Readings in Some Basic Problems of Philosophy JOEL FEINBERG Late of University of Arizona RUSS SHAFER-LANDAU University of Wisconsin JOEL FEINBERG (1926-2004): IN MEMORIAM vii PREFACE viii PART ONE Reason and Religious Belief 1 THE EXISTENCE AND NATURE OF GOD 6 ANSELM OF CANTERBURY: The Ontological Argument, from Proslogion 6 GAUNILO OF MARMOUTIERS: On Behalf of the Fool 7 WILLIAM L. ROWE: The Ontological Argument 11 SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS: The Five Ways, from Summa Theologica 21 SAMUEL CLARKE: A Modern Formulation of the Cosmological Argument 22 WILLIAM L. ROWE: The Cosmological Argument 23 WILLIAM PALEY: The Argument from Design 32 DAVID HUME: Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 38 THE PROBLEM OF EVIL 72 FYODOR DOSTOEVSKY: Rebellion 72 J. L. MACKIE: Evil and Omnipotence 78 GEORGE SCHLESINGER: The Problem of Evil and the Problem of Suffering 86 RICHARD SWINBURNE: Why God Allows Evil 89 B. C. JOHNSON: God and the Problem of Evil 97 REASON AND FAITH 101 W. K. CLIFFORD: The Ethics of Belief 101 WILLIAM JAMES: The Will to Believe 106 KELLY JAMES CLARK: Without Evidence or Argument 114 BLAISE PASCAL: The Wager 119 SIMON BLACKBURN: Miracles and Testimony 122 PART TWO Human Knowledge: Its Grounds and Limits 129 SKEPTICISM 137 JOHN POLLOCK: A Brain in a Vat 137 PETER UNGER: An Argument for Skepticism 139 RODERICK M. CHISHOLM: The Problem of the Criterion 150 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE EXTERNAL WORLD 157 BERTRAND RUSSELL: Appearance and Reality and the Existence of Matter RENE DESCARTES: Meditations on First Philosophy 164 JOHN LOCKE: The Causal Theory of Perception 197 GEORGE BERKELEY: Of the Principles of Human Knowledge 205 THOMAS REID: Of the Existence of a Material World 213 G. E. MOORE: Proof of an External World 216 THE METHODS OF SCIENCE 219 DAVID HUME: An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding 219 WESLEY C. SALMON: An Encounter with David Hume 245 KARL POPPER: Science: Conjectures and Refutations 264 PHILIP KITCHER: Believing Where We Cannot Prove 268 PART THREE Mind and Its Place in Nature 279 BRIE GERTLER: In Defense of Mind-Body Dualism 285 FRANK JACKSON: The Qualia Problem 297 PETER CARRUTHERS: The Mind Is the Brain 301 PAUL M. CHURCH LAND: Behaviorism, Materialism and Functionalism 309 CAN NON-HUMANS THINK? 321 ALAN TURING: Computing Machinery and Intelligence 321 JOHN R. SEARLE: Minds, Brains, and Programs 330 WILLIAM G. LYCAN: Robots and Minds 342 PETER CARRUTHERS: Brute Experience 348 JOHN SEARLE: Animal Minds 356 PERSONAL IDENTITY AND THE SURVIVAL OF DEATH 365 JOHN LOCKE: The Prince and the Cobbler 365 THOMAS REID: Of Mr. Locke's Account of Our Personal Identity 368 DAVID HUME: The Self 371 DEREK PARFIT: Divided Minds and the Nature of Persons 373 DANIEL C. DENNETT: Where Am I? 378 JOHN PERRY: A Dialogue on Personal Identity and Immortality 387 PART FOUR Determinism, Free Will, and Responsibility 407 COMPATIBILISM: THE CASE FOR DETERMINISM AND ITS COMPATIBILITY WITH THE MOST IMPORTANT SENSE OF FREE WILL 414 A. J. AYER: Freedom and Necessity 414 WALTER T. STACE: The Problem of Free Will 419 JOHN MARTIN FISCHER: My Compatibilism 425 LIBERTARIANISM: THE CASE FOR FREE WILL AND ITS INCOMPATIBILITY WITH DETERMINISM 438 RODERICK M. CHISHOLM: Human Freedom and the Self 438 ROBERT KANE: Free Will: Ancient Dispute, New Themes 445 HARD DETERMINISM: THE CASE FOR DETERMINISM AND ITS INCOMPATIBILITY WITH ANY IMPORTANT SENSE OF FREE WILL 458 PAUL HOLBACH: The Illusion of Free Will 458 DERK PEREBOOM: Why We Have No Free Will and Can Live Without It 464 FREEDOM AND MORAL RESPONSIBILITY 478 JAMES RACHELS: The Debate over Free Will 478 HARRY FRANKFURT: Alternate Possibilities and Moral Responsibility 486 THOMAS NAGEL: Moral Luck 493 SUSAN WOLF: Sanity and the Metaphysics of Responsibility 501 PART FIVE Morality and Its Critics 513 CHALLENGES TO MORALITY 520 JOEL FEINBERG: Psychological Egoism 520 JAMES RACHELS: Ethical Egoism 532 PLATO: The Immoralist's Challenge 540 FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE: Master and Slave Morality 547 PROPOSED STANDARDS OF RIGHT CONDUCT 555 RUSS SHAFER-LANDAU: Ethical Subjectivism 555 MARY MIDGLEY: Trying Out One's New Sword 567 ARISTOTLE: The Nature of Virtue, from Nicomachean Ethics 570 THOMAS HOBBES: Leviathan 586 JOHN RAWLS: Justice as Fairness 600 PHILIP L. QUINN: God and Morality 610 IMMANUEL KANT: The Good Will & The Categorical Imperative 625 JOHN STUART MILL: Utilitarianism 640 W. D. ROSS: What Makes Right Acts Right? 