Term Definition and Source

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DD101 Introducing the Social Sciences GLOSSARY 17 March 2016 11:05

Term Definition and source Society A society is a group of people involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Societies are characterized by patterns of relationships (social relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions; a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its constituent members. In the social sciences, a larger society often evincesstratification or dominance patterns in subgroups. Insofar as it is collaborative, a society can enable its members to benefit in ways that would not otherwise be possible on an individual basis; both individual and social (common) benefits can thus be distinguished, or in many cases found to overlap. A society can also consist of like-minded people governed by their own norms and values within a dominant, larger society. This is sometimes referred to as a subculture, a term used extensively within criminology. More broadly, and especially within structuralist thought, a society may be illustrated as an economic, social, industrial or culturalinfrastructure, made up of, yet distinct from, a varied collection of individuals. In this regard society can mean the objective relationships people have with the material world and with other people, rather than "other people" beyond the individual and their familiar social environment. Societies are social groups that differ according to subsistence strategies, the ways that humans use technology to provide needs for themselves. Although humans have established many types of societies throughout history, anthropologists tend to classify different societies according to the degree to which different groups within a society have unequal access to advantages such as resources, prestige, or power. Virtually all societies have developed some degree of inequality among their people through the process of social stratification, the division of members of a society into levels with unequal wealth, prestige, or power. Sociologists place societies in three broad categories: pre-industrial,industrial, and postindustrial.

PRE-INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES In a pre-industrial society, food production, which is carried out through the use of human and animal labor, is the main economic activity. These societies can be subdivided according to their level of technology and their method of producing food. These subdivisions are hunting and gathering, pastoral, horticultural, agricultural, and feudal.

HUNTING AND GATHERING The main form of food production in such societies is the daily collection of wild plants and the hunting of wild animals. Hunter-gatherers move around constantly in search of food. As a result, they do not build permanent villages or create a wide variety of artifacts, and usually only form small groups such as bands and tribes. However, some hunting and gathering societies in areas with abundant resources (such as people of tlingit) lived in larger groups and formed complex hierarchical social structures such as chiefdom. The need for mobility also limits the size of these societies. They generally consist of fewer than 60 people and rarely exceed 100. Statuses within the tribe are relatively equal, and decisions are reached through general agreement. The ties that bind the tribe are more complex than those of the bands.Leadership is personal—charismatic—and used for special purposes only in tribal society. There are no political offices containing real power, and achief is merely a person of influence, a sort of adviser; therefore, tribal consolidations for collective action are not governmental.The family forms the main social unit, with most societal members being related by birth or marriage. This type of organization requires the family to carry out most social functions, including production and education.

PASTORAL Pastoralism is a slightly more efficient form of subsistence. Rather than searching for food on a daily basis, members of a pastoral society rely on domesticated herd animals to meet their food needs. Pastoralists live a nomadic life, moving their herds from one pasture to another. Because their food supply is far more reliable, pastoral societies can support larger populations. Since there are food surpluses, fewer people are needed to produce food. As a result, the division of labor (the specialization by individuals or groups in the performance of specific economic activities) becomes more complex. For example, some people become craftworkers, producing tools, weapons, and jewelry. The production of goods encourages trade. This trade helps to create inequality, as some families acquire more goods than others do. These families often gain power through their increased wealth. The passing on of property from one generation to another helps to centralize wealth and power. Over time emerge hereditary chieftainships, the typical form of government in pastoral societies.

HORTICULTURAL Fruits and vegetables grown in garden plots that have been cleared from the jungle or forest provide the main source of food in a horticultural society. These societies have a level of technology and complexity similar to pastoral societies. Some horticultural groups use the slash-and-burn method to raise crops. The wild vegetation is cut and burned, and ashes are used as fertilizers. Horticulturists use human labor and simple tools to cultivate the land for one or more seasons. When the land becomes barren, horticulturists clear a new plot and leave the old plot to revert to its natural state. They may return to the original land several years later and begin the process again. By rotating their garden plots, horticulturists can stay in one area for a fairly long period of time. This allows them to build semipermanent or permanent villages. The size of a village's population depends on the amount of land available for farming; thus villages can range from as few as 30 people to as many as 2000. As with pastoral societies, surplus food leads to a more complex division of labor. Specialized roles in horticultural societies include craftspeople, shamans (religious leaders), and traders. This role specialization allows people to create a wide variety of artifacts. As in pastoral societies, surplus food can lead to inequalities in wealth and power within horticultural political systems, developed because of the settled nature of horticultural life.

AGRARIAN Agrarian societies use agricultural technological advances to cultivate crops over a large area. Sociologists use the phrase Agricultural Revolution to refer to the technological changes that occurred as long as 8,500 years ago that led to cultivating crops and raising farm animals. Increases in food supplies then led to larger populations than in earlier communities. This meant a greater surplus, which resulted in towns that became centers of trade supporting various rulers, educators, craftspeople, merchants, and religious leaders who did not have to worry about locating nourishment. Greater degrees of social stratification appeared in agrarian societies. For example, women previously had higher social status because they shared labor more equally with men. In hunting and gathering societies, women even gathered more food than men. However, as food stores improved and women took on lesser roles in providing food for the family, they increasingly became subordinate to men. As villages and towns expanded into neighboring areas, conflicts with other communities inevitably occurred. Farmers provided warriors with food in exchange for protection against invasion by enemies. A system of rulers with high social status also appeared. This nobility organized warriors to protect the society from invasion. In this way, the nobility managed to extract goods from “lesser” members of society.

FEUDALISM

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 1 FEUDALISM Feudalism was a form of society based on ownership of land. Unlike today's farmers, vassals under feudalism were bound to cultivating their lord's land. In exchange for military protection, the lords exploited the peasants into providing food, crops, crafts, homage, and other services to the landowner. The estates of the realm system of feudalism was often multigenerational; the families of peasants may have cultivated their lord's land for generations.

From

Culture Culture (/ˈkʌltʃər/) is, in the words of E.B. Tylor, "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."[1] Cambridge English Dictionary states that culture is, "the way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs, of a particular group of people at a particular time."[2] Terror Management Theory posits that culture is a series of activities and worldviews that provide humans with the illusion of being individuals of value in a world meaning—raising themselves above the merely physical aspects of existence, in order to deny the animal insignificance and death that Homo Sapiens became aware of when they acquired a larger brain. [3] As a defining aspect of what it means to be human, culture is a central concept in anthropology, encompassing the range of phenomena that are transmitted through social learning in human societies. The word is used in a general sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with symbols and to act imaginatively and creatively. This ability arose with the evolution of behavioral modernity in humans around 50,000 years ago.[citation needed] This capacity is often thought to be unique to humans, although some other species have demonstrated similar, though much less complex abilities for social learning. It is also used to denote the complex networks of practices and accumulated knowledge and ideas that is transmitted through social interaction and exist in specific human groups, or cultures, using the plural form. Some aspects of human behavior, such as language, social practices such as kinship, gender andmarriage, expressive forms such as art, music, dance, ritual, religion, and technologies such as cooking, shelter, clothing are said to becultural universals, found in all human societies. The concept material culture covers the physical expressions of culture, such as technology, architecture and art, whereas the immaterial aspects of cultu re such as principles of social organization (including, practices of political organization and social institutions), mythology, philosophy, literature (both written and oral), and science make up theintangible cultural heritage of a society.[4] In the humanities, one sense of culture, as an attribute of the individual, has been the degree to which they have cultivated a particular lev el of sophistication, in the arts, sciences, education, or manners. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes been seen to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies. Such hierarchical perspectives on culture are also found in class-based distinctions between a high culture of the social elite and a low culture, popular culture or folk culture of the lower classes, distinguished by the stratified access to cultural capital. In common parlance, culture is often used to refer specifically to the symbolic markers used by ethnic groups to distinguish themselves visibly from each other such as body modification, clothing or jewelry.[dubious – discuss] Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of consumer culture that emerged in the 20th century. Some schools of philosophy, such as Marxism and critical theory, have argued that culture is often used politically as a tool of the elites to manipulate the lower classes and create a false consciousness, such perspectives common in the discipline of cultural studies. In the wider social sciences, the theoretical perspective of cultural materialism holds that human symbolic culture arises from the material conditions of human life, as humans create the conditions for physical surviv al, and that the basis of culture is found in evolved biological dispositions. When used as a count noun "a culture", is the set of customs, traditions and values of a society or community, such as an ethnic group or nation. In this sense, multiculturalism is a concept that values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same territory. Sometimes "culture" is also used to describe specific practices within a subgroup of a society, a subculture(e.g. "bro culture"), or a counter culture. Within cultural anthropology, the ideology and analytical stance of cultural relativism holds that cultures cannot easily be objectively ranked or evaluated because any evaluation is necessarily situated within the value system of a given culture. In the United Kingdom, sociologists and other scholars influenced by Marxism, such as Stuart Hall (1932–2014) and Raymond Williams (1921–1988), developed cultural studies. Following nineteenth-century Romantics, they identified "culture" with consumption goods and leisure activities (such as art, music, film, food, sports, and clothing). Nevertheless, they saw patterns of consumption and leisure as determined by relations of production, which led them to focus on class relations and the organization of production. [20][21] In the United States, "Cultural Studies" focuses largely on the study of popular culture, that is, on the social meanings of mass-produced consumer and leisure goods. Richard Hoggart coined the term in 1964 when he founded the Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies or CCCS. It has since become strongly associated with Stuart Hall, who succeeded Hoggart as Director. Cultural studies in this sense, then, can be viewed as a limited concentration scoped on the intricacies of consumerism, which belongs to a wider culture sometimes referred to as " Western Civilization" or as "Globalism." From the 1970s onward, Stuart Hall's pioneering work, along with that of his colleagues Paul Willis, Dick Hebdige, Tony Jefferson, and Angela McRobbie, created an international intellectual movement. As the field developed it began to combine political economy, communication, sociology, social theory, literary theory, media theory, film/video studies,cultural anthropology, philosophy, museum studies and art history to study cultural phenomena or cultural texts. In this field researchers often concentrate on how particular phenomena relate to matters of ideology, nationality, ethnicity, social class, and/or gender.[citation needed] Cultural studies has a concern with the meaning and practices of everyday life. These practices comprise the ways people do particular things (such as watching television, or ea ting out) in a given culture. This field studies the meanings and uses people attribute to various objects and practices. Specifically, culture in volves those meanings and practices held independently of reason. Watching television in order to view a public perspective on a historical event s hould not be thought of as culture, unless referring to the medium of television itself, which may have been selected culturally; however, schoolc hildren watching television after school with their friends in order to "fit in" certainly qualifies, since there is no grounded reason for on e's participation in this practice. Recently, as capitalism has spread throughout the world (a process called globalization), cultural studies has begun[when?] to analyze local and global forms of resistance to Western hegemony.[citation needed] Globalization in this context can be defined as western civilization in other ways, it undermines the cultural integrity of other culture and it is therefore repressive, exploitative and harmful to most people in different places. In the context of cultural studies, the idea of a text includes not only written language, but also films, photographs, fashion or hairstyles: the texts of cultural studies comprise all the meaningful artifacts of culture. [citation needed] Similarly, the discipline widens the concept of "culture". "Culture" for a cultural-studies researcher not only includes traditional high culture (the culture of ruling social groups)[22] and popular culture, but also everyday meanings and practices. The last two, in fact, have become the main focus of cultural studies. A further and recent approach is comparative cultural studies, based on the disciplines of comparative literature and cultural studies.[citation needed] Scholars in the United Kingdom and the United States developed somewhat different versions of cultural studies after the late 1970s. The British version of cultural studies had originated in the 1950s and 1960s, mainly under the influence first of Richard Hoggart, E. P. Thompson, and Raymond Williams, and later that of Stuart Hall and others at the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies at the University of Birmingham. This included overtly political, left-wing views, and criticisms of popular culture as "capitalist" mass culture; it absorbed some of the ideas of

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 2 This included overtly political, left-wing views, and criticisms of popular culture as "capitalist" mass culture; it absorbed some of the ideas of the Frankfurt School critique of the "culture industry" (i.e. mass culture). This emerges in the writings of early British cultural-studies scholars and their influences: see the work of (for example) Raymond Williams, Stuart Hall, Paul Willis, and Paul Gilroy. In the United States, Lindlof and Taylor write, "Cultural studies [were] grounded in a pragmatic, liberal-pluralist tradition".[23] The American version of cultural studies initially concerned itself more with understanding the subjective and appropriative side of audience reactions to, and uses of, mass culture; for example, American cultural-studies advocates wrote about the liberatory aspects of fandom.[citation needed] The distinction between American and British strands, however, has faded.[citation needed] Some researchers, especially in early British cultural studies, apply a Marxist model to the field. This strain of thinking has some influence from the Frankfurt School, but especially from thestructuralist Marxism of Louis Althusser and others. The main focus of an orthodox Marxist approach concentrates on the production of meaning. This model assumes a mass production of culture and identifies power as residing with those producing cultural artifacts. In a Marxist view, those who control the means of production (the economic base) essentially control a culture.[citation needed] Other approaches to cultural studies, such as feminist cultural studies and later American developments of the field, distance themselves from this view. They criticize the Marxist assumption of a sing le, dominant meaning, shared by all, for any cultural product. The non-Marxist approaches suggest that different ways of consuming cultural artifacts affect the meaning of the product. This view comes through in the book Doing Cultural Studies: The Story of the Sony Walkman (by Paul du Gay et al.),[24] which seeks to challenge the notion that those who produce commodities control the meanings that people attribute to them. Feminist cultural analyst, theorist and art historian Griselda Pollock contributed to cultural studies from viewpoints of art history and psychoanalysis. The writer Julia Kristeva is among influential voices at the turn of the century, contributing to cultural studies from the field of art and psychoanalytical French feminism.[citation needed] Petrakis and Kostis (2013) divide cultural background variables into two main groups: [25] 1. The first group covers the variables that represent the "efficiency orientation" of the societies: performance orientation, f uture orientation, assertiveness, power distance and uncertainty avoidance. 2. The second covers the variables that represent the "social orientation" of societies, i.e., the attitudes and lifestyles of t heir members. These variables include gender egalitarianism, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism and human orientation.

From Religion Religion is a cultural system of behaviors and practices, mythologies, world views, sacred texts, holy places, ethics, and societal organisation that relate humanity to what an anthropologist has called "an order of existence".[1] Different religions may contain various elements, ranging from "the belief in spiritual beings",[2] the "divine",[3] "sacred things",[4] "faith",[5] a "supernatural being or supernatural beings" [6] such as God or angels, or "...some sort of ultimacy and transcendence that will provide norms and power for the rest of life." [7] Religious practices may include rituals, sermons, commemoration or veneration (of a deity, gods, or goddesses), sacrifices, festivals,feasts, trances, initiations, funerary services, matrimonial services, meditation, prayer, music, art, dance, public service, or other aspects of human culture. Religions have sacred histories and narratives, which may be preserved in sacred scriptures, and symbolsand holy places, that aim to explain the meaning of life, the origin of life, or the Universe.[citation needed] Traditionally, faith, in addition to reason, has been considered a source of religious beliefs.[8] About 84% of the world's population is affiliated with one of the five largest religions, namely Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism or forms of folk religion.[9] With the onset of the modernisation of and the scientific revolution in the western world, some aspects of religion have cumulatively been criticized. Though the religiously unaffliated, including atheism (the rejection of belief in the existence of deities) andagnosticism (the belief that the truth of certain claims – especially metaphysical and religious claims such as whether God, the divine or the supernatural exist – are unknown and perhaps unknowable), have grown globally, many of the unaffiliated still have various religious beliefs.[10] About 16% of the world's population is religiously unaffiliated.[9] The study of religion encompasses a wide variety of academic disciplines, including theology, comparative religion and social scientific studies. Theories of religion offer various explanations for the origins and workings of religion.

From Politics Ideology Colonialism control by one country over another area and its people -

From Environment Full Definition of environment

1.1 : the circumstances, objects, or conditions by which one is surrounded

2.2 a : the complex of physical, chemical, and biotic factors (as climate, soil, and living things) that act upon an organism or an ecological community and ultimately determine its form and survivalb : the aggregate of social and cultural conditions that influence the life of an individual or community

3.3 : the position or characteristic position of a linguistic element in a sequence

4.4 : a computer interface from which various tasks can be performed

From Postcolonialism The Motherland and her dependant colonial offspring. (William-Adolphe Bouguereau, 1883) Postcolonialism or postcolonial studies is an academic discipline featuring methods of intellectual discourse that analyze, explain, and respond to the cultural legacies of colonialism and imperialism.

From Neo Colonialism the use of economic, political, cultural, or other pressures to control or influence other countries, especially former dependencies.

From Gender Studies Gender studies is a field for interdisciplinary study devoted to gender identity and gendered

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 3 Gender Studies Gender studies is a field for interdisciplinary study devoted to gender identity and gendered representation as central categories of analysis. This field includes women's studies, men's studies and LGBT studies. Sometimes, gender studies is offered together with study of sexuality. These disciplines study gender and sexuality in the fields of literature, language, geography, history, political science, sociology, anthropology, cinema, media studies, human development, law, and medicine. It also analyzes how race, ethnicity, location, class, nationality, and disability intersect with the categories of gender and sexuality.

Queer Theory Queer theory is a field of post-structuralist critical theory that emerged in the early 1990s out of the fields of queer studies and women's studies. Queer theory includes both queer readings of texts and the theorisation of 'queerness' itself. Heavily influenced by the work of Lauren Berlant, Leo Bersani, Judith Butler, Lee Edelman, Jack Halberstam, David Halperin, José Esteban Muñoz, and Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, queer theory builds both upon feminist challenges to the idea that gender is part of the essential self and upon gay/lesbian studies' close examination of the socially constructed nature of sexual acts and identities. Whereas gay/lesbian studies focused its inquiries into natural and unnatural behaviour with respect to homosexual behaviour, queer theory expands its focus to encompass any kind of sexual activity or identity that falls into normative and deviant categories. Italian feminist and film theorist Teresa de Lauretis coined the term "queer theory" for a conference she organized at the University of California, Santa Cruz in 1990 and a special issue of Differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies she edited based on that conference.

Discourse / Discursive 1.verbal communication; talk; conversation 2.a formal treatment of a subject in speech or writing, such as a sermon or dissertation 3.a unit of text used by linguists for the analysis of linguistic phenomena that range over more than one sentence 4.(archaic) the ability to reason or the reasoning process verb 5.(intransitive; often followed by on or upon) to speak or write (about) formally and extensively 6.(intransitive) to hold a discussion 7.(transitive) (archaic) to give forth (music)

http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/discourse> Indigenous / Indigeneity 1 - originating or occurring naturally (in a country, region, etc); native innate (to); inherent (IN)

http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/indigenous> 2 -Usage: In a similar way, "indigeneity" is derived from "indigenous" which means born or produced naturally in a land or region; native or belonging naturally to (the soil, region, etc.)," from indu, an old Latin root meaning "within" (like the Greek ..., endon) and gignere meaning "to beget."

http://www.definition-of.com/indigeneity> Cultural Turn The cultural turn can be seen to encompass a variety of different shifts in the practice of history. Rather than political or economic histories based on straightforward readings of state papers and economic data, meaning is instead looked for in a culture's language (hence the connection to the linguistic turn) and systems of representation. Thus the same materials may be used, but read against the grain, looking for contested meanings and omissions. In addition, histories may no longer be written as supposedly objective narratives, but may contain different rhetorical strategies and voices.

Ethnography Mead, MargaretCornell Capa/Magnumdescriptive study of a particular human society or the process of making such a study. Contemporary ethnography is based almost entirely on fieldwork and requires the complete immersion of the anthropologist in the culture and everyday life of the people who are the subject of his study

http://www.britannica.com/science/ethnography> Anthropology 1.the science of human beings; especially : the study of human beings and their ancestors through time and space and in relation to physical character, environmental and social relations, and culture

1.2 : theology dealing with the origin, nature, and destiny of human beings

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anthropology> Epistemology 1. the study or a theory of the nature and grounds of knowledge especially with reference to its limits and validity

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 4 Epidemiology 1.a branch of medical science that deals with the incidence, distribution, and control of disease in a population

1.2 : the sum of the factors controlling the presence or absence of a disease or pathogen

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Epidemiology> Criminology Scientific Study of Crime as a social phenomenon, of criminals and penal systems

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Criminology Sociology •the study of society, social institutions, and social relationships

Functionalism 1.a late 19th century to early 20th century American school of psychology concerned especially with how the mind functions to adapt the individual to the environment — compare structuralism 1

2.2 : a philosophy of design (as in architecture) holding that form should be adapted to use, material, and structure

3.3 : a theory that stresses the interdependence of the patterns and institutions of a society and their interaction in maintaining cultural and social unity

4.4 : a doctrine or practice that emphasizes practical utility or functional relations

Structuralism 1.psychology concerned especially with resolution of the mind into structural elements

2.2 : structural linguistics

3.3 : an anthropological movement associated especially with Claude Lévi-Strauss that seeks to analyze social relationships in terms of highly abstract relational structures often expressed in a logical symbolism

4.4 : a method of analysis (as of a literary text or a political system) that is related to cultural anthropology and that focuses on recurring patterns of thought and behaviour

Conflict theories draw attention to power differentials, such as class conflict, and generally contrast historically dominant ideologies. It is therefore a macro level analysis of society. Karl Marx is the father of the social conflict theory, which is a component of the 4 paradigms of sociology. Certain conflict theories set out to highlight the ideological aspects inherent in traditional thought. Whilst many of these perspectives hold parallels, conflict theory does not refer to a unified school of thought, and should not be confused with, for instance, peace and conflict studies, or any other specific theory of social conflict.

Feminism •the belief that men and women should have equal rights and opportunities

•: organized activity in support of women's rights and interests

Marxism 1.the political, economic, and social principles and policies advocated by Marx; especially : a theory and practice of socialism including the labor theory of value, dialectical materialism, the class struggle, and dictatorship of the proletariat until the establishment of a classless society.

Elite Theory In political science and sociology, elite theory is a theory of the state which seeks to describe and explain the power relationships in contemporary society. The theory posits that a small minority, consisting of members of the economic elite and policy-planning networks, holds the most power and that this power is independent of a state's democratic elections process.

Through positions in corporations or on corporate boards, and influence over the policy- planning networks through financial support of foundations or positions with think tanks or policy-discussion groups, members of the "elite" are able to exert significant power over the policy decisions of corporations and governments. An example of this can be found in the Forbes magazine article (published in December 2009) entitled The World's Most Powerful

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 5 Forbes magazine article (published in December 2009) entitled The World's Most Powerful People, in which Forbes purported to list the 67 most powerful people in the world (assigning one "slot" for each 100,000,000 of human population).[1]

Pedology Soil Science

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pedology Topography 1.a : the art or practice of graphic delineation in detail usually on maps or charts of natural and man-made features of a place or region especially in a way to show their relative positions and elevationsb : topographical surveying.

Toponymy 1.: the place-names of a region or language or especially the etymological study of them

Topology 1.: topographic study of a particular place; specifically : the history of a region as indicated by its topography

2 : a branch of mathematics concerned with those properties of geometric configurations (as point sets) which are unaltered by elastic deformations (as a stretching or a twisting) that are homeomorphisms (2) : the set of all open subsets of a topological spaceb : configuration

Masculinism Masculism or masculinism may variously refer to advocacy of the rights or needs of men and boys; the adherence to or promotion of opinions, values, attitudes, etc. regarded as typical of men and boys.[1][2][3] Alternatively, masculism (sometimes called androcentrism) may refer to an approach that is focused on male superiority or dominance[4][5][6][7] to the exclusion of women.[1]

Androcentrism Androcentrism (Ancient Greek, ἀνήρ, "man, male"[1]) is the practice, conscious or otherwise, of placing male human beings or a masculine point of view at the centre of one's world view and its culture and history. The related adjective is androcentric, while the practice of placing the feminine point of view at the centre is gynocentrism.

Gynocentrism Gynocentrism n. (Greek, γυνή, "female" - Latin centrum, "centred") refers to a dominant or exclusive focus on women in theory or practice; or to the advocacy of this.[1] Anything can be considered gynocentric (adj.) when it is concerned exclusively with a female (or specifically a feminist) point of view.[2]

Etymological 1.: the history of a linguistic form (as a word) shown by tracing its development since its earliest recorded occurrence in the language where it is found, by tracing its transmission from one language to another, by analyzing it into its component parts, by identifying its cognates in other languages, or by tracing it and its cognates to a common ancestral form in an ancestral language

2.2 : a branch of linguistics concerned with etymologies

Poverty Poverty is general scarcity, dearth, or the state of one who lacks a certain amount of material possessions or money.[1] It is a multifaceted concept, which includes social, economic, and political elements.[2] Poverty may be defined as either absolute or relative. Absolute povertyor destitution refers to the lack of means necessary to meet basic needs such as food, clothing and shelter.[3] Relative poverty takes into consideration individual social and economic status compared to the rest of society.

After the industrial revolution, mass production in factories made production goods increasingly less expensive and more accessible. Of more importance is the modernization of agriculture, such as fertilizers, to provide enough yield to feed the population.[4] Responding to basic needs can be restricted by constraints on government's ability to deliver services, such as corruption, tax avoidance, debt and loan conditionalities and by the brain drain of health care and educational professionals. Strategies of increasing income to make basic needs more affordable typically include welfare, economic freedoms and providing financial services.[5]

Poverty reduction is a major goal and issue for many international organizations such as the United Nations and the World Bank. The World Bank forecasts that 702.1 million people were living in extreme poverty in 2015, down from 1.75 billion in 1990.[6] Of these, about 347.1 million people lived in Sub-Saharan Africa (35.2% of the population) and 231.3 million lived in South Asia (13.5% of the population). Between 1990 and 2015, the percentage of the world's population living in extreme poverty fell from 37.1% to 9.6%, falling below 10% for the first time.[7] Nevertheless, given the current economic model, built on GDP, it would take 100

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 6 first time.[7] Nevertheless, given the current economic model, built on GDP, it would take 100 years to bring the world's poorest up to the previous poverty line of $1.25 a day.[8] Extreme poverty is a global challenge; it is observed in all parts of the world, including developed economies.[9][10] UNICEF estimates half the world's children (or 1.1 billion) live in poverty.[11] It has been argued by some academics that theneoliberal policies promoted by global financial institutions such as the IMF and the World Bank are actually exacerbating both inequality and poverty.[12]

Deprivation Necessities or Rights: Sleep deprivation, Maternal deprivation, Social deprivation, Sensory deprivation, Cultural deprivation, Oxygen deprivation, , Water deprivation, Deprivation of food, Nutritional deprivations, Deprivation of liberty, Incarceration, False imprisonment - Torture: White torture

Poverty: Relative Deprivation, Destitution

From > Relative Deprivation Relative deprivation is the lack of resources to sustain the diet, lifestyle, activities and amenities that an individual or group are accustomed to or that are widely encouraged or approved in the society to which they belong.[1] Measuring relative deprivation allows an objective comparison between the situation of the individual or group compared to the rest of society. Relative deprivation may also emphasise the individual experience of discontent when being deprived of something to which one believes oneself to be entitled, however emphasizing the perspective of the individual makes objective measurement problematic.[2][3][4] It is a term used in social sciences to describe feelings or measures of economic, political, or social deprivation that are relative rather than absolute.[3] The term is inextricably linked to the similar terms poverty and social exclusion.[5] The concept of relative deprivation has important consequences for both behavior and attitudes, including feelings ofstress, political attitudes, and participation in collective action. It is relevant to researchers studying multiple fields in social sciences.[2] It has sometimes been related to the biological concept of relative fitness, where an organism that successfully outproduces its competitors leaves more copies in the gene pool.

Social scientists, particularly political scientists and sociologists, have cited 'relative deprivation' (especially temporal relative deprivation) as a potential cause of social movementsand deviance, leading in extreme situations to political violence such as rioting, terrorism, civil wars and other instances of social deviance such as crime.[6][7] For example, some scholars of social movements explain their rise by citing grievances of people who feel deprived of what they perceive as values to which they are entitled.[8] Similarly, individuals engage in deviant behaviors when their means do not match their goals.[6] Recently, the opposite of relative deprivation, the concept of relative gratification[9][10] has emerged in social psychology.

From Destitute / Destitution Extreme poverty, absolute poverty, or destitution, was originally defined by the United Nations in 1995 as "a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to services."[2]Currently, extreme poverty widely refers to earning below the international poverty line of $1.25/day (in 2005 prices), set by the World Bank. This measure is the equivalent to earning $1.00 a day in 1996 US prices, hence the widely used expression, living on "less than a dollar a day."[3] The vast majority of those in extreme poverty – 96% – reside inSouth Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, The West Indies, East Asia and the Pacific; nearly half live in India and China alone.[4] The reduction of extreme poverty and hunger was the first Millennium Development Goal (MDG1), as set by 189 United Nations Member States in 2000. Specifically, MDG1 set a target of reducing the extreme poverty rate in half by 2015, a goal that was met 5 years ahead of schedule. The international community, including the UN, the World Bankand the United States, has set a target of ending extreme poverty by 2030.

Demography / demographics Demography (prefix, Demo- from Ancient Greek δῆμος dēmos, means "the people" and - graphy from γράφω graphō, implies writing, description or measurement.[1]) is the statistical study of populations, especially human beings. As a very general science, it can analyze any kind of dynamic living population, i.e., one that changes over time or space (see population dynamics). Demography encompasses the study of the size, structure, and distribution of these populations, and spatial and/or temporal changes in them in response to birth, migration, ageing, and death. Based on the demographic research of the earth, earth’s population up to the year 2050 and 2100 can be estimated by the demographers.Demographics are quantifiable characteristics of a given population.

Demographic analysis can cover whole societies, or groups defined by criteria such as education, nationality, religion and ethnicity. Educational institutions[2] usually treat demography as a field of sociology, though there are a number of independent demography departments.[3]

Formal demography limits its object of study to the measurement of population processes,

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 7 Formal demography limits its object of study to the measurement of population processes, while the broader field of social demography or population studies also analyzes the relationships between economic, social, cultural and biological processes influencing a population.[4]

Cartography Cartography (from Greek χάρτης khartēs, "map"; and γράφειν graphein, "write") is the study and practice of making maps. Combining science, aesthetics, and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively.

The fundamental problems of traditional cartography are to:[citation needed]

•Represent the terrain of the mapped object on flat media. This is the concern of map projections.

•Eliminate characteristics of the mapped object that are not relevant to the map's purpose. This is the concern ofgeneralization.

•Reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped. This is also the concern of generalization.

•Orchestrate the elements of the map to best convey its message to its audience. This is the concern of map design.

Modern cartography constitutes many theoretical and practical foundations of geographic information systems.

Dependence / Dependency 1.a way of life characterized by dependency on state benefits. culture Culture of Poverty The theory of a “culture of poverty” was created by the anthropologist Oscar Lewis in his 1959 book, Five Families: Mexican Case Studies in the Culture of Poverty. The culture of poverty theory states that living in conditions of pervasive poverty will lead to the development of a culture or subculture adapted to those conditions. This culture is characterized by pervasive feelings of helplessness, dependency, marginality, and powerlessness. Furthermore, Lewis described individuals living within a culture of poverty as having little or no sense of history and therefore lacking the knowledge to alleviate their own conditions through collective action, instead focusing solely on their own troubles. Thus, for Lewis, the imposition of poverty on a population was the structural cause of the development of a culture of poverty, which then becomes autonomous, as behaviors and attitudes developed within a culture of poverty get passed down to subsequent generations through socialization processes.

Class ial class (or simply "class"), as in a class society, is a set of concepts in the social sciences and political theory centered on models of social stratification in which people are grouped into a set of hierarchical social categories,[1] the most common being theupper, middle, and lower classes.

Class is an essential object of analysis for sociologists, political scientists, anthropologists, and social historians. However, there is not a consensus on the best definition of the "class," and the term has different contextual meanings. In common parlance, the term "social class" is usually synonymous with "socio-economic class," defined as "people having the same social, economic, or educational status," e.g., "the working class"; "an emerging professional class."[2] However, academics distinguish social class and socioeconomic status, with the former referring to one’s relatively stable sociocultural background and the latter referring to one’s current social and economic situation and, consequently, being more changeable over time.[3]

The precise measurements of what determines social class in society has varied over time. According to philosopher Karl Marx, "class" is determined entirely by one's relationship to the means of production, the classes in modern capitalist society being the "proletarians": those who work but do not own the means of production, the "bourgeoisie": those who invest and live off of the surplus generated by the former, and the aristocracy that has land as a means of production.

The term "class" is etymologically derived from the Latin classis, which was used

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 8 The term "class" is etymologically derived from the Latin classis, which was used by census takers to categorize citizens by wealth, in order to determine military service obligations.[4]

In the late 18th century, the term "class" began to replace classifications such as estates, rank, and orders as the primary means of organizing society into hierarchical divisions. This corresponded to a general decrease in significance ascribed to hereditary characteristics, and increase in the significance of wealth and income as indicators of position in the social hierarchy.[5][6]

Class War The term class war is used by people on both the right and left of the political spectrum. In general, the term relates to the political and economic conflicts between different socioeconomic classes over things such as the distribution of wealth and whether or not government policy should be implemented to reduce inequalities of wealth. Typically, the term is used to describe conflicts between the “haves” and the “have-nots” that work themselves out in some regulated judicial manner such as in elections to government of various political parties. Sometimes, however, actual violent conflict between different socioeconomic classes may break out. Such is the case when revolutionary situations bring about significant transformations in a society's socioeconomic structure, particularly with regard to the distribution of its wealth. Adopting the language of military conflict, political scientist James Scott, in his 1985 book Weapons of the Weak, distinguished between what he called “the small arms fire” and the “big guns” of class conflict. For Scott, examples of small arms fire include workers deliberately being late for work, stealing from their employers, and intentionally ruining the products of their labor (e.g., sewing the wrong-color buttons on shirts in the case of garment workers). Rather than simply being examples of antisocial behavior, Scott saw these activities as ways for workers to come to terms with their alienation in the workplace and to wrest some control of the labor process away from their employers or landlords (in the case of peasant farmers, the subject of Scott's book). The big guns of class conflict, Scott suggested, are activities such as striking and fostering political revolution.

