes), fungi Potassium 100# * $0.40/#K = $40 15 various forms, modulated by14 biology. and algae plus micro-fauna such as Sulfur 100# * $0.50/#S = $50 ... The variety of ways in which soil protozoa and nematodes. The microbes Carbon 10,000# or 5 ton * $4/Ton = $20 constituents can be processed and decompose the active component of Value of 1% SOM Nutrients/Acre = $680 transformed by a diverse soil microbial soil organic matter (or SOM) composed Relative Ratio of Nutrients 100 Carbon/ 10 Nitrogen/ 1 Phosphorus/ 1 Sulfur

Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture 18 19 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan A brief overview of soil microbial Even in similar and nearby areas, the Table 5.3: Key Biological Functions, the Groups of Soil Biota Principally Responsible for these, and activity is presented here based on soil biodiversity can be vastly different Management Practices Most Likely to Affect them [Giller et al., 1997] Giller et al. [1997] and Hoorman & Islam depending on plant communities and [2010]. Protozoa and nematodes (soil human interventions. For instance, Biological function Biological/ functional group Management practices micro-fauna) consume microflora and American prairie soils abound in a sturdy Residue comminution/ Residue-borne microorganisms, meso/ Burning, soil tillage, pesticide release N as ammonia, which becomes variety of bacteria (Verrucomicrobia) decomposition macrofauna applications. available to other microorganisms or that are specialized for low-nutrient Carbon sequestration Microbial biomass (especially fungi), Burning, shortening of fallow in slash- is absorbed by plant roots. Between conditions, but these bacteria do not macrofauna building compact structures and-burn, soil tillage bacteria and fungi, bacteria are exist in fertilized agricultural soils of Nitrogen fixation Free and symbiotic nitrogen-fixers Reduction in crop diversity, fertilization generally quick to digest labile organics the region [Scholes & Scholes, 2013]. Organic matter/nutrient Roots, Mycorrhizas, soil macrofauna Reduction in crop diversity, soil tillage, (fresh plant and animal residues), while The key biological functions in tropical redistribution fertilization fungi are slower but more efficient agricultural soils, the principal groups Nutrient Cycling, Mineralization/ Soil microorganisms, soil microfauna Soil tillage, irrigation, fertilization, decomposers. Notable among fungi of organisms responsible for them, and immobilization pesticide applications, burning are the mycorrhizal fungi that live on the agricultural management practices Bioturbation Roots, soil macrofauna Soil tillage, irrigation, pesticide the surface of or within plant roots that impact them the most were applications (usually in symbiotic association) that succinctly summarized by Giller et al. Soil aggregation Roots, fungal hyphae, soil macrofauna, Soil tillage, burning, reduction in crop aid the transport of mineral nutrients [1997] as reproduced in Table 5.3. soil mesofauna diversity, irrigation and water to plants. But fungi are not as Population control Predators/grazers, parasites, pathogens Fertilization, pesticide application, hardy as bacteria in surviving starvation It is evident from the above discussions, reduction in crop diversity, soil tillage. conditions, and their population tends to that building up soil organic matter decline with tillage. In general, organic to restore soil biodiversity is the residues with a low carbon to nitrogen key to achieving lasting food and one hand it tends to deplete limited earthquakes (vide Mission Report on ratio (C:N < 20) are easily decomposed environmental security [Scholes & water resources; on the other hand, Geological Safeguarding). Secondly and nutrients are quickly released (4 to Scholes, 2013]. This fundamental it enhances soil erosion, loss of soil groundwater irrigation can sometimes 8 weeks), while organic residues with principle underlies agricultural nutrients and wastewater generation be a cause for mineral toxicity in plants high C:N ratio (> 20) decompose slowly, sustainability in NRGB. through leaching and runoff. These and animals. For instance, high arsenic with microbes using up soil nitrogen issues are well-known and have been levels in groundwater have been widely in the process. This broad picture of 5.4 Water Usage discussed under Missions Aviral Dhara reported in many parts of West Bengal soil microbial activity takes various High water usage in agriculture in NRGB and Nirmal Dhara of GRBMP. But a and contiguous regions, which entail a complex forms in different conditions. is a matter of concern because, on the few points deserve mention regarding distinct possibility of arsenic entering groundwater irrigation. Large-scale the food chain in NRGB if groundwater groundwater usage for irrigation has irrigation continues unabated. Likewise, been occurring in India (and elsewhere toxic fluoride levels in groundwater Building up soil organic matter to restore in the world) only in the last 5-6 exist in many areas. The spurt in soil biodiversity is the key to achieving lasting food decades. The enhanced groundwater groundwater irrigation in NRGB over extraction rates have caused land the past few decades therefore needs and environmental security. This fundamental principle subsidence in some places, and is to be monitored, and deep groundwater underlies agricultural sustainability in NRGB. also considered a potential cause for usage certainly needs to be restrained.

Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture 20 21 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 6. Measures to Implement Table 6.1: Global Extent of No Tillage Cultivation in 2007-08 [UNEP, 2013] Best estimate cumulative avoided greenhouse gas emissions by Area under no- Country Climate Zone Base Year replacing till-with no-till cultivation Sustainable Agriculture tillage in 2007/08 (between indicated base year and in NRGB 2007/08) Unit (million hectares) (MtCO2e) Notes (a) (b) (c) (d) The preceding discussions underscore diversification. All the three components of Australia (e) warm-dry 1976 17 95.2 the basic requirements to be fulfilled to conservation agriculture – crop diversification Argentina warm-moist 1993 19.7 109.4 achieve agricultural sustainability in NRGB, (crop rotation, intercropping), organic soil viz., conservation of soil resources (primary cover (cover crops and mulching) and “no till” Bolivia warm-moist 1996 0.7 3.1 soil particles, nutrients and biodiversity) or “zero tillage” farming – are essentially part of Brazil warm-moist 1992 25.5 145.7 and water resources of the region. Fulfilling traditional agriculture [Derpsch, 2004; Roland, Canada cool-moist 1985 13.5 82.3 these goals require minimization of tillage 2012]; but these were actively revived in the China(f) cool-dry 2000 2 1.6 and of agricultural inputs (mainly chemical mid-twentieth century, especially in North fertilizers and pesticides), which, together and South America, before gaining worldwide Kazakhstan cool-dry 2006 1.2 0.2 with economic water use, can protect ascendancy. By the year 2000, about 45–60% New Zealand cool-moist 1993 0.16 0.7 neighbouring ecosystems from the ill-effects of cropland areas of Paraguay, Brazil and Uruguay warm-moist 1999 0.66 2.0 of present agricultural practices. Based on Argentina and about 17% of croplands in USA USA cool-moist 1974 26.5 241.3 the issues covered and recommendations had converted to no-tillage [Derpsch, 2004]. of in GRBMP Thematic Reports [IITC, However, no-tillage farming has been slow to Notes: 2011; IITC, 2014] and other sources [e.g. pick up in Asia and Europe, vide Table 6.1, and (a) Considering the lack of information on where no-till cultivation is being practiced, we assume one climate zone throughout the FAO, 2014; MOA, 2010; MOA, undated; in India it was limited to only about 5 million country, considering, where possible, the regional distribution of no-till agriculture. (b) The base year is the estimated year in which the area of no-till cultivation began significantly expanding from a small baseline Planning Commission, 2007; Tilman et al., ha in 2007-08 [Huggins & Reganold, 2008; value in the country. The base year was estimated by linearly extending adoption rates from Derpsch et al. (2010), unless 2002; Wilkins, 2008; Winterbottom et al., Friedrich et al., 2012; UNEP, 2013]. In brief, “no otherwise stated. 2013], the desired changes in agricultural till” farming implies no soil erosion caused by (c) From Derpsch et al. (2010) unless otherwise stated. practices that can economically meet the tillage. Together with the other two principles (d) Mitigation here refers mostly to avoided carbon dioxide emissions, with a small amount of avoided nitrous oxide emissions. sustainable agriculture goals in NRGB are of conservation agriculture, it ensures high Mitigation estimates on a per hectare basis are from Smith et al. (2008). There were multiplied by the area covered by no-till cultivation to obtain a value for total avoided emissions were summed for each year from 2007/08 back to the base year (in outlined below. soil fertility and, hence, reduced agriculture column 3). To compute the area covered by no-till cultivation in each year, it was assumed that the area covered decreased inputs and higher agricultural productivity. linearly from 2007/08 back to the base year (in column 3). In countries with long histories of no-till agriculture this probably led to 6.1 Conservation Agriculture Conservation agriculture is, therefore, an an underestimate of the mitigation that was achieved. However, if the use of no-till cultivation began very slowly, then it is also Conservation agriculture, aimed at preventing economically advantageous reform needed possible that cumulative avoided emissions were overestimated. (e) The 2007/08 estimate is derived from Derpsch et al. (2010) whereas the base year was established from Llewellyn and soil erosion and maintaining soil fertility, is in NRGB (especially in degrading soils), and D’Emden (2010). defined by FAO as combining three working no-till farming has been recommended by the (f) The area stated for China is derived from Liu and Qingdong (2007) and Ministry of Agriculture (2009). principles, namely: (i) minimum mechanical Indian government [MOA, undated]. However, soil disturbance (“no till” or “minimum tillage”), the adoption of conservation agriculture has (ii) permanent organic soil cover, and (iii) crop inherent difficulties that need to be addressed.

Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture 22 23 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Financial support/ incentives and timely technical help/ advice are essential for speedy and successful transition to conservation agriculture in NRGB.

No-till farming and conservation for speedy and successful transition to agriculture have been reviewed conservation agriculture in NRGB. extensively in literature [e.g. Huggins & Reganold, 2008; Hobbes, 2008; Hoorman 6.2. Organic Farming et al., 2009; UNEP, 2013], and based on Like no-till farming, organic farming these reviews and FAO [2014], it needs is also a relatively recent agricultural to be emphasized that transition from revival of earlier practices, having conventional farming to no-till may take gained ascendancy towards the end of several years during which agricultural the twentieth century. However, unlike output could be considerably reduced. conservation agriculture which focuses Thus adequate support (including supply on natural resource conservation, of increased N fertilizers and suitable organic farming grew out of human health herbicides) may be needed by farmers to concerns due to extensive chemical tide over the transition period. Secondly, inputs in modern agriculture, and hence productivity of organic agriculture as feasible (e.g. for horticulture and high- selection of cover crops and crop rotations its main focus is on human health. compared to conventional agriculture. value crops) with adequate support for should be suited to the specific agro- Thus, several agroecosystem problems In an earlier critique of organic farming, the transition period of a few years. zone, for which farmers may need advice. (like soil erosion, nutrient balance, soil Trewavas [2001] had pointed out some Thirdly, specialized (and expensive) biodiversity, and effects on nearby other shortcomings of organic farming 6.3. Water and Nutrient seeding equipment are needed in no- ecosystems) may not be adequately including the harmfulness of certain bio- Management Techniques in till farming. Fourthly, the availability of met by organic farming. Moreover, the pesticides for human and animal health, Rice Cultivation crop residues for fuel and fodder may be agricultural productivity of organic extensive labour inputs needed for Two key methods for improved resource significantly reduced due to the green farming can be significantly lower weed and pest control, and inefficient conservation for paddy cultivation are: cover needed on croplands. Finally, the (and hence costlier) by about 13–34% nutrient utilization. Despite these (a) Alternate Wetting and Drying irrigation adoption of no-till for wetland rice and than that of conventional agriculture drawbacks, however, organic farming cycles (including the System of Rice root crops (like potatoes) is problematic. [Seufert et al., 2012]. Connor [2008] can result in significant improvement Intensification or SRI), which can result Nonetheless, as observed by Huggins & pointed out the limited spread of organic of agroecosystem health, protect in up to 40% water saving, and (b) Urea Reganold [2008], “ultimately all farmers farming in world agriculture (only 0.3%) surrounding ecosystems from damaging Deep Placement to drastically improve should integrate conservation tillage, and and showed that the additional land spillovers of chemical nutrients and efficiency of N uptake and thereby no-till if feasible, on their farms.” Overall, needed in organic farming to generate pesticides, and reduce irrigation water reduce N fertilizer use [Adhya et al., 2014; financial support/ incentives and timely organic fertilizers and grow legume requirement. Hence, organic farming Thyiagarajan & Gujja, 2013; UNEP, 2013]. technical help/ advice are essential crops implies significantly reduced methods should be promoted wherever While SRI has been adopted in parts of

Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture 24 25 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan India since 2000, its spread in the NRGB – 6.5. Resource Optimization soil amendments (especially for acidic, along with Urea Deep Placement – needs Measures alkaline and saline soils). Improved seed Rejuvenation or creation to be hastened since rice is a major crop As discussed in Section 5.2, NRGB’s quality (with bio-fortification where of water bodies and harvesting of grown in NRGB. soils have been found to have varying needed) and fertilizer quality can also degrees of nutrient deficiencies (such as improve nutrient uptakes and reduce rainfall and irrigation runoffs are also 6.4. Additional Resource of calcium, zinc, boron, sulphur, etc.) in resource wastage. needed to enhance local irrigation Conservation Techniques different places. But soil nutrient balance water availability and reduced Several resource conservation is essential for optimizing agricultural 6.6. Regional (Landscape- dependence on groundwater. technologies need to be promoted in productivity. In case of selective nutrient scale) Resource Conservation NRGB keeping their cost-effectiveness deficiencies, the output is limited by Measures often useful in minimizing polluted in view. These include Laser Land the deficient elements, while other soil While the above measures are runoff from agricultural fields directly Leveling, Raised Bed Planting, and Micro- nutrients being in relative excess may implementable at the level of small reaching nearby water bodies. Irrigation Systems (sprinkler and drip be wasted. Thus extensive soil testing is farms, large farms and communities irrigation), besides Urea Deep Placement necessary in NRGB’s agriculture, along of farms spread over large areas 6.7. Scoping Future (or Fertilizer Deep Placement, vide with the availability of needed nutrients should be coordinated for controlling Advancements IFDC, 2013) technology mentioned in the (through organic or chemical fertilizers region-scale agroecosystem impacts. Globally, the shift from intensive previous section. of sufficiently high purity) and other This measure also includes other mechanized agriculture to ecologically agricultural activities than crops – such sustainable agriculture started some as fisheries and animal husbandry. The decades ago but gained momentum only main approach is to promote mixed in recent times as tradeoffs between farming systems combining various agricultural outputs and other ecosystem types of plants (such as agro-forestry, services and between quantity and crop-horticulture) as well as crops, quality of agricultural outputs raised freshwater fisheries and livestock (with new concerns. This new impetus has grazing pasture lands interspersed propelled radically new thinking and between croplands). Rejuvenation or experimentation covering the whole creation of water bodies and harvesting gamut of agricultural techniques from land of rainfall and irrigation runoffs are and water management to crop breeding also needed to enhance local irrigation and biotechnological applications. The water availability and reduced attempt must, therefore, be to keep dependence on groundwater. Curbs ground-level options open to experiment on cultivation of non-essential water- with, adopt and adapt radically new guzzling crops (such as sugarcane) are technologies and practices developed also desirable, particularly in water- within NRGB and outside. An example of constrained regions. Finally, adequate such radically new quests is the attempt buffer regions of natural vegetation to develop perennial deep-rooted crops (trees, shrubs and grasslands) between in place of seasonal shallow-rooted farmlands and rivers, lakes, etc. are ones [Glover et al., 2007]. As observed

Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture 26 27 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan by Tilman et al. [2002], “sustainable of small and fragmented landholdings agriculture … will require increased in the basin, the extent of poverty and 7. Summary of crop yields, increased efficiency of limited educational levels prevalent in nitrogen, phosphorus and water use, the farming community, social fissures, Recommended Actions ecologically based management institutional constraints, etc. Various practices, judicious use of pesticides and measures have been suggested [IITC, antibiotics, and major changes in some 2014; MOA, 2010; MOA, undated; Planning The main recommendations for speedy v) Extensive soil testing facilities with livestock production practices. Advances Commission, 2007] to help the transition to transition to sustainable agriculture in easy availability of micronutrients and in the fundamental understanding of sustainable agriculture overcome these NRGB are summarized below: soil amendments. agroecology, biogeochemistry and constraints through financial support i) Promotion of conservation agriculture vi) Regional (landscape) level resource biotechnology that are linked directly to (credits, incentives, disincentives, practices, aimed at preventing soil management through agro-forestry, breeding programmes can contribute subsidies, etc.), knowledge support erosion and maintaining soil fertility, by crop-livestock-fishery-grassland greatly to sustainability.” The agricultural (knowledge dissemination, training, means of “no till” or “minimum tillage” combinations, water harvesting, and future of NRGB will depend considerably demonstration, etc.), extension services of soils, permanent organic soil cover, buffering of water courses and water on openness and adaptability to in implementing new technologies, and crop diversification, especially in bodies by forests and natural vegetation. promising developments worldwide on allocation of water rights and credits, degrading agricultural lands. vii) Building adaptability and flexibility agroecosystem management as also on improved availability of farm equipment ii) Promotion of organic farming where in agricultural practices of NRGB re-evaluation of traditional practices. and agricultural inputs, improved market feasible to reduce damage to soil health through assimilation of new sciences, access, organizing individual farmers and human health by chemical inputs. knowledge exchanges with the outer 6.8. Policy Issues through farmers’ collectives and contract iii) Adoption of resource conservation world, field-level experimentation, and The means to speedily achieve the above farming, etc. These and other appropriate practices in rice cultivation including regeneration of traditional knowledge reforms in NRGB depend upon a variety policy measures need to be finalized System of Rice Intensification and Urea systems. of social, institutional and economic depending on basin-wide assessment of Deep Placement techniques. viii) Selection of appropriate policy factors relating to the large number the implementation bottlenecks in NRGB. iv) Promotion of resource conservation measures to implement the above goals, technologies like Laser Land Levelling, keeping in view the existing social, Micro-irrigation Systems, Raised Bed cultural, economic and institutional Planting, Urea Deep Placement, Bio- strengths and constraints. fortified seeds, etc.

Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture 28 29 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan

11. FAO (Food and Agricultural Acidification of Major Chinese References Organization) [2014], “What Croplands”, Science, Vol 327, is Conservation Agriculture.” pp 1008–1010. [Accessed on September 18, 2014 18. Hobbes, P.R., K. Sayre & R. Gupta 1. Adhya, T.K. et al. [2014], “Wetting the food security for smallholder from: http://www.fao.org/ag/ [2008], “The Role of Conservation and Drying: Reducing Greenhouse farmers,” Canadian Foodgrains ca/1a.html]. Agriculture in Sustainable Gas Emissions and Saving Water Bank, Winnipeg, Canada. 12. Friedrich, T., R. Derpsch & A. Agriculture,” Phil. Transactions of from Rice Production,” Working 5. Connor, D.J. [2008], “Organic Kassam [2012], “Overview of the the Royal Society B, Vol. 363, Paper, Installment 8 of Creating a agriculture cannot feed the world,” Global Spread of Conservation pp 543–555. Sustainable Food Future. World Field Crops Research, 106, Agriculture,” Field Actions Science 19. Hoorman, J.J. et al. [2009], “Using Resources Institute, Washington, pp 187–190. Reports [Online], Special Issue 6, Cover Crops to Convert to No-till,” DC. [Accessed October 12, 2014 6. Derpsch, R. [2004], “History of 2012. [Accessed September 26, Sustainable Agriculture Factsheet from: www.wri.org/publication/ Crop Production With and Without 2014 from: http://www.rolf-derpsch. SAG-11-09, Ohio State University. wetting-and-drying-reducing- Tillage,” Leading Edge, March 2004, com/fileadmin/templates/main/ [Accessed April 03, 2014 from: http:// greenhouse-gas-emissions-and- Vol. 3, No. 1, pp 150–154. [Accessed downloads/factsreports-1941- ohioline.osu.edu/sag-fact/pdf/0011. saving-water-rice-production]. September 27, 2014 from: http:// special-issue-6-document-sans- pdf.]. 2. Bodirsky, L.B. et al. [2014], “Reactive notill.org/sites/default/files/history- titre.pdf]. 20. Hoorman, J.J. & R. Islam [2010], nitrogen requirements to feed of-crop-production-with-without- 13. Giller, K.E. et al. [1997], “Agricultural “Understanding Soil Microbes and the world in 2050 and potential tillage-derpsch.pdf]. intensification, soil biodiversity and Nutrient Recycling,” Sustainable to mitigate nitrogen pollution,” 7. elliott, E.T. & C.V. Cole [1989], “A agroecosystem function,” Applied Agriculture Factsheet SAG-16-10, Nature Communications 5, Perspective on Agroecosystem Soil Ecology, 6, pp 3–16. Ohio State University. [Accessed Article Number: 3858, doi:10.1038/ Science,” Ecology, Vol. 70, No. 6, 14. Glover, J.D., C.M. Cox & J.P. April 03, 2014 from: http://ohioline. ncomms4858 [Accessed May 05, pp. 1597-1602 [Accessed on April Reganold [2007], “Future Farming: osu.edu/sag-fact/pdf/0016.pdf]. 2014 from: http://www.nature.com/ 03, 2014 from: http://www.jstor.org/ A Return to Roots,” Scientific 21. Huggins, D.R. & J.P. Reganold [2008] ncomms/2014/140513/ncomms4858/ stable/1938092]. American, August 2007, pp 82–89. “No-Till: the Quiet Revolution,” full/ncomms4858.html]. 8. elser, J. & E. Bennett [2011], “A 15. Goulding, K., S. Jarvis & A. Whitmore Scientific American, July 2008, 3. Brodt, S.J. Six, G. Feenstra, C. Broken Geochemical Cycle,” [2008], “Optimizing Nutrient pp 70–77. Ingels and D. Campbell [2011], Nature, Vol.478, pp. 29–31. Management for Farm Systems”, 22. IFDC (International Fertilizer “Sustainable Agriculture,” Nature 9. epstein, E. [1994], “The Anomaly of Phil. Transactions of the Royal Development Center) [2014], Education Knowledge 3(10):1. Silicon in Plant Biology,” Proc. Natl. Society B, Vol. 363, pp 667–680. “Fertlizer Deep Placement,” IFDC, [Accessed on April 02, 2014 from: Acad. Sci. USA, Vol. 91, pp 11-17. 16. Graham, R.D. [2008], “Micronutrient Alabama, USA, 8 pages. [Accessed http://www.nature.com/scitable/ 10. FAO (Food and Agricultural Deficiencies in Crops and April 03, 2014 from: http://www.ifdc. knowledge/library/sustainable- Organization) [2000], “Fertilizers Their Global Significance”, in org/getattachment/1c7e9b2e-37b3- agriculture-23562787]. and Their Use: A Pocket Guide for “Micronutrient Deficiencies in Global 4ea4-93c1-318013dc3ce9/FDP.pdf/]. 4. Bunch, Roland [2012], “Restoring Extension Workers,” 4th Edition, Crop Production”, by B.J. Alloway 23. IITC [2011]: “Agriculture in the Ganga the soil: a guide for using green FAO, Rome. (editor), Springer Science Business River Basin: An Overview”, GRBMP manure/cover crops to improve Media PV. Thematic Report – Report Code: 015_ 17. Guo, J.H. et al. [2010], “Significant GBP_IIT_SEC_ANL_01_Ver 1_Dec 2011.

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Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture 34 35 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Mission 4: Sustainable Agriculture 36 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan - 2015 Ganga River Basin Management Plan (GRB MP)

Mission 5: Geologic al Safeguarding Extended Summary January 2015 by by ConsortiumConsortium ofof 77 “Indian“Indian Insti Institutetute of ofTechnology”s Technology”s (IITs) (IITs)

IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT Bombay Delhi Guwahati Kanpur Kharagpur Madras Roorkee

In Collaboration with

IIT IIT CIFRI NEERI JNU PU NIT-K DU BHU Gandhinagar

NIH ISI Allahabad WWF

Roorkee Kolkata University India

Mission 5: Geological Safeguarding Ganga River Basin Management Plan

CONTENTS Abbreviations and Acronyms Abbreviations and Acronyms iii

Summary 1 1. GRBMP : Ganga River Basin Management Plan 1. Introduction 2 2. IITC : IIT Consortium 2. Objective 4 3. MoEF : Ministry of Environment and Forests 4. MoEFCC : Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate Change 3. why Geological Safeguarding Is Important for Ganga River Basin 5. MoWR : Ministry of Water Resources Management 4 6. MoWR, RD&GR : Ministry of Water Resources, River Development & 5 Problems and Their Remediation 6 Ganga Rejuvenation 6 Summary of Recommendations 8 7. NGRBA : National Ganga River Basin Authority 8. NMCG : National Mission for Clean Ganga References 9 9. NRGB : National River Ganga Basin

Mission 5: Geological Safeguarding Mission 5: Geological Safeguarding II III Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Summary

The Ganga River Network was explosions, tunneling, mining, fracking, adopted as the primary indicator of and over-withdrawal of ground-water health of the National River Ganga from confined and semi-confined Basin (NRGB) in GRBMP, and human- aquifers, as well as over-ground technology-environment aspects activities such as the operation of were factored in to assess the basin’s large reservoirs. Anthropogenic resource dynamics. Geologically, river geomorphological damages are networks tend to achieve equilibrium identified as being primarily due between tectonic uplift and erosional to harmful land-uses that enhance phenomena in river basins, but both erosional stresses. The recommended factors have come under significant actions include control/ restriction of anthropogenic influence in modern geologically hazardous activities and times. Hence geological safeguarding geo-morphologically damaging land- and geomorphological upkeep of use practices, drainage improvement the basin are of key importance. The and stabilization of disturbed areas, identified geological vulnerabilities of mapping of river migration zones, and NRGB include disruptive underground continuous geological monitoring of activities such as excavations, the NRGB and her dynamic rivers.

Mission 5: Geological Safeguarding Mission 5: Geological Safeguarding 1 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan primary environmental indicator of the It is not only soil and water that are 1. Introduction National River Ganga Basin (NRGB). mutually interactive, living organisms also interact with them and help River basin management needs to shape the basin’s environment. The Indian civilization grew up under the serious in the twentieth century. It was ensure that a basin’s natural resources biotic resources of a basin consist care of River Ganga, nourished by against this backdrop that the Ministry of (biotic and abiotic) are adequately of plants, animals and micro- her bounties for thousands of years. Environment and Forests (Govt. of India) preserved over time. The main abiotic (or organisms. Since biota evolve over The Ganga river – along with her assigned the task of preparing a Ganga physical) resources of a river basin are time to achieve a stable balance many tributaries and distributaries – River Basin Management Plan (GRBMP) soil and water, along with a multitude of in a given environment, the biotic provided material, spiritual and cultural to restore and preserve National River minerals and compounds bound up with resources depend on the constituent sustenance to millions of people who Ganga to a “Consortium of Seven IITs”. them. Now, water is a highly variable ecosystems of the basin – rivers, lived in her basin or partook of her The outcome of this effort – the GRBMP resource. Barring variations from year wetlands, forests, grasslands, etc. beneficence from time to time. To the – evolved an eight-pronged action plan, to year, the water in a basin follows However, with significant human traditional Indian mind, therefore, River with each prong envisaged to be taken an annual cycle of replenishment activity in many ecosystems (as, for Ganga is not only the holiest of rivers up for execution in mission mode. (primarily through atmospheric example, in agro-ecosystems and and savior of mortal beings, she is precipitation and groundwater urban ecosystems), the complexity also a living Goddess. Very aptly is she A river basin is the area of land from which inflows) and losses (primarily through of human-technology-environment personified in Indian consciousness as the river provides the only exit route for river and groundwater outflows, systems has increased manifold “MOTHER GANGA”. This psychic pre- surface water flows. For understanding evaporation, transpiration, and in recent times [Pahl-Wostl, 2007]. eminence of River Ganga in the Indian its dynamics, a basin may be viewed biological consumption). In contrast Nonetheless, GRBMP attempts to ethos testifies to her centrality in Indian as a closely-connected hydrological- to water, formation of mature soils – incorporate the interactive resource civilization and her supreme importance ecological system. Hydrological from the weathering of parent material dynamics and human-technology- in Indian life. connections include groundwater (rocks) to chemical decomposition and environment considerations in the flow, surface runoff, local/ regional transformation – is a drawn-out process Basin Plan. For, with human activities The Ganga river basin is the largest evapotranspiration-precipitation cycles that may take hundreds or thousands of multiplying and diversifying in the river basin of India that covers a diverse and areal flooding, while ecological links years [Jenny, 1994; Wikipedia, 2014]; basin, the resulting environmental landscape, reflecting the cultural and are many and varied (such as the food but, once formed, soils can be fairly consequences have also been geographical diversity of the India. It web and transport by biological agents). durable. Thus, changes in a basin’s pronounced in recent times. In sum, is also a fertile and relatively water- These linkages provide for extensive water resource status tend to be GRBMP focuses on the basin’s overall rich alluvial basin that hosts about 43% material transfer and communication relatively faster and easily detected, resource environment and the major of India’s population [MoWR, 2014]. between the river and her basin, while those of soils are slow and often factors affecting it (especially diverse It is fitting, therefore, that the Indian which constitute the functional unity go unnoticed for long periods. However, anthropogenic activities), and seeks government declared River Ganga as of a river basin. Directly and indirectly, soil and water are affected by each ways and means to protect the basin India’s National River in the year 2008. therefore, National River Ganga (along other through many biotic and abiotic and its resources against identifiable But the declaration was none too early. with her tributaries and distributaries), processes. Being thus interrelated, adverse impacts. For, only thus River Ganga had been degrading rapidly is a definitive indication of the health of degradation of both soil and water have can we secure the environmental for a long time, and national concern the basin as a whole. Hence, GRBMP a concurrent effect on the other, hence foundation of NRGB for the good of about her state had already become adopted the Ganga River Network as the neither can be considered in isolation. one and all.

Mission 5: Geological Safeguarding Mission 5: Geological Safeguarding 2 3 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 2. Objective

The objective of Mission “Geological foundation of the river basin and Safeguarding” is to formulate suitable safeguard its geomorphological integrity means to protect the geological from anthropogenic damages.

3. Why Geological Safeguarding Is Important for Ganga River Basin Management

Geologically, river networks are In modern times, both tectonic the backbone of most terrestrial perturbation and erosional phenomena landscapes. Dynamic aspects of these have increasingly come under networks include channels that shift anthropogenic influence. On the one laterally or expand upstream, ridges hand, modern human activities can that migrate across the earth’s surface, stimulate tectonic perturbations and and river capture events whereby threaten the geological formations flow from one branch of the network supporting river basins in new ways. is rerouted in a new direction. These To cite, “Human-induced earthquakes processes have direct implications for have become important … (since) mass transport and the geographic these events may be responsible for connectivity within and between widespread damage and an overall ecosystems. Ultimately, this dynamic increase in seismicity. It has long been 2013]. On the other hand, modern intensities, river instabilities, water- system strives to establish equilibrium known that impoundment of reservoirs, human activities are also increasingly logging, and silting of water bodies. between tectonic uplift and river surface and underground mining, influencing natural geomorphological Ensuring suitable practices for erosion, but transient conditions in withdrawal of fluids and gas from the processes in the basin. Present- geomorphological upkeep and river basins are often in response to subsurface, and injection of fluids into day human actions are a known geological safety of the basin are tectonic perturbation or erosional underground formations are capable cause for various geomorphological therefore of key importance for the phenomena [Willett, 2014]. of inducing earthquakes” [Ellsworth, disturbances involving soil erosion, safety of NRGB. landslides, flood frequencies and

Mission 5: Geological Safeguarding Mission 5: Geological Safeguarding 4 5 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan tillage causing soil erosion, sand 4. Problems and Their mining from river beds, and river bank Box 4.2 modifications for local flood control “… stresses from water piled behind the new Remediation and other purposes. Zipingpu Dam may have triggered the failure of the nearby fault, a failure that went on to rupture almost Since disruptions in existing 300 kilometers of fault and kill some 80,000 people Modern human activities threaten subsidence, and enhanced seismicity geological features of a basin due in last May’s devastating earthquake in China’s earth’s crustal formations in new in a region (see Box 4.1). to natural earth processes may Sichuan Province (in 2008).” ways as noted by Ellsworth [2013]. get compounded by anthropogenic Kerr and Stone [2009] The problem becomes significant Another potential threat is due to threat factors indicated above, the for river basins when the geological large reservoirs. Operation of such combined damage potential may structure supporting them becomes reservoirs – involving their filling increase significantly. Thus geological anthropogenic activities along with vulnerable to such effects. In up during high flows and emptying monitoring of critical earth processes precautions against impending particular, underground activities such during lean periods – produces in sensitive areas is essential. For fluvial changes. It is also important to as excavations, explosions, tunneling, significant variations in soil water example, Himalayan tributaries of the realize that river dynamics is a natural mining and fraccing (or fracking or pressures, which build up additional Middle Ganga segment – such as the behavior of the river and, hence, it hydraulic fracturing of rocks) are cyclical stress patterns. In fact, the Kosi and Gandak rivers – are known to is important to accurately map the potential threats to the geological mere creation of large reservoirs is be highly dynamic, i.e. with significant extent of migration and reaches base of river basins. Likewise, over- suspected to be a potential cause for tendency to shift their courses. prone to migration. This extent must withdrawal of ground-water from geological disturbances in a region The highly meandering stretches of be included in the ‘space’ defined confined and semi-confined aquifers (see Box 4.2). Ganga river downstream of Varanasi for the river – comprising the active may create unbearable overburden [IITC, 2011] may also indicate such floodplain and river valley [IITC, 2010], pressures, thereby causing (partial) Many of the geomorphological tendencies. With regular monitoring and the concept of floodplain zoning collapse of the aquifer matrix, land features of river basins are more of these rivers, timely controls must be pursued in order to improve vulnerable than the underlying can be imposed on destabilizing river health. geologic strata to both natural and manmade stresses. While naturally Box 4.1 occurring phenomena such as storms, “Earthquake initiation, propagation and arrest cloudbursts, seismicity, landslides and are influenced by fault frictional properties and avalanches may not be controllable, preseismic stress. … the distribution of shallow slip various land-use practices that can be Underground activities such during the Mw 5.1 earthquake in Lorca, southeast geomorphologically disturbing do need as excavations, explosions, tunneling, mining and Spain, that occurred on 11 May 2011 could be to be checked. Such practices include controlled by crustal unloading stresses at the land-uses that significantly affect the fraccing (or fracking or hydraulic fracturing of upper frictional transition of the seismogenic layer, physical functioning of catchments rocks) are potential threats to the geological base induced by groundwater extraction.” such as denudation/ deforestation of river basins. Gonzales et al. [2012] and construction activities on hill slopes and in floodplains, agricultural

Mission 5: Geological Safeguarding Mission 5: Geological Safeguarding 6 7 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 5. Summary of References Recommendations 1. ellsworth, W.L. [2013], “Injection– pedology”, Dover Publication. Induced Earthquakes”, Science, 12 [Accessed May 28, 2014 from: Assessment and adoption of the slopes and in floodplains, excessive July 2013: Vol. 341 no. 6142 Review http://www.soilandhealth. following measures are essential for agricultural tillage, sand and gravel [Accessed December 12, 2013 org/01aglibrary/010159.Jenny.pdf.] good geologic housekeeping of NRGB: mining from river beds, and river from: http://www.sciencemag.org/ 6. Kerr, R.A. and R. Stone [2009], bank modifications. content/341/6142/1225942.full]. “A Human Trigger for the Great 1. Geological safety measures 3. Drainage improvement and land 2. Gonzalez, P.J. et al. [2012], Quake of Sichuan”, Science,16 to maintain the integrity of the reclamation in low-lying areas “The 2011 Lorca earthquake January 2009: Vol. 323 no. 5912. basin including restrictions on should be taken up as also slip distribution controlled by [Accessed December 12, 2013 deep groundwater withdrawals, improved drainage and stabilization groundwater crustal unloading”, from: http://www.sciencemag.org/ underground excavations, measures in disturbed areas such Nature Geoscience, 5, pp 821–825. content/323/5912/322.full]. explosions, tunnelling, mining and as hillslopes subjected to road- [Accessed December 12, 2013 7. MoWR (Ministry of Water fracking, and operation of large cutting, degraded lands, and from: http://www.nature.com/ngeo/ Resources, GOI) [2014], “Ganga reservoirs. haphazardly built-up urban areas. journal/v5/n11/full/ngeo1610.html]. Basin – Version 2.0”. 2. Region-specific restrictions on 4. Mapping of river migration 3. IITC [2010]: “Active Floodplain 8. Pahl-Wostl, C. [2007], “The geo-morphologically harmful land- zones and continuous geological Mapping: Defining the River implications of complexity use practices including controls monitoring of the basin to forecast Space”, IIT-GRBMP Thematic for integrated resources on denudation, deforestation and impending geological and Report – Report Code: 005_GBP_ management”, Environmental construction activities on hill geomorphological events. IIT_FGM_DAT_01_Ver 1_Dec 2010. Modelling & Software, Vol. 22, pp 4. IITC [2011]: “Delineation of Valley 561-569. Margin and Geomorphic Mapping 9. Wikipedia [2014], “Soils“. of Channel Belt and Active [Accessed May 28, 2014 from: Floodplain of the Ganga River”, IIT- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil.] GRBMP Thematic Report – Report 10. Willett, S.D. et al. [2014], “Dynamic Code: 021_GBP_IIT_FGM_DAT_02_ Reorganization of River Basins,” Ver 1_Dec 2011. Science, Vol.343. [DOI: 10.1126/ 5. Jenny, H. [1994], “Factors of soil science. 1248765]. formation: a system of quantitative

Mission 5: Geological Safeguarding Mission 5: Geological Safeguarding 8 9 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Mission 5: Geological Safeguarding 10 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan - 2015 Ganga River Basin Management Plan (GRB MP)

Mission 6: Basi n Protection AgExtendedainst Disaste Summaryrs January 2015 by by ConsortiumConsortium ofof 77 “Indian“Indian Insti Institutetute of ofTechnology”s Technology”s (IITs) (IITs)

IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT Bombay Delhi Guwahati Kanpur Kharagpur Madras Roorkee

In Collaboration with

IIT IIT CIFRI NEERI JNU PU NIT-K DU BHU Gandhinagar

NIH ISI Allahabad WWF

Roorkee Kolkata University India

Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters Ganga River Basin Management Plan

CONTENTS List of Figures Figure Page List of Figures and Tables iii 4.1. Flood hazard map of India 10 Abbreviations and Acronyms iii 4.2. Cross-sectional Profile of Kosi river 12 4.3. Cross-sectional Profile of Yellow river 13 Summary 1 4.4. Forest Cover of NRGB 19 1. Introduction 2 2. Objective 4 List of Tables 3. why Basin Protection Against Disasters is important for Table Page Ganga River Basin 4 4.1. Top 10 Disaster Types in Asia – Pacific region 7 4. major Disasters of Concern for NRGB 6 4.1 extreme Floods 4.1.1 example of Kosi River Floods 4.1.2 example of Yellow River Flood Control Measures 4.1.3 Measures Needed to Combat Extreme Floods in NRGB Abbreviations and 4.2 extreme Droughts 4.3 Forest Fires Acronyms 4.4 Cyclones 4.5 Landslides 1. IITC : IIT Consortium 4.6 epidemics and Biological Invasions 2. FSI : Forest Survey of India 3. GRBMP : Ganga River Basin Management Plan 5. Summary of Recommendations 25 4. MoEF : Ministry of Environment and Forests References 28 5. MoEFCC : Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate Change 6. MoWR : Ministry of Water Resources 7. MoWR, RD&GR : Ministry of Water Resources, River Development & Ganga Rejuvenation 8. NGRBA : National Ganga River Basin Authority 9. NMCG : National Mission for Clean Ganga 10. NRGB : National River Ganga Basin 11. NRGBMC : National River Ganga Basin Management Commission

Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters II III Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Summary

The Ganga River Network was use disturbances and encroachments adopted as the primary indicator of by humans. (3) Extreme Floods are health of the National River Ganga characteristic of sediment-charged Basin (NRGB) in GRBMP, and human- Himalayan rivers of NRGB, to combat technology-environment aspects which floodplain regulations and were factored in to assess the basin’s vegetative measures are preferable to resource dynamics. NRGB is prone embankments/ levees, but upstream to catastrophic natural disasters that dams (with longitudinal connectivity can significantly harm the basin’s and environmental flows) can also ecosystems, and such disasters prove beneficial if the sediment trapped have been highly accentuated by behind dams can be transferred modern anthropogenic activities. to the downstream floodplains. Hence special measures are needed (4) The ecology of Forest Fires and of to protect the basin against natural Epidemics and Biological Invasions disasters. The major disasters of in NRGB’s ecosystems need to be concern are Extreme Floods, Extreme studied extensively and, until then, Droughts, Forest Fires, Tropical active interventions should be limited Cyclones, Landslides, and Epidemics to checking harmful anthropogenic and Biological Invasions. The main activities. (5) Landslides in Upper recommendations are: (1) Routine Ganga Basin are aggravated by hydro-meteorological and biological deforestation, road and building events perceived as disasters are constructions, and unsafe debris often beneficial for the basin, and they disposal, which need to be strongly need not be countered. (2) To withstand checked. (6) Early rejuvenation of catastrophic disasters, ecosystems disaster-struck ecosystems should need strengthening by preserving be aided by re-introducing indigenous wetlands, promoting mixed indigenous species resistant to the specific forests and vegetation resistant to disaster types and re-creating an specific disasters, and curbing land- enabling physical environment.

Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters 1 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 1. Introduction

Indian civilization grew up under the care Environment and Forests (Govt. of India) River basin management needs to It is not only soil and water that are of River Ganga, nourished by her bounties assigned the task of preparing a Ganga ensure that a basin’s natural resources mutually interactive, living organisms for thousands of years. The Ganga river River Basin Management Plan (GRBMP) (biotic and abiotic) are adequately also interact with them and help shape – along with her many tributaries and to restore and preserve National River preserved over time. The main abiotic (or the basin’s environment. The biotic distributaries – provided material, spiritual Ganga to a “Consortium of Seven IITs”. physical) resources of a river basin are resources of a basin consist of plants, and cultural sustenance to millions of The outcome of this effort – the GRBMP soil and water, along with a multitude of animals and micro-organisms. Since people who lived in her basin or partook of – evolved an eight-pronged action plan, minerals and compounds bound up with biota evolve over time to achieve a stable her beneficence from time to time. To the with each prong envisaged to be taken up them. Now, water is a highly variable balance in a given environmental setting, traditional Indian mind, therefore, River for execution in mission mode. resource. Barring variations from year the biotic resources of a river basin Ganga is not only the holiest of rivers and to year, the water in a basin follows an depend on its constituent ecosystems savior of mortal beings, she is also a living A river basin is the area of land from which annual cycle of replenishment (primarily – rivers, wetlands, forests, grasslands, Goddess. Very aptly is she personified the river provides the only exit route for through atmospheric precipitation etc. However, with significant human in Indian consciousness as “MOTHER surface water flows. For understanding and groundwater inflows) and losses activity in many ecosystems (as, for GANGA”. This psychic pre-eminence of its dynamics, a basin may be viewed (primarily through river and groundwater example, in agro-ecosystems and urban River Ganga in the Indian ethos testifies as a closely-connected hydrological- outflows, evaporation, transpiration, ecosystems), the complexity of human- to her centrality in Indian civilization and ecological system. Hydrological and biological consumption). In contrast technology-environment systems has her supreme importance in Indian life. connections include groundwater to water, formation of mature soils – increased manifold [Pahl-Wostl, 2006]. flow, surface runoff, local/ regional from the weathering of parent material Nonetheless, GRBMP attempts to The Ganga river basin is the largest evapotranspiration-precipitation cycles (rocks) to chemical decomposition and incorporate interactive natural resource river basin of India that covers a diverse and areal flooding, while ecological links transformation – is a drawn-out process dynamics and human-technology- landscape, reflecting the cultural and are many and varied (such as the food web that may take hundreds or thousands of environment considerations in the Basin geographical diversity of the India. It and transport by biological agents). These years [Jenny, 1994; Wikipedia, 2014a]; Plan. For, with human activities multiplying is also a fertile and relatively water- linkages provide for extensive material but, once formed, soils can be fairly and diversifying in the basin, the resulting rich alluvial basin that hosts about 43% transfer and communication between the durable. Thus, changes in a basin’s water environmental consequences have also of India’s population [MoWR, 2014]. river and her basin, which constitute the resource status tend to be relatively been pronounced in recent times. In sum, It is fitting, therefore, that the Indian functional unity of a river basin. Directly faster and easily detected, while those GRBMP focuses on the basin’s overall government declared River Ganga as and indirectly, therefore, National River of soils are slow and often go unnoticed resource environment and the major India’s National River in the year 2008. Ganga (along with her tributaries and for long periods. However, soil and water factors affecting it (especially diverse But the declaration was none too early. distributaries), is a definitive indication are affected by each other through many anthropogenic activities), and seeks River Ganga had been degrading rapidly of the health of the basin as a whole. biotic and abiotic processes. Being thus ways and means to protect the basin and for a long time, and national concern Hence, GRBMP adopted the Ganga River interrelated, degradation of either soil its resources against identifiable adverse about her state had already become Network as the primary environmental or water has a concurrent effect on the impacts. For, only thus can we secure the serious in the twentieth century. It was indicator of the National River Ganga other, hence neither can be considered environmental foundation of NRGB for against this backdrop that the Ministry of Basin (NRGB). in isolation. the good of one and all.

Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters 2 3 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 2. Objective

The objective of Mission “Basin against natural disasters in order to Protection Against Disasters” is to reduce the damage to the basin (with its devise suitable means to protect and component ecosystems) and to enable fortify the National River Ganga Basin its early recovery after such disasters.

3. Why Basin Protection Against Disasters is important for Ganga River Basin

Conventional disaster management strengthening the basin to face natural Disasters are broadly categorized as arises in modern times because aims to protect human life and property disasters and building its resilience natural or manmade. Manmade disasters anthropogenic factors have tended from immediate losses caused by to recover from the disasters are can be entirely unpredictable in nature. to accentuate the frequencies and/or disasters and rehabilitate humans extremely important. In fact, even for Hence their only antidote seems to be not magnitudes of disaster impacts to such after the disaster has passed, while conventional disaster management, to cause them. On the other hand natural an extent that natural disasters may no the consequences of disasters on the modern recommendations emphasize disasters (such as floods, droughts, longer be entirely natural [Kothari and basin itself (on which humans depend ecosystem-based disaster resistance heat waves, earthquakes, tsunamis and Patel, 2006; UNICEF et al., 2013; Nel et in various ways) is often ignored. But and resilience-building strategies cyclones) occur due to natural processes al., 2014]. The resilience of a basin’s natural disasters can significantly [see, for example, Royal Society, beyond human control. Unlike manmade ecosystems to survive and overcome affect the basin’s ecosystems over 2014]. It is imperative, therefore, that disasters, most natural disasters tend to the impacts of disasters gets severely both the short and long terms. Thus, the diverse effects of disasters on follow certain patterns of occurrence. It tested in such cases, threatening the both from the perspective of basin NRGB’s environment are grasped in is, therefore, possible to anticipate the healthy functioning of the ecosystems. health – or the health of its ecosystems the broader perspective to fortify the occurrences and/or damage potentials Manmade exacerbation of natural – and the impact on human settlements basin and take protective measures of such disasters, and strengthen the hazards thus adds urgency to protect in terms of the multifarious ecosystem against grievous impacts from basin against their impacts on the basin. NRGB from potentially debilitating services provided by the basin, disasters. The heightened need for such measures effects of natural disasters.

Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters 4 5 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan

Table 4.1: Top 10 Disaster Types in Asia – Pacific region [ESCAP & UNISDR, 2010]

4. Major Disasters of People Deaths Damage Rank Events affected (thousands) ($ millions) Concern for NRGB (millions) 1 Floods 1,317 128.95 2,676.16 301,590 Natural disasters that impact humans • Hydrological: Floods, Flash Floods. 2 Storms 1,127 384.20 664.03 165,770 are also potential disasters or • Meteorological: Droughts, Extreme 3 Earthquakes 444 570.80 109.71 264,530 hazards for ecosystems since human Temperature events (Heat Waves 4 Mass movements – wet 264 14.28 1.36 2,130 beings themselves are evolutionary and Cold Waves), Snowstorms, components of the ecosystems. Storms and Cyclones, Hailstorms, 5 Extreme temperatures 119 17.51 85.90 18,080 There may also be some natural Forest Fires and Wildfires. 6 Droughts 108 5.33 1,296.27 53,330 catastrophes that affect the functioning • Geological: Earthquakes, 7 Wildfires 96 1.06 3.31 16,210 of ecosystems but have few immediate Landslides and Mudflows, 8 Volcanic eruptions 71 17.51 2.36 710 impacts on human communities; Tsunamis, Snowstorms, conventionally, such events may not Avalanches. 9 Mass movements – dry 20 1.53 0.02 10 even be considered as disasters, • Biological: Epidemics, Pest 10 Insect Infestations 8 0.0 0.00 190 but they too are important for the Attacks. basin. Natural disasters are generally The above disasters are also among Note: Damage and loss reported in $ millions at 2005 constant prices classified according to the type of the major disasters in the Asia-Pacific natural processes that cause them, region, vide Table 4.1 [ESCAP & above disasters are only sporadic by the National Disaster Management such as hydrological, meteorological, UNISDR, 2010]. The ESCAP & UNISDR or affect very small areas in NRGB; Authority [MHA, undated], only geological, biological, cosmic, etc. In report [2010] also shows that during hence protecting NRGB against them seven may be deemed significant India, the commonly recognized natural the period 1980–2009 India ranked may be unwarranted. On the other for the integrity and performance of disasters of human concern are [MHA, only second to China in the number hand, frequently occurring disasters – NRGB viz.: Extreme Floods, Extreme 2011; Wikipedia, 2013]: of disasters among various countries especially hydro-meteorological ones Droughts, Forest Fires, Tropical of the region. And within India itself, – tend to be a desirable component of Cyclones, Earthquakes, Landslides, and some of the most disaster-prone areas healthy ecosystem functioning. Hence Epidemics and Biological Invasions. There are some natural lie within the NRGB. However, at least – unless very extreme in magnitude Among these seven, methods to protect catastrophes that affect the functioning one more event should be considered – they are by no means “disasters” ecosystems against earthquakes are an important natural disaster for the for the basin. Such events include virtually unknown. Hence earthquakes of ecosystems but have few immediate basin’s ecosystems – that of Alien especially hydro-meteorological are excluded from the present impacts on human communities; Species Invasions. disasters that help in eliminating weak mission. (Anthropogenic factors conventionally, such events may not links in ecosystems and enhance the that may trigger earthquakes have even be considered as disasters, but Considering the potential damage or resilience and biodiversity of the basin. been already discussed in Mission they too are important for the basin. vulnerability of the basin, some of the Thus, out of about twenty eight natural Geological Safeguarding.) The other and manmade disasters considered six disaster types of main concern are important for human beings in India discussed below.

Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters 6 7 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 4.1 Extreme Floods even while floods are the most common support populations of pollinating ecosystems beyond their immediate India is the second most flood-prone type of ‘natural disaster’ in India – causing insects such as bees and hoverflies. … rejuvenation capacities. For instance, country in the world [ESCAP & UNISDR, huge losses to life and property, the Once common across the floodplains excessively long periods of inundation 2010], which is attributed principally anthropogenic factors that accentuate of England and Wales, these meadows in forests tend to destroy plant roots to intense monsoon rainfall, high soil flooding make the damages much have been drained and modified …” [UK [Foster, Knight & Franklin, 1998] thereby erosion rates and river siltation [MHA, worse. On the other hand, the benefits Environment Agency, 2013]. disrupting forest ecology unless the 2011]. However, among the three factors accruing from large floods in “shaping plant species are adapted to such mentioned, soil erosion and river siltation landscapes and removing debris from Within India, much of the Ganga basin inundations. Now, since floods occur are highly dependent on land-use and rivers” [Vidal, 2014] and in boosting soil is flood-prone, especially along the due to rivers overflowing their banks, other human activities in the basin. Thus, fertility and productivity by depositing Himalayan range (vide Figure 4.1). hence ensuring that anthropogenic valuable mineral nutrients, fine silt and MHA [2011] identifies the main causes activities do not increase water and loam in floodplains [Dixit et al., 2008] of floods in India as “heavy rainfall, silt inflows to rivers or decrease the Box 4.1 are often overlooked in conventional inadequate capacity of rivers to carrying capacities of rivers forms the For Maharashtra farmers, drought has its uses! flood management. Practicing Indian carry the high flood discharge, (and) first line of defence against extreme The severe drought in Maharashtra is proving to be agriculturists, however, seem to be well inadequate drainage to carry away the floods. Secondly, keeping drainage a blessing in disguise for farmers in the State. Dried- aware of the long-term fertility value of rainwater quickly to streams/ rivers.” lines open in floodplains and providing up rivers, lakes and ponds are giving the farmers river silts (see Box 4.1). The beneficial While these reasons refer to natural flood cushions through wetlands and access to nutrient rich silt, which usually settle at effects of river floods in regenerating processes that affect the magnitudes forests can ameliorate the impacts of the bottom of these water bodies. ... Farmers have soil fertility and boosting productivity and frequencies of floods, the extent extreme floods. In many ways, modern to dig up the silt and cart it away to their farm. are in fact well-known, and they have to which these very processes are anthropogenic activities – even those However, the process of transporting the silt is been the backbone of major agricultural affected by human activities are explicitly aimed at flood control – result expensive. Banks, sensing a business opportunity, civilizations throughout history. In the overlooked. Besides, there are other in doing quite the opposite. To illustrate have decided to offer loans of up to Rs 1 lakh for modern world, there is considerable (natural/ manmade) factors too that this point, the case of the Kosi river – every 2.5 acre of farmland. … effort to restore floodplains from their can modify floods – such as soil one of the most flood-prone rivers in modified modern land uses to earlier porosity, the depth of groundwater the world – is discussed below. Progressive farmer and founder member of Organic fertile states. For instance, the goal of table, and the presence or absence of Farmers’ Association of India, Jayant Barve, said restoring (and creating new) floodplain wetlands, forests and built-up areas 4.1.1 Example of Kosi that silt can enhance the farm yield by a factor meadows in the United Kingdom is in floodplains. In any case, since River Floods of ten. However, in the first year of application, it explained thus: “Floodplain meadows moderate floods are beneficial for river The Kosi river and her floods [Chen et does not replace the chemical fertilisers. From the were highly prized farming land, as basins in many ways, periodic flooding al., 2013; Kale, 2008; Wikipedia, 2014b] second year onwards, the benefits can be reaped. their natural fertility was maintained by is desirable for rejuvenating the basin may be briefly recounted here. River The valuable manure can be used for any kind of regular winter flooding with little need except when they are extreme floods. Kosi (or Saptakoshi in Nepal) is about crop, he said. for extra nutrients. … These habitats Extremely high flood magnitudes tend 720 km long and drains about 61,000 km2 Hindu Businessline [Wadke, 2013] are a rich source of biodiversity, a to inundate greater areas and for longer area in China, Nepal and Bihar. The river sustainable form of agriculture, and durations, thus damaging the basin’s carries enormous silt loads. Her upper

Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters 8 9 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan catchment produces a silt yield of river training works, have however about 19 m³/ha/year, one of the highest failed to control the floods, and major in the world. Consequently, as the river floods (though of lesser flood volumes) enters the plains in Bihar and slows have struck the Kosi basin again in down, the silt tends to deposit in the recent years. In analyzing the Kosi river and spill over onto her floodplains. floods, Valdiya [2011] identified two Thus, over geological timescales, River major anthropogenic reasons causing Kosi has built up an immense alluvial them: (1) Innumerable constructions fan (“megafan”) of about 15,000 km2 in the floodways (floodway being the area. The high sediment loads and land area inundated at least one- the alluvial fan are considered major foot deep by a 100-year flood) of the factors underlying the frequent Kosi Kosi river obstruct flood flows, which floods. Moreover, the relatively flat aggravates the natural flood hazard and erodible Kosi fan enables the of the basin due to high denudation formation of numerous interlacing rates in the Nepal Himalayas and channels, with frequent migrations and progressive geological subsidence avulsions of the channels. Between of the region. (2) The construction 1760 and 1960, River Kosi is believed of levees/ embankments to contain to have shifted slightly eastward, the the Kosi river have caused sediment shifting being random and oscillatory accretion in the river channel, thereby in nature. Naturally, the Kosi alluvial resulting in river bed levels to rise fan is extremely fertile, and hence above the floodplains (vide Figure densely populated. And it is perhaps 4.2); thus when floodwaters overtop because of this high population density or breach the embankments, they that the Kosi river floods – even when inundate the floodplains from a higher they are not extreme events – are elevation, causing enormous flood considered as major disasters, for they damages. To remedy this situation, cause enormous damage to human life Valdiya recommended that: (1) river and property. floodways be precisely delineated and floodway regulations be strictly The greatest recorded Kosi flood in implemented; and (2) if river floods are August 1954 had a discharge of more to be controlled by embankments, the than 24,000 m3/s [Kale, 2008; Wikipedia, embankments should be built away 2014b]. Subsequent engineering from the channel on the higher edge measures, such as embankments and of floodways.

Figure 4.1: Flood Hazard Map of India [MHA, 2011]

Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters 10 11 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 1593 times with 26 major changes in the perched Yellow river channel. To course” [Shu & Finlayson, 2011] and minimize flood damages in the present- caused several devastating floods. day Yellow river, Shu & Finlayson Almost certainly, the flood damages [2011] therefore recommended that, were enhanced because of the levees, before a breach in the levees becomes since the increasingly higher levees inevitable (due to high flood waves) converted the aggrading Yellow river the levees should be deliberately into a perched river raised well above breached at pre-determined points to its floodplains (vide Figure 4.3). As minimize the flood shocks. summarized by Kidder & Liu [2014] “The effect was to – at least for a In modern times, levee building as a Figure 4.2: Cross-sectional Profile of Kosi river [adapted from Valdiya, 2011] time – reduce flood frequency but flood control measure for the Yellow at the cost of artificially increasing river has been supplemented with flood amplitude. These processes large flood-control dams on the middle 4.1.2 Example of Yellow River to rapid aggradation…. The river’s also shifted the risk profile of any reaches of the river and its tributaries, Flood Control Measures bed and banks are prone to erosion given flood. High frequency floods and through the establishment of off- The second of the two factors with changing flood conditions… are damaging but not necessarily river flood retention basins adjoining identified by Valdiya – manmade (and) avulsions are common as the catastrophic. Low-frequency high- the lower Yellow River. However, these embankments – is, in fact, an ancient channel aggrades and the slope amplitude floods are inherently efforts too are perceived to be of limited practice and one that has failed to differential between the channel catastrophic.” The mighty Yellow river, and short-term success, the primary contain floods for at least 2000 years bed and the surrounding flood-basin perched above the floodplains, today reason being that large quantities of in one of the most flood-damaging increases.” The Yellow river, with its poses a grave challenge since the sediments deposited in the reservoirs rivers of the world – the Yellow river hyper-concentrated sediment loads levees cannot be dismantled overnight limit their ability to dampen the floods of China. Like River Kosi the Yellow – exceeding even 900 kg/m3 [Shu without excavating a long stretch of [Shu & Finlayson, 2011]. river is also a highly sediment-charged & Finlayson, 2011] – is thus no less river, and bears much similarity to dynamic than the Kosi river, just as the the Kosi river’s dynamism; hence its basins of the two rivers are prodigally millennia-old flood control measures fertile and densely populated. deserve a closer look. As noted by Kidder & Liu [2014], “The Yellow The primary method adopted to River flows through the easily eroded contain the Yellow river’s dynamism Loess Plateau of central China and and flooding for nearly three as a consequence the river entrains millennia has been the construction remarkable quantities of sediment; of increasingly higher levees. But the once it enters the alluvial plain… levees did not prevent floods. In fact, the carrying capacity of the river is “during a period of 2550 years … the exceeded by its sediment load leading Yellow River broke through its levees Figure 4.3: Cross-sectional Profile of Yellow river [Shu & Finlayson, 2011]

Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters 12 13 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 4.1.3 Measures Needed to The second engineering strategy of be provision for release of environmental 4.2 Extreme Droughts Combat Extreme Floods in absorbing flood peaks in dammed flows with sediments into the downstream Droughts in India, averaging about NRGB reservoirs upstream of flood-prone regions river reach to prevent river degradation. once in every four years, have been The lesson from the millennia-old flood can be more effective in the medium term, However, flood control in the Kosi basin attributed primarily to rainfall deficiency control measures on the Yellow river is but the useful life of the reservoir may be is probably a secondary objective of the or prolonged dry spells [MHA, 2011]. clear: levees or embankments cannot severely dented by high reservoir siltation Saptakosi Dam. However, droughts need not always be control river floods on a long-term basis rates. Moreover, the trapping of river due to low rainfall. The MHA document for sediment-laden rivers (which most sediments in the reservoir should not affect A really long-term engineering solution to itself declares that, while around 68 Himalayan rivers are); on the contrary, the long-term fertility of the downstream prevent catastrophic flood events in the percent of the country is prone to levees may cause much greater river and its floodplains; hence river basin could lie in replicating the natural drought in varying degrees, nearly 1/3rd damage in these rivers’ floodplains connectivity and environmental flows must transfer of excess river sediments to of the drought-prone regions of India due to levee-induced aggradation be maintained at the dam (as detailed in floodplains – but sediments without get relatively high rainfall of more than of the river bed. Hence, levees or Mission Aviral Dhara). Thus, for instance, if disastrous flood waters. This would be 1125 mm (annually). What really causes embankments should be abolished as the proposed Saptakosi River High Dam in possible if sediments trapped in upstream droughts in terrestrial ecosystems is far as possible, with existing levees Nepal [CEA, 2014; Saurav, 2012; Shrestha reservoirs can be periodically removed the paucity of water at or near the land being gradually reduced in height by et al., 2010] is to be erected, then its useful and dispatched to the downstream surface (i.e. as surface waters, soil allowing the river channel to degrade life and its effect on basin fertility should floodplains1. Until such a solution can moisture, and near-surface humidity). over time. be carefully assessed, and there should be actualized, innovative dam operation This is dependent not only on atmospheric (such as flushing the river and flood- precipitation, but also on the ability of a ways with pre-determined floods just region to store water and to retain water before the monsoon flood season) seems flowing in from neighbouring regions. to be the main engineering help. Thus water retention in surface water bodies, soils and aquifers plays a key In conclusion, it bears repeating that role in preventing droughts, besides the to combat extreme floods checks are ability of a region to capture surface and certainly needed on anthropogenic subsurface runoff and to attract rainfall. activities causing soil erosion in upland catchment areas and on unregulated It may be emphasized here that constructions and encroachments in a droughts must be viewed in terms river’s floodway. In addition, floodplain of the inherent balance of specific wetlands and forests must be preserved ecosystems. Meteorologically, and bolstered to dampen large flood droughts depend on climatic history, waves, reduce inundation periods and but what constitutes drought in a curb water-logging. relatively wet or humid region, could

1An alternative possibility is the periodic removal of excess sediments deposited on the river bed and transferring them to nearby floodplains, but as noted in Mission Ecological Restoration frequent disturbance of the river bed is ecologically undesirable.

Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters 14 15 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan well be a normal condition in an arid A fundamental lesson in this regard zone or in a region facing frequent dry comes from the long spell of drought in years. For natural ecosystems – such Australia from the mid 1990s to around as water bodies, wetlands, forests and 2010 – known as Australia’s Millennium grasslands – meteorological droughts Drought [Kendall, 2010; Gleick & are debilitating only when they are Hebreger, 2012]. This extreme event rare and extreme events to which the clearly showed that droughts must be ecosystem is not adapted. managed by strengthening ecosystems despite human difficulties. As noted Apart from unusually long dry spells, by Gleick & Hebreger [2012], “Even other climatic factors that induce in the midst of the drought, Australia droughts include high temperatures, moved forward with plans to restore wind, sunlight and lack of atmospheric water to severely degraded aquatic moisture. Thus hot summer months ecosystems. The government has are typically ideal for the occurrence continued with plans to restore rivers of droughts rather than cold winter and wetlands by cutting withdrawals months, even when the latter from the Murray-Darling river basin constitute dry spells. In NRGB, the by 22 to 29 percent.” If human water winter months actually get some usage in the Murray-Darling basin rainfall in the north and in areas can be can be reduced by 22–29% to close to the Himalayan range, but strengthen the basin, a comparable the summer months before monsoon measure is certainly possible to curb are typically dry in the basin except droughts in NRGB. only about 13.25% including 0.25% mangroves of the delta region. Since in forested regions. Thus, droughts mangrove forest cover [FSI, 2014]. regeneration of healthy forests may must be combated with improved 4.3 Forest Fires Nonetheless, the forests play an take decades, wildfires can deprive water retention in the basin through Forests cover only some areas of important role in the basin’s natural the basin of valuable ecosystem vegetative and structural means – by NRGB. As per the 2013 India State resource wealth and healthy basin services for long durations; they may increasing water retention in surface of Forest Report, NRGB’s forests are performance. Of particular concern also change forest ecology in the water bodies (including wetlands), in limited to high-altitude Himalayan among various disasters affecting regenerated system. groundwater, and in soils (especially regions, the south-eastern delta these forests is that of forest fires or by forests and ground vegetation, by region and scattered in south-western wildfires, with about 54% of India’s While forest fires may be naturally minimizing agricultural tillage, and by parts of the basin, vide Figure 4.4 [FSI, recorded forest area being considered caused, accidental starting of forest avoidance of soil compaction). 2013]. While the report gives India’s fire-prone and 3.7% experiencing fires by humans has become common total forest cover as 21.23% of her annual surface fires [FSI, 2013]. In in modern times. This has probably In drought-prone areas of NRGB, there geographical area, it does not give fact, forest fires occur frequently increased the frequency of forest fires is also a need to curb anthropogenic specific figures for NRGB. But as and sometimes consume vast forest in India, but it does not necessarily water usage and hydrate the basin’s per an assessment in the 1980s, the tracts in most parts of NRGB except imply that the fire damages have ecosystems with the additional water. forest cover of Ganga Basin totalled in the Himalayan Alpine regions and increased. For, even after some trees

Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters 16 17 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan have been ignited, it needs suitable Fire regimes of forest biomes have conditions for the fire to spread over been broadly related to rainfall vast areas of forest. At a basic level, [Mayer & Khalayani, 2011]: thus large infrequent forest fires have been forests receiving more than 2500 mm attributed to high biomass density annual rainfall have few fires and and low moisture content of forests tend to be well-forested (with more [Meyn et al., 2007]. This is typical of the than 60% tree cover) except when summer months in NRGB when major the rainfall is highly seasonal; on the forest fires are reported; and it is due other hand, regions receiving less to their high moisture levels that the than 1000 mm/year rainfall tend to Sunderban forests are spared such have more frequent fires, and in such fires. More importantly, global studies cases grasses outcompete trees by suggest that the average areal extent regenerating faster; and savannas of a forest fire is inversely proportional (with 5 to 50% tree cover) are most to a power of its frequency [Moritz common for rainfall between 750 et al., 2005]. That is, if forest fires to 2000 mm/year. But apart from are frequent then they are smaller in climatic factors, other physical extent, whereas very rare fires tend factors (such as topography and soil to consume vast forest tracts. Moritz type) and ecological parameters et al. infer that “highly optimized (such as herbivores and plant pests) (fire) tolerance suggests robustness are also likely to affect forests’ tradeoffs underlie resilience in fire tolerance and resilience. Most different fire-prone ecosystems.” Such importantly, anthropogenic factors tolerance emanate from evolutionary have significantly affected forest fire strategies of individual plant species regimes in the modern age, which as well as from ecosystem processes. demands a better understanding But the factors that govern ecosystem of human impacts on fire ecology, evolutions are yet to be well understood especially for tropical forests and to relate them firmly with forest fire savannas [Cochrane, 2003; Roberts, frequencies. 2000; Staver, Archibald & Levin, 2011].

to the high moisture levels that the It is due Figure 4.4: Forest Cover of NRGB [FSI, 2013] Sunderban forests are spared such fires.

Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters 18 19 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Based on the above considerations, Ganga basin and that of the coastal communities may be a necessary step reportedly destroyed a phenomenal 26 the main measures to contain forest sea. Cyclonic storms striking the NRGB for the preservation of the Sundarban lakh trees in the state, and the forest fires and limit their likely adverse coast or the nearby coasts of Odisha ecosystem [Datta et al., 2012]. authorities decided that they should effects must include curbs on (formerly Orissa) and Seemandhra replant the affected areas with wind- anthropogenic factors that tend to (formerly Andhra Pradesh) may also In reviving and strengthening resistant local tree species rather exacerbate forest fires – such as carry their storm impacts to inland mangroves, other coastal forests and than the easily uprooted trees that had forest fragmentation and modifications regions of NRGB. Thus cyclones are coastal wetlands in NRGB, the lessons been planted after the Odisha super- by constructions, tree cutting and an important natural disaster affecting of cyclonic impacts in other regions cyclone of 1999 [PTI, 2013]. Thus, clearing, grazing by domestic cattle, the basin. should be inducted. For instance, promoting indigenous wind-resistant and water abstractions from forested a major tropical cyclone – Cyclone tree species is an important aspect of areas. Early regeneration of burnt The main approach to combat the Phailin – had struck the Odisha coast strengthening coastal forests in NRGB. forests may be attempted by planting adverse effect of cyclonic storms in mid-October 2013. With the aid of of suitable indigenous species. and tidal surges on NRGB lies in advance forecasts, an exemplary job 4.5 Landslides Finally, a better understanding of the dampening their energy when they of evacuation and saving of human Landslides refer to the sudden sliding dynamics of forest fire and their long- strike the coast. The mangrove forests lives was executed by national and down of a mass of soil or rocks from term ecosystem implications need and coastal wetlands covering most of state disaster management personnel hill slopes. Landslides are a common to be developed for different forest the Sundarban delta (stretching across [GEAS, 2013]. However, the cyclone occurrence in parts of NRGB, especially biomes of NRGB. Bangladesh and India) play a critical role in this process. Unfortunately, 4.4 Cyclones in recent decades the mangroves Tropical cyclones are a major natural seem to have been affected by disaster for India’s coastal areas, anthropogenic factors such as particularly common between October increasing timber production, causing and December in regions close to the them to degrade significantly: thus, Bay of Bengal [MHA, 2011]. Landfall while the forest area may not have of such cyclones with very high decreased significantly in the last 30- wind speeds – exceeding 200 km/ 40 years, soil erosion, aggradation, etc. hr in some cases – uproot trees and have increased the turnover [Giri et cause enormous damage to human al., 2007; Zoological Society of London, life and property as well as to coastal 2013]. There is thus an obvious need and inland ecosystems. The high to ensure preservation of mangroves wind speeds may also produce tidal to resist cyclonic disasters in NRGB. surges that affect the coastlands. The But since the mangroves have been only part of NRGB directly exposed economically productive for human to cyclonic threats is coastal West needs, they are also highly populated Bengal, but this is also the region that – the population being largely poor hosts the Sunderban delta that plays a and dependent on ecosystem produce. crucial role in the ecology of the Lower Thus active participation of local

Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters 20 21 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan in areas with loose and fractured rocks removal of the toe of slopes for the village located in the Sahyadri mountain region, keeping in mind that apart from and soil. The Himalayan regions of cutting of roads and paths” [Barnard ranges (in Pune district, Maharashtra) high rainfall many other natural events NRGB are considered particularly prone et al., 2001]. The impact of road in late-July 2014 that killed dozens of (such as earthquakes and wildfires) to landslides, averaging about 2 per km2 constructions has also been noted people and damaged most houses heighten the chances of landslides in and with annual soil loss of about 2500 by other observers. Thus, a survey of in the village. The environmental or their aftermaths. tonnes/km2 [MHA, 2011]. The localized landslides in the aftermath of heavy ecosystem impacts are unknown, effects of landslides could perhaps be precipitation in September 2010 in the but the major anthropogenic cause 4.6 Epidemics and Biological ignored in the overall ecosystem if they valley revealed “large of the landslide is widely believed to Invasions were sporadic. But their frequency scale slope destabilization along the be deforestation and clearing of hill “Epidemics” and “biological invasions” and average soil loss are indications roads where widening work was in slopes to develop terraced agricultural are different types of phenomena of the significant areal impact on the process … (and) around 300 landslides plots [Waghmode, 2014]. The Malin in that the former refers to disease ecosystem. Moreover, at times they of various dimensions riddled NH- landslide was probably more of a outbreaks that severely affect specific also cause damming of rivers [Sundriyal 58 (the national highway along the mudslide (or mudflow or debris flow) species, while the latter pertains to et al., 2007], leading to potentially major Alaknanda river)” [Sati et al., 2011]. that may not be related to major rock the invasion of an ecosystem by alien downstream floods when the dam Apart from unsafe and increased fractures or lineaments. But even species that tend to replace some breaks under mounting water pressure road construction, the authors also mudslides are known to be related to native species. The two phenomena from the impounded water. identified increasing deforestation removal of vegetation. For instance, in are, however, linked by the fact of and urban built-up areas on unsafe a study of the after-effects of wildfires, native species being vulnerable to The Himalayan mountains being slopes as other major reasons for hill it was found that “debris flows are other organisms that are generally relatively young and geo-dynamically slope failures that caused landslides likely from burned area for the first two absent or of limited presence in the active than older mountain formations in the Alaknanda valley. It is also years after a wildfire” [GSA, 2013]. ecosystem. Hence the two issues are in India, landslides and landslips are worth noting that in the wake of an covered together in this section. partly natural – being caused by heavy unprecedented rainfall event in mid- As evident from above, deforestation, rainfall on geologically fragile slopes. June 2013 in the Upper Ganga basin unsafe road construction and building Epidemics in natural ecosystems But a study in the Garhwal Himalayas that caused major floods and landslides constructions on unsafe slopes are usually affect a few species among the found evidence to suggest that about in the region, the Indian Space major anthropogenic activities that entire spectrum of species contained 2/3rd of the landslides are initiated or Research Organization identified 2,395 need to be checked at the earliest. Apart in the ecosystem. The chances of a accelerated by anthropogenic activity landslides in the basin. In this case from these measures, identification disease outbreak generally increase “primarily via the undercutting and too, the major anthropogenic reasons and checks are also needed on other with the density of the species for the landslides were attributed to potentially hazardous activities such as population. In most natural ecosystems, large-scale deforestation, shoddy underground explosions and tunnelling evolutionary processes ensure that Although disease road building and illegal constructions in fault zones, improper disposal of different species are held in balance [Chopra, 2014]. excavation and construction debris, by disease germs, parasitic pests, germs and pests can be harmful and land-uses on slopes that increase symbiotic or mutualist organisms, and for individual species, they Landslides also occur in other parts the chances of landslides. Mapping the food web. Although disease germs of India, and their lessons need to be the basin’s geological hazard zones and pests can be harmful for individual can play a positive role in inducted in NRGB. A case in point is the is also required to systematically species, they can play a positive role maintaining ecosystem balance. major landslide that occurred in Malin implement the needed measures in the in maintaining ecosystem balance.

Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters 22 23 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan An example of such a role is evident As the beetles suck trees dry, the trees from that of insect herbivores and become highly prone to catch fires. 5. Summary of fungal pathogens in preserving plant Although the beetles are not alien, diversity in tropical forests. Thus, their invading large forest tracts are Recommendations suppressing fungi and insect pests by believed to have been aggravated by means of fungicides and insecticides anthropogenic factors. In fact, most was found to significantly diminish scientists now agree that it is high The main conclusions and but dams are a possible longer- forest biodiversity [Bagchi et al., biodiversity areas that are most prone recommendations for protecting term structural option: extreme 2014]. Conventional disease outbreaks to invasion — due to heavy human National River Ganga Basin against floods can probably be reduced by affecting only some species of an traffic and more favourable growth major natural disasters are as follows: upstream dams if river sediments ecosystem are therefore beneficial for conditions [Gewin, 2005]. Such high partially trapped behind dams can the system. They become a matter of biodiversity areas in NRGB include i) Many routine natural events be periodically removed and sent concern only when the disease afflicts the Himalayan, Terai and Sundarban conventionally considered as to downstream floodplains. a large number of species, which regions, which as elsewhere in the disasters – such as those of iii) Forest Fires, usually ignited by is usually the case when an alien world are highly human-affected. climatic origin and biological ones lightning or by humans, are also pathogen or pest intrudes the system, – are beneficial for the health of the dependent on climatic factors. or the physical environment is so In river ecosystems too, alien species basin and its ecosystems. Hence, Forest fires appear to be limited in greatly altered that existing pests gain invasions have been often surmised such events should not be viewed extent when they are frequent, and overwhelming advantages. The latter to be due to human activities. For as disasters and countered. vice versa. Since forest ecologies is often due to modern anthropogenic instance, the increased frequency ii) Extreme Floods, Extreme Droughts have evolved through natural fire factors. of passing ships combined with and Powerful Cyclones are among regimes over thousands of years, the straightening, deepening and meteorological events that can the effect of major fires on specific In contrast to routine disease reinforcing of riverbanks are believed have catastrophic effects on the ecosystems need to be studied outbreaks in ecosystems, ecosystem to be major factors for the invasion by basin’s ecosystems. To minimize on a long-term basis in different invasions by alien species – and round goby fish from the mouth of the chances of their catastrophic parts of the basin before any major even the sudden spurt of indigenous Danube river to regions far upstream impacts, ecosystems need to be intervention is designed to alter species – can often have far-reaching [TUM, 2013]. In fact, the biogeography strengthened through preservation their fire resistance or resilience. and unforeseeable effects. To cite, of alien fish invasions in most world of water bodies/ wetlands, mixed iv) The above four natural disasters in recent years wildfires in Colorado rivers has been found to correspond indigenous forests and vegetation are significantly exacerbated by forests in USA have been surmised to to the impact of enhanced human resistant to the specific disaster- modern human activities such as be due to invasion by mountain pine activities in the respective basins type, and minimal land-use encroachments and deforestation, beetles [Massey & ClimateWire, 2012]. [Leprieur et al., 2008]. disturbances by humans. For high which need to be stopped. sediment-laden rivers, Extreme v) Landslides are frequent events Floods are exacerbated over in the Upper Ganga Basin due to time by levees/ embankments, the litho-tectonic character of the

Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters 24 25 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Himalayas, but their frequencies understood, active interventions and magnitudes are highly should be limited to checking aggravated by anthropogenic harmful anthropogenic activities activities such as deforestation, that introduce alien species or road and building constructions, destabilize the ecosystems. and unsafe debris disposal, which viii) If any ecosystem is catastrophically need to be firmly checked. affected by a natural disaster, vi) Like Forest Fires the ecology its early rejuvenation should be of Epidemics and Biological aided by re-introducing indigenous Invasions in NRGB’s ecosystems species in the affected zones and need to be studied extensively, and re-creating an enabling physical until their dynamics are properly environment.

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Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters 30 31 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Mission 6: Basin Protection Against Disasters Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan - 2015 Ganga River Basin Management Plan (GRB MP)

Mission 7: Riv er Hazards ExtendedManagement Summary January 2015 by by ConsortiumConsortium ofof 77 “Indian“Indian Insti Institutetute of ofTechnology”s Technology”s (IITs) (IITs)

IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT Bombay Delhi Guwahati Kanpur Kharagpur Madras Roorkee

In Collaboration with

IIT IIT CIFRI NEERI JNU PU NIT-K DU BHU Gandhinagar

NIH ISI Allahabad WWF

Roorkee Kolkata University India

CONTENTS Abbreviations and Acronyms Abbreviations and Acronyms iii

1. CGWB : Central Ground Water Board Summary 1 2. CWC : Central Water Commission 1. Introduction 3 3. DBFO : Design-Build-Finance-Operate 4. E-Flows : environmental Flows 2. Objective 4 5. IITC : IIT Consortium 3. why River Hazards Management is Important for Ganga 6. FAO : Food and Agricultural Organization River Basin Management 4 7. GRBMP : Ganga River Basin Management Plan 4. Problems and Their Remediation 6 8. MND : Mission Nirmal Dhara 4.1 River Dynamics 9. MoEF : Ministry of Environment and Forests 4.2 Flood Hazards and Management 4.3 Sediment Dynamics and Management 10. MoEFCC : Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate Change 11. MoWR : Ministry of Water Resources 5. Summary of Recommendations 16 12. MoWR, RD&GR : Ministry of Water Resources, River Development & Reference 16 Ganga Rejuvenation 13. NGO : Non-Governmental Organization 14. NGRBA : National Ganga River Basin Authority 15. NIH : National Institute of Hydrology (India) 16. NMCG : National Mission for Clean Ganga 17. NRGB : National River Ganga Basin 18. NRGBMC : National River Ganga Basin Management Commission 19. PPP : Public-Private Partnership 20. SRI : System of Rice Intensification 21. UNEP : United Nations Environment Programme 22. URMP : Urban River Management Plan

Mission 7: River Hazards Management Mission 7: River Hazards Management II III Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Summary

Rivers draining the Ganga basin are natural flow regime of the rivers, flood prone to two major river hazards – river intensity, frequency and pattern but dynamics and floods – and these are have also created a ‘false sense of intricately interrelated. Anthropogenic security’ amongst people living in the disturbance along the rivers such region. The construction of barrages as landuse/ landcover changes, and other interventions has aggravated interventions such as barrages and the problem further. Many Himalayan dams, and developmental projects Rivers are highly sediment-charged such as rail/ road networks, and even and a major problem has been the rising flood-control embankments have river bed and reduction in carrying further increased the risks associated capacity owing to extensive sediment with these hazards manifold. The deposition in the reaches upstream of objective of Mission “River Hazards” the barrage. Apart from embankments is to identify the hazards related along the river, unplanned roads to anthropogenic disturbances on and bunds have resulted in severe the rivers and to formulate suitable drainage congestion and channel means to reduce the risk. River disconnectivity thereby increasing dynamics is a natural phenomenon, the inundation period significantly. however, the frequency of migration Some specific recommendations are: events has been severely affected (1) preparation of basin scale flood-risk by anthropogenic disturbance along maps, (2) drainage improvement and the rivers resulting into a sudden land reclamation in low-lying areas, and disastrous migration affecting a (3) assessment of soil salinity and large population. Flooding is another mitigation strategy, (4) alternatives to disastrous natural phenomenon in the embankments for flood management eastern Ganga plains. Flood control with an emphasis on ‘living with the strategies in most river basins in India floods’ concept, and (5) understanding are primarily embankment-based sediment dynamics and its application which have not only influenced the in river management projects.