653 ETHICAL PROBLEMS 661 PLATO: Crito 661 MARTHA NUSSBAUM: Judging Other Cultures: The Case of Genital Mutilation 668 PETER SINGER: Famine, Affluence, and Morality 678 ONORA O'NEILL: Kantian Approaches to Some Famine Problems 686 JOHN HARRIS: The Survival Lottery 692 JAMES RACHELS: Active and Passive Euthanasia 697 PETER SINGER: All Animals Are GLOSSARY 714 JOEL FEINBERG (1926-2004) was a brilliant philosopher, certainly one of the most important social and political philosophers of the last half century. He was also a very kind, humble man. And he was an extremely conscientious teacher. The great care and preparation that he devoted to his teaching is evident here, in the plan and format of Reason and Responsibility. Joel developed the first edition of this textbook about forty years ago, dissatisfied with existing options, and intent on providing coverage of those areas of philosophy that struck him as deeply important and deserving of every student's careful study. Most of you reading this will know Joel Feinberg only as the editor of a book you've been assigned to read. If you have a chance, you ought to seek out one of the many exciting works that Joel penned during his prolific career. He was a philosophical writer of rare talent. He wrote about things that matter, and did so in a way that everyone could understand. He was clear, he was elegant, always ready with the telling example, the well-chosen reference to literature or history, dropped into place with a light touch. Open any one of his many books and read at random-you can't help but be impressed by the humanism, the clarity, the originality and, certainly, the wisdom of the views that receive expression there. Joel was also a man of great common sense and discernment. One of the most desirable things in life is to have a person of integrity and genuinely sound judgment to rely on for advice, companionship, and, if one is especially fortunate, for friendship. I was lucky enough to study with Joel for five years, to write a dissertation under his direction, and later to work with him as a collaborator on this book over the past decade. His suggestions during our collaboration, both about substantive matters of content and about the more mundane, practical matters of the publishing world, epitomized his practical wisdom. He was a man whose judgment you could trust. Joel was curious, interested in the whole range of human experience, attentive to relevant detail, appreciative of salient distinctions, a lover of taxonomies and, at the same time, able to resist the pressure that such taxonomies impose-pressure to falsify the phenomena and straitjacket it into categories that generate misunderstanding. It is a very rare talent, to be so analytically minded and yet so broad in one's outlook, to appreciate system and yet to be sensitive to the fine detail that must constrain its development. Joel possessed such talent, to a degree that was almost unrivalled. There were very few in his league. Joel died after a long struggle with Parkinson's disease and its complications. He left us a great and valuable legacy, both personal and professional. It was a true honor to have known him, to have learned from him, and to have counted him a friend. THE CONVICTION UNDERLYING this volume is that introducing the college student to philosophy by means of a few representative problems examined in great detail is far preferable to offering a "little bit of everything," with each "branch" of philosophy, each major "ism," and each major historical period represented with scrupulous impartiality, even though the articles may have little relevance to one another. Accordingly, articles have been selected from both classical and contemporary sources on such topics as religion, mind, personal identity, death, freedom, responsibility, duty, justice, and selfishness. The problems that concern philosophers under these headings are not mere idle riddles, but rather questions of vital interest to any reflective person. Each set of problems is plumbed in considerable depth in essays expressing different, often opposing, views. The hope is that exposure to this argumentative give-and-take will encourage students to take part in the process themselves, and through this practice to develop their powers of philosophical reasoning. This thirteenth edition of Reason and Responsibility has been strengthened by the addition of thirteen new selections. The policy of securing the very best available English translations for foreign works has been retained. We have tried to strike a good balance between classic works and relatively new material on these subjects of enduring philosophical interest. I encourage readers to have a look at our website, located at www.thomsonedu. com/philosophy/feinberg. Once there, you will see a substantial introduction, study questions, and relevant philosophical internet links associated with each of the 77 selections included in this latest edition. Research assistants Alan Rubel and David Killoren have prepared these materials under my supervision. I would like to thank Wadsworth for absorbing the costs associated with this project. I am proud of the site and think that it will be a terrific aid to student learning. The following major parts of this work have been updated and expanded. Part 1, "Reason and Religious Belief," reinstates, by popular demand, J. L. Mackie's nowclassic argument from evil, one that seeks to show that the presence of avoidable suffering demonstrates that a perfect God does not exist.