Rhetorically, political parties on the left often have used the term class war to describe how the powerful in society exploit the less powerful and how, in turn, the less powerful should organize themselves to improve their position. In such a discourse, it is argued, the less powerful are victims of a class war waged against them by those in positions of economic and political power; therefore, their actions are defensive, designed to limit their own exploitation. Frequently, however, those on the political right argue that any efforts to bring about wealth redistribution are simply examples of “class envy” and are attempts by the poor or leftist politicians to wage “class war” against the wealthy. For such commentators, unequal distributions of wealth are seen either as natural or as the reward for individual sacrifice and hard work; that is, for many on the political right, the causes of poverty are seen as the result of the personal failings of the poor rather than the operation of structural forces such as institutionalized racism or the ways in which unregulated markets operate in a capitalist society. Many leftists counter that, in decrying the class war rhetoric of the left, those on the political right are themselves, in fact, engaging precisely in class war by seeking to defend the social status quo.

Contributors: Andrew Herod Edited by: Barney Warf Book Title: Encyclopedia of Human Geography Chapter Title: "Class War" Social Stratification Social stratification is a society's categorization of people into socioeconomic strata, based upon their occupation and income,wealth and social status, or derived power (social and political). As such, stratification is the relative social position of persons within a social group, category, geographic region, or social unit. In modern Western societies, social stratification typically is distinguished as three social classes: (i) the upper class, (ii) the middle class, and (iii) the lower class; in turn, each class can be subdivided into strata, e.g. the upper-stratum, the middle-stratum, and the lower stratum.[1] Moreover, a social stratum can be formed upon the bases of kinship or caste, or both.

The categorization of people by social strata occurs in all societies, ranging from the complex, state-based societies to tribal andfeudal societies, which are based upon socioeconomic relations among classes of nobility and classes of peasants. Historically, whether or not hunter-gatherer societies can be defined as socially stratified or if social stratification began with agriculture and common acts of social exchange, remains a debated matter in the social sciences.[2] Determining the structures of social stratification arises from inequalities of status among persons, therefore, the degree of social inequality determines a person's social stratum. Generally, the greater the social complexity of a society, the more social strata exist, by way of social differentiation.[3]

From Social Equality Social equality is a state of affairs in which all people within a specific society or isolated group have the same status in certain respects, often including civil rights, freedom of speech, property rights, and equal access to social goods and services. However, it also includes concepts of health equity, economic equality and other social securities. It also includes equal opportunities and obligations, and so involves the whole of society. Social

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 9 includes equal opportunities and obligations, and so involves the whole of society. Social equality requires the absence of legally enforced social class or casteboundaries and the absence of discrimination motivated by an inalienable part of a person's identity.[1] For example, sex, gender, race, age, sexual orientation, origin, caste or class, income or property, language, religion, convictions, opinions, health or disability must not result in unequal treatment under the law and should not reduce opportunities unjustifiably.

"Equal opportunities" is interpreted as being judged by ability, which is compatible with a free- market economy. A problem ishorizontal inequality, the inequality of two persons of same origin and ability.

In complexity economics, it has been found that horizontal inequality arises in complex systems, and thus equality may be unattainable.

Social Inequality Social inequality occurs when resources in a given society are distributed unevenly, typically through norms of allocation, that engender specific patterns along lines of socially defined categories of persons. Economic inequality, usually described on the basis of the unequal distribution of income or wealth, is a frequently studied type of social inequality. Though the disciplines of economicsand sociology generally use different theoretical approaches to examine and explain economic inequality, both fields are actively involved in researching this inequality. However, social and natural resources other than purely economic resources are also unevenly distributed in most societies and may contribute to social status. Norms of allocation can also affect the distribution of rightsand privileges, social power, access to public goods such as education or the judical system adequate housing, transportation,credit and financial services such as banking and other social goods and services.[1]

While many societies worldwide hold that their resources are distributed on the basis of merit, research shows that the distribution of resources often follows delineations that distinguish different social categories of persons on the basis of other socially defined characteristics. For example, social inequality is linked to racial inequality, gender inequality, and ethnic inequality as well as other status characteristics and these forms can be related to corruption.[2]

Oppression Social Social oppression is the socially supported mistreatment and exploitation of a group, category, or team of people or individuals.

Institutionalized "Institutional Oppression occurs when established laws, customs, and practices systemically reflect and produce inequities based on one’s membership in targeted social identity groups. If oppressive consequences accrue to institutional laws, customs, or Practices, the institution is oppressive whether or not the individuals maintaining those practices have oppressive intentions."[2]

Patriarchy Patriarchy is a social system in which males hold primary power, predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege and control of property. In the domain of the family, fathers or father-figures hold authority over women and children. Some patriarchal societies are also patrilineal, meaning that property and title are inherited by the male lineage and descent is reckoned exclusively through the male line, sometimes to the point where significantly more distant male relatives take precedence over female relatives.

The female alternative is matriarchy.

Historically, patriarchy has manifested itself in the social, legal, political, and economic organization of a range of different cultures.[1

Matriarchy Matriarchy is a social system in which females hold primary power, predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege and control of property at the specific exclusion of men, at least to a large degree. While those definitions apply in general English, definitions specific to the disciplines of anthropology and feminism differ in some respects. Most anthropologists hold that there are no known societies that are unambiguously matriarchal, but some authors believe exceptions may exist or may have. Matriarchies may also be confused with matrilineal, matrilocal, and matrifocal societies. A few people consider any non-patriarchal system to be matriarchal, thus including genderally equalitarian systems, but most academics exclude them from matriarchies strictly defined.

In 19th century Western scholarship, the hypothesis of matriarchy representing an early, mainly prehistoric, stage of human development gained popularity. Possibilities of so-called primitive societies were cited and the hypothesis survived into the 20th century, including in the context of second-wave feminism. This hypothesis was criticized by some authors, including Camille Paglia[citation needed] and Cynthia Eller, and remains as a largely unsolved

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 10 including Camille Paglia[citation needed] and Cynthia Eller, and remains as a largely unsolved question to this day. Some older myths describe matriarchies. Several modern feminists have advocated for matriarchy now or in the future and it has appeared in feminist fiction. In several theologies, matriarchy has been portrayed as negative.

Queer Theory Queer theory is a field of post-structuralist critical theory that emerged in the early 1990s out of the fields of queer studies and women's studies. Queer theory includes both queer readings of texts and the theorisation of 'queerness' itself. Heavily influenced by the work of Lauren Berlant, Leo Bersani, Judith Butler, Lee Edelman, Jack Halberstam,[1] David Halperin, José Esteban Muñoz, and Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, queer theory builds both upon feminist challenges to the idea that gender is part of the essential self and upon gay/lesbian studies' close examination of the socially constructed nature of sexual acts and identities. Whereas gay/lesbian studies focused its inquiries into natural and unnatural behaviour with respect to homosexual behaviour, queer theory expands its focus to encompass any kind of sexual activity or identity that falls into normative and deviant categories. Italian feminist and film theorist Teresa de Lauretis coined the term "queer theory" for a conference she organized at the University of California, Santa Cruz in 1990 and a special issue of Differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies she edited based on that conference.

Positivism Positivism is a philosophical theory stating that positive knowledge is based on natural phenomena and their properties and relations. Thus, information derived from sensory experience, interpreted through reason and logic, forms the exclusive source of all authoritative knowledge.[1] Positivism holds that valid knowledge (certitude or truth) is found only in this derived knowledge.[2]

Verified data (positive facts) received from the senses are known as empirical evidence; thus positivism is based on empiricism.[1]

Positivism also holds that society, like the physical world, operates according to general laws. Introspective and intuitive knowledge is rejected, as is metaphysics and theology. Although the positivist approach has been a recurrent theme in the history of western thought,[3] the modern sense of the approach was formulated by the philosopher Auguste Comte in the early 19th century.[4] Comte argued that, much as the physical world operates according to gravity and other absolute laws, so does society,[5] and further developed positivism into a Religion of Humanity.

From Space Space is the boundless three-dimensional extent in which objects and events have relative position and direction.[1] Physical space is often conceived in three linear dimensions, although modern physicists usually consider it, with time, to be part of a boundless four- dimensional continuum known as space-time. The concept of space is considered to be of fundamental importance to an understanding of the physical universe. However, disagreement continues between philosophers over whether it is itself an entity, a relationship between entities, or part of a conceptual framework.

Debates concerning the nature, essence and the mode of existence of space date back to antiquity; namely, to treatises like the Timaeusof Plato, or Socrates in his reflections on what the Greeks called khôra (i.e. "space"), or in the Physics of Aristotle (Book IV, Delta) in the definition of topos (i.e. place), or in the later "geometrical conception of place" as "space qua extension" in the Discourse on Place (Qawl fi al-Makan) of the 11th-century Arab polymath Alhazen.[2] Many of these classical philosophical questions were discussed in theRenaissance and then reformulated in the 17th century, particularly during the early development of classical mechanics. In Isaac Newton's view, space was absolute—in the sense that it existed permanently and independently of whether there was any matter in the space.[3] Other natural philosophers, notably Gottfried Leibniz, thought instead that space was in fact a collection of relations between objects, given by their distance and direction from one another. In the 18th century, the philosopher and theologian George Berkeleyattempted to refute the "visibility of spatial depth" in his Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision. Later, the metaphysician Immanuel Kantsaid that neither space nor time can be empirically perceived—they are elements of a systematic framework that humans use to structure all experiences. Kant referred to "space" in his Critique of Pure Reason as being a subjective "pure a priori form of intuition", hence it is an unavoidable contribution of our human faculties.

In the 19th and 20th centuries mathematicians began to examine geometries that are not Euclidean, in which space can be said to be curved, rather than flat. According to Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity, space around gravitational fields deviates from Euclidean space.[4] Experimental tests of general relativity have confirmed that non-Euclidean geometries provide a better model for the shape of space.

Geographical Space Geography is the branch of science concerned with identifying and describing the Earth, utilizing spatial awareness to try to understand why things exist in specific locations.

Cartography is the mapping of spaces to allow better navigation, for visualization purposes

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 11 Cartography is the mapping of spaces to allow better navigation, for visualization purposes and to act as a locational device. Geostatistics apply statistical concepts to collected spatial data to create an estimate for unobserved phenomena.

Geographical space is often considered as land, and can have a relation to ownership usage (in which space is seen as property or territory). While some cultures assert the rights of the individual in terms of ownership, other cultures will identify with a communal approach to land ownership, while still other cultures such as Australian Aboriginals, rather than asserting ownership rights to land, invert the relationship and consider that they are in fact owned by the land. Spatial planning is a method of regulating the use of space at land-level, with decisions made at regional, national and international levels. Space can also impact on human and cultural behavior, being an important factor inarchitecture, where it will impact on the design of buildings and structures, and on farming.

Ownership of space is not restricted to land. Ownership of airspace and of waters is decided internationally. Other forms of ownership have been recently asserted to other spaces—for example to the radio bands of the electromagnetic spectrum or to cyberspace.

Public space is a term used to define areas of land as collectively owned by the community, and managed in their name by delegated bodies; such spaces are open to all, whileprivate property is the land culturally owned by an individual or company, for their own use and pleasure.

Abstract space is a term used in geography to refer to a hypothetical space characterized by complete homogeneity. When modeling activity or behavior, it is a conceptual tool used to limit extraneous variables such as terrain.

Location The terms location and place in geography are used to identify a point or an area on the Earth's surface or elsewhere. The term location generally implies a higher degree of certainty than place, which often indicates an entity with an ambiguous boundary, relying more on human or social attributes of place identity and sense of place than ongeometry.[1] The distinction between space and place is considered a central concern of geography, and has been addressed by scholars such as Yi-Fu Tuan[2] and John Agnew.[3]

Locality A locality, settlement, or populated place is likely to have a well-defined name but a boundary which is not well defined in varies by context. London, for instance, has a legal boundary, but this is unlikely to completely match with general usage. An area within a town, such as Covent Garden in London, also almost always has some ambiguity as to its extent.

Locale a place where something happens or is set, or that has particular events associated with it.

Spatial Analysis Spatial analysis or spatial statistics includes any of the formal techniques which study entities using their topological,geometric, or geographic properties. Spatial analysis includes a variety of techniques, many still in their early development, using different analytic approaches and applied in fields as diverse as astronomy, with its studies of the placement of galaxies in the cosmos, to chip fabrication engineering, with its use of "place and route" algorithms to build complex wiring structures. In a more restricted sense, spatial analysis is the technique applied to structures at the human scale, most notably in the analysis of geographic data.

Complex issues arise in spatial analysis, many of which are neither clearly defined nor completely resolved, but form the basis for current research. The most fundamental of these is the problem of defining the spatial location of the entities being studied.

Classification of the techniques of spatial analysis is difficult because of the large number of different fields of research involved, the different fundamental approaches which can be chosen, and the many forms the data can take.

Spatial 1.: relating to, occupying, or having the character of space.

2.: OF, OR RELATINGTO FACILITY IN PERCIEVING RELATIONS (AS OF OBJECTS) IN SPACE

Spatiality Noun of 'Spatial'

' Beyond the limits of spatiality is an absence of geometric order. The Mystery of Space Robert T. Browne. Chapter X is the natural and logical sequence of the inquiry into the question of spatiality.' The Mystery of Space Robert T.

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 12 Realism noun 1. interest in or concern for the actual or real, as distinguished from theabstract, speculative, etc.

2. the tendency to view or represent things as they really are.

Anti-Realism In analytic philosophy, the term anti-realism describes any position involving either the denial of an objective reality or the denial that verification-transcendent statements are either true or false. This latter construal is sometimes expressed by saying "there is no fact of the matter as to whether or not P". Thus, one may speak of anti-realism with respect to other minds, the past, the future, universals, mathematical entities (such as natural numbers), moral categories, the material world, or even thought. The two construals are clearly distinct but often confused. For example, an "anti-realist" who denies that other minds exist (i.e., a solipsist) is quite different from an "anti-realist" who claims that there is no fact of the matter as to whether or not there are unobservable other minds (i.e., a logical behaviorist).

Reality Reality is the state of things as they actually exist, rather than as they may appear or might be imagined.[1] In a wider definition, reality includes everything that is and has been, whether or not it is observable or comprehensible. A still broader definition includes everything that has existed, exists, or will exist.

Philosophers, mathematicians, and other ancient and modern thinkers, such as Aristotle, Plato, Frege, Wittgenstein, and Russell, have made a distinction between thoughtcorresponding to reality, coherent abstractions (thoughts of things that are imaginable but not real), and that which cannot even be rationally thought. By contrast existence is often restricted solely to that which has physical existence or has a direct basis in it in the way that thoughts do in the brain.

Reality is often contrasted with what is imaginary, delusional, (only) in the mind, dreams, what is false, what is fictional, or what is abstract. At the same time, what is abstract plays a role both in everyday life and in academic research.

For instance, causality, virtue, life and distributive justice are abstract concepts that can be difficult to define, but they are only rarely equated with pure delusions. Both the existence and reality of abstractions are in dispute: one extreme position regards them as mere words; another position regards them as higher truths than less abstract concepts. This disagreement is the basis of the philosophical problem of universals.

The truth refers to what is real, while falsity refers to what is not. Fictions are considered not real.

Place Can be used inter-changably with 'Location' . https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Place

'Place' in general http://www.dictionary.com/browse/place?s=t Relative (location) A relative location, or situation, is described as a displacement from another site. An example is "3 miles northwest of Seattle".

Absolute (location) An absolute location is designated using a specific pairing of latitude and longitude in a Cartesian coordinate grid — for example, a Spherical coordinate system or an ellipsoid-based system such as the World Geodetic System — or similar methods. For instance, the position of Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela can be expressed approximately in theWGS84 coordinate system as the location 9.80°N (latitude), 71.56°W (longitude). It is, however, just one way. Alternative ways can be seen in this Geo Hack link:9.80°N 71.56°W.

Absolute location, however, is a term with little real meaning, since any location must be expressed relative to something else. For example, longitude is the number of degrees east or west of the Prime Meridian, a line arbitrarily chosen to pass through Greenwich, London.

Similarly, latitude is the number of degrees north or south of the Equator. Because latitude and longitude are expressed relative to these lines, a position expressed in latitude and longitude is actually a relative location.[4]

Paradigm The concept of paradigms originally was developed by Thomas Kuhn in his landmark publication The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, first published in 1962. The term paradigm is generally used to describe (a) a normative framework that a science imposes on itself and (b) the instability and historical progression of theoretical assumptions and methodological procedures that a discipline experiences in more or

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 13 assumptions and methodological procedures that a discipline experiences in more or less regular intervals (commonly referred to as a paradigm shift). The discipline of human geography experienced several paradigm shifts during the 20th century alone, and the concept of the paradigm has been widely accepted to illustrate and explain the evolution of human geographic thought. Yet some scholars argue that the concepts of the paradigm and paradigm shift are oversimplified and need to be critically examined.

Paradigm as a Normative Framework

Scientific disciplines, according to Kuhn, establish for themselves a number of normative guidelines that regulate the activities of researchers within it as well as guard and distinguish it from others. Paradigms emerge as the dominant ways of thinking within a science and determine the accepted theoretical frameworks, the most commonly used methodologies, and the ways in which future scientists are trained. Thus, they describe the stable pattern of academic activity that provides rules about how research ought to be done, to be taught, and to be accepted by the largest number of specialists within a community of scholars.

What Kuhn called “normal science” typically proceeds for extended periods of time and accumulates theoretical knowledge and empirical data that fall within the dominant paradigm. Research continues to refine the basic constructs within a paradigm and applies the generally accepted models so long as problems can be solved according to a certain procedure and the discipline is making progress. At a certain point in the cumulative and historical development of a discipline, when it fails to make progress or falls short of providing solutions for contemporary problems, clusters of new ideas begin to emerge and actively challenge assumptions that were taken for granted previously. Fueled primarily by new scholars unwilling to conform to the theoretical and methodological standards of the existing paradigm, a period of “extraordinary science” emerges and ushers in a paradigm shift. A new set of questions and research problems that disprove the assumptions and predictions of existing theory surfaces. Previously accepted methodologies fail to provide solutions to new problems, and the moral and ethical underpinnings of certain research techniques are questioned. Small groups of researchers actively challenge the scientific establishment within a discipline and stimulate a long-lasting debate about the new concepts and ideas they introduced.

Dominant beliefs are slowly dismantled by a growing group of new converts, and the scientists still embracing the “old” prevailing set of thoughts are slowly dwindling in numbers yet vigorously resist accepting the new set of ideas. The paradigm shift is completed when the supporters of the original paradigm retire, die, or are otherwise largely replaced by scholars adhering to the new alternative set of ideas that emerges as a new dominant paradigm.

Contributors: Olaf Kuhlke Edited by: Barney Warf Book Title: Encyclopedia of Human Geography Chapter Title: "Paradigm" SURROGATE COLONIALISM Surrogate Colonialism is a term used most notably by anthropologist Scott Atran in his essay “The Surrogate Colonization of Palestine 1917–1939"[1] to describe a type of colonization project whereby a foreign power encourages and provides support for a settlement project of a non-native group over land occupied by an indigenous people. For Atran, the mission of Ashkenazi Zionism in Palestine is a form of “surrogate colonialism” because it was forged based on a strategic consensus with the ruling British Empire. This surrogate colonialism, Atran further notes, is one of the major contributing factors to the Balfour Declaration, which made possible and legitimate Zionist settlement in Palestine. Sociologist Ran Greenstein claims both Zionist settlement in Palestine and white settlement in South Africa are example for surrogate colonization, for in both the majority of settlers did not come from the ranks of the principal colonizing power ofthe time: the British Empire in the case of Israel/Palestine, or the Dutch Empire and later the British empire, in the case of South Africa.[2]

From

SETTLER COLONIALISM Geographical Imagination

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 14 Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 15 Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 16 Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 17 U116 Environment: Journeys Through a Changing World - 2015J - GLOSSARY 17 March 2016 11:06

Term Definition and source Natural Environment 1.The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof. It is an environment that encompasses the interaction of all living species. In contrast to the natural environment is the built environment. In such areas where man has fundamentally transformed landscapes such as urban settings and agricultural land conversion, the natural environment is greatly modified and diminished, with a much more simplified human environment largely replacing it. Even events which seem less extreme such as hydroelectric dam construction, or photovoltaic system construction in the desert, the natural environment is substantially altered.

From SUSTAINABLE / SUSTAINABILITY ECOLOGY ECOSYSTEM AGGROECOSYSTEM BIODIVERSITY BIOME HABITAT SAVANNAH RAINFOREST TUNDRA DESERT DEFORESTATION DESERTIFICATION EROSION WEATHERING SOIL EROSION ICE SHEET GREENHOUSE GASES GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBALISATION INDUSTRIALISATION INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION CHINESE REVOLUTION GREAT LEAP FORWARD (China) Mao Russian Revolution Indigenous adjective

1. originating in and characteristic of a particular region or country; native (often followed by to): the plants indigenous to Canada; the indigenous peoples of southern Africa.

2. innate; inherent; natural (usually followed by to): feelings indigenous to human beings.

From Inuit Inuit (pronounced /ˈɪnuːɪt/ or /ˈɪnjuːɪt/; Inuktitut: ᐃᓄᐃᑦ, "the people"[6]) are a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic regions of Greenland, Canada, and Alaska.[7] Inuit is a plural noun; the singular is Inuk.[6] The oral Inuit languages are classified in the Eskimo-Aleut family,[8] whereas Inuit Sign Language is a critically endangered language isolate spoken in Nunavut.[9]

In the United States and Canada the term "Eskimo" was commonly used to describe the Inuit, and Alaska's Yupik and Inupiat. "Inuit" is not accepted as a term for the Yupik, and "Eskimo"[10]

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 18 and Alaska's Yupik and Inupiat. "Inuit" is not accepted as a term for the Yupik, and "Eskimo"[10] is the only term that includes Yupik, Iñupiat and Inuit. However, Aboriginal peoples in Canada and Greenland view "Eskimo" as pejorative, and "Inuit" has become more common.[11][12] In Canada, sections 25 and 35 of the Constitution Act of 1982 named the "Inuit" as a distinctive group of Aboriginal Canadians who are not included under either the First Nations or the Métis.[13]

The Inuit live throughout most of the Canadian Arctic and subarctic in the territory of Nunavut; "Nunavik" in the northern third of Quebec; "Nunatsiavut" and "NunatuKavut" in Labrador; and in various parts of the Northwest Territories, particularly around the Arctic Ocean. These areas are known in Inuktitut as the "Inuit Nunangat".[14][15] In the United States, Inupiat live on the North Slope in Alaska and on Little Diomede Island. The Greenlandic Inuit are the descendants of migrations from Canada and are citizens of Denmark, although not of the European Union.

From ABORIGINAL CANADIAN Aboriginal peoples in Canada, or Aboriginal Canadians, are the indigenous peoples within the boundaries of present-day Canada. They comprise the First Nations,[2] Inuit[3] and Métis.[4] The descriptors "Indian" and "Eskimo" have somewhat fallen into disuse in Canada and are sometimes considered pejorative.[5][6][7]

Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are some of the earliest known sites of human habitation in Canada. The Paleo-Indian Clovis, Plano and Pre-Dorset cultures pre-date current indigenous peoples of the Americas. Projectile point tools, spears, pottery, bangles, chisels and scrapers mark archaeological sites, thus distinguishing cultural periods, traditions and lithic reduction styles.

The characteristics of Canadian Aboriginal culture included permanent settlements,[8] agriculture,[9] civic and ceremonial architecture,[10] complex societal hierarchies and trading networks.[11] The Métis culture of mixed blood originated in the mid-17th century when First Nation and Inuit people married Europeans.[12] The Inuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during that early period.[13] Various laws, treaties, and legislation have been enacted between European immigrants and First Nations across Canada. Aboriginal Right to Self-Government provides opportunity to manage historical, cultural, political, health care and economic control aspects within first people's communities.

As of the 2011 census, Aboriginal peoples in Canada totaled 1,400,685 people, or 4.3% of the national population, spread over 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands with distinctive cultures, languages, art, and music.[1][14] National Aboriginal Day recognizes the cultures and contributions of Aboriginals to the history of Canada.[15] First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples of all backgrounds have become prominent figures and have served as role models in the Aboriginal community and help to shape the Canadian cultural identity.[16]

From ABORIGINAL AUSTRALIAN Aboriginal Australians are legally defined as people who are members "of the Aboriginal race of Australia" (indigenous to the Australian continent—mainland Australia or to the island of Tasmania).[2][3][4][5]

TORRES STRAIT ISLANDS The Torres Strait Islands are a group of at least 274 small islands which lie in Torres Strait, the waterway separating far northern continental Australia's Cape York Peninsula and the island of New Guinea.

The islands are mostly part of Queensland, a constituent State of the Commonwealth of Australia, with a special status fitting the native (Melanesian) land rights, administered by the Torres Strait Regional Authority. A few islands very close to the coast of mainland New Guinea belong to the Western Province of Papua New Guinea, most importantly Daru Island with the provincial capital, Daru.

Only 14 of the islands are inhabited,[2] with many of the islands threatened by rising sea levels.[3]

From GEOLOGICAL TIME(scale) The geological time scale (GTS) is a system of chronological measurement that relates stratigraphy to time, and is used by geologists, paleontologists, and other Earth scientists to describe the timing and relationships between events that have occurred throughout Earth’s history. The table of geologic time spans presented here agrees with the nomenclature, dates and standard color codes set forth by the International Commission on Stratigraphy.

Evidence from radiometric dating indicates that Earth is about 4.54 billion years old.[2][3] The geology or deep time of Earth’s past has been organized into various units according to events which took place in each period. Different spans of time on the GTS are usually delimited by changes in the composition of strata which correspond to them, indicating major geological or paleontological events, such as mass extinctions. For example, the boundary between the Cretaceous period and the Paleogene period is defined by the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which marked the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs and many other groups of life. Older time spans which predate the reliable fossil record (before the Proterozoic Eon) are defined by the absolute age.

From

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 19 From TECTONIC PLATE(S) Plate tectonics (from the Late Latin tectonicus, from the Greek: τεκτονικός "pertaining to building")[1] is a scientific theory that describes the large-scale motion of Earth's lithosphere. This theoretical model builds on the concept of continental drift which was developed during the first few decades of the 20th century. The geoscientific community accepted plate-tectonic theory after seafloor spreading was validated in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

The lithosphere, which is the rigid outermost shell of a planet (the crust and upper mantle), is broken up into tectonic plates. The Earth's lithosphere is composed of seven or eight major plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates. Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of boundary: convergent, divergent, or transform.

Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation occur along these plate boundaries. The lateral relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 100 mm annually.[2]

Tectonic plates are composed of oceanic lithosphere and thicker continental lithosphere, each topped by its own kind of crust. Along convergent boundaries, subduction carries plates into the mantle; the material lost is roughly balanced by the formation of new (oceanic) crust along divergent margins by seafloor spreading. In this way, the total surface of the globe remains the same. This prediction of plate tectonics is also referred to as the conveyor belt principle. Earlier theories (that still have some supporters) propose gradual shrinking (contraction) or gradual expansion of the globe.[3]

Tectonic plates are able to move because the Earth's lithosphere has greater strength than the underlying asthenosphere. Lateral density variations in the mantle result in convection. Plate movement is thought to be driven by a combination of the motion of the seafloor away from the spreading ridge (due to variations in topography and density of the crust, which result in differences in gravitational forces) and drag, with downward suction, at the subduction zones. Another explanation lies in the different forces generated by tidal forces of the Sun and Moon. The relative importance of each of these factors and their relationship to each other is unclear, and still the subject of much debate.

From EARTHQUAKES An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the perceptible shaking of the surface of the Earth, resulting from the sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes can be violent enough to toss people around and destroy whole cities. The seismicity or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time.

Earthquakes are measured using observations from seismometers. The moment magnitude is the most common scale on which earthquakes larger than approximately 5 are reported for the entire globe. The more numerous earthquakes smaller than magnitude 5 reported by national seismological observatories are measured mostly on the local magnitude scale, also referred to as the Richter magnitude scale. These two scales are numerically similar over their range of validity. Magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes are mostly almost imperceptible or weak and magnitude 7 and over potentially cause serious damage over larger areas, depending on their depth. The largest earthquakes in historic times have been of magnitude slightly over 9, although there is no limit to the possible magnitude. Intensity of shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale. The shallower an earthquake, the more damage to structures it causes, all else being equal.[1]

At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes displacement of the ground. When the epicenter of a large earthquake is located offshore, the seabed may be displaced sufficiently to cause a tsunami. Earthquakes can also trigger landslides, and occasionally volcanic activity.

In its most general sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event — whether natural or caused by humans — that generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of geological faults, but also by other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear tests. An earthquake's point of initial rupture is called its focus or hypocenter. The epicenter is the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter.

VOLCANOES A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface.

Earth's volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, rigid tectonic plates that float on a hotter, softer layer in its mantle.[1] Therefore, on Earth, volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging. For example, a mid-oceanic ridge, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates pulling apart; the Pacific Ring of Fire has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates coming together.

Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's interior plates[clarify], e.g., in the East African Rift and the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field and Rio Grande Rift in North America. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of "plate hypothesis" volcanism.[2] Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as mantle plumes. These so-called "hotspots", for example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 20 mantle plumes. These so-called "hotspots", for example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs with magma from the core–mantle boundary, 3,000 km deep in the Earth.

Volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another.

Erupting volcanoes can pose many hazards, not only in the immediate vicinity of the eruption.

One such hazard is that volcanic ash can be a threat to aircraft, in particular those with jet engines where ash particles can be melted by the high operating temperature; the melted particles then adhere to the turbine blades and alter their shape, disrupting the operation of the turbine. Large eruptions can affect temperature as ash and droplets of sulfuric acid obscure the sun and cool the Earth's lower atmosphere (or troposphere); however, they also absorb heat radiated up from the Earth, thereby warming the upper atmosphere (or stratosphere).

Historically, so-called volcanic winters have caused catastrophic famines.

TSUNAMIS A tsunami (plural: tsunamis or tsunami; from Japanese: 津波, lit. "harbor wave";[1] English pronunciation: /tsuːˈnɑːmi/[2]) , also known as a seismic sea wave, is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions (including detonations of underwater nuclear devices), landslides, glacier calvings, meteorite impacts and other disturbances above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami.[3] Unlike normal ocean waves which are generated by wind or tides which are generated by the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun, a tsunami is generated by the displacement of water.

Tsunami waves do not resemble normal sea waves, because their wavelength is far longer.

Rather than appearing as a breaking wave, a tsunami may instead initially resemble a rapidly rising tide, and for this reason they are often referred to as tidal waves, although this usage is not favored by the scientific community because tsunamis are not tidal in nature. Tsunamis generally consist of a series of waves with periods ranging from minutes to hours, arriving in a so-called "wave train".[4] Wave heights of tens of meters can be generated by large events.

Although the impact of tsunamis is limited to coastal areas, their destructive power can be enormous and they can affect entire ocean basins; the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was among the deadliest natural disasters in human history with at least 230,000 people killed or missing in 14 countries bordering the Indian Ocean.

The Greek historian Thucydides suggested in his late-5th century BC History of the Peloponnesian War, that tsunamis were related to submarine earthquakes,[5][6] but the understanding of a tsunami's nature remained slim until the 20th century and much remains unknown. Major areas of current research include trying to determine why some large earthquakes do not generate tsunamis while other smaller ones do; trying to accurately forecast the passage of tsunamis across the oceans; and also to forecast how tsunami waves interact with specific shorelines

HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE Water is in constant circulation, powered by the energy from sunlight and gravity in a natural process called the hydrologic cycle. Water evaporates from the ocean and land surfaces, is held temporarily as vapour in the atmosphere, and falls back to the Earth’s surface as precipitation. Surface water is the residue of precipitation and melted snow, called runoff.

Where the average rate of precipitation exceeds the rate at which runoff seeps into the soil, evaporates, or is absorbed by vegetation, bodies of surface water such as streams, rivers, and lakes are formed. Water that infiltrates the Earth’s surface becomes groundwater, slowly seeping downward into extensive layers of porous soil and rock called aquifers. Under the pull of gravity, groundwater flows slowly and steadily through the aquifer. In low areas it emerges in springs and streams. Both surface water and groundwater eventually return to the ocean, where evaporation replenishes the supply of atmospheric water vapour. Winds carry the moist air over land, precipitation occurs, and the hydrologic cycle continues.

Surface water sources

The total land area that contributes surface runoff to a river or lake is called a watershed, drainage basin, or catchment area. The volume of water available for municipal supply depends mostly on the amount of rainfall. It also depends on the size of the watershed, the slope of the ground, the type of soil and vegetation, and the type of land use.

The flow rate or discharge of a river varies with time. Higher flow rates typically occur in the spring, and lower flow rates occur in the winter. When the average discharge of a river is not enough for a dependable supply of water, a conservation reservoir may be built. The flow of water is blocked by a dam, allowing an artificial lake to be formed. Conservation reservoirs store water from wet weather periods for use during times of drought and low streamflow. A water intake structure is built within the reservoir, with inlet ports and valves at several depths.

Since the quality of water in a reservoir varies seasonally with depth, a multilevel intake allows

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 21 Since the quality of water in a reservoir varies seasonally with depth, a multilevel intake allows water of best quality to be withdrawn. Sometimes it is advisable, for economic reasons, to provide a multipurpose reservoir. A multipurpose reservoir is designed to satisfy a combination of community water needs. In addition to drinking water, the reservoir may also provide flood control, hydroelectric power, and recreation.