Mission 7: River Hazards Management Mission 7: River Hazards Management 1 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 1. Introduction

Project planning should begin with Rejuvenation over the next 15 years Several rivers draining the Ganga in several rivers such as the Kosi river preparation of detailed Urban River must be only used for above types basin are prone to two major river does not occur as classic overbank Management Plans (URMPs) for Class I of projects. hazards – river dynamics and floods – flooding due to excess inflow but towns, and subsequently also for Class and these are intricately interrelated. is generally triggered by a breach II and Class III towns. The URMPs Projects related to MND may be The dynamics of the rivers is primarily in the embankments which have should be followed by preparation of conceived by the central, state, local driven by channel instability caused ironically been constructed for flood DPRs, following which funds should be governments, NGOs and other private by extrinsic factors such tectonics or protection. In most cases, breaches in allocated for project implementation. organizations/industries. Financing of intrinsic factors such as excessive the embankments are associated with Fund allocation should be prioritized these projects may be through funds sedimentation and local slope channel instability coupled with human for projects designed to prevent budgeted by central/ state governments variability rather than. Further, flooding factors such as poor maintenance. direct discharge of large quantities for Ganga Rejuvenation, local revenue, of liquid waste into the River System corporate and private donations and (Priority Level I), followed by projects grants, low cost debt from multinational designed to prevent direct discharge organizations, commercial debts from of large quantities of solid waste into banks and private equity. Wherever the River System (Priority Level II), possible, project implementation including followed by projects concerning river- operation and maintenance should be frame development and restoration contracted to ‘service providers’, i.e., of floodplain in urban areas along the public/private agencies with relevant Ganga River System (Priority Level expertise. Payments must be released to III). All funds budgeted by the central/ the ‘service provider’ only after monitoring state/local governments for Ganga by an independent third-party.

Mission 7: River Hazards Management Mission 7: River Hazards Management 2 3 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 2. Objective

The objective of Mission “River Hazards” so as to save the population living on the is to formulate suitable means to reduce floodplains. the risk of hazards related to the rivers

3. Why River Hazards Management is Important for Ganga River Basin Management

Several river-related disasters in 2010) hit headlines – pointing out very India in recent years bear testimony clearly that even developed countries to the fact that human disturbances are not quite free from flood risks. India are primarily embankment the velocity leading to scouring has have increased the intensity of Notwithstanding the justification, based. Such man made structures instead resulted in silting of river beds these disasters and vulnerability of we in India with a legacy of floods, have influenced the natural flow and increased water logging and soil communities towards these. The need to rethink strategies of flood regime of rivers and modified the salinity in the adjoining floodplains. year 2010 witnessed a series of management. Most floods are caused flood intensity, frequency and pattern. The construction of protective levees unprecedented floods not just in by excessive rainfall spanning a very The construction of barrages and and dykes besides the large sediment India but globally. From floods in short time, cloudbursts or cyclones other interventions has further flux from the Himalayan catchments Himachal Pradesh (July 2010) and in coastal regions. Barring sudden aggravated the problem. Many of the has further complicated the flooding Leh (August 2010), floods occurred cloudbursts resulting in floods, as Himalayan rivers are highly sediment problem in these rivers. In many cases, in several parts of Karnatka, Tamil in Leh and J&K, flooding due to charged and the rising riverbed and large areas have been inundated due Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and south excessive rainfall can be predicted - reduction in carrying capacity due to breaches in embankments coupled Orissa during November- December if proper monitoring of water gauging to extensive sediment deposition in with rapid shifting of rivers. Unplanned 2010. Globally, severe floods in east stations and communication systems upstream reaches of a barrage has roads and bunds have also resulted China (May 2010), Rio Lorogo, Brazil is in place. However, it is pertinent been a major problem with them. in severe drainage congestion and (June 2010), Pakistan (August 2010) to understand that flood control The engineering assumption that channel disconnectivity, increasing and Queensland, Australia (December strategies in most river basins in jacketing the river would increase the inundation period significantly.

Mission 7: River Hazards Management Mission 7: River Hazards Management 4 5 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Channel movements through avulsion and cutoffs have Burhi Gandak river along with that of 4. Problems and Their the Ganga around Samastipur (Phillip been recognized in most of the et al., 1989, 1991), decadal-scale rivers albeit with a difference in Remediation avulsions of the Baghmati river (Sinha, 1996; Jain and Sinha, 2003, 2004) are scale Channel movements through well-documented. avulsion and cutoffs have been recognized in most of the rivers Though the rivers of UP plains are not 4.1 River Dynamics (Arogyawami, 1971; Agrawal and Bhoj, as dynamics as the north Bihar rivers, albeit with a difference in scale The rivers draining the Ganga plain 1992). It was argued that the Kosi river they do show some channel movement and frequency. are quite dynamic in nature. Channel is shifting as the rate of subsidence is over a long time period. In the area movements through avulsion and cut- very much in excess of sedimentation, between Bithoor and Kanpur Railway westward lateral shifts at different offs have been recognized in most of the giving rise to strong gradients and a Bridge, the Ganga river shifted (Hegde places in between Banbasa barrage rivers albeit with a difference in scale regional tilt from east to west. It was et al., 1989). In 1910, the main channel (Nainital district) and Palliakalan and frequency. Fluvial dynamics in the also argued that with the progress of of the Ganga river was flowing along village (Kheri district) (Tangri, 2000). Gangetic plains was initially reported sedimentation, unequal loading of the the right bank; however, after 1945 the Another, interesting observation was by Shillingfield (1893) and followed by downthrown (western side) of this channel moved considerably and now made by Tangri (1992) who showed several workers. Many of these papers fault will produce a tilt of the east, and it is flowing along the left bank. The that the major rivers such as Ghaghra, focussed on the westward movement the river will switch back to an easterly historical records date the river flow Gandak, Ganga, Son and Punpun rivers of the Kosi river in north Bihar plains. course. However, Wells and Dorr (1987) along the right bank as early as 1857. were all meeting at one point (few km Shillingfield (1893) opined that the concluded that tectonic events and This channel shift was attributed to the upstream of Patna), but at present the progressive westward movement of severe floods surely influence the Kosi highly irregular shape of the valley in confluence points are widely separated the Kosi river would be followed by system but their effects are neither the area, the 1924 flood causing major apart. Further, the Ghaghra-Chauka the eastward movement in one great direct nor immediate. The lateral shift changes in floodplain and the location river confluence point has migrated sweep which proved to be true when of Kosi river is largely autocyclic and of railway bridge on the extreme right upstream perhaps in response to the the Kosi avulsed by ~120 km in August stochastic. More recent work has of the flood plain. The Ghaghra river change in water budget of source area 2008 (Sinha, 2009; Sinha et al., 2014). also confirmed that the dynamics of in UP plains has also shifted by ~5 km catchment (Himalaya). Tangri (2000) On an average, the Kosi has shifted the Kosi river is primarily controlled at certain places, on either side of the also delineated two major paleocourse by about 100 km in the last 200 years by local slope changes influenced active channel over a period of seven near the Ganga as well as Gandak river, and related the shifting process with by excessive sedimentation in the years between 1975 and 1982 and was which suggest much higher discharge the cone (megafan) building activity, channel belt and that the situation has related with the neotectonics in the flux in the Himalayan river in the past. sediment deposition, rise of bed become worse after the construction area (Tangri 1986; Srivastava et al., Roy and Sinha (2006) documented levels (Gole and Chitale, 1966) and the of embankments on both sides of the 1994). Chandra (1993) also noted an the upstream and downstream unidirectional channel shifting occurs Kosi river (Sinha, 2009; Sinha et al., avulsion of Rapti river near Baharaich movements of two major confluence progressively form one edge of the 2014). Apart from the major rivers such due to aggradation process in the points in the Ganga plains namely, cone to the other edge. The instability as the Kosi, the smaller rivers draining old channel, which caused the SW the Ganga-Ramganga and the Ganga- of Kosi river has also been related with the north Bihar plains are equally diversion of the Rapti river. The Sarda Garra confluences over a century a N-S fault with a throw to the west dynamic. The migration histories of the river is characterised by several scale period. The net movement of the

Mission 7: River Hazards Management Mission 7: River Hazards Management 6 7 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan and more interventions in recent years. river and it is crucial to accurately map Unfortunately, these measures have the extent of migration and reaches only shifted the trouble to downstream prone to migration. This extent must be reaches and have significantly defined as the ‘space’ for the river and increased the aggradation within the the concept of floodplain zoning must channel belt resulting in significant be seriously pursued. This is not only changes in channel morphology crucial for saving a large population and position. The reaches of the from the misery of river dynamics Ganga downstream of the barrage and floods but is also important for also form the international boundary improving the river health. The situation between India and Bangladesh and remains grim till date and long-term such large-scale dynamics adds to solutions incorporating geomorphic the land disputes between the two understanding of the river have been countries. It has been suggested that lacking in river management strategy. most of these changes are linked with natural delta-building processes but 4.2 Flood Hazards and have been aggravated by the human Management intervention, the most important one Flooding is one of the most disastrous being the Farakka barrage (Rudra, natural phenomena in alluvial plains 2014). Several channels of the Ganga of the Ganges system particularly in River have decayed beyond repair the eastern parts, which are presently and all efforts to rejuvenate them have regarded as one of the worst flood- failed. In addition, coastal erosion affected regions in the world (Agrawal confluence points was shown to be as Ghosh, 2012; Rudra, 2014) even though has been a serious problem in the and Narain, 1996). The plains of north large as ~18 km in case of the Ganga- the river flows through a rather narrow delta region and several islands have Bihar have the dubious distinction Ramganga confluence, and the major valley bounded by Rajmahal Hills disappeared in the last 100 years. The of recording the highest number of processes influencing the movement and Barind Tract to its west and east Sunderban area is the worst affected floods in India in the last 30 years of confluence points are avulsion, local respectively. Although the Ganga River where 430 km2 of land has been eroded (Kale, 1997). An excess of 2700 billions movements by cut-offs, river capture, has been naturally migratory in this between 1917 and 2010. It is necessary of rupees have been spent on the and aggradation. region, the engineering interventions that we advocate a policy “which flood protection measures in India namely, the Farakka barrage and works with seasonal inundation, land but the flood damages and flood- A good example to illustrate river associated structures have made the erosion and accretion will have to be affected areas are still on rise. The dynamics in the Ganga river could situation worse. The river has been much more sensitive and flexible, much flood protection measures have largely come from the lower reaches of the migrating to the east in the reaches more adaptive than the current system failed and one of the important reasons Ganga in West Bengal which show upstream of the Farakka barrage and to of standard engineering” (Rudra, 2014). for this has been that floods have long significant dynamics in terms of the west in the reaches downstream of been considered as purely hydrological channel position as well as form in the Farakka. The apprehension of the river It is important to realize that river phenomenon. A geomorphic last 234 years (Rudra, 2010; Sinha and flanking the barrage has forced more dynamics is a natural behavior of the understanding of floods is lacking.

Mission 7: River Hazards Management Mission 7: River Hazards Management 8 9 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Recent research has emphasized the along such newly formed channels channel bed and the floodplain surface also provided in some reservoirs. role of basin geomorphology on floods. and the flood damage is quite severe encourages flooding. However, it has been realized that The overall hydrological response of in such cases. even though flooding could be the basin depends upon, apart from Presently, a typical flood control reduced using these measures, it the rainfall intensity and duration, the One of the most important geomorphic strategy aims to either modifying the was never possible to control floods geomorphometric characteristics, considerations in understanding the floods in order to keep the flood waters completely. It is also recognized that neotectonics and fluvial processes. flooding behaviour of the rivers is away from developed and populated these measures are not sufficient to The dynamic behaviour of river the channel-floodplain relationship. areas or modifying susceptibility provide permanent protection to all channels and frequent avulsions In areas of modern sedimentation to flood damage by keeping people flood prone areas for all magnitudes caused by sedimentological with continuous subsidence, such as and developed areas out of flood of floods. Providing protection would readjustments or otherwise often the north Bihar plains, the frequency hazard areas or by ensuring that such involve factors as diverse as the divert the flow into a newly formed and extent of overbank flooding is developed areas are flood-proof. topographic limitations of the region channel with low bankfull capacity considerable, and most of the rivers Additionally, they aim to modify the loss as well as financial investment – and causing extensive flooding. Often, carry a very high suspended load and burden by reducing the financial and would entail prohibitively high cost people are not prepared for flooding a simultaneous aggradation of the social impact of flooding by providing of construction and maintenance. In post-flood assistance and relief. Most most cases, these measures have strategies for ‘modifying the flood’ proved to be very short-term solutions, include physical measures and are and have merely transferred the termed structural measures, while problem from one region to the other. those aiming to modify the damage Apart from interfering with the natural or impacts can be classified as non- fluvial processes in the region, these structural measures. The structural embanked areas have developed measures include the construction severe waterlogging problems. Large of flood embankments and anti- fertile areas have been destroyed due erosion structures for the protection to drainage congestion and increased of riverbanks. Flood cushions have soil salinity.

One of the most important geomorphic considerations in understanding the flooding behaviour of the rivers is the channel-floodplain relationship.

Mission 7: River Hazards Management Mission 7: River Hazards Management 10 11 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan by the community. At the same time, from the embankments along the river, it should recognize the importance the unplanned roads and bunds have Flood Diversion of H ARD ENGINEERING (NON-STRU C Forecasting 1 1 Flood Water of cost benefit to the community and resulted in severe drainage congestion direct beneficiaries. and channel disconnectivity thereby Flood Plain Embankments and TURAL) Zoning 2 2 Flood Walls increasing the inundation period Flood control strategies in most significantly. Disaster Preparedness Channel and Response Planning 3 3 Improvement river basins in India are primarily FLOOD embankment-based which have Despite an astronomical increase Flood MNAGEMENT Anti-Erosion Proofing 4 TECHNIQUES 4 Structures not only influenced the natural flow in the expenditure on flood control regime of the rivers and have modified in India, the recurrence of floods as Catchment Management: Dams and Afforestation 5 5 Reservoirs the flood intensity, frequency and well as damage due to them has only pattern but have also created a ‘false exacerbated. Floods pose a constant Flood Drainage Warning 6 6 Improvement TURAL) sense of security’ amongst the people threat to engineering structures ENGINEERING (NON-STRU C ENGINEERING

T living in this region. The construction and public utilities with their repair/ Flood River Bank Insurance 7 7 Protection SO F of barrages and other interventions restoration consuming significant has aggravated the problem further. chunks of flood relief and public money. Many of the Himalayan Rivers are There are also issues of poor planning highly sediment-charged and a and non-cognizance of river processes On the contrary, flood management management programme. At the time of major problem has been the rising in designing these structures. An is described as a series of actions of transformation from agricultural to the river bed and reduction in carrying important case in this regard is the regulating the vulnerability, designing modern society, effective ‘flood control’ capacity owing to extensive sediment Kosi river in north Bihar plains. The of flood mitigation strategies and strategies are moving towards ‘flood deposition in the reaches upstream Kosi river is an important tributary of harmonizing the relationship between management’ to meet the expectations of the barrage. The engineering the Ganga in the eastern India and one human and nature. Some inherent of ensuring sustainable development. assumption that jacketing the river of the most distinctive hydrological issues for flood managements include Further, an effective flood management would increase the velocity leading characteristics of this river is a very review of design parameters of flood strategy requires a strong community to scouring has been borne out in high sediment yield (0.43 mt/y/km2) control and drainage structures, involvement and ownership approach most cases and has instead resulted The ‘avulsive’ shifts of the Kosi river review and redesign of canal system which in turn assists the community in extensive waterlogged areas and have been well documented and a and pond assessment, and planning in learning to live with floods. Flood soil salinity. The obstruction of great preferentially westward movement for climate change impacts. It is risk mitigation and management is volumes of water due the construction of 150 kms in the last 200 years has also important that post-project the individual responsibility of the of a series of protective levees and been recorded. Unlike the previous impact assessment of flooding in the community and therefore there is a dykes together with a large sediment westward shifts, the August 18, 2008 floodplains, morphological changes in need to understand natural systems flux from the Himalayan catchments avulsion of the Kosi River recorded the peripheral rivers, drainage of storm and processes. Long-term sustainable has complicated the flooding problem an eastward shift of ~120 km which water and sewage, water pollution in the and strategic flood management in these rivers. In many cases, large is an order of magnitude larger than inside rivers, depletion of groundwater approach must respond to changes to areas have been inundated due to any single avulsive shift recorded in and land use/ land cover changes are the nature and extent of the risk and breaches in embankments coupled historical times. This avulsed channel accounted for in a sustainable flood the level and type of protection desired with rapid shifting of rivers. Apart ‘reoccupied’ one of the paleochannels

Mission 7: River Hazards Management Mission 7: River Hazards Management 12 13 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan of the Kosi and carried 80-85% of the These can then be combined with flood total flow of the river. Since the new frequency analysis and inundation course had a much lower carrying modeling to assign the flood magnitude information to suggest capacity, the water flowed like a associated with each zone or even There is enough sheet, 15-20 km wide and 150 km long, to delineate areas of a particular that present systems have been unsuccessful in with a velocity of 1m/s at the time of flood magnitude. Based on this, a reducing flood risk and thus alternative methods breach. Interestingly, the new course relationship between regulatory flood did not join back the Kosi nor did this depth and readily measurable stream must be explored. find through-drainage into the Ganga and/ or drainage basin characteristics as a result of which a very large area can be developed. remained inundated/ waterlogged for more than four months after the breach. In many parts of India large populations 4.3 Sediment Dynamics and parameter for sediment management This single event affected more than live close to the river. Where regulatory Management in rivers. 30 million people. The breach of the floodway and floodway fringe areas are The preceding sections on river eastern embankment took place at a occupied, floodplain regulations may dynamics and flood management bring The understanding of sediment discharge of 144,000 cusecs. Although require relocation. A National Flood out one strong point that excessive dynamics and its application in the river channel could handle a Insurance Programme for people living sediment flux of one of the most serious river management projects in India maximum discharge of 950,000 cusecs, in flood prone areas should be taken problems to be tackled for several is extremely poor and some of the this point in the embankment was up. Such a programme could provide tributaries of the Ganga River, particularly important research gaps include vulnerable for some time prior to the insurance cover for flood damage and those draining the north Bihar plains (a) spatial and temporal sediment avulsion. The breach was caused would discourage people from living such as the Kosi. The example of dynamics in the river basins and (b) primarily by poor strategies of river near flooding rivers. the Kosi river used in the preceding the relationship of sediment dynamics management, but also due to poor section once again emphasizes the with several fluvial hazards resulting monitoring and maintenance of the A formal audit of the impact of need for sediment management. One from river dynamics and floods. This embankment making the event partly a engineering structures in terms of of the serious consequences of the research requires a highly multi- human-induced disaster. benefits accrued and degradation of interventions in these sediment-charged disciplinary approach ranging from natural equilibrium and ecosystem is rivers is the excessive sedimentation remote sensing and GIS, sediment Accurate flood hazard mapping is one yet to be taken up for any river system within the channel belt and rise of river transport modeling and geochemical of the first steps towards sustainable in India. Nevertheless, there is enough bed leading to a series of breaches in signatures (trace element and flood management. It can be based information to suggest that present the embankment over the years, which radiogenic Sr-Nd isotopic ratios) on fixed distance from river or bank, systems have been unsuccessful in have often resulted in large floods. For a to understand sediment origin past floods or floods of a particular reducing flood risk and thus alternative sustainable sediment management, it is at the source, its transport and frequency e.g. 100 year flood and area methods must be explored. Flood important to know the spatial distribution subsequent deposition elsewhere in inundated by largest flood recorded. management now and in the future of different sediment sources and their the system. We strongly recommend High resolution, and repetitive remote must focus on a strategy of ‘living with temporal variability. In the absence of that intensive research on sediment sensing images can provide quick the floods’ using an ecology based such knowledge, it is difficult to assess dynamics and management in major means to map flood hazard zones. approach the controlling factors of sediment river basins of the Ganga system production and transport – a key should be initiated very soon.