Groundwater sources

The value of an aquifer as a source of groundwater is a function of the porosity of the geologic stratum, or layer, of which it is formed. Water is withdrawn from an aquifer by pumping it out of a well or infiltration gallery. An infiltration gallery typically includes several horizontal perforated pipes radiating outward from the bottom of a large-diameter vertical shaft. Wells are constructed in several ways, depending on the depth and nature of the aquifer. Wells used for public water supplies, usually more than 30 metres (100 feet) deep and from 10 to 30 cm (4 to 12 inches) in diameter, must penetrate large aquifers that can provide dependable yields of good-quality water. They are drilled using impact or rotary techniques and are usually lined with a metal pipe or casing to prevent contamination. The annular space around the outside of the upper portion of the casing is filled with cement grout, and a special sanitary seal is installed at the top to provide further protection. At the bottom of the casing, a slotted screen is attached to strain silt and sand out of the groundwater. A submersible pump driven by an electric motor can be used to raise the water to the surface. Sometimes a deep well may penetrate a confined artesian aquifer, in which case natural hydrostatic pressure can raise the water to the surface.

CARBON CYCLE Carbon cycle,

Carbon is a constituent of all organic compounds, many of which are essential to life on Earth. The source of the carbon found in living matter is carbon dioxide (CO2) in the air or dissolved in water. Algae and terrestrial green plants (producers) are the chief agents of carbon dioxide fixation through the process of photosynthesis, through which carbon dioxide and water are converted into simple carbohydrates. These compounds are used by the producers to carry on metabolism, the excess being stored as fats and polysaccharides. The stored products are then eaten by consumer organisms, from protozoans to man, which convert them into other forms.

CO2 is added directly to the atmosphere by animals and some other organisms as a by-product of respiration. The carbon present in animal wastes and in the bodies of all organisms is released as CO2 by decay, or decomposer, organisms (chiefly bacteria and fungi) in a series of microbial transformations.

Part of the organic carbon—the remains of organisms—has accumulated in Earth’s crust as fossil fuels (e.g., coal, gas, and petroleum), limestone, and coral. The carbon of fossil fuels, removed from the cycle in prehistoric time, is now being released in vast amounts as CO2 through industrial and agricultural processes, much of it quickly passing into the oceans and there being “fixed” as carbonates. If oxygen is scarce (as in sewage, marshes, and swamps), some carbon is released as methane gas.

NITROGEN CYCLE Nitrogen cycle,

A circultaion of Nitrogen in various forms through nature.

Nitrogen, a component of proteins and nucleic acids, is essential to life on Earth. Although 78 percent by volume of the atmosphere is nitrogen gas, this abundant reservoir exists in a form unusable by most organisms. Through a series of microbial transformations, however, nitrogen is made available to plants, which in turn ultimately sustain all animal life. The steps, which are not altogether sequential, fall into the following classifications: nitrogen fixation, nitrogen assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification.

Nitrogen fixation, in which nitrogen gas is converted into inorganic nitrogen compounds, is mostly (90 percent) accomplished by certain bacteria and blue-green algae (see nitrogen fixation). A much smaller amount of free nitrogen is fixed by abiotic means (e.g., lightning, ultraviolet radiation, electrical equipment) and by conversion to ammonia through the Haber- Bosch process.

Biogeochemistry Biogeochemistry is the scientific discipline that involves the study of the chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes and reactions that govern the composition of the natural environment (including the biosphere, the cryosphere, the hydrosphere, the pedosphere, the atmosphere, and the lithosphere). In particular, biogeochemistry is the study of the cycles of chemical elements, such as carbon and nitrogen, and their interactions with and incorporation into living things transported through earth scale biological systems in space through time. The field focuses on chemical cycles which are either driven by or have an impact on biological activity. Particular emphasis is placed on the study of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus cycles. Biogeochemistry is a systems science closely related to systems ecology.

From FERTILISERS A fertilizer or fertiliser (in British English) is any material of natural or synthetic origin (other

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 22 FERTILISERS A fertilizer or fertiliser (in British English) is any material of natural or synthetic origin (other than liming materials) that is applied to soils or to plant tissues (usually leaves) to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants. This also depends on its soil fertility as well as organic things such as humic acid, seaweed and worm castings

From ALTITUDE Altitude or height (sometimes known as depth) is defined based on the context in which it is used (aviation, geometry, geographical survey, sport, and many more). As a general definition, altitude is a distance measurement, usually in the vertical or "up" direction, between a reference datum and a point or object. The reference datum also often varies according to the context. Although the term altitude is commonly used to mean the height above sea level of a location, in geography the term elevation is often preferred for this usage.

Vertical distance measurements in the "down" direction are commonly referred to as depth.

LONGITUDE Longitude (/ˈlɒndʒᵻtjuːd/ or /ˈlɒndʒᵻtuːd/, British also /ˈlɒŋɡᵻtjuːd/),[1] is a geographic coordinate that specifies the east-west position of a point on the Earth's surface. It is an angular measurement, usually expressed in degrees and denoted by the Greek letter lambda (λ).

Meridians (lines running from the North Pole to the South Pole) connect points with the same longitude. By convention, one of these, the Prime Meridian, which passes through the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, England, was allocated the position of zero degrees longitude. The longitude of other places is measured as the angle east or west from the Prime Meridian, ranging from 0° at the Prime Meridian to +180° eastward and −180° westward. Specifically, it is the angle between a plane containing the Prime Meridian and a plane containing the North Pole, South Pole and the location in question. (This forms a right-handed coordinate system with the z axis (right hand thumb) pointing from the Earth's center toward the North Pole and the x axis (right hand index finger) extending from Earth's center through the equator at the Prime Meridian.)

A location's north–south position along a meridian is given by its latitude, which is approximately the angle between the local vertical and the plane of the Equator.

If the Earth were perfectly spherical and homogeneous, then the longitude at a point would be equal to the angle between a vertical north–south plane through that point and the plane of the Greenwich meridian.

Everywhere on Earth the vertical north–south plane would contain the Earth's axis. But the Earth is not homogeneous, and has mountains—which have gravity and so can shift the vertical plane away from the Earth's axis. The vertical north–south plane still intersects the plane of the Greenwich meridian at some angle; that angle is the astronomical longitude, calculated from star observations. The longitude shown on maps and GPS devices is the angle between the Greenwich plane and a not-quite-vertical plane through the point; the not-quite- vertical plane is perpendicular to the surface of the spheroid chosen to approximate the Earth's sea-level surface, rather than perpendicular to the sea-level surface itself.

LATITUDE In geography, latitude (φ) is a geographic coordinate that specifies the north–south position of a point on the Earth's surface. Latitude is an angle (defined below) which ranges from 0° at the Equator to 90° (North or South) at the poles. Lines of constant latitude, or parallels, run east– west as circles parallel to the equator. Latitude is used together with longitude to specify the precise location of features on the surface of the Earth. Two levels of abstraction are employed in the definition of these coordinates. In the first step the physical surface is modelled by the geoid, a surface which approximates the mean sea level over the oceans and its continuation under the land masses. The second step is to approximate the geoid by a mathematically simpler reference surface. The simplest choice for the reference surface is a sphere, but the geoid is more accurately modelled by an ellipsoid. The definitions of latitude and longitude on such reference surfaces are detailed in the following sections. Lines of constant latitude and longitude together constitute a graticule on the reference surface. The latitude of a point on the actual surface is that of the corresponding point on the reference surface, the correspondence being along the normal to the reference surface which passes through the point on the physical surface. Latitude and longitude together with some specification of height constitute a geographic coordinate system as defined in the specification of the ISO 19111 standard.[1]

Since there are many different reference ellipsoids the latitude of a feature on the surface is not unique: this is stressed in the ISO standard which states that "without the full specification of the coordinate reference system, coordinates (that is latitude and longitude) are ambiguous at best and meaningless at worst". This is of great importance in accurate applications, such as GPS, but in common usage, where high accuracy is not required, the reference ellipsoid is not usually stated.

In English texts the latitude angle, defined below, is usually denoted by the Greek lower-case letter phi (φ or ɸ). It is measured in degrees, minutes and seconds or decimal degrees, north or south of the equator. Measurement of latitude requires an understanding of the gravitational field of the Earth, either for setting up theodolites or for determination of GPS satellite orbits. The study of the figure of the Earth together with its gravitational field is the science of geodesy. These topics are not

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 23 the Earth together with its gravitational field is the science of geodesy. These topics are not discussed in this article. (See for example the textbooks by Torge[2] and Hofmann-Wellenhof and Moritz.)[3]

This article relates to coordinate systems for the Earth: it may be extended to cover the Moon, planets and other celestial objects by a simple change of nomenclature.

RENEWABLE ENERGY Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that is collected from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat.[2] Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas: electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy services.[3] Based on REN21's 2014 report, renewables contributed 19 percent to humans' global energy consumption and 22 percent to their generation of electricity in 2012 and 2013, respectively.

This energy consumption is divided as 9% coming from traditional biomass, 4.2% as heat energy (non-biomass), 3.8% hydro electricity and 2% is electricity from wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass. Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US $214 billion in 2013, with countries like China and the United States heavily investing in wind, hydro, solar and biofuels.[4]

Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security, climate change mitigation, and economic benefits.[5] The results of a recent review of the literature [6] concluded that as greenhouse gas(GHG) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change, a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies. In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power.[7] At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond.[8] Some places and at least two countries, Iceland and Norway generate all their electricity using renewable energy already, and many other countries have the set a goal to reach 100% renewable energy in the future. For example, in Denmark the government decided to switch the total energy supply (electricity, mobility and heating/cooling) to 100% renewable energy by 2050.[9]

While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries, where energy is often crucial in human development.[10] United Nations' Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity.[11] As most of renewables provide electricity, renewable energy deployment is often applied in conjunction with further electrification, which has several benefits: For example, electricity can be converted to heat without losses and even reach higher temperatures than fossil fuels, can be converted into mechanical energy with high efficiency and is clean at the point of consumpion.[12][13] In addition to that electrification with renewable energy is much more efficient and therefore leads to a significant reduction in primary energy requirements, because most renewables don't have a steam cycle with high losses (fossil power plants usually have losses of 40 to 65%).[14]

HUNTER GATHERER A hunter-gatherer is a human living in a society in which most or all food is obtained by foraging (collecting wild plants and pursuing wild animals), in contrast to agricultural societies, which rely mainly on domesticated species.

Hunting and gathering was humanity's first and most successful adaptation, occupying at least 90 percent of human history.[1] Following the invention of agriculture, hunter-gatherers have been displaced or conquered by farming or pastoralist groups in most parts of the world.

Only a few contemporary societies are classified as hunter-gatherers, and many supplement their foraging activity with horticulture and/or keeping animals.

Agrarian societies An agrarian society (or agricultural society) is any society whose economy is based on producing and maintaining crops and farmland. Another way to define an agrarian society is by seeing how much of a nation’s total production is in agriculture. In an agrarian society cultivating the land is the primary source of wealth.

Such a society may acknowledge other means of livelihood and work habits but stresses the importance of agriculture and farming. Agrarian societies have existed in various parts of the world as far back as 10,000 years ago and continue to exist today. They have been the most common form of socio-economic organization for most of recorded human history.

Nomadic societies Nomadism, Nomadic Society

Mongolian ger© Clouston/Shutterstock.com

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 24 … is a way of life of peoples who do not live continually in the same place but move cyclically or periodically. Itis distinguished from migration, which is noncyclic and involves a total change of habitat. Nomadism does not imply unrestricted and undirected wandering; rather, it is based on temporary centres whose stability depends on the availability of food supply and the technology for exploiting it. The term nomad encompasses three general types: nomadic hunters and gatherers, pastoral nomads, and tinker or trader nomads.

Although hunting and gathering generally imposes a degree of nomadism on a people, it may range from daily movements, as among some Kalahari San, to monthly, quarterly, or semiannual shifts of habitat. In areas where resources are abundant or where there are storage facilities, populations may be more or less stable. Nomadic hunters and gatherers are usually organized into small, isolated bands that move through a delimited territory where they know the water holes, the location of plants, and the habits of game.

Pastoral nomads, who depend on domesticated livestock, migrate in an established territory to find pasturage for their animals. Most groups have focal sites that they occupy for considerable periods of the year. Pastoralists may depend entirely on their herds or may also hunt or gather, practice some agriculture, or trade with agricultural peoples for grain and other goods. Some seminomadic groups in Southwest Asia and North Africa cultivate crops between seasonal moves. The patterns of pastoral nomadism are many, often depending on the type of livestock, the topography, and the climate. See also transhumance.

Some nomadic groups are associated with a larger society but maintain their mobile way of life. These groups include tinker or trader nomads, who may also make and sell simple products, hunt, or hire out as labourers. The diverse groups that are loosely termed Gypsies are the best- known example of this type of nomadism.

Other nomadic peoples practice a limited kind of agriculture, moving periodically from place to place in order to find new areas in which to raise their crops. They often combine agriculture with hunting and gathering. Anthropologists may refer to such groups as horticultural peoples, to distinguish them from settled agricultural peoples.

Nomadism declined in the 20th century for economic and political reasons, including the spread of systematic agriculture, the growth of industry, and the policies of governments that view nomadism as incompatible with modern life.

From Indigenous indigenous

in·dig·e·nous (ĭn-dĭj′ə-nəs) adj. 1. Originating, growing, or produced in a certain place or region.

2. Native a. Being a member of the original inhabitants of a particular place. b. Of, belonging to, or characteristic of such inhabitants.

in·dig′e·nous·ly adv. American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition. Copyright © 2011 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. indigenous (ɪnˈdɪdʒɪnəs) adj 1. originating or occurring naturally (in a country, region, etc); native 2. innate (to); inherent (in) [C17: from Latin indigenus, from indigena indigene, from indi- in + gignere to beget] inˈdigenously adv inˈdigenousness, indigenity n Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged, 12th Edition 2014 © HarperCollins Publishers 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2014

Indigenous knowledges The increasing attention indigenous knowledge is receiving by academia and the development institutions has not yet led to a unanimous perception of the concept of indigenous knowledge. None of the definitions is essentially contradictory; they overlap in many aspects. Warren (1991) and Flavier (1995) present typical definitions by suggesting: Indigenous knowledge (IK) is the local knowledge – knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society. IK contrasts with the international knowledge system generated by universities, research institutions and private firms. It is the basis for local-level decision making in agriculture, health care, food preparation, education, natural-resource management, and a host of other activities in rural communities. (Warren 1991) Indigenous Knowledge is (…) the information base for a society, which facilitates communication and decision-making. Indigenous information systems are dynamic, and

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 25 communication and decision-making. Indigenous information systems are dynamic, and are continually influenced by internal creativity and experimentation as well as by contact with external systems. (Flavier et al. 1995: 479) While using similar definitions, the conclusions drawn by the various authors are, controversial in a number of aspects. The implications of this will be discussed in the section "Public debate on indigenous knowledge". Most authors explain their perception of indigenous knowledge, covering only some aspects of it. In contrast, Ellen and Harris (1996) provide ten characteristics of indigenous knowledge that are comprehensive and conclusive.

Indigenous education Indigenous education specifically focuses on teaching indigenous knowledge, models, methods, and content within formal or non-formal educational systems. The growing recognition and use of indigenous education methods can be a response to the erosion and loss of indigenous knowledge through the processes of colonialism, globalization, and modernity.[1] Indigenous communities are able to “reclaim and revalue their languages and [traditions], and in so doing, improve the educational success of indigenous students,” thus ensuring their survival as a culture.[1]

Principal Sha (also 6th grade teacher) of the Yangjuan Primary School in Yanyuan County, Sichuan looks over his student's essays about the schoolyard. Increasingly, there has been a global shift toward recognizing and understanding indigenous models of education as a viable and legitimate form of education. There are many different educational systems throughout the world, some that are more predominant and widely accepted. However, members of indigenous communities celebrate diversity in learning and see this global support for teaching traditional forms of knowledge as a success. Indigenous ways of knowing, learning, instructing, teaching, and training have been viewed by many postmodern scholars as important for ensuring that students and teachers, whether indigenous or non-indigenous, are able to benefit from education in a culturally sensitive manner that draws upon, utilizes, promotes, and enhances awareness of indigenous traditions, beyond the standard Western curriculum of reading, writing, and arithmetic.[2]

Indigenous studies Indigenous Studies focuses upon such aspects of Indigenous peoples' experience as arts, cultures, ecologies, economies, histories, identities, knowledge, languages, literatures, music, community and political dynamics, relations with others, and ways of knowing. International Indigenous Studies examines those topics in Canada and elsewhere around the world, often in an explicitly comparative perspective. The University of Calgary International Indigenous Studies B.A. program is unique in its close attention both to the international realm and to Indigenous peoples’ ways of knowing. Another hallmark of the program is its interdisciplinary. Although the Major in International Indigenous Studies is offered by the Faculty of Social Sciences, courses available for credit toward the Major span a wide array of other disciplines. There is no consensus on the precise meaning of the term "Indigenous Peoples", either among academics or among practitioners. Other terms, such as "Aboriginal Peoples", "The Fourth World", and "Native Peoples" have been used in recent decades to refer to the peoples who are of focal interest in the Major in International Indigenous Studies.

From Indigenous worldviews Worldview is a specific way of seeing the world (as is suggested by the word itself). The concept is comparable to paradigm, but much larger in breadth (affecting more people of a culture, more universally) and depth (affecting their assumptions about Reality at fundamental levels below conscious awareness). Many people are familiar with the term "worldview" but haven't considered its impact on their interactions with other people. You can get an idea of both things by reading our page on worldview itself, and also our guidelines for working with Tapestry.

When we say that the core of Indigenous "ways" is deeply connected to, and arises from, the Earth, we are describing Indigenous worldview at its most fundamental level. The worldview of different Indigenous cultures and peoples varies from Place to Place, but most of them share this core.

From The dreamtime (Aboriginal Dreamtime (also dream time, dream-time) is a term for the animist framework and symbol Australia) system of Australian Aboriginal mythology, introduced by anthropologist A. P. Elkin in 1938 and popularised by anthropologist William Edward Hanley Stanner and others from the 1970s for a concept of "time out of time", or "everywhen", inhabited by ancestral figures, often of heroic proportions or with supernatural abilities, but not considered "gods" as they do not control the material world and are not worshipped.[1]

The term is based on a rendition of the indigenous (Arandic) word alcheringa, used by the Aranda (Arunta, Arrernte) people of Central Australia, although it appears that it is based on a misunderstanding or mistranslation, and the word has a meaning closer to "eternal, uncreated".[2] However, "Dreamtime" and "the Dreaming" has acquired its own currency in 1980s popular culture based on idealised or fictionalised conceptions of Australian mythology. Since the 1970s, "Dreaming" and "Dream time" has also returned from academic usage via popular culture and tourism and is now ubiquitous in the English vocabulary of indigenous Australians in a kind of "self-fulfilling academic prophecy".[3]

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 26 Urban Urban culture is the culture of towns and cities. The defining theme is the presence of a great number of very different people in a very limited space - most of them are strangers to each other.[1] This makes it possible to build up a vast array of subcultures close to each other, exposed to each other's influence, but without necessarily intruding into people's private lives.[2]

An urban area is a location characterized by high human population density and many built environment features in comparison to the areas surrounding it. Urban areas may be cities, towns or conurbations, but the term is not commonly extended to rural areas such as villages and hamlets.

The world's urban population in 1950 of just 746 million has soared in the decades since.[1] In 2009, the number of people living in urban areas (3.42 billion) surpassed the number living in rural areas (3.41 billion) and since then the world has become more urban than rural.[2] This was the first time that the majority of the world's population lived in a city.[3] In 2014 there were 7.25 billion people living on the planet,[4] of which the global urban population comprised 3.9 billion. The Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs at that time predicted the urban population would grow to 6.4 billion by 2050, with 37% of that growth to come from three countries: China, India and Nigeria.[1]

Urban areas are created and further developed by the process of urbanization. Measuring the extent of an urban area helps in analyzing population density and urban sprawl, and in determining urban and rural populations.[citation needed]

Unlike an urban area, a metropolitan area includes not only the urban area, but also satellite cities plus intervening rural land that is socio-economically connected to the urban core city, typically by employment ties through commuting, with the urban core city being the primary labor market.

Urbanisation Rurality is used as an expression of different rural areas as not being homogeneously defined. Many authors involved in mental health research in rural areas, stress the importance of steering clear of inflexible blanket definitions of rurality (Philo, 2003), and to instead "select definitions of rurality that are appropriate to the study being conducted" (Cloke, 1977). One of the simplest, but clearest definition of rurality is that one that expresses rurality as "a condition of place-based homeliness shared by people with common ancestry or heritage and who inhabit traditional, culturally defined areas or places statutorily recognized to be rural" (Chigbu, 2013: p. 815).

Cloke's index categorises all areas of England and Wales into four criteria: extreme rural, intermediate rural, intermediate non-rural and extreme non-rural; as well as urban areas. Cloke used 16 different ways of drawing the conclusions for his model, all of which led to the measure of an area's rurality.

Urbanity urbanity

ur·ban·i·ty (ûr-băn′ĭ-tē) n. pl. ur·ban·i·ties 1. Refinement and elegance of manner; polished courtesy. 2. urbanities Courtesies; civilities. American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition. Copyright © 2011 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. urbanity (ɜːˈbænɪtɪ) n, pl -ties 1. the quality of being urbane 2. (usually plural) civilities or courtesies Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged, 12th Edition 2014 © HarperCollins Publishers 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2014

Rural In general, a rural area or countryside is a geographic area that is located outside towns and cities.[1] The Health Resources and Services Administration of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services defines the word "rural" as encompassing "...all population, housing, and territory not included within an urban area. Whatever is not urban is considered rural."

Typical rural areas have a low population density and small settlements. Agricultural areas are commonly rural, though so are others such as forests. Different countries have varying definitions of "rural" for statistical and administrative purposes.

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 27 Rurality Rurality is used as an expression of different rural areas as not being homogeneously defined. Many authors involved in mental health research in rural areas, stress the importance of steering clear of inflexible blanket definitions of rurality (Philo, 2003), and to instead "select definitions of rurality that are appropriate to the study being conducted" (Cloke, 1977). One of the simplest, but clearest definition of rurality is that one that expresses rurality as "a condition of place-based homeliness shared by people with common ancestry or heritage and who inhabit traditional, culturally defined areas or places statutorily recognized to be rural" (Chigbu, 2013: p. 815).

Environmental Determinism Environmental determinism is the belief that the environment (most notably its physical factors such as landforms and/or climate) determines the patterns of human culture and societal development. Environmental determinists believe that it is these environmental, climatic, and geographical factors alone that are responsible for human cultures and individual decisions and/or social conditions have virtually no impact on cultural development. The main argument of environmental determinism states that an area's physical characteristics like climate have a strong impact on the psychological outlook of its inhabitants. These varied outlooks then spread throughout a population and help define the overall behavior and culture of a society.

Geopolitics Geopolitics (from Greek γῆ ge "earth, land" and πολιτική politikē "politics") is the study of the effects of geography (human and physical) on international politics and international relations.[1] Geopolitics is a method of studying foreign policy to understand, explain and predict international political behavior through geographical variables. These include area studies, climate, topography, demography, natural resources, and applied science of the region being evaluated.[2] Geopolitics focuses on political power in relation to geographic space. In particular, territorial waters and land territory in correlation with diplomatic history. Academically, geopolitics analyses history and social science with reference to geography in relation to politics. Outside of academia, geopolitical prognosis is offered by a variety of groups including non-profit groups as well as by for-profit private institutions (such as brokerage houses[3] and consulting companies[4]).Topics of geopolitics include relations between the interests of international political actors, interests focused to an area, space, geographical element or ways, relations which create a geopolitical system.[5] "Critical geopolitics" deconstructs classical geopolitical theories, by showing their political/ideological functions for great powers during and after the age of imperialism.[6] The term has been however used to describe a broad spectrum of ideas, from "a synonym for international relations, social, political and historical phenomena" to various pseudo-scientific theories of historical and geographic determinism.[7][8]

Positivism Definition: Positivism is a way of thinking developed by Auguste Comte and is based on the assumption that it is possible to observe social life and establish reliable, valid knowledge about how it works. This knowledge can then be used to affect the course of social change and improve the human condition. Positivism also argues that sociology should concern itself only with what can be observed with the senses and that theories of social life should be built in a rigid, linear, and methodical way on a base of verifiable fact. It has had relatively little influence on contemporary sociology, however, because it is argued that it encourages a misleading emphasis on superficial facts without any attention to underlying mechanisms that cannot be observed.

Logical Positivism Logical positivism and logical empiricism, which together formed neopositivism, was a movement in Western philosophy that embraced verificationism, an approach that sought to legitimize philosophical discourse on a basis shared with the best examples of empirical sciences. In this theory of knowledge, only statements verifiable either logically or empirically would be cognitively meaningful. Efforts to convert philosophy to this new scientific philosophy were intended to prevent confusion rooted in unclear language and unverifiable claims.[1] The Berlin Circle and the Vienna Circle propounded logical positivism starting in the late 1920s.

Interpreting Ludwig Wittgenstein's early philosophy of language, logical positivists identified a verifiability principle or criterion of cognitive meaningfulness. From Bertrand Russell's logicism they sought reduction of mathematics to logic as well as Russell's logical atomism, Ernst Mach's phenomenalism—whereby the mind knows only actual or potential sensory experience, which is the content of all sciences, whether physics or psychology—and Percy Bridgman's musings that others proclaimed as operationalism. Thereby, only the verifiable was scientific and cognitively meaningful, whereas the unverifiable was unscientific, cognitively meaningless "pseudo-statements"—metaphysic, emotive, or such—not candidate to further review by philosophers, newly tasked to organize knowledge, not develop new knowledge.

Logical positivism is commonly portrayed as taking the extreme position that scientific

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 28 Logical positivism is commonly portrayed as taking the extreme position that scientific language should never refer to anything unobservable—even the seemingly core notions of causality, mechanism, and principles—but that is an exaggeration. Talk of such unobservables would be metaphorical—direct observations viewed in the abstract—or at worst metaphysical or emotional. Theoretical laws would be reduced to empirical laws, while theoretical terms would garner meaning from observational terms via correspondence rules. Mathematics of physics would reduce to symbolic logic via logicism, while rational reconstruction would convert ordinary language into standardized equivalents, all networked and united by a logical syntax. A scientific theory would be stated with its method of verification, whereby a logical calculus or empirical operation could verify its falsity or truth.

In the late 1930s, logical positivists fled Germany and Austria for Britain and United States. By then, many had replaced Mach's phenomenalism with Neurath's physicalism, and Carnap had sought to replace verification with simply confirmation. With World War II's close in 1945, logical positivism became milder, logical empiricism, led largely by Carl Hempel, in America, who expounded the covering law model of scientific explanation. The logical positivist movement became a major underpinning of analytic philosophy,[2] and dominated Anglosphere philosophy, including philosophy of science, while influencing sciences, into the 1960s. Yet the movement failed to resolve its central problems,[3][4][5] and its doctrines were increasingly criticized, most trenchantly by W V O Quine, Norwood Hanson, Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn, and Carl Hempel.

Antipositivism Antipositivism (also known as interpretive or negativism) is the belief within social science that the social realm may not be subject to the same methods of investigation as the natural world; the social realm requires a different epistemology in which academics work beyond empiricism and the scientific method. Antipositivists hold that researchers need to be, first, aware that our concepts, ideas, and language shape how we think about the social world. Therefore, antipositivists focus on understanding the interpretative method employed.[1][need quotation to verify]

Liberalism Liberalism is a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of liberty and equality.[1][2][3] Whereas classical liberalism and European liberalism prioritise liberty, American liberalism and social liberalism stress equality.[4] Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but generally they support ideas and programs such as freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of religion, free markets, civil rights, democratic societies, secular governments, and international cooperation.[5][6][7][8][9][10][11]

Liberalism first became a distinct political movement during the Age of Enlightenment, when it became popular among philosophers and economists in the Western world. Liberalism rejected the prevailing social and political norms of hereditary privilege, state religion, absolute monarchy, and the Divine Right of Kings. The 17th-century philosopher John Locke is often credited with founding liberalism as a distinct philosophical tradition. Locke argued that each man has a natural right to life, liberty and property,[12] while adding that governments must not violate these rights based on the social contract. Liberals opposed traditional conservatism and sought to replace absolutism in government with representative democracy and the rule of law.

Prominent revolutionaries in the Glorious Revolution, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution used liberal philosophy to justify the armed overthrow of what they saw as tyrannical rule. Liberalism started to spread rapidly especially after the French Revolution. The 19th century saw liberal governments established in nations across Europe, South America, and North America.[13] In this period, the dominant ideological opponent of classical liberalism was conservatism, but liberalism later survived major ideological challenges from new opponents, such as fascism and communism. During the 20th century, liberal ideas spread even further as liberal democracies found themselves on the winning side in both world wars. In Europe and North America, the establishment of social liberalism became a key component in the expansion of the welfare state.[14][15] Today, liberal parties continue to wield power and influence throughout the world.

Neo-Liberalism Neoliberalism (or sometimes neo-liberalism)[1] is a term which has been used by many scholars in a wide variety of social sciences[2] and critics[3] primarily in reference to the resurgence of 19th century ideas associated with laissez-faire economic liberalism beginning in the 1970s and 1980s.[4] Its advocates support extensive economic liberalization policies such as privatization, fiscal austerity, deregulation, free trade, and reductions in government spending in order to enhance the role of the private sector in the economy.[5][6][7][8][9][10][11] Neoliberalism is famously associated with the economic policies introduced by Margaret Thatcher in the United Kingdom and Ronald Reagan in the United States.[6] The transition of consensus towards neoliberal policies and the acceptance of neoliberal economic theories in the 1970s are seen by some academics as the root of financialization, with the financial crisis of 2007–08 one of the ultimate results.[12][13][14][15][16]

The definition and usage of the term has changed over time.[5] It was originally an economic philosophy that emerged among European liberal scholars in the 1930s in an attempt to trace a so-called 'Third' or 'Middle Way' between the conflicting philosophies of classical liberalism and socialist planning.[17] The impetus for this development arose from a desire to avoid repeating the economic failures of the early 1930s, which were mostly blamed on the economic policy of classical liberalism. In the decades that followed, the use of the term neoliberal tended

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 29 policy of classical liberalism. In the decades that followed, the use of the term neoliberal tended to refer to theories at variance with the more laissez-faire doctrine of classical liberalism, and promoted instead a market economy under the guidance and rules of a strong state, a model which came to be known as the social market economy.

In the 1960s, usage of the term "neoliberal" heavily declined. When the term was reintroduced in the 1980s in connection with Augusto Pinochet's economic reforms in Chile, the usage of the term had shifted. It had not only become a term with negative connotations employed principally by critics of market reform, but it also had shifted in meaning from a moderate form of liberalism to a more radical and laissez-faire capitalist set of ideas. Scholars now tended to associate it with the theories of economists Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman.[5] Once the new meaning of neoliberalism was established as a common usage among Spanish-speaking scholars, it diffused into the English-language study of political economy.[5] Scholarship on the phenomenon of neoliberalism has been growing.[18] The impact of the global 2008-09 crisis has also given rise to new scholarship that critiques neoliberalism and seeks developmental alternatives.[19]

The fundamental problems of traditional cartography are to:[citation needed]

•Represent the terrain of the mapped object on flat media. This is the concern of map projections.

•Eliminate characteristics of the mapped object that are not relevant to the map's purpose. This is the concern of generalization.

•Reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped. This is also the concern of generalization.

•Orchestrate the elements of the map to best convey its message to its audience. This is the concern of map design.

Modern cartography constitutes many theoretical and practical foundations of geographic information systems.

Cartogram Noun

(plural cartograms)

1.(dated) Generally, a map used to indicate geographically-bound statistical information, typically region-by-region values of a given variable, for example by using different shadings for different ranges of values.

2.Specifically, a map-like graph where the relative areas of graph regions are proportional not to the relative areas of the land regions they represent, but rather to another quantitative variable, such as population or gross domestic product.

Read more at http://www.yourdictionary.com/cartogram#websters#aZPsLFEMdpEGXVLU.99

Narrative A narrative or story is any report of connected events, actual or imaginary, presented in a sequence of written or spoken words, or still or moving images.[1]

Narrative can be organized in a number of thematic and/or formal categories: non-fiction (e.g., definitively including creative non-fiction, biography, journalism, transcript poetry, and historiography); fictionalization of historical events (e.g., anecdote, myth, legend, and historical fiction); and fiction proper (e.g., literature in prose and sometimes poetry, such as short stories, novels, and narrative poems and songs, as well as imaginary narratives as portrayed in other textual forms, games, or live or recorded performances). Narrative is found in all forms of human creativity, art, and entertainment, including speech, literature, theatre, music and song, comics, journalism, film, television and video, radio, gameplay, unstructured recreation, and performance in general, as well as some painting, sculpture, drawing, photography, and other visual arts (though several modern art movements refuse the narrative in favor of the abstract and conceptual), as long as a sequence of events is presented. The word derives from the Latin verb narrare, "to tell", which is derived from the adjective gnarus, "knowing" or "skilled".[2]

Oral storytelling is perhaps[according to whom?] the earliest method for sharing narratives.[citation needed] During most people's childhoods, narratives are used to guide them on proper behavior, cultural history, formation of a communal identity, and values, as especially studied in

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 30 cultural history, formation of a communal identity, and values, as especially studied in anthropology today among traditional indigenous peoples.[3] Narratives may also be nested within other narratives, such as narratives told by an unreliable narrator (a character) typically found in noir fiction genre. An important part of narration is the narrative mode, the set of methods used to communicate the narrative through a process narration (see also "Narrative Aesthetics" below).

Along with exposition, argumentation, and description, narration, broadly defined, is one of four rhetorical modes of discourse. More narrowly defined, it is the fiction-writing mode whereby the narrator communicates directly to the reader.

Culture 1. cultivation of the soil

2. production, development, or improvement of a particular plant, animal, commodity, etc.

3. the growth of bacteria, microorganisms, or other plant and animal cells in a specially prepared nourishing fluid or solid

4. a colony of microorganisms or cells thus grown

5. development, improvement, or refinement of the intellect, emotions, interests, manners, and taste the result of this; refined ways of thinking, talking, and acting

6. development or improvement of physical qualities by special training or care: body culture, voice culture

7. the ideas, customs, skills, arts, etc. of a people or group, that are transferred, communicated, or passed along, as in or to succeeding generations such ideas, customs, etc. of a particular people or group in a particular period; civilization

8. the particular people or group having such ideas, customs, etc.

9. the values and goals of a particular business, esp. a large corporation, as reflected in its management style, employee morale, levels of productivity and efficiency, etc. Read more at http://www.yourdictionary.com/culture#ev5qsCV4ZOvKqA3K.99

From Metanarrative A metanarrative in critical theory and particularly in postmodernism is a narrative about narratives of historical meaning, experience or knowledge, which offers a society legitimation through the anticipated completion of a (as yet unrealized) master idea.[1][2][3] The term was brought into prominence by Jean-François Lyotard in 1984, with her claim that the postmodern was characterised precisely by a mistrust of the grand narratives (Progress, Enlightenment emancipation, Marxism) that had formed an essential part of modernity.[4]

Metaculture All the universal concepts that are present in all cultures Read more at http://www.yourdictionary.com/metaculture#OoH10m44eQex4rhj.99

Reflexivity Reflexivity refers to circular relationships between cause and effect. A reflexive relationship is bidirectional with both the cause and the effect affecting one another in a relationship in which neither can be assigned as causes or effects. In sociology, reflexivity therefore comes to mean an act of self-reference where examination or action "bends back on", refers to, and affects the entity instigating the action or examination.

To this extent it commonly refers to the capacity of an agent to recognize forces of socialization and alter their place in the social structure. A low level of reflexivity would result in an individual shaped largely by their environment (or "society"). A high level of social reflexivity would be defined by an individual shaping their own norms, tastes, politics, desires, and so on. This is similar to the notion of autonomy. (See also Structure and agency and Social mobility.)

In economics, reflexivity refers to the self-reinforcing effect of market sentiment, whereby rising prices attract buyers whose actions drive prices higher still until the process becomes unsustainable and the same process operates in reverse leading to a catastrophic collapse in prices.

This is an instance of a positive feedback loop.

Aggro-Food System The term agro-food system, sometimes called agrifoods, captures the increasingly long and complicated path that food takes to get to our table. Although we may like to think that the food we eat comes from a farm, that is only one place among many involved in the system that produces our food. Most farming is possible only with industrial inputs such as tractors, combines, and chemical inputs (e.g., fertilizers, pesticides). Farmers often require loans of money (called “capital”) each season to buy what is needed to

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 31 often require loans of money (called “capital”) each season to buy what is needed to produce a crop. Farming is also dependent on energy to run the machines, pump water, produce fertilizer, and transport the finished product because most of the places where food is produced are not where consumers are located. Farmers need expert information on what and when to plant, how to diagnose and treat blights and pests, how to obtain and use weather information, and how to decide when and at what price to sell their crop. When we think about what goes into farming, we realize that farms are linked to and dependent on many other places such as places of industrial production, petrochemical and fuel production, banking centers, and universities and government where research and policy are created. Where and what is done with the outputs of farms is equally complicated.

Contributors: John Grimes Edited by: Barney Warf Book Title: Encyclopedia of Human Geography Chapter Title: "Agro-Food System"

Abstraction Taking water away from any source such as a river, lake or groundwater

From Aerosis A dispersion of very small liquids or solids in the atmosphere, such as mist, fog or smoke. They can be of natural or human-made origin. They can affect heat balances in the atmosphere, and also may contain harmful pollutants

From Agroclimatic Zones Areas of the world that have a defined climate suitable for particular agricultural activities.

From Agroecosystems Any ecosystem that is managed by humans to produce food or other products

From Albedo The property of a material which measures the amount of incoming radiation that is reflected by a surface, often expressed as a percentage. Typical albedos are: ocean surface three per cent, grassy fields 25 per cent, and fresh snow 80–90 per cent.

Alkaloids A group of chemicals found in a wide range of plant species. The chemicals include familiar substances such as caffeine and nicotine. The chemicals have a variety of effects on humans and other animals. The effect depends not only on the type of alkaloid but also the dosage and whether it is ingested or enters the blood stream directly.

Alluvial Eroded material that is subsequently deposited after movement by water

Anaerobic Fermentation The breakdown of complex molecules in an organism in the absence of oxygen Anthropocene A term used by some scientists to emphasise that the latest geological epoch, the Holocene (recent time), has ended and has been replaced by a new epoch where the Earth’s biological and physical systems are being modified significantly by humans

Anthropogenic Greenhouse That part of the greenhouse effect that can be attributed to human action (for example, effect burning fossil fuels, deforestation). Bacteria Single-celled organisms that break down complex molecules to obtain energy. Some bacteria can cause disease in other organisms, but the majority are harmless or beneficial.

Banded Iron Early sedimentary rock containing iron compounds that were formed in oceans early in the Earth’s history when the oceans contained little oxygen.

Bathymetric Map The undersea equivalent of an above-water topographic or contour map. Bathymetric maps are designed to present accurate, measurable description and visual presentation of the submerged terrain

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 32 BATNEEC The Best Available Technology (or Technique) Not Entailing Excessive Cost. A term often used in modern anti-pollution legislation.

Beaufort Gyre An Arctic Ocean current which is a clockwise circulation (looking from above the North Pole) in the Beaufort Sea, north of Alaska. The Beaufort Gyre results from an average high-pressure system that generates winds over the region.

Bioaccumulation The accumulation of substances such as pesticides or other organic chemicals within an organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a substance at a rate greater than that at which the substance is lost, which implies the concentration of that substance in an animal will increase over time. The effect is that although environmental levels of a particular toxin could be low, over time bioaccumulation means that they may reach toxic levels.

Biodiversity A contraction of ‘biological diversity’. In general it describes the variety of life on Earth and specifically the total sum of the genes, species, habitats and ecosystems in a given environment.

Biodiversity Action Plan In 1992 the UK government signed the Convention on Biological Diversity. The UK Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) is one of the main responses in Britain to conserving biodiversity. The partnerships involved in local Biodiversity Action Plans identify local priorities to protect threatened or valuable species and habitats and to provide detailed plans for their protection.

Biological Community The set of interacting organisms in one particular locality

Biosphere All regions of the Earth, including its atmosphere, in which life exists

Biotic Reservoir A storage location for certain types of chemical, for example, trees in a forest act as a biotic reservoir for carbon

Brigades Unit of organisation of workers in China composed of a number of production teams

Bushmeat Wild animals that are hunted for food by humans

Capitalism An economic system, characterised by a market economy, international trade and the pursuit of profit through the private ownership of property and companies.

Carbohydrates Collective name for many organic compounds made from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, e.g. starch, sugars, cellulose; one of the major food groups.

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 33 Carbon Capture and Storage Techniques to separate carbon from fossil fuels when they are used to provide energy for any purpose, but particularly for power stations and energy-intensive industries. Carbon can be removed from the fuel before combustion or from the waste gases after combustion. In both cases it is extracted in the form of carbon dioxide, which is then transported to a storage site, such as a depleted oil or gas reservoir, for long-term burial.

Carbon Cycle The movement of carbon between reservoirs such as…the atmosphere, organisms, soil, and some rocks.

Carbon Dioxide A naturally occurring chemical compound consisting of carbon and oxygen. A molecule of carbon dioxide consists of one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen with a chemical formula of CO2. . Carbon dioxide is produced in respiration and from the burning of carbon- intensive fossil fuels and consumed in photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is the most important greenhouse gas released as a result of human activity.

Carbon Dioxide Equivalent There are six main greenhouse gases which cause climate change and are limited by the (C02(e)) Kyoto protocol. Each gas has a different global warming potential. For simplicity of reporting, the mass of each gas emitted is translated into a carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) amount so that the total 100-year impact from all sources can be summed to one figure.

Carbon Footprint The annual amount of greenhouse gas emissions, mainly carbon dioxide, that result from the activities of an individual or a group of people, especially their use of energy and transport and consumption of goods and services. It’s measured as the mass, in kilograms or tonnes per year, either of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions alone, or of the carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) effect of other greenhouse gas emissions.

Carbon Offset An apparent reduction in emissions, resulting from a project (e.g. planting trees, introducing energy efficient cooking stoves) that aims to reduce or absorb carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases. It is often undertaken in a developing country, and is sold to an individual or organisation to compensate for (offset) the carbon footprint arising from their activities. Whatever the type of project, a carbon offset is a payment to transfer the responsibility for reducing emissions from the person or organisation creating the emissions to someone else.

Carbon Sink A carbon sink is a reservoir that absorbs or takes up released carbon from another part of the carbon cycle. A carbon sink holds and stores carbon, in a variety of forms, usually for long periods of time. Natural carbon sinks include the oceans and forests.

Carnivores Animals that eat other animals.

Cells (Biology) Individual units of which all living organism are composed. The smallest unit of biological activity capable of independent reproduction, surrounded by a permeable membrane.

Cellulose A complex carbohydrate that forms the bulk of plant tissues.

Cephalopod A type of mollusc that is found in all the oceans of the world and at all depths. Well known examples are the octopus, the squid, cuttlefish, Nautilus and ammonites.

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 34 &mode=&hook=ALL&sortkey=&sortorder=&fullsearch=0&page=3> Chemical Compound Substance consisting of two or more different chemical elements that are chemically combined together, for instance water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2).

Chert A hard and dense rock made from silica (silicon dioxide) thought to be formed from the shells of marine organisms. It occurs in bands or nodules in sedimentary rock and some specimens contain evidence of very early organisms.

China Price A phrase which attempts to describe the lowest price possible for a wide variety of manufactured goods, due to various factors in manufacturing such as outsourcing work to China, and having extremely large economies of scale (in China). The China price is also sometimes interchanged with the best price available in the global market.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) A family of compounds containing carbon, fluorine and chlorine atoms. CFCs are chemically inert and stable and were formally used as refrigerants, propellents and in foams. Following the discovery that they affect the ozone layer their production and use were banned.

Civil Society Civil society is that part of social life that lies beyond the immediate reach of the state. It consists of households, family networks, civic and religious organisations and communities. It can be argued that a vibrant civil society is necessary for democracy to flourish.

Clathrate gun hypothesis The popular name given to the idea that rises in sea temperatures (and/or falls in sea level) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried under the sea floor and their permafrost. Because the methane is a powerful greenhouse gas, the release leads to positive feedback and causes further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilisation. It is thought to be an irreversible runaway process once started, just like the firing of a gun.

Climate A summary for a particular place or region of the average weather (temperature, rainfall, etc.) experienced over a period of time, traditionally using the mean value for thirty years, but also including measures of its variability, such as typical seasonal fluctuations and extreme values.

Climax Community The group of organisms characteristic of the end point of a primary or secondary succession.

Closed System (Ecosystems) A system in which all the movement of materials and much of the flux of energy occurs within it between the living and non-living components of the system.

Cloud Forests Forests in tropical regions that are found at high altitude and often sit in cloud. Cloud forest is characterised by short trees (a few metres high) and a high abundance of mosses, lichens and epiphytes. Coal The solid fossil remains of long-dead plants in which carbon has been concentrated and that can be used as fuel.

Code for Sustainable homes The national standard for the sustainable design and construction of new homes in England and Wales. It measures the sustainability of a new home against nine categories of sustainable design using a 1 to 6 star rating system. There are nine categories covering

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 35 sustainable design using a 1 to 6 star rating system. There are nine categories covering energy, water, the materials used in the home through to health and wellbeing and pollution, with points assigned to each category. From April 2008, all new social housing must be built to a minimum of Code Level 3. The code is voluntary for privately built housing. By 2016 all new homes will have to be built to Code Level 6 (zero carbon) though some of the savings can be off-site.

Collectivisation A system of farming where all the land is owned by the state and all operations on the land Collective Agriculture are organised and carried out by state employees, usually under direct control from the Collective Farming central government.

Combined Cooling. Heat and Combined Cooling, Heat and Power (CHP) describes CHP systems that have been adapted to Power (CCHP) provide cooling as well as heating.

Combined Heat and Power Combined Heat and Power (CHP) or cogeneration is a power system that produces both (CHP) electricity and heat from a fuel to produce a higher overall efficiency of generation. It recovers the waste heat from power generation to provide additional energy in useful form such as hot water or steam for space heating. CHP systems can be used in a full-sized power station, or on a smaller scale for individual buildings or factories.

Communism A political system that aims for an equal and classless society, where private property is forbidden and industry and agriculture are run by central government or by some other body. This is in contrast to capitalism.

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Communist Economy A communist economy is where the state owns and controls all aspects of production and exchange.

Communist Society A communist society is one which is governed by a single party where the state owns the means of production and property.

Computer Model A set of mathematical or logical relationships, programmed on a computer that can be used to predict the way that a system may change with time or as a result of some events.

Concentration Amount of a substance dissolved in a known volume of a solution

Constructive Margin A region at the edge of a tectonic plate such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge where new crust is being formed. Constructive margins form part of the engine that drives continental drift.

Continental Drift The movement of the Earth’s continents relative to each other.

Contraction and Convergance A scheme to provide a smooth transition to a low level of CO2 emissions from human activity. Contraction is based on agreeing a safe target concentration and calculating global annual emissions which take the atmosphere to that target. Convergence defines allocations to each country, starting from actual in 2000, and converging to an equal level of per capita emissions in a target year.

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 36 &mode=&hook=ALL&sortkey=&sortorder=&fullsearch=0&page=6> Convection Current The movement of molecules within a fluid and one of the main ways in which heat and mass is transferred around a substance. In general heat will reduce the density of a fluid such as air relative to its surroundings, and so it will rise in the form of a convection current.

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Coppice Cycle The duration and features of the management cycle of coppice woodland, starting with cutting of trees such as hazel to near ground level. The remaining trunks (the stools) are then allowed to regrow and harvested again after the appropriate number of years.

Correlated Variables When two or more quantities apparently vary together.

Correlation Coefficient A calculated value used to measure the extent of a possible relationship between two quantities. Its magnitude varies from 1, when the two quantities increase or decrease precisely in step with each other, to 0 when there is no apparent connection.

Cultivars Different forms of a crop plant species that have been selected by humans.

Cyanobacteria Also known as blue-green algae. Bacteria that carry out photosynthesis, usually with the production of oxygen. They are among the earliest organisms to evolve on Earth and were largely responsible for generating oxygen in the atmosphere

Deep Time An imaginative phrase coined by the science writer John McPhee to describe the extremely long timescale of the history of the Earth.

Delivered Ecology Usually the energy that flows through the meter or the pump. It is substantially less than the primary energy required to produce the delivered energy in the case of electricity, because of conversion losses at the generating station. With natural gas, delivered energy is only slightly less than primary energy, due to small losses in distribution.

Deoxygenation Removal of dissolved oxygen from a watercourse or water body.

Deposition In the context of pollution, the settling of particulate matter from water or air on to a surface

Destructive Margin A region at the edge of a tectonic plate such as an oceanic trench where continental crust is destroyed

Developed Countries Also known as the North, Western countries or industrialised countries: these are the richer countries of the world. Their economies have gone through the process of industrialisation, i.e. the economy and society is based on industrial manufacture and/or services rather than on craft production and agriculture. The alternative terms ‘the North’, and ‘Western countries’ are not geographically accurate. For example, Japan is universally thought of as a ‘developed’ country.

https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/glossary/view.php?id=728121 &mode=&hook=ALL&sortkey=&sortorder=&fullsearch=0&page=7> Developing Countries

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 37 Developing Countries Also known as the South, less-developed countries or the Third World: developing countries are the poorer countries of the world. Usually, their industrial bases in manufactured goods and services are not well developed. There are problems associated with all these terms: ‘developing countries’ implies that some countries are developed and no longer developing; ‘the South’ is not geographically accurate as some ‘developing’ countries extend a long way North, and some ‘developed’ countries, such as Australia are definitely in the South; as for ‘The Third World’, there is no longer a ‘Second World’ (i.e. Soviet Union).

Dichotomous Key dichotomous key An identification key in which there are only two answers to each question, usually yes or no.

Dilution Reduction of the concentration of a substance within a solution.

Diminishing Returns The decreasing additional output from a process obtained for each additional unit of some input.

Dispersal In the context of pollution, the distribution or spreading out of a pollutant in a water body or the air.

Drought A prolonged period of abnormally low rainfall, leading to a shortage of water

D Durable Goods Goods which consumers expect to purchase less frequently but which generate benefits for the owners over a considerable period time. Examples include cars, computers and microwave ovens.

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Duty of Care Taking responsibility for the protection of something or someone

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Earthquake A sudden release of energy as tectonic plates that were stuck together undergo rapid relative motion

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Eco-City Eco-city is short for ecological city and was first used by Richard Register. It describes the ideal of a sustainable city that is good to live in, provides almost all of its own food and energy and reuses or recycles almost all of its wastes.

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Ecological Footprint An environmental indicator which calculates the area of land, of world average productivity, that would theoretically be required to provide the resources for, and to absorb the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and wastes produced by a particular product, population, settlement or human activity at a given level of technology.

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Ecological Niche The combination of ranges of conditions e.g. temperature and soil pH, within which a particular species can survive.

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Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 38 From

Ecology A term coined by E. Haeckel in 1866 to describe the study of the relations of organisms to each other and their surroundings, which includes population dynamics, feeding interactions, competition between species, the availability of nutrients and energy flows through ecosystems. Patterns of distribution and succession, and human impacts are also studied

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Economically Rational A decision that is logically correct according to economic theory.

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Economies of Scale These occur when the cost per item manufactured declines as overall output increases. Larger scales normally mean that things are cheaper to make due to increased productivity, better use of production, or simply due to their increased dimensions along with spreading fixed costs over more items produced. There may be limits to economies of scale and in some cases there can also be diseconomies of scale. Diseconomies occur if the operation becomes too difficult to manage.

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Ecosystem A community of organisms interacting with each other, plus the environment in which they live and with which they also interact, e.g. a pond or forest.

From Ecosystem Services Benefits that humans derive from ecological processes e.g. freshwater provision, decomposition of wastes, removal of carbon dioxide from the air and production of oxygen by plants, nutrient cycling, etc.

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Element (Chemistry) A substance which cannot be further divided by chemical reactions.

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El Nino A warm phase in the fluctuating weather pattern of the Pacific Ocean which has major effects on large areas of adjoining land and on sea temperatures and rainfall patterns. Also known as the southern oscillation.

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Embodied Carbon Embodied carbon measures all energy consumed during a defined lifecycle, and it takes into account the source of the energy (e.g. fossil fuels, renewable energy) and its impact on the environment.

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Embodied Energy The total primary energy consumed during resource extraction, transportation, manufacturing and fabrication of a product. Basically, this means all the energy required to make a material, such as a clay brick. This includes the energy to extract the clay, transport it to the brick works, mould the brick, fire it in the kiln, transport it to the building site and put the brick into place. It also includes all the indirect energy required, i.e. all the energy required to manufacture the equipment and materials needed to manufacture a brick, e.g. trucks, kilns, mining equipment, etc. It can be measured using life-cycle analysis (LCA).

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Energy The ‘capacity to do work’ whose SI unit is the joule. Although the words energy and power are used interchangeably in everyday speech, they have precise technical meanings in science.

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Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 39 From

Environment The surroundings and influences on living things including humans.

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Environmental Indicator A quantitative or qualitative measure of the pressures on, or the state of, the biological or physical environment.

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ENZYME Proteins that regulate chemical reactions in living organisms.

E on The largest unit of geological time. The eon was developed as a geological unit to describe the changing events of early Earth.

Era The largest unit of geological time after the eon, consisting of the Precambrian, the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras

Erosion Removal of solid material from rock or soil usually by the action of water or wind.

Eutrophication A situation where the input of nutrients causes greatly increased primary production and may lead to problems when this material decays.

Evapotranspiration Combined expression for the processes of evaporation and transpiration both of which entail the passage of water into the atmosphere, evaporation being from the surface of water bodies of all sizes and transpiration from the leaves and other surfaces of plants.

Evolution The cumulative change that explains the differences between today’s organisms and those that existed in the past and occurs through changes in the course of successive generations related by descent.

Excreta The compounds disposed of by organisms in liquid, solid or gaseous form that are no longer needed or are harmful.

Externalities The costs or benefits arising from an economic activity that affect somebody other than the people engaged in the original process. The actual price does not reflect the ‘true’ cost of the externalities. These are sometimes called by-products or spill-over effects and can include things like pollution if a factory does not have to pay a cost to others to emit smoke which might discolour buildings or contribute to wide-ranging health problems.

From Extinct A species is extinct if it has no surviving members. If a species only survives in captivity it is described as ‘extinct in the wild’. Sometimes small groups are preserved and bred in captivity and have occasionally been successfully released into the wild. Extinctions of species and groups of species have occurred throughout geological time, but there is concern today about the increase in extinction rates caused by human activity. (See also mass extinction.)

Fats

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 40 Fats See lipids

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Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids, and others. The main biological functions of lipids include storing energy, signaling, and acting as structural components of cell membranes.[4][5] Lipids have applications in the cosmetic and food industries as well as in nanotechnology.[6] Lipids may be broadly defined as hydrophobic or amphiphilic small molecules; the amphiphilic nature of some lipids allows them to form structures such as vesicles, multilamellar/unilamellar liposomes, or membranes in an aqueous environment. Biological lipids originate entirely or in part from two distinct types of biochemical subunits or "building-blocks": ketoacyl and isoprene groups.[4] Using this approach, lipids may be divided into eight categories: fatty acids, glycerolipids, glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, saccharolipids, and polyketides (derived from condensation of ketoacyl subunits); and sterol lipids and prenol lipids (derived from condensation of isoprene subunits).[4] Although the term lipid is sometimes used as a synonym for fats, fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides. Lipids also encompass molecules such as fatty acids and their derivatives (including tri-, di-, monoglycerides, and phospholipids), as well as other sterol-containing metabolites such as cholesterol.[7] Although humans and other mammals use various biosynthetic pathways to both break down and synthesize lipids, some essential lipids cannot be made this way and must be obtained from the diet

Feedback When the output from an event in the past will influence the same event in the present or future

Feedlot Enclosure where large numbers of animals are fed on materials brought to the site.

Fertilizer Any material used by humans as a source of plant nutrients.

Flue Gas Scrubber Methods of cleaning pollution from the flue gases of factory or power station chimneys. Flue gas scrubbing involves washing soot and acid pollution out with water. It was introduced in the mid-nineteenth century to cut acid pollution from factories producing washing soda. This can simply swap air pollution for river pollution. Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) is used in modern power stations. A slurry of limestone is added to the washing water which reacts with sulphur dioxide to produce inert gypsum which can be sold for plasterboard manufacture.

Food Chain A series of organisms usually beginning with plants where each stage feeds on the stage below it. In general the series consists of plants – herbivores (plant-eating animals) – carnivores (animals that feed on other animals).

Food Energy The energy contained in a foodstuff that can be used by an animal for maintaining tissues and for activity.

Fortress Conservation An approach to the protection of an area that denies people access to resources from the area, such as land, water and wildlife.

Fossil Fuel Buried fuels derived from past living plant and animal materials that have been modified and buried by geological processes, for example coal, oil or gas. The burning of fossil fuels causes carbon dioxide emissions and is the major cause of climate change.

Fossils The petrified remains of long dead animals and plants that have been turned to stone through chemical and geological processes.

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 41 chemical and geological processes.

Gazettement Deriving from the word gazette, which is a small, official newspaper, a gazettement means to publicise or announce something, for example, bestowing protected status. For example, the gazetting of a forest reserve to a national park means announcing that the customary rights of access and use of the forest are curtailed.

Genetic Material Material containing RNA or DNA molecules, that contain the genetic code for an organism for function, growth and reproduction.

Genetic Variation The variation in genetic composition within a species

Geographical Isolation The restriction of species to a particular land mass. Generally used with reference to evolution and implying isolation over thousands or millions of years.

Gigatonne Giga is the prefix for 109 so one gigatonne is the same as 1000 megatonnes or a billion tonnes.

Glacier A river of ice. Glaciers can be either advancing or retreating, although most glaciers on Earth are currently retreating

Global Climate Change The variation in global climate, usually for longer than a decade. Mainly now used to mean changes in climate attributed to human activity that alters the composition of the atmosphere (the greenhouse effect). These changes can be to do with temperature (popularly known as global warming), rainfall, wind, etc.

Global Warming The popular phrase for climate change which recognises the rising average world temperature. Within this average it will still be possible for countries and regions to have colder weather. It is scientifically more correct to refer to climate change, as this includes other climatic variations, such as rainfall.

GMST The global mean surface temperature (GMST) is a measure of the global average temperature of the Earth, measured near the surface. It is an average of (a) the sea surface temperature and (b) the air temperature measured 1.5 metres above ground, weighted for area.

Goods A general term for items purchased by households, which tend to make up a large portion of total household expenditure. In the simplest sense goods are all the things you own or all the things which belong to you.

Green Corridor A green corridor is an elongated green space that provides a continuous corridor or path through a built up area, often providing a link between other green spaces. The term was originally used to describe a way of linking two separated habitats so that animals or plants could move between them.

Greenhouse Effect Natural mechanism, now modified by human activity, whereby solar radiation is trapped by carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere, similar to the way in

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 42 carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere, similar to the way in which heat is trapped by glass in a greenhouse.

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 43 DD205 Living in a Globalised World GLOSSARY 17 March 2016 12:28

Term Definition and source Spatiality In current academic parlance, particularly in the humanities and cultural studies, spatiality is an increasingly used but ill-defined foundational term. Spatiality can be defined as any property relating to or occupying space. The flexibility of the concept, as both a noun and an adjective, can be seen in its various uses—to refer to a quality of material space, to call on the power of spatial metaphors, and (at times) to imply that material space and spatial metaphors increasingly are the same. The term spatiality, then, can refer to actual material space and jurisdiction, virtual space, assumptions about the nature of space, and the ways in which everyday experiences of space undermine these same assumptions. The term refers to material spaces and spatial metaphors, often at the same time. Therefore, spatiality, like globalization or hegemony, is an analytical term increasingly made to bear the weight of a substantive term such as space itself. Of particular importance is the rise of the term's popularity at the very moment that networked information technologies, such as the Web and other new media (e.g., virtual reality), give rise to a belief in a parallel or virtual space produced by and dependent on these technologies and the experiences of their users. Authors writing about these technologies have claimed that electronic networks increasingly serve as the organizing concept for the spaces of everyday life.

Contributors: Ken J. Hillis Edited by: Barney Warf Book Title: Encyclopedia of Human Geography Chapter Title: "Spatiality" Paul Virilio the so-called high priest of speed, a planner, a historian of technology, a photographer, and a philosopher of architecture and cinema. Other than military service, his formal education included the study of art at the École des Métiers d'Art as well as phenomenology at the Sorbonne.

Impressed by the events of World War II, Virilio's work is grounded in the practices of the military, and he regards the culture of speed as driven primarily by its needs, whose conquest of the tyranny of distance extends repeatedly into civilian life. Virilio takes as his point of departure the intersections of military technology and the experience of speed, underscoring the machinic qualities of time and space as they are produced and conceptualized through his central concern, war. Thus, the state is essentially a machine to wage war, exhibiting a logic quite different from the Marxist emphasis on capital accumulation; in Virilio's reading, the state is a “means of destruction,” not a means of production. For him, geography is a product of warfare because the preparation for and engagement in military conflict, including things such as logistics, intelligence, and the speeds of military machinery and rockets, are the fundamental bases of territorial organization. Space here is reduced to little more than a theater of war, and the state is simply a machine for waging it. Steady improvements in the ability to wage war are thus instrumental in developing the ability to bind together ever-larger units of space and time. Not capital accumulation but the dynamics of military conquest are the driving force behind the historical rounds of time-space compression. Space and time are the products of speed as it emanates from the prerequisites of warfare. Thus, Virilio asserts that War and the preparation for it produce the space-time of human experience as a function of projectile speeds, logistical rates of transport, or intelligence insight gathering. The territorial organization of space into human settlements and political units of authority, from the earliest human village settlements to medieval city-states, modern nation-states and world-wide empires, reveals a constant tendency: they express different orders of military power, knowledge and technological organization. (1995, p.365)

Speed enables you to see. It does not simply allow you to arrive at your destination more quickly, rather it enables you to see and foresee…. Speed changes the world vision. In the nineteenth century, with photography and cinema, world vision became “objective.” … It can be said that today, vision is becoming “teleobjective.” That is to say that television and multimedia are collapsing the close shots of time and space as a photograph collapses the horizon in the telephotographic lens. (qtd. in Redhead, 2004, p. 45) The tyranny of constant speed leads to alienated, stressed-out, exhausted citizens who populate the virtual geographies of the space of flows; distorts human perception; sterilizes communications; forces a colonialism of daily life by machines; and generates a mindless automation that robs people of their humanity in a hypermotorized, digitized world. Virilio asserts that time-space compression has become sufficiently complete so that the struggle for space—geopolitics—has been displaced by chronopolitics, the struggle for time. In Virilio's view, postmodern capitalism has created such enormous time-space compression that “distinctions of here and there no longer mean

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 44 time-space compression that “distinctions of here and there no longer mean anything” (1991, p. 13) Despite the hyperbole, Virilio's insights are useful in understanding that speed and velocity are not simply technical issues but profoundly cultural and political ones as well.

Contributors: Barney Warf Edited by: Barney Warf Book Title: Encyclopedia of Geography Chapter Title: "Virilio, Paul (1932–)" Urban Spatial Structure In economically advanced, postindustrial countries such as the United States, the proportion of people living in towns, cities, and metropolitan areas reached 75% or more by the late 20th century in developed countries. In the world as a whole, the proportion of urban population rose from less than 5% in 1800 to slightly more than 50% of a much larger aggregate world population by the early 21st century.

Numerically, world urban residents expanded from perhaps 30 million in 1800 to about 3 billion in 2000. Matters of urban spatial structure, which pertain to the geographical patterns and characteristics of urban places, thus concern a very large and expanding share of the world's people. This entry examines the factors that influence urban spatial structure and how they contributed to growth in urbanization in the United States. It then discusses the ways in which geographers have conceptualized urban spatial structure through the concentric zone, sector, and multiple-nuclei models and also considers the limitations of these models. The entry concludes with a look at how urban spatial structure may evolve in the future.

One major facet of urban spatial structure involves the overall geographical patterns of urban settlements at regional, national, and global scales, especially in terms of the sizes and locations of towns, cities, and metropolitan areas. Another major facet involves the internal spatial arrangements of activities and land uses within urban settlements. Indeed, one of the most common analytical distinctions made in urban geography reflects a division according to geographical scale into matters that involve, first, “interurban” features of “systems of cities” for cartographically smaller map scales, at which towns, cities, or metropolitan areas are most reasonably represented using point symbols, and, second, “intra-urban” characteristics of city systems for cartographically larger map scales, at which the internal features of towns, cities, or metropolitan areas are most reasonably represented using line or area symbols. In between these are intermediate geographical scales, at which urban land use and activity patterns can be examined for metropolitan regions, which are conventionally subdivided into central city, suburban, and fringe subareas.

Contributors: J. Clark Archer Edited by: Barney Warf Book Title: Encyclopedia of Geography Chapter Title: "Urban Spatial Structure" Urban Land Use Cities across the world are complex mosaics of economic, social, political, and recreational land uses. How and where these land use activities are organizationally patterned reflect not only a city's primary function (e.g., an “economic engine” in an industrial economy or a “cultural/administrative” center in an agrarian economy) but also at least two other overarching forces—accessibility and territoriality/congregation/segregation. In general, the utility of a designated place or location within a city is defined by its potential usefulness, which, in turn, is often a function of its accessibility. Activities that tend to be land intensive have a propensity for high levels of interaction and serve a necessary and functional purpose that requires accessible locations. Alternatively, low-accessible locations are occupied by those land use activities that are characteristically land extensive (activities that require the use of large tracts of land) and functionally peripheral and independent

Contributors: Jeffrey P. Richetto Edited by: Barney Warf Book Title: Encyclopedia of Geography Chapter Title: "Urban Land Use" Urban Geography The dawn of the 21st century ushered in an era when, for the first time in the history of humanity, the majority of people on the planet live in urban areas. More than ever before, cities are now at the core of defining the human experience, for better or for worse. In this context, urban geography is eminently positioned as a field that can enhance our understanding of the structure, form, and function of cities, explain the process of urbanization and the dynamics of urbanism, and offer valuable insights into an equitable and sustainable urban future.

Indeed, more than ever before, urban geography is one of the most vibrant and productive areas of inquiry in the discipline. The volume of scholarly work that focuses on the multitude of urban-related topics that have attracted the attention of geographers has shown an unabated trajectory of quantitative growth and qualitative sophistication.

At the end of the first decade of the 21st century, the momentum not only seems to have carried the subfield to the center of attention of geography as a whole but, in many

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 45 carried the subfield to the center of attention of geography as a whole but, in many ways, has been instrumental in the recognition of the contributions of geographers to the broader field of urban studies and affine disciplines such as sociology, urban planning, political science, anthropology, and so on. To take stock of where urban geography stands today and where it might go in the future, it is useful to briefly retrace whence it came, if only in very broad strokes.