Mission 7: River Hazards Management Mission 7: River Hazards Management 14 15 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 5. Summary of a complete eco-system. This means 2. Drainage improvement and land that we need to understand how river reclamation in low-lying areas Recommendations functions as a system and how does should be taken up on an urgent it maintain the ‘dynamic equilibrium’. basis; several successful case This is time to move from ‘river histories are available from different A sustainable solution to river hazards to engineering structures and public control’ to ‘river management’ that parts of the world but they need to – river dynamics as well as flooding - utilities and a large expenditure on necessitates the appreciation of the be taken up systematically. in India needs an integrated approach flood relief and repair/ restoration of role of geomorphology – the science 3. Assessment of soil salinity and employing modern techniques such embankments and public utilities uses of form and processes of rivers and mitigation strategy is an important as remote sensing data coupled a significant chunk of public money. the concepts of threshold, lag and task ahead and this may include the with DEM, hydrological study and There are also issues of bad planning complex response in river adjustment. use of salinity resistant crops as field observations to understand and non-considerations of river Further, the impact of engineering well as soil improvement practices. the causative factors of flooding. It processes and dynamics in designing structures on river systems must 4. Alternatives to embankments is indeed ironic that despite large these structures. For example, be assessed primarily focusing on for flood management with an expenses on flood management, the frequent abandonment of bridges natural equilibrium and assessment emphasis on ‘living with the floods’ recurrence of floods as well as flood even before they are completed due of degradation due to anthropogenic concept must be emphasized; this damages has increased in most flood- to river movements reflects a poor factors; this may include geomorphic may include floodplain zoning and prone basins such as north Bihar as understanding of river dynamics, assessment of rivers as well as other non-structural approaches. noted in the Report of the Second and therefore, has costed heavily to impact on ecosystem. It is high time There is an urgent need for a wide Irrigation Commission. Most floods the exchequer of the state. Further, that we do a cost-benefit analysis section of people from academia, cause a huge loss of life and property these embankments have blocked (long term) of major interventions in governmental organizations, and add to the misery of weaker the inflowing drainages into the main the river basins and their utility in the NGOs, social institutions and the sections of the society. The loss to river thereby resulting in extensive present context; this should include society at large to get together to the crops every year due to recurring water logging and soil salinity. The the benefits accrued as well as the fight out the evils that are plaguing floods is enormous. There are several seepage from bunds and canals adds impact on livelihood and ecology. the flood management policies in other ways in which the floods have to the problem. As a result, a sizable Some specific recommendations may the country. impacted the economic growth of the agricultural land has been lost. include the following: 5. Sediment dynamics and its region. An astronomical expenditure application in river management on the maintenance of embankments River management in India has always 1. Basin scale flood-risk maps should projects form very important areas every year has proved to be ineffective been dominated by water allocation be prepared based on scientific of future research for designing not only due to inherent characteristics (considers rivers as ‘conduits’ data and reasoning; such GIS sustainable river management of the rivers but also due large scale of water) and pollution problems based, interactive maps may be startegies. A classic case study malpractices; this expenditure could (considers rivers as ‘sinks’). There is a based on historical data analysis as could be the Kosi basin, which is have contributed significantly to the strong need to consider rivers as a ‘live well as modeling approaches and one of the highest sediment load economic growth of the state. In natural system’ meant for supporting can be linked to an online data base carrying river in the Ganga basin addition, floods pose a constant threat not just human civilizations but also and flood warning system. and is also flood-prone.

Mission 7: River Hazards Management Mission 7: River Hazards Management 16 17 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan References

1. Agarwal, R.P., Bhoj, R., 1992. 7. Jain V. & Sinha, R. (2003) Evolution of Kosi River fan, Hyperavulsive-anabranching India: structural implication Baghmati river system, north Bihar and geomorphic significance. plains, eastern India, Zeitschrift International Journal on Remote für Geomorphologie (Annals of Sensing 13(10), 1891-1901. Geomorphology), 47/1, p. 101-116. 2. Arogyaswamy, R.N.P., 1971. Some 8. Jain, V. & Sinha, R. (2004) Fluvial geological factors influencing the dynamics of an anabranching behaviour of the Kosi. Records river system in Himalayan foreland Geological Survey India 96, 42-52. basin, Baghmati river, north Bihar 3. Chakraborty, T., Kar, R., Ghosh, plains, India, Geomorphology, 60, P. Basu, S., 2010. Kosi megafan: pp. 147-170. historical records, geomorphology 9. Kale, V.S., 2011. Himalayan and the recent avulsion of the Kosi catastrophe that engulfed North River. Quaternary International, Bihar. Journal of Geological 227, 143-160. Society of India 72, 713-719. 4. Chandra, S. (1993) Fluvial landforms 10. Kumar, R., Jain, V., Prasad Babu, G. and sediments in the north-cnetral and Sinha, R. (2014). Connectivity Gangetic Plain, India. Ph.D. Thesis structure of the Kosi megafan and (unpublished), Darwin College, role of rail-road transport network. Univeristy of Cambridge, UK. Geomorphology, doi: 10.1016/j. 5. Gole, C.V., Chitale, S.V., 1966. Inland geomorph.2014.04.031. delta building activity of Kosi River. 11. Mackey, S.D., Bridge, J.S., 1995. J. Hydraul. Div., ASCE 92, 111-126. Three-dimensional model of 6. Hegde, M., Mathur, V. K. and alluvial stratigraphy: theory and Mandal, P. S. (1989) Erratic application. Journal of Sedimentary meander shift of the river Ganga Research B65 (1), 7-31. at Kanpur. 3rd Int. Workshop on 12. Mishra, D.K., 2008. The Kosi and Alluvial River Problems (TIWARP), the embankment story. Economic University of Roorkee, Roorkee; and Political Weekly 43, 47-52. Oxform and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. 13. Phillip, G., Gupta, R. P. and Ltd., New Delhi, 239-246. Bhattacharya, A. B. (1989) Channel

Mission 7: River Hazards Management Mission 7: River Hazards Management 18 19 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan migration studies in the middle 20. Sinha, R., Bapalu, G., Singh, L., 25. Tangri A.K. (1986) Under standing specific reference to their impact Ganga basin, India using remote Rath, B., 2008. Flood risk analysis the dynamics of Ghaghra river on engineering structures. In: sensing. International Journal of in the Kosi River basin, north Bihar system in U.P., India, using satellite Sinha, R. (ed.) Proceedings Remote Sensing, 10 (6), 1141-1149. using multi-parametric approach remote sensing. Proceedings of of the workshop on Fluvial 14. Phillip, G., Gupta, R. P. and of analytical hierarchy process the seventh Asian conference Geomorphology with Special Bhattacharya, A. (1991) LANDSAT (AHP). Journal of the Indian on remote sensing, Seoul, Korea, Reference to Flood Plains, Indian image enhancement for mapping Society of Remote Sensing 36(4), B.6.1-6. Institute of Technology Kanpur, 3-1 fluvial palaeofeatures in parts of 335-349. 26. Tangri, A. K. (2000) Application – 3-12. Middle Ganga Basin, Bihar. Journal 21. Sinha, R. & Santosh Ghosh of remote sensing techniques in Wells, N.A. and Dorr, J.A., 1987. of Geological Society of India, 37, (2012): Understanding dynamics monitoring the spatial and temporal Shifting of the Kosi River, northern 63-74. of large rivers aided by satellite evolution of fluvio-geomorphic India. Geology, 15, 204–207. 15. Roy, N. G. and Sinha, R. (2007) remote sensing: a case study features in Ganga Basin with Understanding confluence from Lower Ganga plains, India, dynamics in the alluvial Ganga– Geocarto International, 27 (3), Ramganga valley, India: An 207-219. integrated approach using 22. Sinha, R., Gaurav, K., Chandra, S., geomorphology and hydrology. Tandon, S.K., 2013. Exploring the Geomorphology, 92/3-4, 182-197. channel connectivity structure of 16. Rudra, K. (2014). Changing river the august 2008 avulsion belt of the courses in the western part of kosi river: application to flood risk the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta. assessment. Geology 41, 1099-1102. Geomorphology, 227, 87-100. 23. Sinha, R., Priyanka, S., V. 17. Shillingfield (1893) (cited in Gole Jain and Malay Mukul (2014). and Chitale, 1966). Avulsion threshold and planform 18. Sinha, R. (1996). “Channel avulsion dynamics of the Kosi river in north and floodplain structure in the Bihar (India) and Nepal: a GIS Gandak-Kosi interfan, north Bihar framework. Geomorphology, 216, plains, India”, Zeitschrift fur 157-170. Geomorphologie N.F., Suppl.-Bd, 24. Stouthamer, E., Berendsen, 103, p.249-268. H.J.A., 2007. Avulsion: the relative 19. Sinha, R., 2009. The Great avulsion roles of autogenic and allogenic of Kosi on 18 August 2008. Current processes. Sedimentary Geology Science 97(3), 429-433. 198, 309-325.

Mission 7: River Hazards Management Mission 7: River Hazards Management 20 21 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Mission 7: River Hazards Management Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan - 2015 Ganga River Basin Management Plan (GRB MP)

Mission 8: Environmen tal Knowledge- BuildinExtendedg and Sensiti zaSummarytion January 2015 by by ConsortiumConsortium ofof 77 “Indian“Indian Insti Institutetute of ofTechnology”s Technology”s (IITs) (IITs)

IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT IIT Bombay Delhi Guwahati Kanpur Kharagpur Madras Roorkee

In Collaboration with

IIT IIT CIFRI NEERI JNU PU NIT-K DU BHU Gandhinagar

NIH ISI Allahabad WWF

Roorkee Kolkata University India

Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization Ganga River Basin Management Plan

CONTENTS List of Figures

List of Figures and Tables iii Figure Page 4.1 Longitudinal Profile of River Danube and Contribution to Danube River Flow from each Abbreviations and Acronyms iv Country of the Danube Basin During 1994–1997 10 4.2a Total N & P Emissions by Human Sources in Danube River Basin During 1998–2000 11 4.2b Diffuse N & P Pollution Emissions by Pathways in the Danube Basin During 1998–2000 12 Summary 1 4.3 Nitrogen Surplus per Unit Agricultural Area in the Danube Countries During 1998–2000 12 1. Introduction 4 4.4 Chlorophyll Concentrations in River Danube at Different Locations During 1998–2000 13 4.5 Number of Macro-Benthic Species in Front of the Danube Delta 14 2. Objective 6 4.6a Degraded and Wastelands of Uttar Pradesh 15 4.6b Degraded and Wastelands of Jharkhand 16 3. why Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization is 5.1 Comparison of Growth in GDP and Resource use in EU-15 Countries 20 important for Ganga River Basin Management 6 5.2 Trends in Sectoral Water Use in Europe 20 5.3 Concentrations of Some Pollutants in European Rivers Between 1992 and 2001 20 4. environmental Data Bank and Knowledge-Building for NRGB 7 5.4 Built-Up Land in Relation to Population 21 5.5 Land Use in EU-15 Countries 21 5. environmental Sensitization for NRGB 18 5.6 Probable Problem Areas of Local Contamination in Europe 23 5.7 Key Targets of Sustainable Urban Management 27 6. Summary of Recommendations 31 5.8 Typical River Flood Peaks Due to Urban Storm Water Runoff 28 5.9 Main Causes of Pollution of Scottish Rivers in 1996 28 References 32 List of Tables Table Page 4.1 Significant Point Sources of Pollution in the Danube River Basin 10 4.2 Population (%) connected to Wastewater Treatment Plants in Different Countries of the Danube River Basin 11 4.3 Pesticide Consumption in Some Danube Countries in 2001 13 4.4 Annual mean Saprobic Index based on Phytoplankton During 1997–2000 13 5.1 Soil Sealing and Land Use 21 5.2 Land Use for Agriculture 22 5.3 Comparison of Soil Characteristics and Nutrient Cycling Rates in Three US Cities 29

Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization II III Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Abbreviations and Summary Acronyms

The Ganga River Network was and sensitize stakeholders, the data 1. AK : Available Potassium adopted as the primary indicator of bank also needs to be complemented health of the National River Ganga with community-specific educational 2. AP : Available Phosphorous Basin (NRGB) in GRBMP, and human- material and programmes on NRGB’s 3. C/N : Carbon : Nitrogen Ratio technology-environment aspects environment. The main measures 4. EU : european Union were factored in to assess the basin’s recommended are: (i) Establishment 5. GDP : Gross Domestic Product resource dynamics. Basin planning of a comprehensive Data Bank by and management combine diverse continuous collection, processing 6. GRBMP : Ganga River Basin Management Plan natural resources (water resources, and storage of information on natural 7. IITC : IIT Consortium land resources, biological resources, resources, anthropogenic activities, 8. MoEF : Ministry of Environment and Forests etc.) and processes (river dynamics, and environmental monitoring data of geological phenomena, atmospheric the basin; (ii) Preparation of secondary 9. MoEF&CC : Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate Change processes, etc.) with traditional results (charts, tables, etc.) based 10. MoWR : Ministry of Water Resources wisdom and grassroots knowledge. on primary data; (iii) Preparation of 11. MoWR, RD&GR : Ministry of Water Resources, River Development Hence, it is necessary to build a documents and materials for easy and Ganga Rejuvenation comprehensive data bank to enable understanding by non-specialized meaningful analyses and obtain people; (iv) Keeping all the above 12. NFM : Natural Flood Management quantitative indicators of NRGB’s information in open domain for easy 13. NGRBA : National Ganga River Basin Authority status. Moreover, since NRGB’s access by all interested individuals 14. NMCG : National Mission for Clean Ganga welfare needs the co-operation and and institutions; and (v) Conducting help of both formal and informal workshops and educational 15. NRGB : National River Ganga Basin sectors of society, the data bank should campaigns with various stakeholders 16. SOM : Soil Organic Matter be accessible to citizens to enable and interested citizens to enable their 17. SOC : Soil Organic Carbon people’s participation in the overall comprehensive understanding of basin upkeep of NRGB. To adequately inform processes and take meaningful action. 18. WWTP : Waste Water Treatment Plant

Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization IV 1 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization 2 3 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan the basin as a whole. Hence, GRBMP neither can be considered in isolation. 1. Introduction adopted the Ganga River Network as the primary environmental indicator of It is not only soil and water that are the National River Ganga Basin (NRGB). mutually interactive, living organisms Indian civilization grew up under the become serious in the twentieth also interact with them and help shape care of River Ganga, nourished by century. It was against this backdrop River basin management needs to the basin’s environment. The biotic her bounties for thousands of years. that the Ministry of Environment and ensure that a basin’s natural resources resources of a basin consist of plants, The Ganga river – along with her Forests (Govt. of India) assigned the (biotic and abiotic) are adequately animals and micro-organisms. Since many tributaries and distributaries task of preparing a Ganga River Basin preserved over time. The main abiotic (or biota evolve over time to achieve a stable – provided material, spiritual and Management Plan (GRBMP) to restore physical) resources of a river basin are balance in a given environmental setting, cultural sustenance to millions of and preserve National River Ganga soil and water, along with a multitude of the biotic resources of a river basin people who lived in her basin or to a “Consortium of Seven IITs”. The minerals and compounds bound up with depend on its constituent ecosystems partook of her beneficence from time outcome of this effort – the GRBMP – them. Now, water is a highly variable – rivers, wetlands, forests, grasslands, to time. To the traditional Indian mind, evolved a seven-pronged action plan, resource. Barring variations from year etc. However, with significant human therefore, River Ganga is not only the with each prong envisaged to be taken to year, the water in a basin follows an activity in many ecosystems (as, for holiest of rivers and savior of mortal up for execution in mission mode. annual cycle of replenishment (primarily example, in agro-ecosystems and beings, she is also a living Goddess. through atmospheric precipitation urban ecosystems), the complexity Very aptly is she personified in Indian A river basin is the area of land from and groundwater inflows) and losses of human-technology-environment consciousness as “MOTHER GANGA”. which the river provides the only exit (primarily through river and groundwater systems has increased manifold This psychic pre-eminence of River route for surface water flows. For outflows, evaporation, transpiration, [Pahl-Wostl, 2006]. Nonetheless, Ganga in the Indian ethos testifies to understanding its dynamics, a basin and biological consumption). In contrast GRBMP attempts to incorporate her centrality in Indian civilization and may be viewed as a closely-connected to water, formation of mature soils – interactive natural resource dynamics her supreme importance in Indian life. hydrological-ecological system. from the weathering of parent material and human-technology-environment Hydrological connections include (rocks) to chemical decomposition and considerations in the Basin Plan. For, The Ganga river basin is the largest groundwater flow, surface runoff, transformation – is a drawn-out process with human activities multiplying and river basin of India that covers a diverse local evapotranspiration-precipitation that may take hundreds or thousands of diversifying in the basin, the resulting landscape, reflecting the cultural and cycles and areal flooding, while years [Jenny, 1994; Wikipedia, 2014]; environmental consequences have geographical diversity of the India. It is ecological links are many and varied but, once formed, soils can be fairly also been pronounced in recent times. also a fertile and relatively water-rich (such as the food web and transport durable. Thus, changes in a basin’s In sum, GRBMP focuses on the basin’s alluvial basin that hosts about 43% of by biological agents). These linkages water resource status tend to be overall resource environment and the India’s population [MoWR, 2014]. It provide for extensive material transfer relatively faster and easily detected, major factors affecting it (especially is fitting, therefore, that the Indian and communication between the while those of soils are slow and often diverse anthropogenic activities), government declared River Ganga river and her basin, which constitute go unnoticed for long periods. However, and seeks ways and means to protect as India’s National River in the year the functional unity of a river basin. soil and water are affected by each the basin and its resources against 2008. But the declaration was none too Directly and indirectly, therefore, other through many biotic and abiotic identifiable adverse impacts. For, only early. River Ganga had been degrading National River Ganga (along with her processes. Being thus interrelated, thus can we secure the environmental rapidly for a long time, and national tributaries and distributaries), is a degradation of either soil or water has foundation of NRGB for the good of one concern about her state had already definitive indication of the health of a concurrent effect on the other, hence and all.

Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization 4 5 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 2. Objective 4. eNVIRONMental Data Bank and Knowledge-Building The objectives of Mission “Environmental remedial measures available to counter Knowledge-Building and Sensitization” negative (resource-depleting) effects; for NRGB are: (i) to synthesize environmental and (ii) to disseminate such knowledge knowledge pertinent to the National and sensitize stakeholders to enable Ganga River Basin, the anthropogenic their meaningful participation in NRGB’s factors affecting NRGB, and the upkeep. Diverse human activities and and Prospects” [UNICEF, FAO and developmental pressures have SaciWATER, 2013], United Nations’ affected NRGB’s environment in “Water Security and the Global complex ways which need continuous Agenda, 2013” [UN University, 2013], monitoring and in-depth understanding etc. Similar recommendations for 3. Why Environmental of their linkages. Such understanding other types of natural resource data is dependent foremost on building a pertinent to basin management Knowledge-Building and comprehensive bank of environmental include DST’s “National Resource data to help arrive at quantitative Data Management System (NRDMS)” Sensitization is important for indicators of the state of the basin brochure [DST, undated], Gundimeda and its changing status with some et al. [2007], ICAR’s “Vision 2030” Ganga River Basin Management degree of certainty. The importance of document [ICAR, 2011], and Lenka, such a data bank has been repeatedly Lenka & Biswas [2015]. stressed by various agencies and The National Ganga River Basin environment interactions prevalent experts. For water resources data The government’s “River Basin Plan covers a large and diverse geo- in NRGB in order to comprehensively such recommendations include the Guidelines” [CWC, 2007] may be cited climatic region that is both highly restore and regenerate the basin. World Bank Report titled “India’s here as an example of water-related populated and home to a wide range of Moreover, the entire population of Water Economy” [Briscoe and data needed for water resource ecosystems. The consequent diversity NRGB constitutes stakeholders that Malik, 2006], India’s “Comprehensive planning: of ecosystem services that goes into are served by the ecosystem goods Mission Document on National the making of a healthy NRGB is thus and services of the basin and whose Water Mission – 2011” [MoWR, “The exact data requirement will vary also subject to a variety of human quality of life depends on the basin 2011], “National Water Policy – depending upon the particular study influences, resulting in a complex web health. Thus it is also important to 2012” [MoWR, 2012], WWC’s “Better environments and approach chosen. of ecosystem-human interactions that gather relevant information from Water Resource Management” In general, the data normally needed has caused significant environmental stakeholders, disseminate available [Sadoff and Muller, 2009], SANDRP’s would be of the following category: degeneration of the basin in recent knowledge in the public domain, and “Water Sector Options for India in 1. Topographical data such as times. Hence it is imperative to enable meaningful participation of Changing Climate” [Thakkar, 2012], topographical maps, aerial synthesize the entire gamut of stakeholders in sustained upkeep of UNICEF’s “Water in India: Situation photographs etc. ecosystem processes and human- the basin.

Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization 6 7 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 2. Hydrological data such as stream 13. Industrial data especially for those 21. Legal constraints such as inter- flow, snow data, watershed which are water-intensive. The state/ international agreements While the list of data characteristics, sediment inflow data include growth trends, water and tribunal awards. rate, duration of flooding for consumption, possible alternate 22. Social environment such as needed is recommended for various reaches of rivers. sources etc. water-related institutions, interest river basin water resource 3. Meteorological data such as 14. Inland water navigation data such groups, public awareness. management, much of the data rainfall, evaporation, temperature, as demand, alternate transport etc. system available, etc. Apart from these data, the change in may not be available at all. 4. Geo-hydrological data such as 15. Data on recreational prospects the food intake pattern, virtual export aquifer characteristics, ground related to water resources of water, in terms of food grain export water elevation, etc. development. from surplus to deficit water basin/sub 5. Water quality data for both 16. Data on projects in the basin basin, is also the growing concern of data, while the actual data needed surface and ground water such as completed and on- the planners.” must meet their specific spatial and including sources of pollution and going projects and their water temporal resolutions. This is because related information. consumption (planned as well While the above list is recommended the specific body of data needed for 6. environmental data such as flora, as actually utilized), potential for river basin water resource each type of data will depend on the fauna, historical monuments, projects identified including management, much of the data may intended analyses and the parameters wildlife sanctuaries, fisheries etc. reconnaissance reports for not be available at all with government of interest to be derived from them. 7. Land resources data such major and medium projects. bodies. As noted in IITC’s hydrology Some redundant data is also often as land use, soil survey, land Data on flood control works report [IITC, 2014b], many basic data desirable – both to cross-check the classification, etc. carried out in the past and their needed for hydrological analyses, data of primary interest and to enable 8. Agricultural data such as cropping performance. such as precipitation data for higher other analyses that may be needed in pattern, crop water requirement, 17. Drainage works executed, elevation areas, dam operations future. Examples of some basic results etc. evaluation. Data on drainage (inflows, storages and releases), covering mostly water quantity and 9. Demographic data including urban congestion problems including canal water diversions, and crop quality aspects in different spatial and and rural distribution, grouping by near the confluence point of irrigation, were unavailable from time domains are cited below for the age, sex, etc. tributary/ sub-tributaries with main government agencies. Likewise, data Danube River Basin – an international 10. Power demand survey data river, behind of the embankment available on sediment concentrations river basin of Europe – in Figures 4.1 to including alternative sources system due to continuous high in the Ganga river network are very 4.5 and Tables 4.1 to 4.4 [ICPDR, 2005]. available, demand centres, etc. stage of Main River. limited rivers [IITC, 2015a]. It should These results indicate the wide variety 11. Natural disaster data primarily for 18. Geologic data such as formations, be also noted here that the above list and extent of data requirement even flood and droughts. These include mineral deposits etc. comprises only broad categories of for a broad overview of a river basin. disaster-prone areas, damage 19. Economic data related to project/ statistics, mitigation measures, plan evaluation. etc. 20. Financial data such as those 12. Seismic data, especially in the required for financial feasibility vicinity of probable storages and analysis and also data on sectoral structures. allocation of plan outlays, etc.

Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization 8 9 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Table 4.2: Population (%) Connected To Wastewater Treatment Plants in Different Countries of the Danube River Basin [ICPDR, 2005]

Total Primary treatment Secondary Tertiary treatment (in%) (in%) treatment (in%) (in%) Austria 86a 1b 17b 64b Bosina i Herzegovina na na na na Bulgaria 38a 1a 37a 0c Croatia na na na na Czech Republic 68a na 62d na Germany 91b 1b 6b 83b Hungary 32c 2c 24c 6c Moldova na na na na Romania na na na na Serbia and Montenegro na na na na Slovak Republic 49b na na na Slovenia 30d 15d 15d 0d

Ukraine na na na na Figure 4.1: Longitudinal Profile of River Danube and Contribution to Danube River Flow from each Country of the Danube Basin during 1994–1997 [ICPDR, 2005] a: 2001; b: 1998; c: 2000; d: 1999

NitrogenNitrogen PhosphorusPhosphorus

758 kt/a758 N kt/a N 68 kt/a68 Pkt/a P Table 4.1: Significant Point Sources of Pollution in the Danube River Basin [ICPDR, 2005]

DE AT CZ SK HU SI HR BA CS BG RO MD UA 8% 8% 5% 10%5% 10% 26% 26% Municipal Point WWTPs 2 5 1 9 11 3 10 3 4 6 45 0 1 Sources: 27% 27% 32% 32% Untreated Wastewater 0 0 0 2 1 3 16 15 14 31 14 0 0

Industrial point sources 5 10 10 6 24 2 10 5 14 5 49 0 5 53% 53% Agricultural point sources 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 17 0 0 39% 39%

Total 7 15 11 17 36 9 36 23 32 41 125 0 6 BackgroundBackground BackgroundBackground Point andPoint diffuse and diffuse sources sources from settlements from settlements Point andPoint diffuse and diffuse sources sources from settlements from settlements * Two of these water bodies are shared by SK and HU AgricultureAgriculture AgricultureAgriculture Other Otherdiffuse diffuse sources sources Other Otherdiffuse diffuse sources sources Figure 4.2a: Total N & P Emissions by Human Sources in Danube River Basin during 1998–2000 [ICPDR, 2005]

Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization 10 11 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 8 – EKB&S

Nitrogen Phosphorus Table 4.3: Pesticide Consumption in Some Danube Countries in 2001 [ICPDR, 2005] GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 8 – EKB&S 623500 t/a N 45300 t/a P DE AT CZ SK HU SI RO Nitrogen Phosphorus Pesticide Category Sources: t/a t/a t/a t/a t/a t/a t/a 623500 t/a N 45300 t/a P 14% 5% TableFungicides 4.3: and Bactericides Pesticide Consumption7,912 1,336 in Some1,050 Danube 537Countries1,637 in 2001921 [ICPDR,2,802 12% 14% 5% 31% Herbicides 2005] 14,942 1,436 2,590 2,136 3,149 362 3,960 12% Inorganics 1,959 99 272 0 684 504 0 11% 31% 11% 51% Insecticides 1,255 0 157 175 298 81 1,110 5% 51% 5% Rodenticides 80 1 162 34 20 19 0 10% 10% 53%53% Total 26,148 2,872 4,231 2,882 5,788 1,887 7,872 5% 5% 2% 2% 1% 1% Pesticide Consumption kg/ha-a kg/ha-a kg/ha-a kg/ha-a kg/ha-a kg/ha-a kg/ha-a Erosion Surface Runoff Tile drainage Specific Pesticide consumption Erosion Surface Runoff Tile drainage ErosionErosion Surface RunoffSurface RunoffTile drainage Tile drainage 1.53 0.82 0.99 1.18 0.94 3.77 0.53 per ha agricultural area and year Atm. Deposition Groundwater Urban Area Atm. Deposition Groundwater Urban Area Atm. Deposition Groundwater Urban Area Atm. Deposition Groundwater Urban Area *according to the FAO database on agriculture Figure 4.2b: Diffuse N & P Pollution Emissions by Pathways in the Danube Basin during 1998–2000 [ICPDR, 2005] Figure 4.2b: Diffuse N & P Pollution Emissions by Pathways in the Danube Basin during 1998–2000 [ICPDR, 2005]

FFigureigure 4.4: 4.4: Chlorophyll Chlorophyll Concentrations Concent in Riverrations Danube at inDifferent River Locations Danube during 1998–2000 at Diff erent[ICPDR, 2005] Locations during 1998–2000 [ICPDR, 2005]

TableTable 4.4: 4.4: Annual Annual Mean Saprobic Mean Index Saprobic Based on IndexPhytoplankton Based during on 1997–2000 Phytoplankton [ICPDR, 2005] during 1997–2000 [ICPDR, 2005] Saprobic index (phytoplankton) D-Danube site (rkm) 1997 1998 1999 2000 R001-Bazias (1071); D 2,03 1,86 1,83 2,06 R002-Pristol/Novo Selo; D Harbour (834) 2,12 1,92 1,88 R004-Chiciu/Silistra (375); D 2,07 2,02 2,08 1,96 R005-Reni-Chilia/Kilia arm; D 2,08 2,11 2,11 2,17 FFigureigure 4.3: 4.3: Nitrogen Nitrogen Surplus per SurplusUnit Agricultural per A Unitrea in the Agricultural Danube Countries Area during in1998–2000 the [ICPDR, Danube 2005] UA01-Reni-Chilia/Kilia arm; D Countries during 1998–2000 [ICPDR, 2005] R006-Vilkova-Chiliaarm/Kilia; D arm 2,08 2,06 2,17 R007-Sulina-Sulina arm; D 2,05 2,13 R008-Sf.Gheorghe arm; D Gheorghe arm 2,03 2,32

Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization 12 13 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan

9

10 GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 8 – EKB&S

& Biswas [2015] and SLUSI [undated] allied sectors.”GRBMP Such – Januarya system 2015: Mission 8 – EKB&S for purposes that overlap with basin would obviously need an exhaustive management needs. information bank to be effective. Such knowledge and information in agricultureinformation andmay alliedalso need sectors. spatial ” Such a system To illustrate the data needs of natural analysis and be easily comprehended would resources obviously other need than anwater, exhausti the byve spatial information representation. bank For instance, to be effective. Such informationICAR Vision may Declaration also need [2011] spatial for land analysis degradation and has be easilysignificant compre hended by sustainable agricultural growth by implications for agriculture as well as spatial 2030 representation. in India may be cited. ForThe ICAR inst ance,for NRGB’s land overall degradationstatus. Thus land has significant implicationsdocument for emphasizes agriculture the improvement as well degradation as for maps NRGB’s can clearly overall indicate stat us. Thus land of “knowledge management system the considerable degradation in degradationto act as maps an efficient can clearly clearing- indicatedifferent states the of NRGB, considerable vide sample degradation in differenthouse states of oftechnology, NRGB, videknowledge sample results results for two for states two [ICAR,states 2010] [ICAR, 2010] shown and information in agriculture and shown below. below.

Exclusively water erosion Figure 4.5: Number of Macro-Benthic Species In Front of the Danube Delta [ICPDR, 2005] Water erosion under open forest Figure 4.5: Number of Macro-Benthic Species In Front of the Danube Delta Exclusively saline soil Eroded saline soils [ICPDR, 2005] Exclusively sodic soils Eroded sodic soils For river basin management it should and tidal energy, but also other forms Sodic soil under open forest be clearly noted that the data types of energy that may readily available Eroded sodic soil under open forest For river basin management it should be clearly noted that the data types Mining/Industrial waste listed above are required mainly to ecosystems such as geothermal Waterlogged area (permanent) listed above are requiredfor water mainly resource formanagement water inresource energy (e.g. management by hot springs). However, in the basin Others [CWC, 2007; CWC, 2010].the basin For[CWC, compr 2007; CWC,ehensive 2010]. manyenviron othermental commercial managem resources ent of For comprehensive environmental (such as fossil fuels) and commercial NRGB, the data needsmanagement are much of NRGB, more the data – needs especially minerals arethose often ecosystem-neutral.pertaining to other are much more – especially those Naturally, inclusion of environmentally natural resources suchpertaining as soils, to other nutrients natural resources and biota,significant as biodiversity,well as thosesoils, nutrients of harmful substances and wastes.such as soils, Among nutrients and non-material biota, as and energy substances, resource data and energy related is an well as those of harmful substances anthropogenic activities will increase important resourceand for wastes. inclusion. Among non-material Many forms manifold of the energy data requirement abstract of ed for substances, energy is an important a basin. In fact, many data needs anthropogenic needsresource are for also inclusion. needed Many forms by ecosystemsof other than those – especially of water resources renewable energies such as solarenergy energy, abstracted wind for anthropogenic energy, hydropowerhave been highlighted and tida by lvarious energy, but needs are also needed by ecosystems – agencies and experts such as DST also other forms of especially energy renewable that may energies readily such as available[undated], EE A to [2011b], ecosys Gundimedatems et such as solar energy, wind energy, hydropower al. [2007], ICAR [2011], Lenka, Lenka Figure 4.6a: Degraded and Wastelands of Uttar Pradesh [ICAR, 2010] geothermal energy (e.g. by hot springs). However, many other commercial Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization 14 Figure 4.6a: Degraded and Wastelands of Uttar Pradesh [ICAR, 2010]15 resources (suchGanga River as Basinfossil Management fuels) Plan and commercial minerals are often ecosystem- Ganga River Basin Management Plan neutral. Naturally, inclusion of environmentally significant biodiversity, soils, nutrients and energy resource data and related anthropogenic activities will increase manifold the data requirement of a basin. In fact, many data needs other than those of water resources have been highlighted by various agencies and experts such as DST [undated], EEA [2011b], Gundimeda et al. [2007], ICAR [2011], Lenka, Lenka & Biswas [2015] and SLUSI [undated] for purposes that overlap with basin management needs. To illustrate the data needs of natural resources other than water, the ICAR Vision Declaration [2011] for sustainable agricultural growth by 2030 in India may be cited. The ICAR document emphasizes the improvement of “knowledge Figure 4.6b: Degraded and Wastelands of Jharkhand [ICAR, 2010] management system to act as an efficient clearing-house of technology, 12 11 GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 8 – EKB&S knowledge and information in agriculture and allied sectors.” Such a system would obviously need an exhaustive information bank to be effective. Such information may also need spatial analysis and be easily comprehended by spatial representation. For instance, land degradation has significant implications for agriculture as well as for NRGB’s overall status. Thus land degradation maps can clearly indicate the considerable degradation in different states of NRGB, vide sample results for two states [ICAR, 2010] shown below.

Figure 4.6a: Degraded and Wastelands of Uttar Pradesh [ICAR, 2010] Planning and management of NRGB must combine diverse fields such as water resources, land resources and biological resources as well as grassroots knowledge and traditional wisdom – the experiential essence of generations of people – to account for interactions with human activities. Exclusively water erosion (>10 tonnes/ha/yr) Water erosion under open forest Exclusively acid soils grassroots knowledge and traditional data available with various central, Acid soils under water erosion wisdom – the experiential essence of state and private agencies should Acid soils under open forest generations of people – to account be collected and compiled in a Mining/Industrial waste Waterlogged area (Permanent) for NRGB’s interactions with human single environmental data bank. The Others activities. For, until all relevant data additional data needs should be then are brought together and made easily identified and a program for such Figure 4.6b: Degraded and Wastelands of Jharkhand [ICAR, 2010] available, the planning, monitoring and data collection initiated. Over time, Figure 4.6b: Degraded and Wastelands of Jharkhand [ICAR, 2010] maintenance of NRGB can only be a the data bank must be developed fickle endeavour. But important data into a multi-dimensional archive with needs – even for natural resources historical and regularly collected basin While the above figures give only a In sum, while there is considerable – are presently unavailable. For information, intermittent monitoring broad overview of state-wise12 land data collection by national and state instance, apart from the paucity of data, as well as specific observations degradations, a much finer resolution agencies focussing on specific water resources data mentioned and interpretations covering a wide may be needed in field-level planning themes such as water resources, earlier, data on biodiversity of River and eclectic data field to transform of land improvements and assessing forest resources, agriculture, industry, Ganga are available only “in fragments it into an open-ended knowledge the impacts on water bodies. SLUSI land-use, etc., comprehensive in geospatial terms” and “in different system. For only such knowledge [undated] proposes to attempt such management of NRGB needs the time domain and isolated stretches” of systems can fulfil NRGB’s developing detailed Land Degradation Maps and integration of disparate groups of data the river [IITC, 2014a]. Likewise, there needs as envisioned, for example, in Tables. For comprehensive basin data into a cohesive whole. Planning and is limited information on pesticides and the European Environment Agency’s handling the National Spatial Data management of NRGB must combine heavy metals loading in the Ganga river “Forward-Looking Information and Infrastructure – 2006 [DST, undated] diverse fields such as water resources, system and quanta of anthropogenic Services (FLIS)” whose primary aim initiated by the government may land resources and biological pollution of rivers through municipal is to “introduce forward-looking provide a useful geo-spatial data resources (plus energy and other sewage, industrial effluents and solid components and perspectives into management system. But the foremost extractable resources) with fluvial wastes [IITC, 2015b]. existing environmental information task would be to systematically collect dynamics, geological phenomena and systems to expand the knowledge the data needed. atmospheric processes as well as To start with, therefore, the actual base” [EEA, 2011].

Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization 16 17 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan 5. Environmental Sensitization for NRGB

The proposed Environmental on their locations, professions, life- temporal linkages between various since 1990, except for agricultural Knowledge Bank (or Data Bank) styles and cultural traditions. But it natural resources in the basin. The water consumption, vide Figure 5.2. combining comprehensive basin data, is also because of these variations EEA monograph on “Sustainable The pollutant loads in European rivers their significant parametric, tabular that they can play a significant role use and management of natural also showed essentially decreasing and graphical representations, in reversing the NRGB degradation resources” [EEA, 2005] may be cited trends (vide Figure 5.3), suggesting relevant scientific reports, and processes if equipped with proper here though it is based on a regional effective control on anthropogenic meaningful individual observations understanding and knowledge of perspective and not from a river basin pollution of rivers. For land use, a will cater to various users – not only pertinent environmental processes. perspective. The report focuses on significantly increasing trend of to specialised analysts, researchers For, just as good road sense depends only a handful of natural resources of built-up areas was observed (due and policy-makers, but also to on knowledge of “traffic rules”, commercial value, namely fisheries, to urbanisation and infrastructure other NRGB residents (ordinary knowledge of “environmental rules” forestry, water, fossil fuels, metals development), leading to significant stakeholders) whose well-being (or environmental processes) is and construction minerals, and land sealing of land surface (vide Figures depends considerably on the basin essential for meaningful contribution use (and excluding the environmental 5.4 and 5.5 and Table 5.1). But soil status and whose interactions with to NRGB. Moreover, since basin- impacts of agriculture). But it throws erosion (mainly water erosion) and basin processes may be significant. wide monitoring would be needed meaningful light on the anthropogenic contamination were also caused by Thus, there is a need to make the Data in NRGB and since environmental impacts of extraction of these certain land uses. While agricultural Bank accessible to all stakeholders concerns are always open to fresh resources. Thus, it reports that impacts on natural resources may and hence organize it in an easily insights, much can be gained from with “total material consumption in not have been estimated, some key searchable and retrievable format. sensitizing people and motivating industrialised countries between 31 impacts were identified, vide Table While the need to access the Data them to participate in the monitoring and 74 tonnes/person/year largely 5.2. The composite effects of various Bank by professional users – such and environmental upkeep of NRGB. for housing, food and mobility” there processes on local contamination as government agencies, private Such sensitization can be achieved is considerable pressure on natural were also identified as shown in industry and research institutions by complementing the environmental resource and on sinks for harmful Figure 5.6. Overall these results – can be easily anticipated from data bank with target-specific wastes (from domestic and industrial illustrate some key factors of natural their institutional functions, the educational and training material on wastes and mining) in the European resource management that are likely needs of common stakeholders of NRGB’s environment for community Union. However, the GDP growth rate to have significant implications for NRGB are less well defined. The education and sensitization. significantly exceeds the growth rate in river basins. difficulty in pinpointing the needs of weighted material consumption, vide common stakeholders is because In attempting to inform and sensitize Figure 5.1. Regarding water resource, their interactions with NRGB occur the common stakeholder, a key point the water consumption of the region in a great variety of ways depending to be disseminated is the spatial and was found to be gradually decreasing

Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization 18 19 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan GRBMPGRBMP – January – January 2015: 2015: Mission Mission 8 – EKB&S 8 – EKB&S

GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 8 – EKB&S

GRBMPGRBMP – January – January 2015: 2015: Mission Mission 8 – 8 EKB&S – EKB&S

FigureFigure 5.1: 5.1: Comparison Comparison of Growt of Growth inh GDP in GDP and and Resource Resource Use Use in EU in-15 EU -15 CountriesCountries [EEA, [EEA, 2005] 2005] Figure 5.1: Comparison of Growth in GDP and Resource Use in EU-15 Countries [EEA, 2005] FigureFFigureigure 5.4:5.4: 5.4: Built- Built-Up Built-UpUp Land Landin LandRelation in in Relationto Relation FigureFFigureigure 5.5: 5.5: L and Land U Landse in Use EU Use-15 in Countries inEU-15 EU-15 Figure 5.1: Comparison of Growth in GDP and Resource Use in EU-15 Population [EEA, 2005] [EEA, 2005] Countries [EEA, 2005] toto Population Population [EEA, [EEA, 2005] 2005] CountriesCountries [EEA, [EEA, 2005] 2005]

Table 5.1: Soil Sealing and Land Use [EEA, 2005] TableTable 5.1: 5.1: Soil Soil sealing sealing an and landd land use use [EEA, [EEA, 2005] 2005] In 2000, the rate of increase in areas for settlements and infrastructure in Germany was a staggering 130 ha per day. This fell to 93 ha per day in 2003 due to economic conditions. Settlements account for about 80% of this growth and transport infrastructure for the remaining 20%. About half of this area, equivalent to eighty football fields per day, is effectively sealed. In the 2002 Sustainability InInStrategy, 2000, 2000, the the the German rate rate ofgovernment of increase increase set inthe in areas target areas of for forreducing settlements settlements the increase and and of infrareas infrastructure astructurefor new in in settlements and infrastructure to a maximum of 30 ha a day by 2020. GermanyGermany was was a staggeringa staggering 130 130 ha ha per per day. day. This This fell fell to to 93 93 ha ha per per day day in in 2003 2003 duedue to to economic economic conditions. conditions. Settlements SettlementsSource: Federal account account Government for for about of about Germany, 80 80 %[2003]. %of of this this growthgrowth and and transport transport infrastructure infrastructure for for the the remaining remaining 20 20 %. %. Abo Aboutut half half of of this this area,area, equivalent equivalent to to eighty eighty footba football llfields fields per per day, day, is iseffectiv effectivelyely sealed. sealed. In In the the

20022002 Sustainability Sustainability Strategy, Strategy, the the German German government government set set the the tar targetget of of FigureFigureFigure 5.2: 5.2:5.2: Trends Trends Trends in Sectoral in W inater Sectoral Use Sectoral FigureFFigureigure 5.3:5.3: 5.3: Concentrations Concentrations Concentrations of Some of Pollutants Some of Some in reducingreducing the the increase increase of of areas areas for for new new settlements settlements and and infrastr infrastructureucture to to a a in Europe [EEA, 2005] European Rivers between 1992 and 2001 [EEA, 2005] WaterWater Use Use in in Europe Europe PollutantsPollutants in in European European Rivers Rivers maximummaximum of of 30 30 ha ha a daya day by by 2020. 2020.Source: Source: Federal Federal Government Government of ofGermany, Germany, 2003. 2003. betweenbetween 1992 1992 and and 2001 2001 [EEA, [EEA, 2005] 2005] Mission[EEA,[EEA, 8:2005] Environ 2005] mental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization 20 21 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Figure 5.2: Trends in Sectoral Figure 5.3: Concentrations of Some Water Use in Europe Pollutants in European Rivers

[EEA, 2005] between 1992 and 2001 [EEA, 2005]

16 16

16

1717 GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 8 – EKB&S

Table 5.2: Land Use for Agriculture [EEA, 2005] Area with high probability (location of areas of heavy industry) Agriculture uses soils and water as a resource for food production, and at the Data availability same time impacts these resources. The impact of agriculture is demonstrated Few data No data by the fact that more land has been converted to cropland since 1945 than in Evidence of contamination the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries combined. The extent and causes of (industry/contamination type) the environmental impacts of agriculture, notably by arm and crop type, vary Coal mines Shale mining significantly acrossE urope. Nevertheless, the continuing search for efficiency, Metal mines Phosphate mines lower costs and increased scale of production is resulting in substantial Oil and gas extraction Metal smelters pressures on the environment, landscapes and biodiversity, particularly in the Chemical industry Mixed industry most intensively farmed areas. At the same time, agriculture remains essential Power generation to the maintenance of many cultural landscapes. Waste disposal Waste (also radioactive) Radioactive contamination Heavy metals Agricultural production throughout the continent continues to rely on non-farm resources such as inorganic fertilisers and pesticides. However, there has been a decline in the use of these resources and, particularly in Eastern Europe, a reduction in the pressure on the environment. Recent shifts to environmentally- friendly production systems are apparent, for example to organic production or conservation tillage systems. Organic framing covered about 4 % of the total agricultural area of the EU-15 in 2003. The development of certified organic FigureFigure 5.6: 5.6: Probable Probable Problem AProblemreas of Local Are Contaminationas of Local in Europe Contamination [EEA, 2005] in Europe [EEA, farming in other European regions still lags significantly behind this figure. 2005]

In terms of resource conservation the most important impacts of arable and While resultsresults such such as asthe theabove above ecosystems, presented specific for NRGBmaterial can and be useful for livestock production are those relating to soil erosion and nutrient leaching, presented for NRGB can be useful information fine-tuned to such tasks respectively. Soil erosion is particularly severe in the Mediterranean region advancedfor advanced users users and and policy-makers, policy- need to the be created. common For example, stakeholders’ flood sensitization and parts of eastern Europe, and increases with share of arable land of total wouldmakers, dependthe common more stakeholders’ upon informing damages them to human about life ground-level and property processes and land use, mitigated by physical background factors (slope, soil type rainfall resultssensitization suitable would for depend their activemore participation.are a recurring featureThe first in several thre esub- chapters of Main patterns) and farming practices. Nutrient leaching is caused where the upon informing them about ground- basins of National River Ganga. While application of livestock manure and mineral fertilizers exceeds the nutrient Planlevel processesDocument and and results the suitableMission Relarge-scaleports of GRBMPengineering can measuresprovide useful material demand of crops. The highest nutrient surpluses are found in areas of intensive tofor informtheir active and sensitizeparticipation. common The havestakeholders. their drawbacks For andspecific potentially commu nity actions livestock production, particularly in north-western Europe. tofirst be three carried chapters out of on Main the Plan ground negative such impacts as monitoring on ecosystems of (aswater bodies or Document and the Mission Reports of discussed in Mission “River Hazards While agriculture can exert significant pressure on the environment, It Is Itself rejuvenationGRBMP can provide of the useful basin’s material ecos ystems,Management” specific and material Mission and“Basin information fine- subject to negative environmental Impacts linked to air pollution and urban tunedto inform to suchand taskssensitize need common to be created.Protection For Against example, Disasters”), flood damathey ges to human development. Soil sealing by transport or housing infrastructure eliminated lifestakeholders. and property For specific are a communityrecurring featureare beyond in severalthe control sub-basins of ordinary of National River many thousand hectares of agricultural land every year, particularly in actions to be carried out on the citizens. However, Natural Flood western Europe. Ganga.ground such While as monitoring large-scale of water engineering Management measures (NFM) can have involve their the drawbacks and potentiallybodies or rejuvenation negative of impactsthe basin’s on populace ecosystems to minimize (as discussedflood damages in Mission “River Hazards Management” and Mission “Basin Protection Against Disasters”), they Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization 22 23 Ganga River Basin Management Plan are beyond the control of ordinary citizens.Ganga However, River Basin Management Natural Plan F lood Management (NFM) can involve the populace to minimize flood damages without compromising the ecosystem services of sub-basins. Some basic material on NFM in Scotland may be cited in this regard. The NFM approach to increase water infiltration and storage and to decrease soil erosion and flow

19 without compromising the ecosystem Natural flood management presents a shift from our predominantly piecemeal and services of sub-basins. Some basic reactive approach to flooding towards a strategic, catchment-based approach. Natural material on NFM in Scotland may be flood management is achieved by: • Adopting a strategic, source to sea (catchment) approach cited in this regard. The NFM approach • Protecting and using natural systems and habitats to increase water infiltration and • Promoting soft engineering techniques. storage and to decrease soil erosion and flow velocities, identifies the following key techniques [Johnson, Watson & McOuat, 2008]: Catchment-scale planning 1. Reforestation of upland hill- Wetland wildlife • Consider the whole catchment from source to sea. benefits slopes. • Ensure better co-ordination of flood management 2. River channel restoration, by local authorities, individual landowners and • A natural approach to sustainable especially restoration of channel farmers. flood management helps to achieve • Use river basin management plans to provide a meanders. national and local biodiversity action strategic forum to consider natural, sustainable plan targets. 3. Restoring wetlands and flood management. • Lochs and rivers provide habitats enhancing floodplain storage. • Encourage neighbouring farmers to work together for threatened species such as the for more coherent management. 4. Agricultural modifications, Atlantic salmon, the freshwater pearl mussel the osprey and the water especially to increase soil vole. infiltration rates. • Ponds and pools support the rare 5. Planting dense woodlands in  Protecting and using natural medicinal leech, the northern blue systems and habitats damselfly and the great crested gullies and watercourses. newt. 6. enhancing riparian vegetation. • Restore bogs and keep them healthy so they retain water. • Blanket bogs support a rich diversity • Manage uplands to reduce run-off and erosion. of invertebrates and breeding wading birds such as greenshanks, dunlins The practical application of NFM is • Protect and restore natural floodplains both inland and at coasts. and golden plovers. briefly explained for ordinary rural • Use natural forests to store water and slowly release it back • Floodplain wetlands support farmland stakeholders through a poster with into rivers. wading birds and wildfowl, including lapwings. Snipe, teals and pintails. short, boxed texts as cited below • Use wetland habitats such as bogs, fens and saltmarsh to soak up water and release it slowly back into rivers. [RSPB, undated].

Economic benefits

• Hard engineered, concrete flood defences are expensive to construct and maintain. • Soft engineered schemes are cost-effective and sustainable, fulfilling many roles as well as flood defence. • Wetlands act as natural cleansers and improve water quality by storing pollutants. • Soft engineered solutions are cheaper in the long-term and provide sustainable adaptation to climate change. • Healthy wetland systems are vital to our economy, supporting industries such as freshwater fisheries, the whisky industry and tourism.

Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization 24 25 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Promoting and implementing soft The above information set is worth “Water Quantity” targets the reduction engineering techniques emulating in NRGB as useful advice of flood peaks due to rapid urban runoff to rural communities for Natural Flood from rainfall events as depicted in Figure • Recognise the role that wetlands play in helping to alleviate flooding. Management. Similar issues of specific 5.8. “Water Quality” targets pollution • Re-connect rivers with their natural floodplains. concern to urban communities can also carried into rivers by urban drainage, be brought to their attention. For instance, which can be a significant source of • Establish more demonstration sited to test the effectiveness of natural flood management. given the rapidly increasing urbanization river pollution as depicted in Figure 5.9. • Protect and restore wetland habitats through the programme of measures. in NRGB, the status of urban ecosystems “Amenities” targets several ecological, and their impact on the basin as a whole social and environmental issues. Based are becoming increasingly important. on the 3 considerations, four broad Thus, urban drainage and urban flooding methods were identified in the document Floodwater storage areas are issues that are best tackled with the for Sustainable Urban Drainage, viz. participation of urban communities. To filter strips and swales; filter drains and • Avoid embankments that divorce the river from the Urban areas give an example, the Sustainable Urban permeable surfaces; infiltration devices; floodplain. • These will require only modest flood embankments • Let water stand on low-lying fields when the rivers Drainage brochure of SUDSWP [2002] and basins, ponds & wetlands. The to defend them against flooding, thanks to overflow, reducing pressures on urban areas protection by sustainable management of the of Scotland identifies 3 key targets, techniques were further explained with downstream. catchment. namely Water Quantity, Water Quality illustrations for easy understanding by • Store floodwaters in natural habitats to release them back into the river system. and Amenities as depicted in Figure 5.7. urban communities.

Social benefits Water Uplands 01 Quality • People living and working in urban areas • Manage uplands to reduce erosion and run-off. downstream are protected from floods. • Keep bogs healthy so they retain water. • Wetland habitats and landscapes are good for • Restore gullies and natural forests. ecotourism and education. • Avoid overgrazing by sheep and deer to prevent • Recreation opportunities encourage a healthy damage to upland habitats and peatlands. lifestyle. SUSTAINABLE URBAN Water DRAINAGE 02 Quantity Floodplain management

• Consider grazed grassland rather than intensive arable cropping.

• Allow shallow flooding or surface flashes of water in spring for the benefit of breeding Amenity (Habitats/ wading birds. Biodiversity/ 03 Social Issues/ • Leave wet corners or patches within fields, as these are good for wildlife. Environmental Setting) • Manage native wet woodlands as an alternative to crop production. • Make sure that agricultural incentives reflect the important flood alleviation role. Figure 5.7: Key Targets of Sustainable Urban Management [SUDSWP, 2002]

Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization 26 27 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan GRBMP – January 2015: Mission 8 – EKB&S due to rapid urban runoff from rainfall events as depicted in Figure 5.8. “Water Quality” targets pollution carried into rivers by urban drainage, which can be a significant source of river pollution as depicted in Figure 5.9. “Amenities” targets several ecological, social and environmental issues. Based on the 3 considerations, four broad methods were identified in the document for Sustainable Urban Drainage, viz. filter strips and swales; filter drains and permeable surfaces; infiltration devices; and basins, ponds & wetlands. The techniques were further explained with illustrations for easy understanding by urban communities.

Figure 5.7: Key Targets of Sustainable Urban Management [SUDSWP, 2002]

Apart from anthropogenic factors in surface sealing and compaction, urban drainage, there are many other urban heat islands and altered hydrological issues of concern that affect river basins regimes, near-surface atmospheric where informed citizens can readily ozone and carbon oxide levels, and other play a corrective role. As in other river chemical effects (often with elevated basins, urban ecosystems in NRGB heavy metals, nitrogen and sulphur in may be expected to be highly modified soils.) These changes have consequent ecosystems whose functioning can be effects on the activities of soil organisms significantly improved by urban residents. and biotic compositions, which ultimately A simple example is that of urban soils. As shifts the ecosystem functions and noted by Pavao-Zuckerman [2008], “urban processes related to biogeochemical soils represent a distinct taxonomic cycling. The effects of urbanization class that differs with respect to their on urban soils also tend to vary with morphologic structure and function from urban size. For example, the effect of nonurban soils.” The uniqueness of urban urbanization on some soil properties was soils are related not only to changed found to differ greatly among three U.S. Figure 5.8: Typical River Flood Peaks due to Urban Storm Water Runoff [SUDSWP, 2002] soil developmental trajectories but to cities with different orders of magnitude Figure 5.8: Typical River Flood Peaks due to Urban Storm Water Runoff many direct and indirect impacts on soil of population [Pavao-Zuckerman, 2008], properties and processes such as land as shown in Table 5.3. [SUDSWP, 2002] 1Sewage effluent 33.9% Table 5.3: Comparison of Soil Characteristics and Nutrient Cycling Rates in Three US Cities 2Agriculture - diffuse sources 26.2% [Pavao-Zuckerman, 2008] 1 3Acidification 11.7% New York City Baltimore Asheville 23 2 Polulation 7,420,166 7,420,166 7,420,166 4Urban3 drainage 11.4% Soil Variable Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban 4 5Mine drainage 8.9% pH 4.7 4.5 4.6 5.2 4.9 4.9 5 SOM (g/kg) 75 108 110 90 97 79 6Agriculture6 - pint sources 6.3% Mean Annual Temperature (OC) 8.5 12.5 12.8 14.5 11.9 13.0 7 7Industrial effluent 2.1% N Mineralization (mg-kg-d-1) 4.02 10.3 2.2 8.0 0.11 0.26 8 Leaf Decay (mg/day) 0.0068 0.0113 n.a. n.a. 0.0012 0.0009 8Contaminated9 land 1.0% The populations of the cities range over three orders of magnitude, and although all exhibit impacts of urbanization on soil 9Others 2.7% properties, the nature and degree of these impacts vary from city to city. Such comparisons suggest that urban soil ecological knowledge for restoration will be to a large degree city specific. Some data sets were not available (n.a.) for comparison. Figure 5.9: Main causes of Pollution of Scottish Rivers in 1996 [SUDSWP, 2002]

Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization 28 29 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan Specific examples pertinent to the significantly different among land use above aspects of urban ecosystems is types, with the roadside and residential 6. Summary of the study of urban soil nutrients in China, areas having greater concentrations China being a rapidly urbanizing country of calcium (Ca), sulfur (S), copper (Cu), Recommendations like India with numerous plant nutrient manganese (Mn), and zinc (Zn) that were deficiencies observed in cities. In Mao not deficient against the recommended et al’s [2014] study of soil in China’s ranges. Topographic comparisons The main conclusions and iii) Preparation of documents and capital Beijing, the authors found that showed (that) … concentrations of N, recommendations for Environmental materials for easy understanding “Urban soils in the Beijing metropolitan Ca, Mg, S, Cu, and Mn in plain cities Knowledge-Building and Sensitization by non-specialized ordinary region are considerably alkaline and were greater than those in mountainous are summarized below: stakeholders of NRGB. compacted. Soil TN, SOC, and AP are cities and show a negative correlation i) establishment of a comprehensive iv) Keeping all the above information in deficit, while AK is abundant and with city elevation.” Data Bank by continuous collection, in an open-access library for easy sufficient for supporting plant growing. processing and storage of access by all interested individuals Heavy metal pollution in Beijing is low. The above studies indicate the need information on natural resources, and institutions. … Soil AP, AK, SOC, C/N, Pb, and Cu for detailed studies, monitoring and anthropogenic activities, and v) Conducting workshops and increase from suburbs to the urban amelioration of urban soils in NRGB, environmental monitoring data of the educational campaigns with core, while other elements showed no since urban soils invariably affect basin. stakeholders, interested citizens, significant difference. … Roadsides and the functioning of these ecosystems ii) Preparation of secondary results special–interest groups and rural/ residential areas are the two land uses with consequent effects on other (charts, tables, etc.) based on urban communities to enable their characterized by higher soil nutrients ecosystems of the basin. To a large primary data and conducting comprehensive understanding of and heavy metal pollutants.” (Note: extent such activities can be effectively advanced studies and analyses for basin processes and participate The terms AP, AK, SOC and C/N denote conducted with the involvement of the advancing the knowledge base of in basin rejuvenation through Available P, Available K, Soil Organic urban populace through informative NRGB’s developing needs. meaningful action. Carbon and, Carbon:Nitrogen ratio discourses, motivation and training. respectively.) Mao et al. recommended Likewise, a host of data collection, further research with the conclusion, monitoring and corrective measures “it is critically important to enumerate needed in NRGB will be best carried out the different ecosystem services (and by informing, sensitising, training and disservices) provided by urban soils.” involving ordinary stakeholders in basin upkeep. At the very least, stakeholder Another significant study was reported sensitization will lead to automatic for Hubei Province of China by Li et al. self-corrective measures rather than [2013]. Li et al. found that “in general, their contributing to basin degradation urban soils in Hubei Province had a processes out of ignorance. And a higher pH than natural soils, were more positive approach to stakeholder deficient in organic matter, and low in sensitization can certainly be expected available N, P, and B concentrations.” to pay richer dividends in rejuvenating Moreover, “nutrient concentrations were the National River Ganga Basin.

Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization 30 31 Ganga River Basin Management Plan Ganga River Basin Management Plan References

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Mission 8: Environmental Knowledge-Building and Sensitization 34 Ganga River Basin Management Plan cGanga Centre for GangaMission River Basin8: Environ Managementme ntaland Studies Knowl edge-Building and Sensitization Indian InstituteGanga of Technology River Basin Kanpur Management Plan © cGanga & NMCG, 2020