Origins and Growth of Urban Geography

The emergence of urban geography can be traced back to 19th-century discussions of urban origins and growth. The early emphasis on the site and situation of settlements and their role as centers of civilization was linked to geographers’ overarching interest in the relation of humans to their physical environment. This abiding concern with excavating the rise of cities and the role of environmental conditions—whether physiographic or climatic—in shaping society reflected the broader disciplinary concerns of early geographers in arriving at scientific explanations that bridged the gap between the physical sciences and the incipient social sciences. It also hinged on an ultimately flawed reliance on assumptions that the natural environment exerted a determining influence on human society and behavior, as well as on the structure, form, and function of its spatial arrangements. In effect, such geographers would argue that the site of a city determines—not merely influences—the prospects of its social development and economic growth. Two of the more prominent figures in this particular perspective were the American geographers Ellen Churchill Semple and Ellsworth Huntington. Their work and that of their colleagues was challenged in the 1920s as overly simplistic and deterministic. The debunking of environmental determinism acted as a dead end for the sort of human-environment work that had emerged in the early decades of geography's disciplinary development and that had definitively moved urban geography into a different direction altogether.

Contributors: Dennis Grammenos Edited by: Barney Warf Book Title: Encyclopedia of Geography Chapter Title: "Urban Geography" Absolute Space (Location) Geographical space may be viewed from a variety of conceptual vantage points, all of which reflect and sustain various ideologies and interests in society at large. The division between absolute and relative space is one of the most long-standing and important of these contending theoretical frameworks. Absolute space is typically represented as fixed, mathematized, geometrified, asocial, and atemporal.

Absolute space has a long lineage in Western history that can be traced back to classical Greece. Plato, for example, equated light with the good, in which the cave is a metaphor for the kosmos, the world of human ignorance. For Plato, time was a moving image of eternity, an imperfect and untrustworthy mirror of eternal forms embedded in space that transcend time. Time is derived from change in space, which preexisted time. Space exists in its own right by virtue of its visibility, whereas time is derivative of changes in the spatial order. Time, then, was a facade, and space as the realm of changeless, permanent forms took precedence in his thought. Intellectual progress consisted of attempting to discover transcendental forms located outside of time. For Plato, the process of becoming belonged to the domain of time and illusion, in contrast to the state of being, which was empirically observable in space and thus more “real.”

Contributors: Barney Warf Edited by: Barney Warf Book Title: Encyclopedia of Geography Chapter Title: "Absolute Space" COLONIALISM Colonialism is a set of unequal relationships between the colonial power and the colony and often between the colonists and the indigenous peoples.

The European colonial period was the era from the 16th century to the mid-20th century when several European powers established colonies in Asia, Africa, and the Americas. At first the countries followed mercantilism designed to strengthen the home economy at the expense of rivals, so the colonies were usually allowed to trade only with the mother country. By the mid-19th century, however, the powerful British Empire gave up mercantilism and trade restrictions and introduced the principle of free trade, with few restrictions or tariffs.

Definitions Collins English Dictionary defines colonialism as "the policy and practice of a power in extending control over weaker people or areas."[1] The Merriam-Webster Dictionary offers four definitions, including "something characteristic of a colony" and "control by one power over a dependent area or people."[2]

The 2006 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy "uses the term 'colonialism' to describe the process of European settlement and political control over the rest of the world, including Americas, Australia, and parts of Africa and Asia." It discusses the distinction between colonialism and imperialism and states that "given the difficulty of consistently

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 46 between colonialism and imperialism and states that "given the difficulty of consistently distinguishing between the two terms, this entry will use colonialism as a broad concept that refers to the project of European political domination from the sixteenth to the twentieth centuries that ended with the national liberation movements of the 1960s."[3]

'Colonialism is a relationship between an indigenous (or forcibly imported) majority and a minority of foreign invaders. The fundamental decisions affecting the lives of the colonized people are made and implemented by the colonial rulers in pursuit of interests that are often defined in a distant metropolis. Rejecting cultural compromises with the colonized population, the colonizers are convinced of their own superiority and their ordained mandate to rule.' Jürgen Osterhammel's Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview

Historians often distinguish between two overlapping forms of colonialism:

•Settler colonialism involves large-scale immigration, often motivated by religious, political, or economic reasons.

•Exploitation colonialism involves fewer colonists and focuses on access to resources for export, typically to the metropole. This category includes trading posts as well as larger colonies where colonists would constitute much of the political and economic administration, but would rely on indigenous resources for labour and material. Prior to the end of the slave trade and widespread abolition, when indigenous labour was unavailable, slaves were often imported to the Americas, first by the Portuguese Empire, and later by the Spanish, Dutch, French and British.

Plantation colonies would be considered exploitation colonialism; but colonizing powers would utilize either type for different territories depending on various social and economic factors as well as climate and geographic conditions.

Surrogate colonialism involves a settlement project supported by colonial power, in which most of the settlers do not come from the mainstream of the ruling power.

Internal colonialism is a notion of uneven structural power between areas of a nation state. The source of exploitation comes from within the state.

COLONISATION Colonization (or colonisation) is an ongoing process of control by which a central system of power dominates the surrounding land and its components (people, animals etc.).

The term is derived from the Latin word colere, which means "to inhabit".[1] Also, colonization refers strictly to migration, for example, to settler colonies in America or Australia, trading posts, and plantations, while colonialism deals with this, along with ruling the existing indigenous peoples of styled "new territories".

Colonization was linked to the spread of tens of millions from Western European states all over the world. In many settled colonies, Western European settlers formed a large majority of the population. Examples include the Americas, Australia and New Zealand. These colonies were occasionally called 'neo-Europes'. In other places, Western European settlers formed minority groups, who were often dominant in their places of settlement.[2] When settlers from Western European nations started to settle land such as Australia, they regarded such landmasses as terra nullius.[3] Terra nullius means 'empty land' in Latin.[3] In other words, the settlers treated the land as uninhabited and a "clean slate" for colonization and colonial rule.[3] However, these ideas were untrue, as such landmasses were often inhabited by indigenous populations.[3] For example, it was estimated that there were 350,000 native people in Australia during the time when the British tried to conquer Australia.[3] A similar process of appropriating land by colonizers can be observed in the late nineteenth century during the colonization of West Africa by the British and French. The accepted practice among cartographers at the time was to display unexplored landscapes as "blank spaces". Instead of interpreting "blank spaces" as limited geographical knowledge imperialists saw them as vacant spaces awaiting colonists. Public perception of "blank spaces" was consistent with that of the colonizers; the illusion of "blank spaces" proved to be a successful trick.[4] Laws encouraging the colonization of the Americas, such as Mexico's General Colonization Law were implemented from the 1820s.

From Anticolonialism Anticolonialism is a broad term used to describe the various resistance movements directed against colonial and imperial powers. The ideas associated with anticolonialism—namely justice, equality, and self-determination—commingled with other ideologies such as nationalism and antiracism.

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 47 anticolonial movements originated and progressed. In Vietnam, for example, the anticolonial and communist organization known as the Viet Nam Doc Lap Dong Minh Hoi (League for the Independence of Vietnam [or Vietminh]) waged a lengthy anticolonial war against French colonial rule. Led by Ho Chi Minh, the Vietminh resorted to guerrilla warfare during the 1940s when France attempted to reassert its colonial rule following World War II. Likewise, in the former British and French colonies of Kenya and Algeria, respectively, anticolonial resistance movements used force to restore indigenous rule. For example, the Mau Mau in Kenya conducted a violent campaign to remove British colonists, and the Front de Libération Nationale (National Liberation Front [or FLN]) waged an 8-year war against French forces in Algeria.

Some colonies were spared the violence and destruction of the decolonization process. The former British colony of Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka) achieved independence relatively smoothly in 1948. The British had acquired the colony from the Dutch in 1815 following the Napoleonic Wars and granted the colony its independence following World War II.

It was not uncommon for simultaneous anticolonial movements to emerge in a single colony. For example, during the late 19th century, the Philippines, long a colony of Spain, was the site of two anticolonial movements. During the late 1800s, there first emerged a reform movement known as the ilustrados. Composed mostly of highly educated and wealthy Filipinos, these individuals, embodied in the Propaganda Movement, demanded moderate administrative and religious reforms such as greater political representation and the curtailment of the excessive power of the friars. Many of the ilustrados were Chinese mestizos who were schooled in Barcelona and Madrid, Spain. Concurrently, there emerged a more radical revolutionary movement that advocated the complete overthrow of the Spanish colonial government. Founded in 1892, the Kataastaasan Kagalang-galang na Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (Highest and Most Honorable Society of the Sons of the Country [or Katipunan]) was a secret society committed to overthrowing Spanish rule and replacing it with a Filipino nationalist government. The founder of the Katipunan was Andres Bonifacio. Unlike the ilustrados, Bonifacio grew up in poverty and was self-taught. The contrast between Bonifacio and the ilustrados conveys the importance of class and ethnic differences in anticolonial movements.

Anticolonial movements should not be viewed as isolated events; indeed, many anticolonial leaders and organizations learned from other movements. Ania Loomba, an English professor, noted that there were important political and intellectual exchanges between different anticolonial movements and individuals and that even the most rooted and traditional of these was shaped by a syncretic history.

Contributors: James Tyner Edited by: Barney Warf Book Title: Encyclopedia of Human Geography Chapter Title: "Anticolonialism" NEOCOLONIALISM Neocolonialism, neo-colonialism or neo-imperialism is the geopolitical practice of using capitalism, business globalization, and cultural imperialism to influence a country, in lieu of either direct military control (imperialism) or indirect political control (hegemony).[1]

In post-colonial studies, the term neo-colonialism describes the influence of countries from the developed world in the respective internal affairs of the countries of the developing world; that, despite the decolonisation that occurred in the aftermath of the Second World War (1939–45), the (former) colonial powers continue to apply existing and past international economic arrangements with their former colony countries, and so maintain colonial control. A neo-colonialism critique can include de facto colonialism (imperialist or hegemonic), and an economic critique of the disproportionate involvement of modern capitalist business in the economy of a developing country, whereby multinational corporations continue to exploit the natural resources of the former colony; that such economic control is inherently neo-colonial, and thus is akin to the imperial and hegemonic varieties of colonialism practiced by the United States and the empires of Britain, France, and other European countries, from the 16th to the 20th centuries.[2] The ideology and praxis of neo-colonialism are discussed in the works of Jean-Paul Sartre (Colonialism and Neo-colonialism, 1964)[3] and Noam Chomsky (The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism, 1979).[4]

The political science term "neo-colonialism" is widely used in reference to the continued European economic and cultural control of African countries that had been decolonized in the aftermath of the Second World War (1939–45). Kwame Nkrumah, former president of Ghana (1960–66), is believed to have coined the term, which appeared in the 1963 preamble of the Organization of African States Charter, and was the title of his 1965 book Neo-Colonialism, the Last Stage of Imperialism (1965).[5][6] As a political scientist, Nkrumah theoretically developed and extended, to the post–War 20th century, the socioeconomic and political arguments presented by Lenin in the pamphlet Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1917). The pamphlet frames 19th-century imperialism as the logical extension of geopolitical power, to meet the financial investment needs of the political economy of capitalism.[7] In Neo-Colonialism, the Last Stage of Imperialism, Kwame Nkrumah writes:

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 48 Kwame Nkrumah writes:

EMPIRE An empire is a group of states or peoples under centralized rule.

The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power.[1] By 1922 the British Empire held sway over about 458 million people, one-fifth of the world's population at the time,[2] and covered more than 13,000,000 sq mi (33,670,000 km2), almost a quarter of the Earth's total land area.[3][4] As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, the phrase "the empire on which the sun never sets" was often used to describe the British Empire, because its expanse around the globe meant that the sun was always shining on at least one of its territories.

During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and Asia.[5] A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England (and then, following union between England and Scotland in 1707, Great Britain) the dominant colonial power in North America and India.

IMPERIALISM Imperialism is a type of advocacy of empire. Its name originated from the Latin word "imperium", which means to rule over large territories. Imperialism is "a policy of extending a country's power and influence through colonization, use of military force, or other means".[2] Imperialism has greatly shaped the contemporary world.[3] It has also allowed for the rapid spread of technologies and ideas and has been largely responsible for the creation of a globalised world. The term imperialism has been applied to Western (and Japanese) political and economic dominance especially in Asia and Africa in the 19th and 20th centuries. Its precise meaning continues to be debated by scholars. Some writers, such as Edward Said, use the term more broadly to describe any system of domination and subordination organised with an imperial center and a periphery.[4] Imperialism is defined as "an unequal human and territorial relationship, usually in the form of an empire, based on ideas of superiority and practices of dominance, and involving the extension of authority and control of one state or people over another."[2] Imperialism is a process and ideology that does not only focus on political dominance, but rather, conquest over expansion. Imperialism is particularly focused on the control that one group, often a state power, has on another group of people.[5] This is often through various forms of "othering" (see other) based on racial, religious, or cultural stereotypes. There are "formal" or "informal" imperialisms. "Formal imperialism" is defined as "physical control or full-fledged colonial rule".[5] "Informal imperialism" is less direct; however, it is still a powerful form of dominance.[5] The definition of imperialism has not been finalized for centuries and was confusedly seen to represent the policies of major powers, or simply, general-purpose aggressiveness. Further on, some writers[who?] used the term imperialism, in slightly more discriminating fashion, to mean all kinds of domination or control by a group of people over another. To clear out this confusion about the definition of imperialism one could speak of "formal" and "informal" imperialism, the first meaning physical control or "full-fledged colonial rule" while the second implied less direct rule though still containing perceivable kinds of dominance.[5] Informal rule is generally less costly than taking over territories formally. This is because, with informal rule, the control is spread more subtly through technological superiority, enforcing land officials into large debts that cannot be repaid, ownership of private industries thus expanding the controlled area, or having countries agree to uneven trade agreements forcefully.[6]

POSTCOLONIALISM Postcolonialism or postcolonial studies is an academic discipline featuring methods of intellectual discourse that analyze, explain, and respond to the cultural legacies of colonialism and imperialism. Postcolonialism responds towards the human consequences of controlling a country and establishing settlers for the economic exploitation of the native people and their land. Drawing from postmodern schools of thought, postcolonial studies analyse the politics of knowledge (creation, control, and distribution) by analyzing the functional relations of social and political power that sustain colonialism and neocolonialism—the how and the why of an imperial regime's representations (social, political, cultural) of the imperial colonizer and of the colonized people. As a genre of contemporary history, postcolonialism questions and reinvents the modes of cultural perception—the ways of viewing and of being viewed. As anthropology, postcolonialism records human relations among the colonial nations and the subaltern peoples exploited by colonial rule.[1] As critical theory, postcolonialism presents, explains,

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 49 peoples exploited by colonial rule.[1] As critical theory, postcolonialism presents, explains, and illustrates the ideology and the praxis of neocolonialism, with examples drawn from the humanities—history and political science, philosophy and Marxist theory, sociology, anthropology, and human geography; the cinema, religion, and theology; feminism, linguistics, and postcolonial literature, of which the anti-conquest narrative genre presents the stories of colonial subjugation of the subaltern man and woman.

From Marxism and Geography As a political philosophy and as a framework for understanding how society works, Marxism has its origins in the theories of Karl Marx (1818–1883), a German exile who lived much of his adult life in Britain. Marx can fairly be described as a philosopher, an economist, a political theorist, a historian, a journalist, and a revolutionary. Indeed, it was his revolutionary politics—and the threat of arrest by the authorities—that led him to flee his native land in May 1849. Politically, Marx was involved in several organizations, such as the International Workingmen's Association (also known as the First International), and wrote political pamphlets about historical and contemporary events, such as the Paris Commune of 1871, in which workers established an independent government to oppose Emperor Napoleon III. Marx penned many works, but some of his most famous include Grundrisse (Outlines) on wage labor, the state, and the world market; Capital, a three-volume work examining the economic structure of capitalism; The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon, a critique of the establishment of a dictatorship in France in 1851 by followers of President Louis Bonaparte, Napoleon's nephew (the Eighteenth Brumaire refers to November 9, 1799, in the French Revolutionary Calendar, the date on which Napoleon Bonaparte seized power in a coup d'êtat); Critique of the Gotha Program, an evaluation of the political manifesto of Germany's United Workers Party; and The German Ideology, an outline of his basic thesis concerning human nature, namely that the nature of individuals (their proclivities for cooperation or competition) are not inherent but rather depend on the material conditions determining their existence. With his friend and political associate Friedrich Engels, Marx also wrote The Communist Manifesto (published in 1848), which was designed to serve as the platform of the Communist League, a workers' organization.

Contributors: Andrew Herod Edited by: Barney Warf Book Title: Encyclopedia of Human Geography Chapter Title: "Marxism, Geography and" Automated Geography Geography is the science and humanity of knowing about people and places. Automated geography is the modern, computer-assisted version of that quest. Formally, it is defined as the eclectic application of geographic information systems (GIS), digital remote sensing, the global positioning system, quantitative spatial modeling, spatial statistics, and related information technologies to understand spatial properties, explain geographic phenomena, solve geographic problems, and formulate theory. Its relationship to geographic information science (GISci) is analogous to the relationship that geography maintained with cartography for centuries and with remote sensing for decades, long before the advent of computers and satellite sensors. Geographers have practiced their craft for at least 2,500 years, but their brand of analysis has always been extremely difficult due to the enormous volumes of data required to represent three-dimensional places and features, both physical and cultural.

Thus, automated geography represents a historic leap forward for geographers and for society at large. During ancient times, one person could know and process a significant portion of all knowledge. The explosion of information generated by specialized disciplines during and after the Renaissance left geographers with three disappointing options. Those who studied large areas were limited to such coarse data that they often were dismissed as generalists. Those who insisted on detailed understanding were limited to such small areas that hardly anyone cared about their results. And those who limited themselves to a topical specialty sacrificed much of the holism that distinguishes geography from other disciplines. Today, automated geography restores geographers' ability to know and process a greater portion of all that is known. It enables them to study complex phenomena over large areas with sufficient spatial, temporal, and topical detail to reveal deep insights and generate new theories. Collectively, GIS, remote sensing, and related geographic information technologies constitute a macroscope. Just as the microscope enabled people to see smaller things and the telescope enabled them to see farther, the macroscope enables them to see large phenomena in fine detail. Will this new scientific instrument turn out to be as powerful as those earlier ones? Will it generate revolutionary new theories in rapid succession as they did? Many conventional theories, developed in isolation by specialized disciplines with little thought for geographic relationships, spatial logic, or integration, have stood unchallenged for decades. The time is right for geographers and geographic information scientists

Contributors: Jerome E. Dobson Edited by: Barney Warf Book Title: Encyclopedia of Human Geography Chapter Title: "Automated Geography" Postcolonialism Postcolonialism, often mistaken as a simple reference to the historical period following

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 50 Postcolonialism Postcolonialism, often mistaken as a simple reference to the historical period following the end of European colonialism (i.e., that which happened after colonialism), is actually a research tradition, an approach, or even a paradigm in the social sciences and human geography that is concerned with the multiple impacts of colonialism as a cultural, economic, and political practice. First, it examines how, during colonial times, certain types of knowledge were produced to distinguish the colonizers from the colonized, that is, how a body of supposedly objective scientific data was collected to distinguish the colonizers from the colonized. Most important, this distinction always was a hierarchical one, placing the colonizing European powers above their colonized subjects. Second, post-colonialist work studies how this assigning of characteristics and values to entire civilizations meant that their identities, and the representations of their identities in the media (e.g., newspapers, school textbooks, exhibits, popular science literature), were shaped in ways that fit the interests of the colonizing power in establishing long-lasting negative stereotypes of colonized peoples. Third, postcolonial studies show how scientists, writers, and geographers were actively involved in the process of establishing, maintaining, and (later) defending colonial and postcolonial power relations.

As an account of knowledge production, postcolonialism is a critique of scientific, and thus also geographic, practices that first emerged during colonial times. In other words, it serves as a methodological critique that looks at the role of the geographer in the field and his or her relationship to the subjects of research. Postcolonial work especially targets the predominance of social Darwinist research during the colonial period and examines its role in naturalizing and justifying the exploitation of certain people on the basis of their race, gender, or sexuality. For example. at the beginning of the 20th century, the American Museum of Natural History in New York had live exhibits of Inuit from Greenland to depict the racial inferiority of what the museum referred to as a species. In London, a Hottentot woman by the name of Sara Baarthman was displayed and studied (even after her death) due to the large size of her buttocks to illustrate the so-called racial abnormalities of African people. In contrast to such cases where colonizing powers try to reinforce certain stereotypes of others with the help of scientific studies, even the formerly colonized have used stereotyping of former colonizers to support their agenda. In Zimbabwe, for example, President Robert Mugabe has sought to restrict the citizenship rights of gays and lesbians, arguing that such expressions of alternative sexual identity run counter to native traditional cultures in Africa. Thus, a former colony has acted here against what it perceives as the permissive attitudes fostered by colonial powers and uses the stereotype of the colonizer to reinforce a representation of its own original and native culture. All of these examples show how scientific work by the colonizers and the colonized has been used to establish notions of the ostensible normality of the former versus the ostensible abnormality and inferiority of the latter, and geographers have made significant contributions to uncovering these representations.

Contributors: Olaf Kuhlke Edited by: Barney Warf Book Title: Encyclopedia of Human Geography Chapter Title: "Postcolonialism" Subject and Subjectivity The couplet subject/subjectivity connotes a multifaceted set of issues addressed in distinctive ways by different schools of human geographic research. Before outlining different approaches to the topic, two broad contexts in which issues around subject/subjectivity become pertinent to human geography can be identified: • How human subjects, through their actions and values, actually produce and make meaningful the geographies that we study—and, conversely, how particular subject positions (particular identities, attitudes, and practices) are shaped by wider social, political, cultural, and economic processes, discourses, and structures. This involves issues such as the determination of individual or personal geographies by social–cultural–economic circumstances; questions of agency, creativity, free will, and resistance; and gendered, racialized, and sexualized identities and their concomitant geographies.

• The role and status of subjectivity in the production of geographic knowledge. How does the subjectivity of researchers (their opinions and background as well as their gender, ethnicity, and sexuality) feed into the research they do (the topics they choose to study, the methods they employ, and how they interpret results)? Should subjective values inform research, or should researchers strive to remain neutral and objective? What role might biographical or autoethno-graphic writing play in human geographic research?

Debates around the human subject and subjectivity have come to the fore in human geography via the range of postpositivist approaches that have influenced the discipline over the past 30 years. Marxist/ Radical approaches, for example, position the individual human subject as the product of economic conditions under capitalism. Thus, the individual is understood primarily in terms of social class role and position, and individual beliefs, desires, and motivations—indeed, the very concept of the individual as a free autonomous agent—are held to be produced within the cultural and political ideologies of capitalism. In marked contrast, the varieties of humanistic geography that also emerged during the 1970s focused on the human subject as a

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 51 geography that also emerged during the 1970s focused on the human subject as a locus and fountainhead of creative and imaginative abilities and explicitly positioned subjective beliefs and practices as central topics of geographic study. Structuration theory, associated with the work of Anthony Giddens and influential in human geography during the 1980s, may be understood as an attempt to find a middle ground between these conceptions of the subject as either wholly determined or wholly autonomous by arguing that knowledgeable and capable human subjects operate within broader social, political, and economic structures that both enable and constrain subjective actions.

The advent of geographic feminisms throughout the 1980s and 1990s has had a major impact on the ways in which human geographers conceptualize and engage with issues of subjectivity. This impact has been substantive insofar as feminist geographers have conducted numerous studies highlighting the structured gendered nature of human experience and the gendering of material and symbolic spaces. It has also been methodological and epistemological in that feminism is in part a critique of traditional modes of social science knowledge production emphasizing objectivity, detachment, and neutrality as virtues on the part of the researcher.

Contributors: John Wylie Edited by: Barney Warf Book Title: Encyclopedia of Human Geography Chapter Title: "Subject and Subjectivity" Cellular Automata Cellular automata are a class of abstract models that exhibit complex spatial dynamics. Cellular automata are attractive as relatively simple representations of apparently complex processes. In human geography, cellular automata have been used to model urban development and sprawl, land use and land cover change, and the spatial interactions of social groups.

In computer science, an automaton is a machine whose internal state changes in response to its current state and the state of its inputs. A cellular automaton (CA) is a collection of identical automata interconnected in a lattice or an array, so that the inputs to each automaton are the states of neighboring automata. Each automaton is a cell whose evolution is governed by its current state and by the changing states of neighboring cells. In geographic applications, two-dimensional grid arrays with each cell connected to its four or eight immediate neighbors are most common, although other array configurations are possible. The mapping that defines how each combination of the current and neighboring states of a cell leads to the next state is termed a rule. A rule may be deterministic or stochastic, and cell state changes may occur simultaneously for all cells or sequentially.

This description gives little sense of the variety of dynamic behavior exhibited by cellular automata. John Conway's “Game of Life” generates patterns reminiscent of the development of cell cultures on a microscope slide from a very simple rule and is the best-known example, with many free implementations available on-line. In general, there is no way to predict the global behavior of a cellular automaton from the rule governing its behavior at the local cellular level. This characteristic resonates strongly with the issue of understanding how processes scale up and down in geography.

In human geography and planning, CAs have served both as simple abstract models and as the basis for more complicated models of urban development and sprawl, land use and land cover change, and the spatial interaction of social groups. Consider, for example, how land use and land cover change can be represented in a CA. Using remote-sensed imagery, land cover classification may be assigned to every cell on a map grid. Possible and likely transitions in land cover classes can be described as a rule, so that land cover dynamics are represented by the evolution of a CA. For example, land classified as “industrial” might change to “derelict” but not immediately to “park-land.” A simpler example might use only two cell states, developed and not developed, to explore urban growth and sprawl.

Models along these lines have been presented by Michael Batty, Keith Clarke, and Roger White, among others. Many departures from the standard CA architecture are typical in geographic applications. In particular, geographers have been concerned with accommodating nonlocal interaction between cells and have experimented with cell update sequences that do not require all cells to consider changes at every time step in model evolution. The implications of departing from regular grid arrays have also been explored.

Opinions differ as to the usefulness of CA-based models in geography. Although the potential for developing models that intrinsically capture how local interactions scale up to create global patterns is welcome, for some the framework is too restrictive for the

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 52 to create global patterns is welcome, for some the framework is too restrictive for the development of truly useful simulation models. However, the pedagogic value of simple CA models in showing how local effects can combine to produce unexpected outcomes is widely acknowledged.

Contributors: David O'Sullivan Edited by: Barney Warf Book Title: Encyclopedia of Human Geography Chapter Title: "Cellular Automata" The Chicago School In the 1920s and 1930s, Chicago emerged at the forefront of American urban analysis. As the model of the rapidly growing, industrialized city populated by streams of immigrants, Chicago became the prototypical example of the industrial American city. The University of Chicago played a major role in disciplines such as economics, sociology, and geography. Within this context, the Chicago School of urban studies arose, which was enormously influential in sociology and geography for the next several decades. The Chicago School is credited with the first systematic attempt to understand the dynamics of urban areas, including social change, urban planning, and territoriality.

The origins of the Chicago school lay largely with Robert E. Park, a former journalist turned teacher. In 1925, Park, Ernest Burgess, and Roderick McKenzie published The City, a famous collection of interpretive essays about urban life, a volume that both summarized and inspired a long tradition of urban ethnography. Chicago School practitioners inaugurated the tradition of detailed case studies, ranged far and wide over the city, studying, among other things, the wealthy, immigrants, the destitute and homeless, dance halls, gangs, criminals, and prostitutes in an attempt to draw rich and detailed portraits of urban life. In the process, they irrevocably fused the study of space and the study of society.

The first paradigm of urban structure offered by Chicago School theorists, particularly McKenzie, centered on the metaphor of the city as urban jungle, a view derived from the social Darwinism prevalent in the early 20th century. For example, the displacement of one ethnic group by another in a given neighborhood was framed as a process of invasion and succession, a view that drew directly from ecological studies of how one plant species displaced another through successive stages in the evolution of ecosystems. Later, this biological metaphor was dropped in the face of criticism that it lacked a coherent account of social relations and naturalized the inequality of urban areas. Throughout the Chicago School's worldview, competition

Contributors: Barney Warf Edited by: Barney Warf Book Title: Encyclopedia of Geography Chapter Title: "Chicago School" Time-Space Compression If geography is largely concerned with how human beings are differentially located over the Earth's surface, a vital part of that process is how we know and feel about space and time. Although space and time appear as “natural” and outside of society, they are in fact social constructions; every society develops different ways of dealing with and perceiving them. Time and space are thus socially created, plastic, mutable institutions that profoundly shape individual perceptions and social relations. The sociologist Anthony Giddens uses the term distanciation to describe how societies are stretched over time and space and how this process itself varies temporally and geographically. Because the economy cannot be detached from other realms of social life, time-space compression is more than simply an economic phenomenon. By changing the timespace prisms of daily life—how people use their time and space, the constraints they face, the meanings they attach to them—time-space compression is simultaneously cultural, social, political, and psychological in nature. This issue elevates the analytical significance of relative space, in which distances are measured through the changing metrics of time and cost, above that of absolute space, the traditional Cartesian form that characterized most Enlightenment forms of geography, which portrayed distance in fixed, unchanging terms devoid of social roots.

The Concept of time-space Compression

Time-space compression involves the myriad ways in which human beings have attempted to conquer space, to cross distances more rapidly, and to exchange goods and information more efficiently. The analysis of time-space compression places emphasis on the connections and interactions among places (and the people who live within them, for connections are always embodied) rather than on individual places per se. For example, in the simplest sense, using the maximum transportation speed at various historical moments as a measure, the world became 60 times smaller between 1500 and 1970, when we compare the speed of airplanes (say, 600 mph [miles per hour]) with that of medieval sailing vessels (10 mph) (Figure 1). By increasing the velocities of people, goods, and information, the world is made to feel smaller even as interactions are stretched over larger physical distances. The term compression is therefore misleading: Every round of time-space compression involves an expansion in the geographic scale of social activities. This idea is often taken to mean that space

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 53 the geographic scale of social activities. This idea is often taken to mean that space ceases to have relevance. Despite the fashionable use of unfortunate expressions such as the “death of distance” or the “annihilation of space,” the fact remains that geography is a stubbornly persistent feature of human life. Rather than the “annihilation of space,” it is healthier to talk of how one space-time regime displaces another. Far from shrinking the world evenly, successive revolutions in the structure of time and space have left it misshapen, as some places were brought together relationally more than others.

Moreover, reducing time-space compression to simple reductions in transport times fails to do justice to its deeply phenomenological dimensions and the complexity with which these two dimensions are wrapped up in social life and their political and ideological origins and associations.

Contributors: Barney Warf Edited by: Barney Warf Book Title: Encyclopedia of Geography Chapter Title: "Time-Space Compression" Euclidean Space Euclidean space encompasses the two-dimensional Euclidean plane, the three- dimensional space of Euclidean geometry, and certain other spaces. It is named after the Ancient Greek mathematician Euclid of Alexandria.[1] The term "Euclidean" distinguishes these spaces from other types of spaces considered in modern geometry. Euclidean spaces also generalize to higher dimensions.

Classical Greek geometry defined the Euclidean plane and Euclidean three-dimensional space using certain postulates, while the other properties of these spaces were deduced as theorems. Geometric constructions are also used to define rational numbers. When algebra and mathematical analysis became developed enough, this relation reversed and now it is more common to define Euclidean space using Cartesian coordinates and the ideas of analytic geometry. It means that points of the space are specified with collections of real numbers, and geometric shapes are defined as equations and inequalities. This approach brings the tools of algebra and calculus to bear on questions of geometry and has the advantage that it generalizes easily to Euclidean spaces of more than three dimensions.

From the modern viewpoint, there is essentially only one Euclidean space of each dimension. With Cartesian coordinates it is modelled by the real coordinate space (Rn) of the same dimension. In one dimension, this is the real line; in two dimensions, it is the Cartesian plane; and in higher dimensions it is a coordinate space with three or more real number coordinates. Mathematicians denote the n-dimensional Euclidean space by En if they wish to emphasize its Euclidean nature, but Rn is used as well since the latter is assumed to have the standard Euclidean structure, and these two structures are not always distinguished. Euclidean spaces have finite dimension.[2]

Sociological Theory In sociology, sociological theories are statements of how and why particular facts about the social world are related.[1] They range in scope from concise descriptions of a single social process to paradigms for analysis and interpretation. Some sociological theories explain aspects of the social world and enable prediction about future events,[2] while others function as broad perspectives which guide further sociological analyses.[3]

The field of sociology itself—and sociological theory by extension—is relatively new. Both date back to the 18th and 19th centuries. The drastic social changes of that period, such as industrialization, urbanization, and the rise of democratic states caused particularly Western thinkers to become aware of society. The oldest sociological theories deal with broad historical processes relating to these changes. Since then, sociological theories have come to encompass most aspects of society, including communities, organizations and relationships.[6]

Sociological theory vs. social theory Kenneth Allan[4] proposed the distinction between sociological theory and social theory. In Allan's usage, sociological theory consists of abstract and testable propositions about society.[4] It often heavily relies on the scientific method, which aims for objectivity, and attempts to avoid passing value judgments. In contrast, social theory, according to Allan, focuses on commentary and critique of modern society rather than explanation.[4] Social theory is often closer to Continental philosophy; thus, it is less concerned with objectivity and derivation of testable propositions, and more likely to pass normative judgments.[5] Sociological theory is generally created only by sociologists, while social theory can frequently come from other disciplines.

Prominent sociological theorists include Talcott Parsons, Robert K. Merton, Randall Collins, James Samuel Coleman, Peter Blau, Marshal McLuhan, Immanuel Wallerstein, George Homans, Harrison White, Theda Skocpol, Gerhard Lenski, Pierre van den Berghe and Jonathan H. Turner.[5] Prominent social theorists include: Jürgen Habermas, Anthony Giddens, Michel Foucault, Dorothy Smith, Alfred Schütz, Jeffrey Alexander, and Jacques Derrida.[5] There are also prominent scholars who could be seen as being in-between social and sociological theories, such as Harold Garfinkel, Herbert Blumer, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Pierre Bourdieu and Erving Goffman.[5]

Verified data (positive facts) received from the senses are known as empirical evidence; thus positivism is based on empiricism.[1]

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 54 Positivism also holds that society, like the physical world, operates according to general laws. Introspective and intuitive knowledge is rejected, as is metaphysics and theology.

Although the positivist approach has been a recurrent theme in the history of western thought,[3] the modern sense of the approach was formulated by the philosopher Auguste Comte in the early 19th century.[4] Comte argued that, much as the physical world operates according to gravity and other absolute laws, so does society,[5] and further developed positivism into a Religion of Humanity.

Social Responsibility Cultural Studies 'Cultural Turn' 'Orientalism' Contractualisation Contextual Theory Decontruction Decentralisation Involves fragmentation and geographical dispersal of service provider units (Worlds of Welfare (1997) by Pinch. S) Deinstitutionalisation Differentiated Welfare State Distanciation Hermeneutics Double Hermeneutic Essentialism Flexibilisation Funtional Flexibility Regulation Theory A set of Marxist inspired idea's that attempt to relate changed in labour practices and forms of industrial and social organisation to wider economic developments and the changing relations between nation states

(Worlds of Welfare (1997) by Pinch. S) Structuation Theory Devolution Involves service providers (usually public services) becoming established independent units that are in control of their budgets (differs from decentralisation whereby central control is still heavily exerted by central entities)

(Worlds of Welfare (1997) by Pinch. S) Federalism Federalism is a political concept describing the practice whereby a group of members are bound together by agreement or covenant (Latin: foedus, covenant) with a governing representative head. It refers to a system of government in which sovereignty is constitutionally shared between a central governing authority and constituent political units (such as states or provinces).[1] Leading examples of such a political system, or federation, include Switzerland, Germany, the United States, Canada, Australia and India. Federalism is a system based upon democratic rules and institutions in which the power to govern is shared between national and provincial/state governments. The term federalist describes several political beliefs around the world depending on context.

Simulacra Images or copies of the 'real' world that are difficult to distinguish from the originality that they purport to represent

(Worlds of Welfare (1997) by Pinch. S)

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 55 C

SETTLEMENT IDENTITY

LABELLING THEORY

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Term Definition and source

Globalisation Urbanisation Industrialisation Possibilism Positivism Neo-Liberalism Liberalism Conflict Post-Conflict Terrorism Guerilla warfare State Territory Nation Border Nation-state Sovereignity Anti-Statism Anarchy Political Geography El Nino International Superpowers SOCIALISM DEMOCRACY COMMUNISM DICTATORSHIP IDEOLOGY CAPITALISM HEGEMONY THE 'OTHER' REPRESENTATION CITIZENSHIP CULTURAL AWARENESS POLITICAL ECONOMY POLITICAL ECOLOGY NATIONALISM REGIONALISM MIGRATION SCALE SPATIAL ANALYSIS

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 61 SPATIAL ANALYSIS SOVEREIGNITY TERRORISM WARFARE CIVIL WAR ETHNOCIDE GENOCIDE TERRITORY CENTRALISATION DECENTRALISATION NATIONALISATION IMPERIALISM COLONIALISM COLONISATION POSTCOLONIALISM LANDSCAPES INDIGENEITY Foreign Policy A country's foreign policy, also called foreign relations policy, consists of self- interest strategies chosen by the state to safeguard its national interests and to achieve goals within its international relations milieu.[citation needed] The approaches are strategically employed to interact with other countries. The study of such strategies is called foreign policy analysis. In recent times, due to the deepening level of globalization and transnational activities, the states will also have to interact with non-state actors. The aforementioned interaction is evaluated and monitored in attempts to maximize benefits of multilateral international cooperation. Since the national interests are paramount, foreign policies are designed by the government through high-level decision making processes. National interests accomplishment can occur as a result of peaceful cooperation with other nations, or through exploitation. Usually, creating foreign policy is the job of the head of government and the foreign minister (or equivalent). In some countries the legislature also has considerable effects. Foreign policies of countries have varying rates of change and scopes of intent, which can be affected by factors that change the perceived national interests or even affect the stability of the country itself. The foreign policy of one country can have profund and lasting impact on many other countries and on the course of international relations as a whole, such as the Monroe Doctrine conflicting with the mercantilist policies of 19th century European countries and the goals of independence of newly formed Central American and South American countries.

From

Foreign Embassy Contemporary History Contemporary history describes the period timeframe that is closely connected to the present day; it is a certain perspective of modern history. The term "contemporary history" has been in use at least since the early 19th century.[1] In the widest context of this use, contemporary history is that of current events and the part of history still in living memory. Based on current human lifespan-averages, contemporary history would extend for a period of approximately 80 years. In a narrower sense "contemporary history" may refer to the history remembered by most (more than 50 percent) of human beings alive, extending to about a generation. As the median age of people living on Earth is 30 years as of the present (2016) this is currently often understood as meaning anything after about 1991 when the Cold War order collapsed and use of the Internet became widespread outside of academia, military and big business; fall of the soviet union.

From

IDEOLOGICAL SUPERSTRUCTURE LIBERALISM LIBERTARIANISM MANAGERIALISM META-NARRATIVES MICROPOWERS MIMETIC APPROACH MODE OF SOCIETALISATION MONETISATION F FORDISM

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 62 FORDISM POSTFORDISM NEO-FORDISM NOELIBERALISM NEO-MARXISM NEO-STATISM POSITIONALITY

WELFARE STATISMS WORKFARE STATECRAFT WELFARE REGIME WELFARE PLURALISM WELFARE CORPORATISM

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Term Definition and source Moscow–Washington hotline The Moscow–Washington hotline (formally known in the United States as the Washington- Moscow Direct Communications Link[1]) is a system that allows direct communication between the leaders of the United States and the Russian Federation. This hotline was established in 1963 and links the Pentagon with the Kremlin (historically, with Soviet Communist Party leadership across the square from the Kremlin itself[1]).[2] Although in popular culture known as the "red telephone", the hotline was never a telephone line, and no red phones were used. The first implementation used Teletype equipment, and shifted to fax machines in 1986.[3] Since 2008, the Moscow–Washington hotline is a secure computer link over which messages are exchanged by email.[4]

Realism (International Realism is the predominant school of thought in international relations theory, Relations) theoretically formalising the realpolitik statesmanship of early modern Europe. Although a highly diverse body of thought, it can be thought of as unified by the belief that world politics is, in the final analysis, always and necessarily a field of conflict among actors pursuing power. Crudely, realists are of three kinds in what they take the source of ineliminable conflict to be. Classical realists believe that it follows from human nature, neorealists focus upon the structure of the anarchic state system, and neoclassical realists believe that it is a result of a combination of the two and certain domestic variables. Realists also disagree about what kind of action states ought to take to navigate world politics, dividing between (although most realists fall outside the two groups) defensive realism and offensive realism. Realists have also claimed that a realist tradition of thought is evident within the history of political thought all the way back to antiquity, including Thucydides, Thomas Hobbes and Niccolò Machiavelli.

Jonathan Haslam from the University of Cambridge characterizes Realism as "a spectrum of ideas."[1] Regardless of which definition is used, the theories of realism revolve around four central propositions:[2]

•That states are the central actors in international politics rather than individuals or international organizations,

•That the international political system is anarchic as there is no supranational authority that can enforce rules over the states,

•That the actors in the international political system are rational as their actions maximize their own self-interest, and

•That all states desire power so that they can ensure their own self-preservation. Realism is often associated with Realpolitik as both are based on the management of the pursuit, possession, and application of power. Realpolitik, however, is an older prescriptive guideline limited to policy-making (like foreign policy), while Realism is a particular paradigm, or wider theoretical and methodological framework, aimed at describing, explaining and, eventually, predicting events in the international relations domain. The theories of Realism are contrasted by the cooperative ideals of Liberalism.

Temporality In philosophy, temporality is traditionally the linear progression of past, present, and future. However, some modern-century philosophers have interpreted temporality in ways other than this linear manner. Examples would be McTaggart's The Unreality of Time, Husserl's analysis of internal time consciousness, Martin Heidegger's Being and Time (1927), George Herbert Mead's Philosophy of the Present (1932), and Jacques Derrida's criticisms of Husserl's analysis, as well as Nietzsche's eternal return of the same, though this latter pertains more to historicity, to which temporality gives rise. In social sciences, temporality is also studied with respect to human's perception of time and the social organization of time.[1] The perception of time undergoes significant change in the three hundred years between the Middle Ages and Modernity.[2]

Judicary The judiciary (also known as the judicial system or court system) is the system of courts that interprets and applies the law in the name of the state. The judiciary also provides a mechanism for the resolution of disputes. In some nations, under doctrines of separation of powers, the judiciary generally does not make law (which is the responsibility of the legislature) or enforce law (which is the responsibility of the executive), but rather interprets law and applies it to the facts of each case. In other nations, the judiciary can make law, known as Common Law, by setting precedent for other judges to follow, as

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 67 make law, known as Common Law, by setting precedent for other judges to follow, as opposed to Statutory Law made by the legislature. The Judiciary is often tasked with ensuring equal justice under law.

In many jurisdictions the judicial branch has the power to change laws through the process of judicial review. Courts with judicial review power, may annul the laws and rules of the state when it finds them incompatible with a higher norm, such as primary legislation, the provisions of the constitution or international law. Judges constitute a critical force for interpretation and implementation of a constitution, thus de facto in common law countries creating the body of constitutional law. For a people to establish and keep the 'Rule of Law' as the operative norm in social constructs great care must be taken in the election and/or appointment of unbiased and thoughtful legal scholars whose loyalty to an oath of office is without reproach. If law is to govern and find acceptance generally courts must exercise fidelity to justice which means affording those subject to its jurisdictional scope the greatest presumption of inherent cultural relevance within this framework.

In the US during recent decades the judiciary became active in economic issues related with economic rights established by constitution because "economics may provide insight into questions that bear on the proper legal interpretation".[3] Since many countries with transitional political and economic systems continue treating their constitutions as abstract legal documents disengaged from the economic policy of the state, practice of judicial review of economic acts of executive and legislative branches have begun to grow.

In the 1980s, the Supreme Court of India for almost a decade had been encouraging public interest litigation on behalf of the poor and oppressed by using a very broad interpretation of several articles of the Indian Constitution.[4]

Budget of the judiciary in many transitional and developing countries is almost completely controlled by the executive. The latter undermines the separation of powers, as it creates a critical financial dependence of the judiciary. The proper national wealth distribution including the government spending on the judiciary is subject of the constitutional economics. It is important to distinguish between the two methods of corruption of the judiciary: the state (through budget planning and various privileges), and the private.[5]

The term "judiciary" is also used to refer collectively to the personnel, such as judges, magistrates and other adjudicators, who form the core of a judiciary (sometimes referred to as a "bench"), as well as the staffs who keep the system running smoothly.

In some countries and jurisdictions, judiciary branch is expanded to include additional public legal professionals and institutions such as prosecutors, state lawyers, ombudsmen, public notaries, judicial police service and legal aid officers. These institutions are sometimes governed by the same judicial administration that governs courts, and in some cases the administration of the judicial branch is also the administering authority for private legal professions such as lawyers and private notary offices.

International Relations (IR) International relations (IR) or international affairs, depending on academic institution, is International Affairs (IA) either a field of political science or an interdisciplinary academic field similar to global studies, in which students take a variety of internationally focused courses in social science and humanities disciplines. In both cases, the field studies relationships among countries, the roles of sovereign states, inter-governmental organizations (IGOs), international non-governmental organizations (INs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and multinational corporations (MNCs). International relations is an academic and a public policy field, and so can be positive and normative, because it analyzes and formulates the foreign policy of a given State.

As political activity, international relations dates from the time of the Greek historian Thucydides (c. 460–395 BC), and, in the early 20th century, became a discrete academic field (No. 5901 in the 4-digit UNESCO Nomenclature) within political science. In practice International Relations and International Affairs forms a separate academic program or field from Political Science, and the courses taught therein are highly interdisciplinary.[3]

For example, international relations draws from the fields of: technology and engineering, economics, history, international law, demography, philosophy, geography, social work, sociology, anthropology, criminology, psychology, gender studies, cultural studies, culturology, and diplomacy. The scope of international relations comprehends globalization, diplomatic relations, state sovereignty, international security, ecological sustainability, nuclear proliferation, nationalism, economic development, global finance, as well as terrorism and organized crime, human security, foreign interventionism, and human rights, as well, as, more recently, comparative religion.

Map Projection Commonly, a map projection is a systematic transformation of the latitudes and

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 68 Map Projection Commonly, a map projection is a systematic transformation of the latitudes and longitudes of locations on the surface of a sphere or an ellipsoid into locations on a plane.[1] Map projections are necessary for creating maps. All map projections distort the surface in some fashion. Depending on the purpose of the map, some distortions are acceptable and others are not; therefore, different map projections exist in order to preserve some properties of the sphere-like body at the expense of other properties. There is no limit to the number of possible map projections.[2]:1

More generally, the surfaces of planetary bodies can be mapped even if they are too irregular to be modeled well with a sphere or ellipsoid; see below. Even more generally, projections are the subject of several pure mathematical fields, including differential geometry and projective geometry. However, "map projection" refers specifically to a cartographic projection.

From Spatial Analysis Spatial analysis or spatial statistics includes any of the formal techniques which study entities using their topological, geometric, or geographic properties. Spatial analysis includes a variety of techniques, many still in their early development, using different analytic approaches and applied in fields as diverse as astronomy, with its studies of the placement of galaxies in the cosmos, to chip fabrication engineering, with its use of "place and route" algorithms to build complex wiring structures. In a more restricted sense, spatial analysis is the technique applied to structures at the human scale, most notably in the analysis of geographic data.

From CRITICAL GEOPOLITICS

Communism Communism, as a theory and as a social movement, centers on the lack of private property and the organization of society such that all members have equal status both economically and socially. Under a communist system, labor would be divided among citizens according to their interests and abilities, and resources would be distributed corresponding to need. By such a vision, government itself would be replaced by communism, that is, by the communal ownership of all property. Communism is also thought to be the abolition of all forms of oppression, whether in the form of oppression of people by people, of countries by countries, of classes by classes, or any other form of oppression.

Although early views of communism, promoted by Plato during the 4th century BC and by later perspectives during the 1600s, advocated communal ownership of property on a small scale, Karl Marx conceived of communism as a revolutionary movement that had potential at the global scale. He envisioned that society would move through successive phases—feudalism, capitalism, and then socialism. In 1848, Marx and Friedrich Engels wrote The Communist Manifesto, in which they described communism as an inevitable outcome of the fact that in most societies the wealth and means of production (i.e., natural resources and infrastructure) are controlled by a small elite. Under capitalist systems, this group of people, whom Marx referred to as the bourgeoisie, purchased from the majority of the population their labor and sold the results of their work for a profit. This imbalance of power and economic wealth, Marx argued, created different classes of citizens and established an unbalanced and unsustainable distribution of wealth. At some point, Marx argued, members of the working class, which he referred to as the proletariat, would organize themselves to overthrow the bourgeoisie elite and to redistribute wealth more equitably. Unlike social democrats (e.g., the Social Democratic Party in Germany, the British Labour Party) who have believed that communism could be brought about by democratic means, Vladimir Lenin maintained that revolution, initially in less economically developed states such as Russia, was necessary to transform society to communism. Lenin's work inspired Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin, both of whom contributed much to building and strengthening the Communist party in Russia and, shortly thereafter, in the Soviet Union. According to Lenin, the establishment of a Communist party was a political necessity within a communist system, but critics have argued that the Communist party in the Soviet Union served the interests of a politically powerful elite rather than benefiting the populace as a whole. From a Marxist perspective, Soviet-style communism failed because it attempted to move society directly from feudalism to socialism without the intermediary phase of capitalism. Other factors recognized as contributing to the collapse of the Soviet Union, and thus the end of the cold war, include the Soviet Union's inability to afford the arms race against the United States and the plummeting world oil prices during the early 1970s that denied the oil-exporting Soviet Union much-needed income for the purchase

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 69 1970s that denied the oil-exporting Soviet Union much-needed income for the purchase of food and other basic goods. Communism continues to shape political practice in China, Cuba, Laos, North Korea, and Vietnam, but Communist parties in these contexts differ greatly from each other.

Contributors: Shannon O'Lear Edited by: Barney Warf Book Title: Encyclopedia of Human Geography Chapter Title: "Communism"

Postcolonialism Postcolonialism, often mistaken as a simple reference to the historical period following the end of European colonialism (i.e., that which happened after colonialism), is actually a research tradition, an approach, or even a paradigm in the social sciences and human geography that is concerned with the multiple impacts of colonialism as a cultural, economic, and political practice. First, it examines how, during colonial times, certain types of knowledge were produced to distinguish the colonizers from the colonized, that is, how a body of supposedly objective scientific data was collected to distinguish the colonizers from the colonized. Most important, this distinction always was a hierarchical one, placing the colonizing European powers above their colonized subjects. Second, post-colonialist work studies how this assigning of characteristics and values to entire civilizations meant that their identities, and the representations of their identities in the media (e.g., newspapers, school textbooks, exhibits, popular science literature), were shaped in ways that fit the interests of the colonizing power in establishing long-lasting negative stereotypes of colonized peoples. Third, postcolonial studies show how scientists, writers, and geographers were actively involved in the process of establishing, maintaining, and (later) defending colonial and postcolonial power relations.

Such stereotyping based on scientific work and exploration has been further supported by the media of colonial powers that turned such work into popular accounts of differences between places and regions of the world. Beyond individual groups that were singled out to outline the cultural and racial differences between colonists in power and their colonial subjects, popular media of the colonial period perpetuated stereotypes of entire continents and civilizations and ingrained them in colonizing populations. Perhaps the best work illustrating this process is Edward Said's book Orientalism, published in 1978, which analyzed how the simple notion of the Orient was transformed by Western civilization and its colonizers into a system of representations that was abound with raced, gendered, and sexual stereotypes. Said showed how Oriental men were portrayed as effeminate yet dangerous, how Oriental women were portrayed as submissive and exotic, and how the actual diversity of vast Middle Eastern and Asian cultural landscapes was subsumed under such limited stereotypical representations. Most important, Said argued that such stereotypes of the Orient did not cease to exist after the end of British colonial presence in the so-called Orient during the 20th century; rather, the perpetuation of Orientalist thinking continues to this day in the ways in which we talk about and construct the Middle East, its inhabitants, and their cultural traits. His work was distinctly political in that it called for a critical examination of all representations of the Orient or the Middle East and the methods and means that are used today to perpetuate such representations of modern power relations.

Contributors: Olaf Kuhlke Edited by: Barney Warf

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 70 Edited by: Barney Warf Book Title: Encyclopedia of Human Geography Chapter Title: "Postcolonialism" Democracy Socialism Railroads and Geography One of the central technologies of the Industrial Revolution, and perhaps the most important child of the steam engine, was the railroad, which, along with steamships, played a central role in giving birth to radically new geographies of social and economic life. Railroads were central to the rise of modern capitalism and the opening up of continental interiors through rapid, cheap, and dependable transportation and were thus the most explicit symbol of the vast wave of time-space compression unleashed throughout the 19th century. In addition to their ability to shuttle people, railroads could move heavy loads over long overland stretches, but not in areas with too steep a grade, reducing land transport costs by as much as 95%.7

This entry first reviews the evolution of the railroad in Europe and the United States, as railroad lines contributed to the growth of capital cities, expanded markets, and increased the accessibility of previously remote areas. The entry then explores the impacts of rail transportation not only on the experience of travel but also on national and international commerce. Jurisdictional Partitioning

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Term Definition and source Imperialism Imperialism is a type of advocacy of empire. Its name originated from the Latin word "imperium", which means to rule over large territories. Imperialism is "a policy of extending a country's power and influence through colonization, use of military force, or other means".[2] Imperialism has greatly shaped the contemporary world.[3] It has also allowed for the rapid spread of technologies and ideas and has been largely responsible for the creation of a globalised world. The term imperialism has been applied to Western (and Japanese) political and economic dominance especially in Asia and Africa in the 19th and 20th centuries. Its precise meaning continues to be debated by scholars. Some writers, such as Edward Said, use the term more broadly to describe any system of domination and subordination organised with an imperial center and a periphery. [4]

Imperialism is defined as "an unequal human and territorial relationship, usually in the form of an empire, based on ideas of superiority and practices of dominance, and involving the extension of authority and control of one state or people over another." [2] Imperialism is a process and ideology that does not only focus on political dominance, but rather, conquest over expansion. Imperialism is particularly focused on the control that one group, often a state power, has on another group of people. [5] This is often through various forms of "othering" (see other) based on racial, religious, or cultural stereotypes. There are "formal" or "informal" imperialisms. "Formal imperialism" is defined as "physical control or full-fledged colonial rule".[5] "Informal imperialism" is less direct; however, it is still a powerful form of dominance.[5]

Colonialism Colonialism is a set of unequal relationships between the colonial power and the colony and often between the colonists and the indigenous peoples. The European colonial period was the era from the 16th century to the mid-20th century when several European powers established colonies in Asia, Africa, and the Americas. At first the countries followed mercantilism designed to strengthen the home economy at the expense of rivals, so the colonies were usually allowed to trade only with the mother country. By the mid-19th century, however, the powerful British Empire gave up mercantilism and trade restrictions and introduced the principle of free trade, with few restrictions or tariffs.

Historians often distinguish between two overlapping forms of colonialism: •Settler colonialism involves large-scale immigration, often motivated by religious, political, or economic reasons. •Exploitation colonialism involves fewer colonists and focuses on access to resources for export, typically to the metropole. This category includes trading posts as well as larger colonies where colonists would constitute much of the political and economic administration, but would rely on indigenous resources for labour and material. Prior to the end of the slave trade and widespread abolition, when indigenous labour was unavailable, slaves were often imported to the Americas, first by the Portuguese Empire, and later by the Spanish, Dutch, French and British.

Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade The Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade took place across the Atlantic Ocean from the 15th through to the 19th centuries. The vast majority of those enslaved that were transported to the New World, many on the triangular trade route and its Middle Passage, were West Africans from the central and western parts of the continent sold by other western Africans to western European slave traders, with a small minority being captured directly by the slave traders in coastal raids, and brought to the Americas.[1] The numbers were so great that Africans who came by way of the slave trade became the most numerous Old World immigrants in both North and South America before the late 18th century.[2] Far more slaves were taken to South America than to the north. The South Atlantic and Caribbean economic system centered on producing commodity crops, and making goods and clothing to sell in Europe, and increasing the numbers of African slaves brought to the New World. This was crucial to those western European countries which, in the late 17th and 18th centuries, were vying with each other to create overseas empires.[3]

The Portuguese were the first to engage in the New World slave trade in the 16th century. Between 1418 and the 1470s, the Portuguese launched a series of exploratory expeditions that remapped the oceans south of Portugal, charting new territories that one explorer described as "oceans where none have ever sailed before."[4] In 1526, the Portuguese completed the first transatlantic slave voyage from Africa to the Americas, and other countries soon followed.[5] Ship owners considered the slaves as cargo to be transported to the Americas as quickly and cheaply as possible,[3] there to be sold to labour in coffee, tobacco, cocoa, sugar and cotton plantations, gold and silver mines, rice fields,

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 75 tobacco, cocoa, sugar and cotton plantations, gold and silver mines, rice fields, construction industry, cutting timber for ships, in skilled labour, and as domestic servants. The first Africans imported to the English colonies were classified as "indentured servants", like workers coming from England, and also as "apprentices for life". By the middle of the 17th century, slavery had hardened as a racial caste; they and their offspring were legally the property of their owners, and children born to slave mothers were slaves. As property, the people were considered merchandise or units of labour, and were sold at markets with other goods and services.

AFRICAN AMERICAN(S) African Americans (also referred to as Black Americans or Afro-Americans[3]) are an ethnic group of Americans (citizens or residents of the United States) with total or partial [4][5] (Afro-American(s)) ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to include only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans.[6][7] As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American.[8][9] African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States (after White Americans and Hispanic and Latino Americans).[10] Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved blacks within the boundaries of the present United States.[11][12] On average, African Americans are of 78 percent West African, 19 percent European and 3 percent Native American heritage, with large variation between individuals.[13] Immigrants from some African, Caribbean, Central American, and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self- identify with the term.[9]

African Caribbean(s) Afro-Caribbeans are Caribbean people who trace their heritage to Sub-Saharan Africa in the period since Christopher Columbus's arrival in the region in 1492. Other names for the Afro-Caribbean(s) group include African-Caribbean (especially in the UK branch of the diaspora), Afro- Antillean or Afro-West Indian. Between the 16th and 19th centuries, European-led triangular trade brought African people to work as slaves in the Caribbean on various plantations. Many Afro-Caribbeans also have non-African ancestry, such as European, South Asian, East Asian, Middle Eastern and Native American, as there has been intermarriage over the centuries.

Although most Afro-Caribbean people today live in Spanish, French, and English- speaking Caribbean nations, there are also significant diaspora populations throughout the Western world – especially in Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, the United States and Canada. Both the home and diaspora populations have produced a number of individuals who have had a notable influence on modern Western, Caribbean and African societies; they include political activists such as Marcus Garvey and C.L.R. James, to writer and theorists such as Aime Cesaire and Frantz Fanon, to US military leader and statesman Colin Powell whose parents were immigrants, and Jamaican musician Bob Marley.

ZAPATISTA •Liberation Army of the South, formed 1910s, a Mexican insurgent group involved in the Mexican Revolution

•Zapatista Army of National Liberation, formed 1994, a Mexican indigenous armed revolutionary group based in Chiapas

•An oil painting by José Clemente Orozco

Cuban Missile Crisis The Cuban Missile Crisis, also known as the October Crisis (Spanish: Crisis de octubre), the Caribbean Crisis (Russian: Карибский кризис, tr. Karibskiy krizis), or the Missile Scare, was a 13-day (October 16–28, 1962) confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union concerning Soviet ballistic missiles deployment in Cuba. Along with being televised worldwide, it was the closest the Cold War came to escalating into a full- scale nuclear war.[1] In response to the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion of 1961, and the presence of American Jupiter ballistic missiles in Italy and Turkey against the USSR with Moscow within range, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev decided to agree to Cuba's request to place nuclear missiles in Cuba to deter future harassment of Cuba. An agreement was reached during a secret meeting between Khrushchev and Fidel Castro in July and construction on a number of missile launch facilities started later that summer. An election was underway in the U.S. The White House had denied charges that it was ignoring dangerous Soviet missiles 90 miles from Florida. These missile preparations were confirmed when an Air Force U-2 spy plane produced clear photographic evidence of medium-range (SS-4) and intermediate-range (R-14) ballistic missile facilities. The United States established a military blockade to prevent further missiles from entering Cuba. It announced that they would not permit offensive weapons to be delivered to Cuba and demanded that the weapons already in Cuba be dismantled and returned to the USSR. After a long period of tense negotiations, an agreement was reached between Kennedy and Khrushchev. Publicly, the Soviets would dismantle their offensive weapons in Cuba and return them to the Soviet Union, subject to United Nations verification, in exchange for a U.S. public declaration and agreement never to invade Cuba without direct

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 76 for a U.S. public declaration and agreement never to invade Cuba without direct provocation. Secretly, the US also agreed that it would dismantle all U.S.-built Jupiter MRBMs, which were deployed in Turkey and Italy against the Soviet Union but were not known to the public. When all offensive missiles and Ilyushin Il-28 light bombers had been withdrawn from Cuba, the blockade was formally ended on November 20, 1962. The negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union pointed out the necessity of a quick, clear, and direct communication line between Washington and Moscow. As a result, the Moscow–Washington hotline was established. A series of agreements sharply reduced U.S.-Soviet tensions for the following years.

Colonialism Colonialism, as distinguished from imperialism, is generally defined as the appropriation, occupation, and control of one territory by another. This simple definition, however, masks a longer and more complex genealogy of the term and concept. The term colonial, derived from the Roman concept of colonia, originally referred to settlement. Roman colonies were viewed as the physical extension of the Roman Empire. This initial use was focused on Roman citizens. These settlements were places where Romans retained their citizenship, a practice reminiscent of extraterritoriality. Colonies were self-sufficient. This definition did not consider the position of the indigenous populations.

The modern use of colonialism includes elements and characteristics that extend far beyond the initial sense of “settlement.” And whereas colonialism always entails the settlement of people from the colonial state to a colonized territory, the practice of colonialism is characterized by more than simply immigration flows. Colonialism has come to refer to the conquest and control of other peoples and other territories. This distinguishes colonialism from another equally complex term, imperialism. This latter term is generally defined as the ideological underpinning of colonial practices.

Contributors: James Tyner Edited by: Barney Warf Book Title: Encyclopedia of Human Geography Chapter Title: "Colonialism" Colony Colonisation 1. to establish a colony in; settle: England colonized Australia.

2. to form a colony of: to colonize laborers in a mining region. verb (used without object), colonized, colonizing.

3. to form a colony: They went out to Australia to colonize. 4. to settle in a colony.

From Postcolonial Postcolonialism or postcolonial studies is an academic discipline featuring methods of Post-Colonial intellectual discourse that analyze, explain, and respond to the cultural legacies of Postcolonialism colonialism and imperialism. Post-Colonialism Postcolonialism responds towards the human consequences of controlling a country and establishing settlers for the economic exploitation of the native people and their land. Drawing from postmodern schools of thought, postcolonial studies analyse the politics of knowledge (creation, control, and distribution) by analyzing the functional relations of social and political power that sustain colonialism and neocolonialism—the how and the why of an imperial regime's representations (social, political, cultural) of the imperial colonizer and of the colonized people. x` Decolonisation

Anti-Colonialism Anticolonialism is a broad term used to describe the various resistance movements directed against colonial and imperial powers. The ideas associated with anticolonialism—namely justice, equality, and self-determination—commingled with other ideologies such as nationalism and antiracism.

Colonial rule assumed many different forms. Consequently, anticolonial movements likewise varied, influenced in part by the particularities of foreign rule. Whether the colony was ruled directly, through force, or indirectly would significantly determine how anticolonial movements originated and progressed. In Vietnam, for example, the anticolonial and communist organization known as the Viet Nam Doc Lap Dong Minh Hoi (League for the Independence of Vietnam [or Vietminh]) waged a lengthy anticolonial war against French colonial rule. Led by Ho Chi Minh, the Vietminh resorted to guerrilla warfare during the 1940s when France attempted to reassert its colonial rule following World War II. Likewise, in the former British and French colonies of Kenya and Algeria, respectively, anticolonial resistance movements used force to restore indigenous rule. For example, the Mau Mau in Kenya conducted a violent campaign to

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 77 indigenous rule. For example, the Mau Mau in Kenya conducted a violent campaign to remove British colonists, and the Front de Libération Nationale (National Liberation Front [or FLN]) waged an 8-year war against French forces in Algeria.

Contributors: James Tyner Edited by: Barney Warf Book Title: Encyclopedia of Human Geography Chapter: Anticolonialism

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 78 Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 79 Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 80 Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 81 Methodologies, Perspectives and Theory 19 March 2016 08:47

Structural Functionalism Structural functionalism, or simply functionalism, is a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability.[1] This approach looks at society through a macro-level orientation, which is a broad focus on the social structures that shape society as a whole, and believes that society has evolved like organisms.[2] This approach looks at both social structure and social functions. Functionalism addresses society as a whole in terms of the function of its constituent elements; namely norms, customs, traditions, and institutions. A common analogy, popularized by Herbert Spencer, presents these parts of society as "organs" that work toward the proper functioning of the "body" as a . [3] In the most basic terms, it simply emphasizes "the effort to impute, as rigorously as possible, to each feature, custom, or practice, its effect on the functioning of a supposedly stable, cohesive system". For Talcott Parsons, "structural-functionalism" came to describe a particular stage in the methodological development of social science, rather than a specific school of thought.[4][5] The structural functionalism approach is a macrosociological analysis, with a broad focus on social structures that shape society as a whole.[6]

Verified data (positive facts) received from the senses are known as empirical evidence; thus positivism is based on empiricism.[1]

From Antipositivism Antipositivism (also known as interpretive or negativism) is the belief within social science that the social realm may not be subject to the same methods of investigation as the natural world; the social realm requires a different epistemology in which academics work beyond empiricism and the scientific method. Antipositivists hold that researchers need to be, first, aware that our concepts, ideas, and language shape how we think about the social world. Therefore, antipositivists focus on understanding the interpretative method employed.[1][need quotation to verify]

From

Conflict Theory Conflict theories are perspectives in sociology and social psychology that emphasize the social, political, or material inequality of a social group, that critique the broad socio-political system, or that otherwise detract from structural functionalism and ideological conservatism. Conflict theories draw attention to power differentials, such as class conflict, and generally contrast historically dominant ideologies. It is therefore a macro level analysis of society. Karl Marx is the father of the social conflict theory, which is a component of the 4 paradigms of sociology. Certain conflict theories set out to highlight the ideological aspects inherent in traditional thought. Whilst many of these perspectives hold parallels, conflict theory does not refer to a unified school of thought, and should not be confused with, for instance, peace and conflict studies, or any other specific theory of social conflict.

Social Constructionism Social constructionism or the social construction of reality (also social concept) is a theory of knowledge in sociology and communication theory that examines the development of jointly constructed understandings of the world that form the basis for shared assumptions about reality. The theory centers on the notions that human beings rationalize their experience by creating models of the social world and share and reify these models through language.[1]

Structuralism In sociology, anthropology and linguistics, structuralism is the methodology that elements of human culture must be understood in terms of their relationship to a larger, overarching system or structure. It works to uncover the structures that underlie all the things that humans do, think, perceive, and feel. Alternatively, as summarized by philosopher Simon Blackburn, structuralism is "the belief that phenomena of human life are not intelligible except through their interrelations. These relations constitute a

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 82 life are not intelligible except through their interrelations. These relations constitute a structure, and behind local variations in the surface phenomena there are constant laws of abstract culture".[1]

rly 1900s, in the structural linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure the subsequent Prague,[2] Moscow[2] and Copenhagen schools of linguistics. In the late 1950s and early '60s, when structural linguistics was facing serious challenges from the likes of Noam Chomsky and thus fading in importance, an array of scholars in the humanities borrowed Saussure's concepts for use in their respective fields of study. French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss was arguably the first such scholar, sparking a widespread interest in Structuralism.[1]

The structuralist mode of reasoning has been applied in a diverse range of fields, including anthropology, sociology, psychology, literary criticism, economics and architecture. The most prominent thinkers associated with structuralism include Lévi- Strauss, linguist Roman Jakobson, and psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan. As an intellectual movement, structuralism was initially presumed to be the heir apparent to existentialism. However, by the late 1960s, many of structuralism's basic tenets came under attack from a new wave of predominantly French intellectuals such as the philosopher and historian Michel Foucault, the philosopher and social commentator Jacques Derrida, the Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser, and the literary critic Roland Barthes.[2] Though elements of their work necessarily relate to structuralism and are informed by it, these theorists have generally been referred to as post-structuralists. In the 1970s, structuralism was criticised for its rigidity and ahistoricism. Despite this, many of structuralism's proponents, such as Lacan, continue to assert an influence on continental philosophy and many of the fundamental assumptions of some of structuralism's post-structuralist critics are a continuation of structuralism. [3]

From Interactionism In sociology, interactionism is a theoretical perspective that derives social processes (such as conflict, cooperation, identity formation) from human interaction. [1] It is the study of how individuals act within society. Interactionist theory has grown in the latter half of the twentieth century and has become one of the dominant sociological perspectives in the world today. George Herbert Mead, as an advocate of pragmatism and the subjectivity of social reality is considered a leader in the development of interactionism. Herbert Blumer expanded on Mead's work and coined the term "symbolic interactionism".

From

Critical Theory Critical theory is a school of thought that stresses the reflective assessments and critique of society and culture by applying knowledge from the social sciences and the humanities.

As a term, critical theory has two meanings with different origins and histories: the first originated in sociology and political philosophy, while the second originated in literary studies and literary theory.

In sociology and political philosophy, the term "critical theory" (or "social critical theory")[1] describes the neo-Marxist philosophy of the Frankfurt School, which was developed in Germany in the 1930s. The Frankfurt theorist Max Horkheimer described a theory as critical insofar as it seeks "to liberate human beings from the circumstances that enslave them."[2] Frankfurt theorists drew on the critical methods of Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud. Critical theory maintains that ideology is the principal obstacle to human liberation.[3] Critical theory was established as a school of thought primarily by five Frankfurt School theoreticians: Herbert Marcuse, Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Walter Benjamin, and Erich Fromm. Modern critical theory has additionally been influenced by György Lukács and Antonio Gramsci, as well as the second generation Frankfurt School scholars, notably Jürgen Habermas. In Habermas's work, critical theory transcended its theoretical roots in German idealism, and progressed closer to American pragmatism. Concern for social "base and superstructure" is one of the remaining Marxist philosophical concepts in much of the contemporary critical theory.[4] While critical theorists have been frequently defined as Marxist intellectuals, [5] their tendency to denounce some Marxist concepts and to combine Marxian analysis with other sociological and philosophical traditions has resulted in accusations of revisionism by Classical, Orthodox, and Analytical Marxists, and by Marxist-Leninist philosophers. Martin Jay has stated that the first generation of critical theory is best understood as not promoting a specific philosophical agenda or a specific ideology, but as "a gadfly of other systems".[6]

In literary studies and literary theory, the term "critical theory" (or "literary critical theory")[1] refers to theories of literary criticism.[7]

Structure and Agency In the social sciences there is a standing debate over the primacy of structure or agency in shaping human behavior. Structure is the recurrent patterned arrangements which influence or limit the choices and opportunities available. [1] Agency is the capacity of individuals to act independently and to make their own free choices. [1] The structure versus agency debate may be understood as an issue of socialization against

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 83 structure versus agency debate may be understood as an issue of socialization against autonomy in determining whether an individual acts as a free agent or in a manner dictated by social structure.

Actor-Network Theory Actor–network theory (ANT) is an approach to social theory and research, originating in the field of science studies, which treats objects as part of social networks. Although it is best known for its controversial insistence on the capacity of nonhumans to act or participate in systems or networks or both, ANT is also associated with forceful critiques of conventional and critical sociology. Developed by science and technology studies (STS) scholars Michel Callon and Bruno Latour, the sociologist John Law, and others, it can more technically be described as a "material-semiotic" method. This means that it maps relations that are simultaneously material (between things) and semiotic (between concepts). It assumes that many relations are both material and semiotic.

Broadly speaking, ANT is a constructivist approach in that it avoids essentialist explanations of events or innovations (i. e. ANT explains a successful theory by understanding the combinations and interactions of elements that make it successful, rather than saying it is “true” and the others are “false”). However, it is distinguished from many other STS and sociological network theories for its distinct material- semiotic approach.

Feminist Theory is a range of political movements, ideologies and social movements that share a common goal: to define, establish, and achieve equal political, economic, personal, and social rights for women.[1][2] This includes seeking to establish equal opportunities for women in education and employment. Feminists typically advocate or support the rights and equality of women.[3] Feminist movements have campaigned and continue to campaign for women's rights, including the right to vote, to hold public office, to work, to earn fair wages or equal pay, to own property, to receive education, to enter contracts, to have equal rights within marriage, and to have maternity leave. Feminists have also worked to promote bodily autonomy and integrity, and to protect women and girls from rape, sexual harassment, and domestic violence.[4] Feminist campaigns are generally considered to be one of the main forces behind major historical societal changes for women's rights, particularly in the West, where they are near-universally credited with having achieved women's suffrage, gender neutrality in English, reproductive rights for women (including access to contraceptives and abortion), and the right to enter into contracts and own property.[5] Although feminist advocacy is and has been mainly focused on women's rights, some feminists, including bell hooks, argue for the inclusion of men's liberation within its aims because men are also harmed by traditional gender roles.[3] Feminist theory, which emerged from feminist movements, aims to understand the nature of gender inequality by examining women's social roles and lived experience; it has developed theories in a variety of disciplines in order to respond to issues such as the social construction of gender.[6][7] Some forms of feminism have been criticized for taking into account only white, middle-class and educated perspectives. This criticism led to the creation of ethnically specific or multicultural forms of feminism, including black feminism.[8] Feminist sociology is a conflict theory and theoretical perspective which observes gender in its relation to power, both at the level of face-to-face interaction and reflexivity within a social structure at large. Focuses include sexual orientation, race, economic status, and nationality. At the core of feminist sociology is the idea of the systematic oppression[note 1] of women and the historical dominance of men within most societies: 'patriarchy'. Feminist thought has a rich history, however, which may be categorized into three 'waves'. The current, 'third wave', emphasizes the concepts of globalization, postcolonialism, post-structuralism and postmodernism. Contemporary feminist thought has frequently tended to do-away with all generalizations regarding sex and gender, closely linked with antihumanism, posthumanism, queer theory and the work of Michel Foucault. Feminist geography is an approach in human geography which applies the theories, methods and critiques of feminism to the study of the human environment, society and geographical space.[1]

From Queer Theory Queer theory is a field of post-structuralist critical theory that emerged in the early 1990s out of the fields of queer studies and women's studies. Queer theory includes both queer readings of texts and the theorisation of 'queerness' itself. Heavily influenced by the work of Lauren Berlant, Leo Bersani, Judith Butler, Lee Edelman, Jack Halberstam,[1] David Halperin, José Esteban Muñoz, and Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, queer theory builds both upon feminist challenges to the idea that gender is part of the essential self and upon gay/lesbian studies' close examination of the socially constructed nature of sexual acts and identities. Whereas gay/lesbian studies focused its inquiries into natural and unnatural behaviour with respect to homosexual behaviour, queer theory expands its focus to encompass any kind of sexual activity or identity that falls into normative and deviant categories. Italian feminist and film theorist Teresa de Lauretis coined the term "queer theory" for a conference she

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 84 theorist Teresa de Lauretis coined the term "queer theory" for a conference she organized at the University of California, Santa Cruz in 1990 and a special issue of Differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies she edited based on that conference.

From

Queer studies, sexual diversity studies, or LGBT studies is the study of issues relating to sexual orientation and gender identity usually focusing on lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, questioning, and intersex people and cultures.[1] Originally centered on LGBT history and literary theory, the field has expanded to include the academic study of issues raised in biology, sociology, anthropology, the history of science,[2] philosophy, psychology, sexology, political science, ethics, and other fields by an examination of the identity, lives, history, and perception of queer people. Marianne LaFrance, the former chair of the Larry Kramer Initiative for Lesbian and Gay Studies at Yale University,[3] says, "Now we're asking not just 'What causes homosexuality?' [but also] 'What causes heterosexuality?' and 'Why is sexuality so central in some people's perspective?'"[2]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queer_studies Marxism Marxism is a method of socioeconomic analysis, originating from the mid-to-late 19th century works of German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, that analyzes class relations and societal conflict using a materialist interpretation of historical development and a dialectical view of social transformation. Marxist methodology originally used economic and sociopolitical inquiry to analyze and critique the development of capitalism and the role of class struggle in systemic economic change. According to Marxist analysis, class conflict within capitalism arises due to intensifying contradictions between highly productive mechanized and socialized production performed by the proletariat, and private ownership and appropriation of the surplus product in the form of surplus value (profit) by a small minority of private owners called the bourgeoisie. As the contradiction becomes apparent to the proletariat, social unrest between the two antagonistic classes intensifies, culminating in a social revolution. The eventual long-term outcome of this revolution would be the establishment of socialism – a socioeconomic system based on social ownership of the means of production, distribution based on one's contribution, and production organized directly for use. As the productive forces and technology continued to advance, Marx hypothesized that socialism would eventually give way to a communist stage of social development, which would be a classless, stateless, humane society erected on common ownership and the principle of "From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs". Marxism has since developed into different branches and schools of thought, and there is now no single definitive Marxist theory.[1] Different schools place a greater emphasis on certain aspects of classical Marxism while de-emphasizing or rejecting other aspects, and sometimes combine Marxist analysis with non-Marxian concepts. As a result, different schools of Marxism might reach contradictory conclusions from one another.[2] Marxist analyses and methodologies have influenced multiple political ideologies and social movements, and Marxist understandings of history and society have been adopted by academics in the disciplines of archaeology, anthropology,[3] media studies,[4] political science, theater, history, sociology, art history and theory, cultural studies, education, economics, geography, literary criticism, aesthetics, critical psychology, and philosophy.[5 Marxist sociology is the study of sociology from a Marxist perspective.[1] Marxism itself can be recognized as both a political philosophy and a sociology, particularly so far as it attempts to remain scientific, systematic and objective rather than purely normative and prescriptive. Marxist sociology is "a form of conflict theory associated with ... Marxism's objective of developing a positive (empirical) science of capitalist society as part of the mobilization of a revolutionary working class."[2] The American Sociological Association has a section dedicated to the issues of Marxist sociology that is "interested in examining how insights from Marxist methodology and Marxist analysis can help explain the complex dynamics of modern society". [3] Marxist sociology would come to facilitate the developments of critical theory and cultural studies as loosely distinct disciplines. Marxist geography is a strand of critical geography that uses the theories and philosophy of Marxism to examine the spatial relations of human geography. In Marxist geography, the relations that geography has traditionally analyzed—natural environment and spatial relations—are reviewed as outcomes of the mode of material production. To understand geographical relations, on this view, the social structure must also be examined. Marxist geography attempts to change the basic structure of society.[1] Marxist geography is radical in nature and its primary criticism of the positivist spatial science centered on the latter's methodologies, which failed to consider the characteristics of capitalism and abuse that underlie socio-spatial arrangements. As such, early Marxist geographers were explicitly political in advocating for social change and activism; they sought, through application of geographical analysis of social problems, to alleviate poverty and exploitation in capitalist societies.[2] Marxist geography makes exegetical claims regarding how the deep-seated structures of capitalism act as a determinant and a constraint to human agency. Most of these ideas were developed in the early 1970s by dissatisfied quantitative geographers; David Harvey is generally regarded as the primary trail-blazer of the Marxist movement in

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 85 Harvey is generally regarded as the primary trail-blazer of the Marxist movement in human geography. In order to accomplish such philosophical aims, these geographers rely heavily upon Marxist social and economic theory, drawing on Marxian economics and the methods of historical materialism to tease out the manner in which the means of production control human spatial distribution in capitalist structures. Marx is also invoked to examine how spatial relationships are affected by class. The emphasis is on structure and structural mechanisms. This emphasis has yielded results but also criticism [ci

Postmodernism Postmodernism is a late-20th-century movement in the arts, architecture, and criticism that was a departure from modernism.[1][2] Postmodernism articulates that the world is in a state of perpetual incompleteness and permanent unresolve. Postmodernism promotes the notion of pluralism; that there are many ways of knowing, and many truths to a fact. From a postmodern perspective knowledge is articulated from perspectives, with all its uncertainties, complexity and paradox. Thus knowledge is relational and all realities are woven on local linguistic looms. [3] Postmodernism includes skeptical interpretations of culture, literature, art, philosophy, history, economics, architecture, fiction, and literary criticism. It is often associated with deconstruction and post-structuralism because its usage as a term gained significant popularity at the same time as twentieth-century post-structural thought.

Postmodernity (post-modernity or the postmodern condition) is the economic or cultural state or condition of western society which is said to exist after modernity. Some schools of thought hold that modernity ended in the late 20th century—in the 1980s or early 1990s—and that it was replaced by postmodernity, while others would extend modernity to cover the developments denoted by postmodernity, while some believe that modernity ended after World War II. The idea of the post-modern condition is sometimes characterised as a culture stripped of its capacity to function in any linear or autonomous state as opposed to the progressive mindstate of Modernism.[1]

From World Systems Theory World-systems theory (also known as world-systems analysis or the world-systems perspective),[2] a multidisciplinary, macro-scale approach to world history and social change, emphasizes the world-system (and not nation states) as the primary (but not exclusive) unit of social analysis.[2][3] "World-system" refers to the inter-regional and transnational division of labor, which divides the world into core countries, semi-periphery countries, and the periphery countries.[3] Core countries focus on higher skill, capital-intensive production, and the rest of the world focuses on low-skill, labor-intensive production and extraction of raw materials.[4] This constantly reinforces the dominance of the core countries. [4] Nonetheless, the system has dynamic characteristics, in part as a result of revolutions in transport technology, and individual states can gain or lose their core (semi- periphery, periphery) status over time.[4] For a time, certain countries become the world hegemon; during the last few centuries, as the world-system has extended geographically and intensified economically, this status has passed from the Netherlands, to the United Kingdom and (most recently) to the United States of America

From

METHODOLOGIES IN SOCIOLOGY

Quantitative Research Methodology Qualitative Research Methodology Comparative Historical Research Mathematical Sociological Methodology Computational Sociology Ethnography Ethnomethodology Network Analysis Social network analysis (SNA) is the process of investigating social structures through the use of network and graph theories.[1] It characterizes networked structures in terms of nodes (individual actors, people, or things within the network) and the ties or edges (relationships or interactions) that connect them. Examples of social structures commonly visualized through social network analysis include social media networks, friendship and acquaintance networks, collaboration graphs, kinship, disease

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 86 friendship and acquaintance networks, collaboration graphs, kinship, disease transmission,and sexual relationships.[2][3] These networks are often visualized through sociograms in which nodes are represented as points and ties are represented as lines.

From

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 87 Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 88 Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 89 Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 90 Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 91 Disciplines 19 March 2016 07:47

THE SOCIAL SCIENCES AND THEIR MEANINGS

Discipline / Sub-Discipline Short Overview of Study INTERNATIONAL STUDIES International Studies (IS) generally refers to the specific university degrees and courses which are concerned with the study of ‘the major political, ALSO economic, social, and cultural issues that dominate the international agenda’.[citation needed] The term itself can be more specifically defined as ‘the INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS contemporary and historical understanding of global societies, cultures, languages and systems of government and of the complex relationships between them that shape the world we live in’.[1] The terms and concepts of International Studies and international relations are strongly related; INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS however, International relations focus more directly on the relationship between countries, whereas International Studies can encompass all phenomena which are globally oriented.

History The history of the discipline of International Studies is strongly linked with the history of the study of international relations, as described in the International Relations entry.

However, the study of International Studies as a separate entity to International Relations emerged throughout the 20th century, as an increasingly complex world began to be influenced by globalization, and a greater number of issues emerged (rather than only inter-country relations). The discipline was greatly influenced by the establishment of the International Studies Association,[2] which was established in 1959 by a ‘group of academics and practitioners’[3] with the aim of ‘seeking to pursue mutual interests in world affairs through the organization of a professional association’.[4] The establishment of the association reflected the increasing interest in global issues and reflected the need for international academic dialogue. Throughout the later stages of the 20th century and into the 21st century, many education institutions worldwide developed International Studies degrees (both undergraduate and postgraduate). The emergence and increasing popularity of these degrees reflects the general patterns of increasing global interconnectedness and globalisation, in that education providers are becoming more aware that the discipline is becoming increasingly relevant and necessary in the context of the 21st century. The discipline has become increasingly popular in Australia as well as in East Asian countries. Dr Hanson and Dr Weber of the University of Queensland state that; ‘Australia has become a highly popular destination for students wishing to undertake Coursework, Masters and PhD programs in International Relations, Peace and Conflict Studies and Development. Collectively, these inter-related fields have come to be called International Studies, and many of Australia’s universities have responded to the increasing demand for programs in this area’[5]

In 2008, the third OCIS conference (Oceanic Conference on International Studies) was held at the University of Queensland’. [6] The conference brought together over 200 academics, with the keynote speaker Andrew Linklater (the Woodrow Wilson Professor of International Politics at the University of Aberystwyth in Wales) noting ‘how vibrant and intellectually stimulating International Studies now is in Australia’’.[7]

The increasing popularity of the discipline in Australia led to the International Studies Association to establish an Asia-Pacific Regional Section of the ISA at the University of Queensland in 2009’,[8] which was seen as an ‘indication of the growth of this area’’[9] in Australia.

Etymology International Studies is sometimes also known as global studies. The terms can be used interchangeably, and may be influenced by left vs right inclinations.

Purpose/Aim of study Many educational institutions have developed International Studies degrees and courses in order to engage students with the increasing number of issues and phenomena which have arisen in an increasingly globalised world. As such, most education providers justify the need for the degrees by relating the increasing importance of the discipline with real world situations and employment opportunities. For example, the University of Technology Sydney states that the purpose of their International Studies degree is to ‘prepare graduates for careers and contributions in a world of social and cultural diversity being transformed by globalisation, allowing students to draw connections between global phenomena and local practices in work and life’.[10] Often, universities will relate the study of International studies with other industries. Monash University describes the relevance for International Studies; ‘as the world globalises and nations and economies become more integrated, it is important to understand our world and the ideas and beliefs of our neighbours and trading partners. In order to compete in the international marketplaces of products, ideas and knowledge we need to understand and respect the cultures and beliefs of others.[11]

Types of programs At many universities, International Studies is offered in both undergraduate and postgraduate pathways. As an undergraduate degree, the discipline is most often offered as part of an Arts Degree, as either a minor or major of straight Arts Degrees [12][13] or as specialist Arts Degrees.[14][15][16][17] It is also often offered as a postgraduate degree as an honours or masters as a progression from the undergraduate degrees offered by the various institutions.[18]

Types of studies The International Studies discipline is usually offered as either part of an arts degree or as a specialist arts degree. As such, students are able to select from a very broad range of subjects to undertake. However, some areas of study which are regularly offered include: [19]

•the political, social, economic and cultural relationships within the international system

•foreign policy, diplomacy and other modes of interaction between the countries of the world

•the significance of foreign societies, cultures and systems of government

•the international movement of people as immigrants, refugees, workers, students, tourists and investors

•the role of international organizations

•the globalization of the world economy

•foreign languages

•history

GLOBAL STUDIES Global studies is the academic study of political, economic, ecological and cultural relations and processes that in some way bear upon the world. Global studies is oriented around the study of globalization as it relates to different fields of activity — areas as diverse as market relations, the movement of commodities, global communications and consumption, refugees, migrants and other movements of people around the globe.[1]

Global Studies incorporates transnational and local trends in its curriculum insofar as they illustrate broader questions of global change. Undertaking a global studies course can also include field work or research in a particular area of interest.

Global studies can also include international studies or international education. International studies more narrowly focuses on relations between national borders — one aspect of global studies. Similarly, international education refers more narrowly to the development of educational institutions internationally or comparatively between different nation-states. In both cases, the concept of 'national' confines the meaning of those fields of study. By comparison, global studies has a broader reach, from the global to the local.

There can be much confusion about the use of the terms, "global studies" and "international studies".

Often, for educational purposes, they are used interchangeably and differences in meaning are not evident, with the suggestion[by whom?] that both disciplines are concerned with political, social and cultural issues, with the main focus of study being placed on international community interaction.

However, subtle distinctions can be made between the two phrases. International studies generally looks at exchanges between states, multilateral or bilateral agreements, diplomacy and how issues are handled between two or more states. Global studies, in contrast, focuses on globally shared issues like the preservation of culture and environment, movements of people and the effects of globalization (i.e. issues that are communally relevant worldwide). Unlike traditional international studies, global studies often examines phenomena that are supranational (such as global climate change, pandemic disease, transnational economic formations) and subnational (such as the local and regional impacts of deindustrialization that arise due to the shifting landscape of global capitalism).[citation needed]

It has also been suggested[by whom?] that there are left wing and right wing connotations to each phrase, international studies being preferred by the

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 92 It has also been suggested[by whom?] that there are left wing and right wing connotations to each phrase, international studies being preferred by the right wing (i.e. relations between states) and global studies preferred by the left (i.e. issues affecting all global citizens).

The terms have also been described as such: "International studies might be called the grandfather of global education. It often includes the study of countries, world religions, languages and international relations ... {global studies} is centred on the concept of connectedness – recognizing local/ global connections, the commonalities all humans share, and how understanding how national borders have become practically irrelevant for many global actors."[2]

Five defining characteristics of global studies were identified by scholars at the first annual meeting of the Global Studies Consortium in Tokyo in 2008:[3]

•Transnational •Interdisciplinary •Contemporary and historical •Critical and multicultural •Globally responsible

INTERNATIONAL STUDIES The International Studies Association (ISA) is a professional association for scholars, practitioners and graduate students in the field of ASSOCIATION international studies. Founded in 1959, ISA now has over 6,200 members in 80 countries and is the most respected and widely known scholarly association in this field. Endeavoring to create communities of scholars dedicated to international studies, ISA is divided into 6 geographic subdivisions (Regions), 24 thematic groups (Sections) and 3 Caucuses which provide opportunities to exchange ideas and research with local colleagues and within specific subject areas. ISA publishes leading journals in the field of international studies and the annual convention routinely draws over 6,000 attendees.

ISA publishes five academic journals (International Studies Quarterly, International Studies Review, International Studies Perspectives, Foreign Policy Analysis, International Political Sociology, co-sponsors a sixth (International Interactions), publishes a comprehensive compendium of international studies and maintains a variety of online resources for the international academic community. [1] It is a US association with headquarters in Storrs, Connecticut.

The British International Studies Association (BISA) is a learned society that promotes the study of international relations and related subjects through teaching, research, and facilitation of contact between scholars. BISA has an international membership where 40 countries are represented. The current president is Stuart Croft. The association national office is based at Aberystwyth University hosted by the Department of International Politics.

Interdisciplinarity Interdisciplinarity involves the combining of two or more academic disciplines into one activity (e.g., a research project). It is about creating something new by crossing boundaries, and thinking across them. It is related to an interdiscipline or an interdisciplinary field, which is an organizational unit that crosses traditional boundaries between academic disciplines or schools of thought, as new needs and professions emerge.

The term interdisciplinary is applied within education and training pedagogies to describe studies that use methods and insights of several established disciplines or traditional fields of study. Interdisciplinarity involves researchers, students, and teachers in the goals of connecting and integrating several academic schools of thought, professions, or technologies—along with their specific perspectives—in the pursuit of a common task.

The epidemiology of AIDS or global warming require understanding of diverse disciplines to solve complex problems. Interdisciplinary may be applied where the subject is felt to have been neglected or even misrepresented in the traditional disciplinary structure of research institutions, for example, women's studies or ethnic area studies.

Interdisciplinarity can likewise be applied to complex subjects that can only be understood by combining the perspectives of two or more fields.

The adjective interdisciplinary is most often used in educational circles when researchers from two or more disciplines pool their approaches and modify them so that they are better suited to the problem at hand, including the case of the team-taught course where students are required to understand a given subject in terms of multiple traditional disciplines. For example, the subject of land use may appear differently when examined by different disciplines, for instance, biology, chemistry, economics, geography, and politics.

Anthropology Anthropology is the study of humanity.[1][2][3] Its main subdivisions are social anthropology and cultural anthropology,[1][2][3] which describes the workings of societies around the world, linguistic anthropology, which investigates the influence of language in social life, and biological or physical anthropology,[1][2][3] which concerns long-term development of the human organism. Archaeology, which studies past human cultures through investigation of physical evidence, is thought of as a branch of anthropology in the United States, [4] although in Europe, it is viewed as a discipline in its own right, or grouped under related disciplines such as history.

Cultural Anthropology Cultural anthropology is a branch of anthropology focused on the study of cultural variation among humans and is in contrast to social anthropology which perceives cultural variation as a subset of the anthropological constant.

A variety of methods are part of anthropological methodology, including participant observation (often called fieldwork because it involves the anthropologist spending an extended period of time at the research location), interviews, and surveys.[1]

, a major division of anthropology that deals with the study of culture in all of its aspects and that uses the methods, concepts, and data of archaeology, ethnography and ethnology, folklore, and linguistics in its descriptions and analyses of the diverse peoples of the world.

Definition and scope Etymologically, anthropology is the science of humans. In fact, however, it is only one of the sciences of humans, bringing together those disciplines the common aims of which are to describe human beings and explain them on the basis of the biological and cultural characteristics of the populations among which they are distributed and to emphasize, through time, the differences and variations of these populations. The concept of race, on the one hand, and that of culture, on the other, have received special attention; and although their meaning is still subject to debate, these terms are doubtless the most common of those in the anthropologist’s vocabulary

Social Anthropology Social anthropology is the dominant constituent of anthropology throughout the United Kingdom and Commonwealth and much of Europe (France in particular[1]), where it is distinguished from cultural anthropology.[2] In the USA, social anthropology is commonly subsumed within cultural anthropology (or under the relatively new designation of sociocultural anthropology).

In contrast to cultural anthropology, culture and its continuity (including narratives, rituals, and symbolic behavior associated with them) have been traditionally seen more as the dependent 'variable' (cf. explanandum) by social anthropology, embedded in its historical and social context, including its diversity of positions and perspectives, ambiguities, conflicts, and contradictions of social life, rather than the independent (explanatory) one (cf. explanans

Sociocultural Anthropology Sociocultural anthropology is a portmanteau used to refer to social anthropology and cultural anthropology together. Some universities, such as Boston University[1] and New York University, link them together into one major of study.[2]

The rubric cultural anthropology is generally applied to ethnographic works that are holistic in spirit, oriented to the ways in which culture affects individual experience, or aim to provide a rounded view of the knowledge, customs, and institutions of a people. Social anthropology is a term applied to ethnographic works that attempt to isolate a particular system of social relations such as those that comprise domestic life, economy, law, politics, or religion, give analytical priority to the organizational bases of social life, and attend to cultural phenomena as somewhat secondary to the main issues of social scientific inquiry.[3]

Sociocultural anthropology, which we understand to include linguistic anthropology, is concerned with the problem of difference and similarity within and between human populations. The discipline arose concomitantly with the expansion of European colonial empires, and its practices and theories have been questioned and reformulated along with processes of decolonization. Such issues have re-emerged as transnational processes have challenged the centrality of the nation-state to theorizations about culture and power. New challenges have emerged as public debates about multiculturalism, and the increasing use of the culture concept outside of the academy and among peoples studied by anthropology. These are not "business-as-usual" times in the academy, in anthropology, or in the world, if ever there were such times.

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 93 Biological Anthropology Biological anthropology, also known as physical anthropology, is a scientific discipline concerned with the biological and behavioral aspects of human beings, their related non-human primates and their extinct hominin ancestors.[1] It is a subfield of anthropology that provides a biological perspective to the systematic study of human beings.

Cyborg Anthropology Cyborg anthropology is the discipline that studies the interaction between humanity and technology from an anthropological perspective. The discipline is relatively new, but offers novel insights on new technological advances and their effect on culture and society.

Digital Anthropology Digital anthropology is the study of the relationship between humans and digital-era technology, and extends to various areas where anthropology Cyberanthropology and technology intersect. It is sometimes grouped with sociocultural anthropology, and sometimes considered part of material culture. The field is new, and thus has a variety of names with a variety of emphases. These include techno-anthropology,[1] digital ethnography, cyberanthropology,[2] and virtual anthropology.[3]

Evolutionary Anthropology Evolutionary anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of the evolution of human physiology and human behaviour and the relation between hominids and non-hominid primates. Evolutionary anthropology is based in natural science and social science.

Various fields and disciplines are:

•Human evolution and anthropogeny. •Paleoanthropology and paleontology of primates. •Primatology and Primate Ethology and Paleontology. •The sociocultural evolution of human behavior. •The evolutionary psychology and evolutionary linguistics of humans. •The archaeological study of human technology and change over time and space. •Human evolutionary genetics and changes in the human genome over time. •The cognitive neuroscience and neuroanthropology of human and primate cognition, culture and actions and abilities. •Human behavioural ecology and the interaction of humans and the environment. •Studies of human anatomy, endocrinology, and neurobiology and differences and changes between species, variation between human groups, and relationships to cultural factors.

Evolutionary anthropology is concerned with both biological and cultural evolution of humans, past and present. It is based on a scientific approach, and brings together fields such as archaeology, behavioral ecology, psychology, primatology, and genetics. It is a dynamic and interdisciplinary field, drawing on many lines of evidence to understand the human experience, past and present.

Studies of biological evolution generally concern the evolution of the human form. Cultural evolution involves the study of cultural change over time and space and frequently incorporate Cultural transmission models. Note that cultural evolution is not the same as biological evolution, and that human culture involves the transmission of cultural information, which behaves in ways quite distinct from human biology and genetics. The study of cultural change is increasingly performed through cladistics and genetic models.

Feminist Anthropology Feminist anthropology is a four-field approach to anthropology (archeological, biological, cultural, linguistic) that seeks to reduce male bias in research findings, anthropological hiring practices, and the scholarly production of knowledge.[1]

Simultaneously, feminist anthropology challenges essentialist feminist theories developed in EuroAmerica. While feminists practiced cultural anthropology since its inception as an [American discipline]? (see Margaret Mead and Hortense Powdermaker), it was not until the 1970s that feminist anthropology was formally[citation needed] recognized as a subdiscipline of anthropology. Since then, it has developed its own subsection of the American Anthropological Association – the Association of Feminist Anthropologists – and its own publication, Voices.

Forensic Anthropology Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of anthropology and its various subfields, including forensic archaeology and forensic taphonomy,[1] in a legal setting. A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed, burned, mutilated or otherwise unrecognizable, as might happen in a plane crash. Forensic anthropologists are also instrumental to the investigation and documentation of genocide and mass graves. Along with forensic pathologists, forensic dentists, and homicide investigators, forensic anthropologists commonly testify in court as expert witnesses. Using physical markers present on a skeleton, a forensic anthropologist can potentially determine a victim's age, sex, stature, and ancestry. In addition to identifying physical characteristics of the individual, forensic anthropologists can use skeletal abnormalities to potentially determine cause of death, past trauma such as broken bones or medical procedures, as well as diseases such as bone cancer.

The methods used to identity a person from a skeleton relies on the past contributions of various anthropologists and the study of human skeletal differences. Through the collection of thousands of specimens and the analysis of differences within a population, estimations can be made based on physical characteristics. Through these, a set of remains can potentially be identified. The field of forensic anthropology grew during the twentieth century into a fully recognized forensic specialty involving trained anthropologists as well as numerous research institutions gathering data on decomposition and the effects it can have on the skeleton.

Museum Anthropology A distinctive characteristic of museum anthropology is that it cross-cuts anthropology's sub-fields (archaeology, cultural anthropology, linguistic anthropology, biological anthropology) as these are understood in North American anthropology. All of these areas are sometimes pursued in museum contexts (usually on the basis of research work with systematic collections) and all can be (and are) explicated in museum-based exhibitions and public programs. Some museum anthropologists work full or part-time in museum contexts while others are anthropologists (employed in diverse settings) interested in studying museums as social institutions in cultural and historical context. These two sets of concerns— collections-based scholarship and the study of museums provide the core around which the domain of museum anthropology has self-organized.

One theme prominent in recent museum anthropology research concerns reconnecting older collections of ethnographic objects curated in museum contexts with the present-day source communities from which these objects were gathered.[1][2] Another concern is the development of museums and cultural centers by indigenous peoples in their own home communities.[3][4][5]

Philosophical Anthropology Philosophical anthropology, sometimes called anthropological philosophy,[1][2] is a discipline dealing with questions Anthropological Philosophy of metaphysicsand phenomenology of the human person, and interpersonal relationships A large focus of philosophical anthropology is also interpersonal relationships, as an attempt to unify disparate ways of understanding the behaviour of humans as both creatures of their social environments and creators of their own values. It analyses also the ontology that is in play in human relationships – of which intersubjectivity is a major theme. Intersubjectivity is the study of how two individuals, subjects, whose experiences and interpretations of the world are radically different understand and relate to each other.

Recently anthropology has begun to shift towards studies of intersubjectivity and other existential/phenomenological themes. Studies of language have also gained new prominence in philosophy and sociology due to language's close ties with the question of intersubjectivity.

Psychological Anthropology Psychological anthropology is an interdisciplinary subfield of anthropology that studies the interaction of cultural and mental processes. This Psychoanalytical Anthropology subfield tends to focus on ways in which humans' development and enculturation within a particular cultural group—with its own history, language, practices, and conceptual categories—shape processes of human cognition, emotion, perception,motivation, and mental health. It also examines how the understanding of cognition, emotion, motivation, and similar psychological processes inform or constrain our models of cultural and social processes. Each school within psychological anthropology has its own approach.[1][2]

Theological Anthropology Transpersonal Anthropology Transpersonal anthropology is a subdiscipline of cultural anthropology. It studies the relationship between altered states of consciousness and culture. As with transpersonal psychology, the field is much concerned with altered states of consciousness (ASC) and transpersonal experience. However, the field differs from mainstream transpersonal psychology in taking more cognizance of cross-cultural issues—for instance, the roles of myth, ritual, diet, and texts in evoking and interpreting extraordinary experiences.[1]

Topics such as ASC in the traditional teachings of indigenous people, shamanism and ASC, ASC in response to ingestion of traditional hallucinogenetic herbs, etc., may be of interest to transpersonal anthropologists. Also, the role of culture in laying the foundations for, in evoking, in cultivating or thwarting, and in interpreting ASC is seen as fundamental to understanding the incidence and function of transpersonal experiences

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 94 cultivating or thwarting, and in interpreting ASC is seen as fundamental to understanding the incidence and function of transpersonal experiences among the planet's many and varied societies.

Urban and / or Rural Anthropology Urban anthropology is a subset of anthropology concerned with issues of urbanization, poverty, urban space, social relations,and neoliberalism. The field has become consolidated in the 1960s and 1970s.

Ulf Hannerz quotes a 1960s remark that traditional anthropologists were "a notoriously agoraphobic lot, anti-urban by definition". Various social processes in the Western World as well as in the "Third World" (the latter being the habitual focus of attention of anthropologists) brought the attention of "specialists in 'other cultures'" closer to their homes.[1]

RURAL ANTHROPOLOGY: Anthropologists have long examined rural problems and issues. Although much of life today is defined by the urban context, the ability of the urban to define the rural has limits. Rural anthropology is significant because it meets the challenge of analyzing the vexing problems and complex issues of the rural. It highlights important differences and parallels that occur along a rural–urban continuum of geography and culture as well as the particular problems rural communities face and the particular solutions they find, which may have very little to do with the urban. Rural anthropology is a particularly appropriate lens through which to explore the uses and limits of concepts that often guide social science and popular discourse, especially ideas about socially constructed difference, place, tradition and modernity, community, and identity. This article considers the conceptual and practical contributions of rural anthropology, its historical roots and development through peasant and communities studies, from a rather more limited focus on a particular community to an emphasis on local communities in relationship to common global problems. It explores diversity within rural communities along lines of class, race, and ethnicity; between landowners and those who work their land; along gender lines; and as results from experience with poverty and food insecurity. It also focuses on topics relating to land use that further our understanding of rurality, including land tenure and reform, natural resources, agriculture, and the impacts of climate change. Finally, a discussion of neoliberal globalization spotlights the interrelationship of the rural with migration and development and particularly the ways that indigenous peoples and youth experience and respond to current global influences. Rurality and encounters with it raise important questions that anthropologists can help to answer as they cast their gaze on the details of diverse local experiences and the link between these and larger forces. What will become of rural areas? What will rural come to mean? Who has claim to it? What will our relationship to it be? In short, place matters. Local culture matters. Rural matters in its own right.

Visual Anthropology Visual anthropology can be broadly understood as the anthropological study of the visual and the visual study of the anthropological. However, for much of its history, the term has been associated almost exclusively with ethnographic film (see Ethnographic Film) and it is only recently that a broader consideration of other visual forms and visuality itself have come under the subdiscipline’s purview. In the last decade, the boundaries have expanded further, partly through changes in technology (expensive celluloid film technology giving way to cheap high-quality video and digital processes, the rise of the Internet) but more through changes in theory and the opening up of new lines of intellectual inquiry. As with many other subdisciplines within the field of anthropology, many visual anthropologists would claim that they are simply anthropologists—with the same interests in kinship, politics, the economy, aesthetics, materiality, religion, and so forth as their colleagues—but with special attention paid to the visual and visible manifestations of those areas of human activity and creativity. The subdiscipline overlaps strongly with the anthropology of art and with the anthropology of material culture as well as with other disciplines such as media studies, film studies, and photographic history; in recent years, the field has also overlapped with action anthropology and other applied work coming out of development studies, and the rise of the Internet has given a new forum for the storage, study, and dissemination of images. There is no equivalent subdiscipline in the fields of archaeology and biological anthropology and primatology, though scholars in these fields do of course use photography and film or video for purposes of documentation (archaeology, forensic anthropology) and recording observations (primatology); interpretative approaches in archaeology, for example in the study of rock art, may draw upon approaches from visual anthropology as well as from the anthropology of art and the anthropology of material culture.

Anthropological Criminology Anthropological criminology (sometimes referred to as criminal anthropology, literally a combination of the study of the human species and the study of criminals) is a field of offender profiling, based on perceived links between the nature of a crime and the personality or physical appearance of the offender. Although similar to physiognomy and phrenology, the term criminal anthropology is generally reserved for the works of the Italian school of criminology of the late 19th century (Cesare Lombroso, Enrico Ferri, Raffaele Garofalo). Lombroso thought that criminals were born with inferior physiological differences which were detectable. He popularized the notion of "born criminal" and thought that criminality was an atavism or hereditary disposition. His central idea was to locate crime completely within the individual and utterly divorce it from the surrounding social conditions and structures. A founder of the Positivist school of criminology, Lombroso opposed the social positivism developed by the Chicago school and environmental criminology.

Anthropological Linguistics Anthropological linguistics is the study of the relations between language and culture and the relations between human biology, cognition and language. This strongly overlaps the field of linguistic anthropology, which is the branch of anthropology that studies humans through the languages that they use. Anthropological linguistics has had a major impact in the studies of such areas as visual perception (especially colour) and bioregional democracy, both of which are concerned with distinctions that are made in languages about perceptions of the surroundings.

Conventional linguistic anthropology also has implications for sociology and self-organization of peoples. Study of the Penan people, for instance, reveals that their language employs six different and distinct words whose best English translation is "we".[citation needed] Anthropological linguistics studies these distinctions, and relates them to types of societies and to actual bodily adaptation to the senses, much as it studies distinctions made in languages regarding the colours of the rainbow: seeing the tendency to increase the diversity of terms, as evidence that there are distinctions that bodies in this environment must make, leading to situated knowledge and perhaps a situated ethics, whose final evidence is the differentiated set of terms used to denote "we".

Linguistic anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of how language influences social life. It is a branch of anthropology that originated from the endeavor to document endangered languages, and has grown over the past 100 years to encompass most aspects of language structure and use.[1]

Linguistic anthropology explores how language shapes communication, forms social identity and group membership, organizes large-scale cultural beliefs and ideologies, and develops a common cultural representation of natural and social worlds.[2]

Anthropological Theories of Value Anthropological theories of value attempt to expand on the traditional theories of value used by economists or ethicists. They are often broader in scope than the theories of value of Adam Smith, David Ricardo, John Stuart Mill, Karl Marx, etc. usually including sociological, political, institutional, and historical perspectives (transdisciplinarity). Some have influenced feminist economics.

The basic premise is that economic activities can only be fully understood in the context of the society that creates them. The concept of "value" is a social construct, and as such is defined by the culture using the concept. Yet we can gain some insights into modern patterns of exchange, value, and wealth by examining previous societies. An anthropological approach to economic processes allows us to critically examine the cultural biases inherent in the principles of modern economics. Anthropological linguistics is a related field that looks at the terms we use to describe economic relations and the ecologies they are set within. Many anthropological economists (or economic anthropologists) are reacting against what they see as the portrayal of modern society as an economic machine that merely produces and consumes.

Marcel Mauss and Bronisław Malinowski for example wrote about objects that circulate in society without being consumed. Georges Bataille wrote about objects that are destroyed, but not consumed. Bruce Owens talks about objects of value that are neither circulating nor consumed (e.g. gold reserves, warehoused paintings, family heirlooms).

Applied Anthropology Applied anthropology Applied anthropology is the aspect of anthropology that serves practical community or organizational needs. In Europe this subfield started in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when ethnographic information was collected and used by colonial Belgian, French, British, Dutch, and Russian administrators. In North America the Mexican government in 1917 was the first to officially recognize its usefulness.

All branches of anthropology have applied aspects. Physical anthropologists work in forensics and industrial design. Archaeologists support historic preservation. Anthropological linguists have designed educational programs and whole writing systems. Some degree of identification with other disciplines, especially sociology, is frequent. Practitioners may have supplementary credentials in fields such as public health or law.

Among the many professional groups associated with applied anthropology are Anthropology in Action (in Britain), the Society for Applied Anthropology (SfAA) and the National Association for the Practice of Anthropology (in the United States), and the Society of Applied Anthropology (in Canada). France, Russia, and India have government departments devoted to anthropological research, some of which has applied value. Since the 1980s anthropologists working outside of research institutions at times have been called “practicing anthropologists.” Applied or practicing

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 95 the 1980s anthropologists working outside of research institutions at times have been called “practicing anthropologists.” Applied or practicing anthropologists are almost never licensed or certified. They may, however, perform legally mandated studies, such as environmental impact assessments or gender analyses, for governments or international agencies.

The support of policy-related decision making is common to much of applied social or cultural anthropology. The typical approach is holistic and gives attention to context. Flexible research methodologies often combine statistical techniques with participatory, qualitative methods such as participant observation, case studies, focus groups, key informant interviews, or rapid appraisal. The work may entail service as a “culture broker” or even conflict mediation. Some practitioners become advocates promoting specific groups’ interests. “Action anthropologists” work as insiders to help manage change and build self-sufficiency. Applied activities are rarely documented in widely accessible publications.

Applied anthropology has made positive contributions to public life. Industrial research in the 1930s and ’40s influenced modern business administration and management techniques and theories. In many countries, including Australia, Canada, India, Mexico, Russia, and the United States, anthropologists have helped to negotiate or implement policies strengthening indigenous peoples’ rights. On a global scale, Franz Boas deserves credit for stimulating the research that proved, as a 1963 United Nations declaration states, “that any doctrine of racial differentiation or superiority is scientifically false.”

Present-day employment of applied anthropologists by industries such as mining (e.g., in Western Australia) shows, on the other hand, that practitioners may work against indigenous peoples’ interests rather than for them. Anthropologists working on behalf of governments (e.g., Mexico or China) have at times promoted an approach to “acculturation” that disregards indigenous peoples’ social needs and values.

Applied anthropology tends to be a controversial pursuit. Early anthropologists’ claims of “ethical neutrality” vis-à-vis colonial policies were challenged in France and Great Britain. Conflicts about involvement in the Vietnam War and other Cold War projects created deep rifts in American anthropology during the 1960s and ’70s. In the 1980s American, British, and Canadian professional associations responded to such conflicts by writing codes of ethics establishing minimum (but nonenforceable) standards for professional conduct. Ongoing debates sustain a wholesome concern about moral and political dilemmas posed by some applied projects. Some of the most vigorous critiques are written by applied anthropologists themselves.

Suzanne L. Hanchett

Outline of Anthropology The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to anthropology:

Anthropology – study of humanity. Anthropology has origins in the natural sciences, the humanities, and the social sciences.[1] The term was first used by François Péron when discussing his encounters with Tasmanian Aborigines.[2]

Fields of anthropology

•Archaeology •Biological anthropology •Linguistic anthropology •Cultural anthropology •Social anthropology

Archaeological and biological subfields

•Anthrozoological •Biocultural •Evolutionary •Feminist •Forensic •Maritime •Palaeoanthropological

Linguistics subfields

•Descriptive •Ethno- •Historical •Semiotic •Sociolinguistics

Socio-cultural anthropology subfields

•Applied anthropology •Anthropology of art •Cognitive anthropology •Digital anthropology •Anthropology of development •Ecological anthropology •Economic anthropology •Historical anthropology •Anthropology of gender & sexuality •Kinship & family •Legal anthropology •Media anthropology •Medical anthropology •Political anthropology •Psychological anthropology •Public anthropology •Anthropology of religion •Transpersonal anthropology •Urban anthropology •Visual anthropology

General anthropology concepts

•Anthropological theories of value •Culture •Society •Kinship and descent •Marriage and family •Evolution •Material culture •Race and ethnicity •Globalization and postcolonialism •Gender •Socialization

Methods and frameworks

•Ethnography •Ethnology •Cross-cultural comparison •Participant observation •Online ethnography •Holism •Reflexivity •Thick description •Cultural relativism •Ethnocentrism

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 96 •Ethnocentrism •Emic and etic

Anthropology scholars

•American •British •French •Ruth Benedict •Bronislaw Malinowski •Marcel Mauss •Margaret Mead •E.E. Evans-Pritchard •Claude Lévi-Strauss •Eric Wolf •Alfred Radcliffe-Brown •Edmund Leach Anthropology organizations

•American Anthropological Association •American Ethnological Society •Moving Anthropology Student Network •Anthropological Society of London •Center for World Indigenous Studies •Ethnological Society of London •Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography •Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology •Network of Concerned Anthropologists •N. N. Miklukho-Maklai Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology •Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland •Society for anthropological sciences •Society for Applied Anthropology •USC Center for Visual Anthropology

Anthropology lists

•List of members of the National Academy of Sciences (Anthropology) •List of museums with major collections in ethnography and anthropology •List of visual anthropology films

See also

•Anthropological Index Online (AIO) •Human evolution •Intangible Cultural Heritage

Related fields

•Ethnology •Folklore •Philosophical anthropology– which is not part of anthropology but a subfield of philosophy •Sociology •Theological anthropology – which is not part of anthropology but a subfield of theology •Periodic Table of Human Sciences / Anthropology in Tinbergen's four questions

Semiotic Anthropology The phrase "semiotic anthropology" was first used by Milton Singer (1978).

Singer's work brought together the semiotics of Charles Sanders Peirce and Roman Jakobson with theoretical streams that had long been flowing in and around the University of Chicago, where Singer taught.[further explanation needed] In the late 1970s, Michael Silverstein, a young student of Jakobson's at Harvard University, joined Singer in Chicago's Department of Anthropology. Since that time, anthropological work inspired by Peirce's semiotic have proliferated, in part as students of Singer and Silverstein have spread out across the country, developing semiotic-anthropological agendas of their own.

Semiotic anthropology has its precursor in Malinowski's contextualism (which may be called anthropological semantics), which was later resumed by John Rupert Firth.[1] Anthropological approaches to semantics are alternative to the three major types of semantics approaches: linguistic semantics, logical semantics, and General semantics.[1] Other independent approaches to semantics are philosophical semantics and psychological semantics.[1] Elizabeth Mertz has recently reviewed the burgeoning literature in semiotic anthropology (2007).

From

Communication studies Communication studies is an academic discipline that deals with processes of human communication. There are three types of communication: verbal communication involving listening to a person to understand the meaning of a message, written communication in which a message is read, and nonverbal communication involving observing a person and inferring meaning.[1] The discipline encompasses a range of topics, from face-to- face conversation to mass media outlets such as television broadcasting. Communication studies also examines how messages are interpreted through the political, cultural, economic, semiotic, hermeneutic, and social dimensions of their contexts.

From

Economics Economics is the social science that describes the factors that determine the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.

The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek οἰκονομία from οἶκος (oikos, "house") and νόμος (nomos, "custom" or "law"), hence "rules of the house (hold for good management)".[1] 'Political economy' was the earlier name for the subject, but economists in the late 19th century suggested "economics" as a shorter term for "economic science" to establish itself as a separate discipline outside of political science and other social sciences.[2]

Economics focuses on the behavior and interactions of economic agents and how economies work. Consistent with this focus, primary textbooks often distinguish between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics examines the behavior of basic elements in the economy, including individual agents and markets, their interactions, and the outcomes of interactions. Individual agents may include, for example, households, firms, buyers, and sellers. Macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy (meaning aggregated production, consumption, savings, and investment) and issues affecting it, including unemployment of resources (labor, capital, and land), inflation, economic growth, and the public policies that address these issues (monetary, fiscal, and other policies).

Other broad distinctions within economics include those between positive economics, describing "what is," and normative economics, advocating "what ought to be"; between economic theory and applied economics; between rational and behavioral economics; and between mainstream economics (more "orthodox" and dealing with the "rationality-individualism-equilibrium nexus") and heterodox economics (more "radical" and dealing with the "institutions-history-social structure nexus").[3][4]

Besides the traditional concern in production, distribution, and consumption in an economy, economic analysis may be applied throughout society, as in business, finance, health care, and government. Economic analyses may also be applied to such diverse subjects as crime,[5] education,[6] the family, law, politics, religion,[7] social institutions, war,[8] science,[9] and the environment.[10] Education, for example, requires time, effort, and expenses, plus the foregone income and experience, yet these losses can be weighted against future benefits education may bring to the agent or the economy. At the turn of the 21st century, the expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism.[11]

Countries by real GDP growth rate in 2014. Countries in red were in recession. The ultimate goal of economics is to improve the living conditions of people in their everyday life.[12

There are a variety of modern definitions of economics. Some of the differences may reflect evolving views of the subject or different views among economists.[14] Scottish philosopher Adam Smith (1776) defined what was then called political economy as "an inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations", in particular as:

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 97 the wealth of nations", in particular as:

a branch of the science of a statesman or legislator [with the twofold objectives of providing] a plentiful revenue or subsistence for the people ... [and] to supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue for the publick services.[15]

J.-B. Say (1803), distinguishing the subject from its public-policy uses, defines it as the science of production, distribution, and consumption of wealth.[16] On the satirical side, Thomas Carlyle (1849) coined "the dismal science" as an epithet for classical economics, in this context, commonly linked to the pessimistic analysis of Malthus (1798).[17] John Stuart Mill (1844) defines the subject in a social context as:

The science which traces the laws of such of the phenomena of society as arise from the combined operations of mankind for the production of wealth, in so far as those phenomena are not modified by the pursuit of any other object.[18]

Alfred Marshall provides a still widely cited definition in his textbook Principles of Economics (1890) that extends analysis beyond wealth and from the societal to the microeconomic level:

Economics is a study of man in the ordinary business of life. It enquires how he gets his income and how he uses it. Thus, it is on the one side, the study of wealth and on the other and more important side, a part of the study of man.[19]

Lionel Robbins (1932) developed implications of what has been termed "[p]erhaps the most commonly accepted current definition of the subject":[20]

Economics is a science which studies human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses.[21]

Robbins describes the definition as not classificatory in "pick[ing] out certain kinds of behaviour" but rather analytical in "focus[ing] attention on a particular aspect of behaviour, the form imposed by the influence of scarcity."[22]

He affirmed that previous economist have usually centered their studies on the analysis of wealth: how wealth is created (production), distributed, and consumed; and how wealth can grow.[23] But he said that economics can be used to study other things, such as war, that are outside its usual focus. This is because war has as the goal winning it (as a sought after end), generates both cost and benefits; and, resources (human life and other costs) are used to attain the goal. If the war is not winnable or if the expected costs outweigh the benefits, the deciding actors (assuming they are rational) may never go to war (a decision) but rather explore other alternatives. We cannot define economics as the science that studies wealth, war, crime, education, and any other field economic analysis can be applied to; but, as the science that studies a particular common aspect of each of those subjects (they all use scarce resources to attain a sought after end).

Some subsequent comments criticized the definition as overly broad in failing to limit its subject matter to analysis of markets. From the 1960s, however, such comments abated as the economic theory of maximizing behavior and rational-choice modeling expanded the domain of the subject to areas previously treated in other fields.[24] There are other criticisms as well, such as in scarcity not accounting for the macroeconomics of high unemployment.[25]

Gary Becker, a contributor to the expansion of economics into new areas, describes the approach he favors as "combin[ing the] assumptions of maximizing behavior, stable preferences, and market equilibrium, used relentlessly and unflinchingly."[26] One commentary characterizes the remark as making economics an approach rather than a subject matter but with great specificity as to the "choice process and the type of social interaction that [such] analysis involves." The same source reviews a range of definitions included in principles of economics textbooks and concludes that the lack of agreement need not affect the subject-matter that the texts treat. Among economists more generally, it argues that a particular definition presented may reflect the direction toward which the author believes economics is evolving, or should evolve.[27]

Geography Geography (from Greek γεωγραφία, geographia, literally "earth description"[1]) is a field of science devoted to the study of the lands, the features, the inhabitants, and the phenomena of Earth.[2] The first person to use the word "γεωγραφία" was Eratosthenes (276–194 BC).[3] Four historical traditions in geographical research are spatial analysis of the natural and the human phenomena (geography as the study of distribution), area studies (places and regions), study of the human-land relationship, and research in the Earth sciences.[4]

Nonetheless, modern geography is an all-encompassing discipline that foremost seeks to understand the Earth and all of its human and natural complexities—not merely where objects are, but how they have changed and come to be. Geography has been called "the world discipline" and "the bridge between the human and the physical science". Geography is divided into two main branches: human geography and physical geography.[5][6] [7]

Physical Geography Physical geography (also known as geosystems or physiography) is one of the two major sub-fields of geography.[1][2][3] Physical geography is that branch of natural science which deals with the study of processes and patterns in the natural environment like the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and geosphere, as opposed to the cultural or built environment, the domain of human geography.

Within the body of physical geography, the Earth is often split into several spheres or environments, the main spheres being the atmosphere, biosphere, cryosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and pedosphere. Research in physical geography is often interdisciplinary and uses the systems approach.

Branches:

Physical geography can be divided into many broad categories, including:

Biogeography is the science which deals with geographic patterns of species distribution and the processes that result in these patterns. Biogeography emerged as a field of study as a result of the work of Alfred Russel Wallace, although the field prior to the late twentieth century had largely been viewed as historic in its outlook and descriptive in its approach. The main stimulus for the field since its founding has been that of evolution, plate tectonics and the theory of island biogeography. The field can largely be divided into five sub-fields: island biogeography, paleobiogeography, phylogeography, zoogeography and phytogeography

Climatology and Meteorology Climatology is the study of the climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a long period of time. Climatology examines both the nature of micro (local) and macro (global) climates and the natural and anthropogenic influences on them. The field is also sub-divided largely into the climates of various regions and the study of specific phenomena or time periods e.g. tropical cyclone rainfall climatology and paleoclimatology. Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses on weather processes and short term forecasting (in contrast with climatology). Studies in the field stretch back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the eighteenth century. Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events which illuminate and are explained by the science of meteorology.

Coastal Geography is the study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology and oceanography) and the human geography of the coast. It involves an understanding of coastal weathering processes, particularly wave action, sediment movement and weathering, and also the ways in which humans interact with the coast. Coastal geography, although predominantly geomorphological in its research, is not just concerned with coastal landforms, but also the causes and influences of sea level change.

Geodesy Geodesy (/dʒiːˈɒdᵻsi/),[1] — also known as geodetics or geodetics engineering — a branch of applied mathematics [2] and earth sciences, is the scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the Earth, including its gravitational field, in a three-dimensional time- varying space. Geodesists also study geodynamical phenomena such as crustal motion, tides, and polar motion. For this they design global and national control networks, using space and terrestrial techniques while relying on datums and coordinate systems.

Geomorphology Geomorphology is the field concerned with understanding the surface of the Earth and the processes by which it is shaped, both at the present as well as in the past. Geomorphology as a field has several sub-fields that deal with the specific landforms of various environments e.g. desert geomorphology and fluvial geomorphology, however, these sub-fields are united by the core processes which cause them; mainly tectonic or climatic processes. Geomorphology seeks to understand landform history and dynamics, and predict future changes through a combination of field observation, physical experiment, and numerical modeling (Geomorphometry). Early studies in geomorphology are the foundation for pedology, one of two main branches of soil science

Glaciology Glaciology is the study of glaciers and ice sheets, or more commonly the cryosphere or ice and phenomena that involve ice. Glaciology groups the latter (ice sheets) as continental glaciers and the former (glaciers) as alpine glaciers. Although, research in the areas are similar with research undertaken into both the dynamics of ice sheets and glaciers the former tends to be concerned with the interaction of ice sheets with the present climate and the latter with the impact of glaciers on the landscape. Glaciology also has a vast array of sub-fields examining the factors and processes involved in ice sheets and glaciers e.g. snow hydrology and glacial geology.

Hydrology and Hydrography Hydrology is predominantly concerned with the amounts and quality of water moving and accumulating on the land surface and in the soils and

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 98 Hydrology is predominantly concerned with the amounts and quality of water moving and accumulating on the land surface and in the soils and rocks near the surface and is typified by the hydrological cycle. Thus the field encompasses water in rivers, lakes, aquifers and to an extent glaciers, in which the field examines the process and dynamics involved in these bodies of water. Hydrology has historically had an important connection with engineering and has thus developed a largely quantitative method in its research; however, it does have an earth science side that embraces the systems approach. Similar to most fields of physical geography it has sub-fields that examine the specific bodies of water or their interaction with other spheres e.g. limnology and ecohydrology.

Landscape Ecology Landscape ecology is a sub-discipline of ecology and geography that address how spatial variation in the landscape affects ecological processes such as the distribution and flow of energy, materials and individuals in the environment (which, in turn, may influence the distribution of landscape "elements" themselves such as hedgerows). The field was largely founded by the German geographer Carl Troll. Landscape ecology typically deals with problems in an applied and holistic context. The main difference between biogeography and landscape ecology is that the latter is concerned with how flows or energy and material are changed and their impacts on the landscape whereas the former is concerned with the spatial patterns of species and chemical cycles.

Oceanography Oceanography is the branch of physical geography that studies the Earth's oceans and seas. It covers a wide range of topics, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics (biological oceanography); ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics (physical oceanography); plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor (geological oceanography); and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries (chemical oceanography). These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes within it.

Pedology Pedology is the study of soils in their natural environment. It is one of two main branches of soil science, the other being edaphology. Pedology mainly deals with pedogenesis, soil morphology, soil classification. In physical geography pedology is largely studied due to the numerous interactions between climate (water, air, temperature), soil life (micro-organisms, plants, animals), the mineral materials within soils (biogeochemical cycles) and its position and effects on the landscape such as laterization.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_geography https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geodesy Human Geography Human geography is the branch of the social sciences that deals with the world, its people and their communities, cultures, economies and interaction with the environment by emphasizing their relations with and across space and place.[1] As an intellectual discipline, geography is divided into the sub-fields of physical geography and human geography, the latter concentrating upon the study of human activities, by the application of qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Branches:

Animal Geography Animal geography is the examinations of the lifeworlds of animals themselves[5][6] The field has emerged through geographers' concerns with the nonhuman and material world, sometimes dubbed as 'hybrid' or 'more-than-human' geography.[7] Animal geographies are beginning to extend the domain and boundaries of 'human' geography

Cultural Geography Cultural geography is the study of cultural products and norms - their variation across spaces and places, as well as their relations. It focuses on describing and analysing the ways language, religion, economy, government, and other cultural phenomena vary or remain constant from one place to another and on explaining how humans function spatially.[8] Subfields include: Children's geographies, Animal geographies, Language geography, Sexuality and Space and Religion geography

Development Geography Development Geography is the study of the Earth's geography with reference to the Standard of living and the Quality of life of its human inhabitants, study of the location, distribution and spatial organization of economic activities, across the Earth. The subject matter investigated is strongly influenced by the researcher's methodological approach.

Economic Geography Economic geography examines relationships between human economic systems, states, and other factors, and the biophysical environment. Subfields include Marketing geography and Transportation geography

Health Geography Health geography is the application of geographical information, perspectives, and methods to the study of health, disease, and health care.

Historical Geography Historical geography is the study of the human, physical, fictional, theoretical, and "real" geographies of the past. Historical geography studies a wide variety of issues and topics. A common theme is the study of the geographies of the past and how a place or region changes through time. Many historical geographers study geographical patterns through time, including how people have interacted with their environment, and created the cultural landscape. Subfields include Time geography such as ALMUTAIRI and AlSALAMH.

Political Geography Political geography is concerned with the study of both the spatially uneven outcomes of political processes and the ways in which political processes are themselves affected by spatial structures. Subfields include Electoral geography, Geopolitics, Strategic geography and Military geography

Population Geography (Demography) Population geography is the study of the ways in which spatial variations in the distribution, composition, migration, and growth of populations are related to the nature of places.

Settlement Geography Settlement geography, including urban geography, is the study of urban and rural areas with specific regards to spatial, relational and theoretical aspects of settlement. That is the study of areas which have a concentration of buildings and infrastructure. These are areas where the majority of economic activities are in the secondary sector and tertiary sectors. In case of urban settlement, they probably have a high population density.

Cultural Geography (ies) Cultural geography is a sub-field within human geography. Cultural geography is the study of cultural products and norms and their variations across and relations to spaces and places. It focuses on describing and analyzing the ways language, religion, economy, government and other cultural phenomena vary or remain constant, from one place to another and on explaining how humans function spatially. [1]

The areas of study of cultural geography are very broad. Among many applicable topics within the field of study are: •Globalization has been theorised as an explanation for cultural convergence.[2] •Westernization or other similar processes such as modernization, americanization, islamization and others.[3] •Theories of cultural hegemony or cultural assimilation via cultural imperialism. •Cultural areal differentiation, as a study of differences in way of life encompassing ideas, attitudes, languages, practices, institutions and structures of power and whole range of cultural practices in geographical areas.[4] •Study of cultural landscapes[5][6] and cultural ecology. •Other topics include spirit of place, colonialism, post-colonialism, internationalism, immigration, emigration and ecotourism.

Though the first traces of the study of different nations and cultures on Earth can be dated back to ancient geographers such as Ptolemy or Strabo, cultural geography as academic study firstly emerged as an alternative to the environmental determinist theories of the early Twentieth century, which had believed that people and societies are controlled by the environment in which they develop.[7] Rather than studying pre-determined regions based upon environmental classifications, cultural geography became interested in cultural landscapes.[7] This was led by Carl O. Sauer (called the father of cultural geography), at the University of California, Berkeley. As a result, cultural geography was long dominated by American writers.

Sauer defined the landscape as the defining unit of geographic study. He saw that cultures and societies both developed out of their landscape, but also shaped them too.[8] This interaction between the natural landscape and humans creates the cultural landscape.[8] Sauer's work was highly qualitative and descriptive and was surpassed in the 1930s by the regional geography of Richard Hartshorne, followed by the quantitative revolution. Cultural geography was generally sidelined, though writers such as David Lowenthal continued to work on the concept of landscape.

In the 1970s, the critique of positivism in geography caused geographers to look beyond the quantitative geography for its ideas. One of these re- assessed areas was also cultural geography. However, as in many geographic subdisciplines, post-positivist cultural geography continues playing an important role.

Since the 1980s, a new cultural geography has emerged, drawing on a diverse set of theoretical traditions, including Marxist political-economic models, feminist theory, post-colonial theory, post-structuralism and psychoanalysis.

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 99 models, feminist theory, post-colonial theory, post-structuralism and psychoanalysis. Drawing particularly from the theories of Michel Foucault and performativity in western academia, and the more diverse influences of postcolonial theory, there has been a concerted effort to deconstruct the cultural in order to make apparent the various power relations. A particular area of interest is that of identity politics and construction of identity. Examples of areas of study include:

•Feminist geography •Children's geographies •Some parts of Tourism geography •Behavioral geography •Sexuality and space •Some more recent developments in Political geography •Music Geography

Some within the new cultural geography have turned their attention to critiquing some of its ideas, seeing its views on identity and space as static. It has followed the critiques of Foucault made by other 'poststructuralist' theorists such as Michel de Certeau and Gilles Deleuze. In this area, non- representational geography and population mobility research have dominated. Others have attempted to incorporate these critiques back into the new cultural geography.

Development Geography Development geography is a branch of geography which refers to the standard of living and quality of life of its human inhabitants. In this context, development is a process of change that affects people's lives. It may involve an improvement in the quality of life as perceived by the people undergoing change.[1] However, development is not always a positive process. Gunder Frank commented on the global economic forces that lead to the development of underdevelopment. This is covered in his dependency theory.

In development geography, geographers study spatial patterns in development. They try to find by what characteristics they can measure development by looking at economic, political and social factors. They seek to understand both the geographical causes and consequences of varying development. Studies compare More Economically Developed Countries (MEDCs) with Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs). Additionally variations within countries are looked at such as the differences between northern and southern Italy, the Mezzogiorno.

Within development geography, sustainable development is also studied in an attempt to understand how to meet the needs of the present without compromising the needs of future generations to meet their own needs.[2]

Economic Geography Economic geography is the study of the location, distribution and spatial organization of economic activities across the world. It represents a traditional subfield of the discipline of geography. However, many economists have also approached the field in ways more typical of the discipline of economics.[1] Economic geography has taken a variety of approaches to many different subject matters, including the location of industries, economies of agglomeration (also known as "linkages"), transportation, international trade, development, real estate, gentrification, ethnic economies, gendered economies, core-periphery theory, the economics of urban form, the relationship between the environment and the economy (tying into a long history of geographers studying culture-environment interaction), and globalization.

Geography of Disability, Illness and Health geography is the application of geographical information, perspectives, and methods to the study of health, disease, and health care. Health The study of health geography has been influenced by (re)positioning of medical geography within the field of social geography due to a shift from a medical model to a social model in healthcare, which advocates for the redefinition of health and health care away from prevention and treatment of illness only to one of promoting well-being in general. Under this model, some previous illnesses (e.g., mental ill health) are recognized as behavior disturbances only, and other types of medicine (e.g., complementary or alternative medicine and traditional medicine) are studied by the medicine researchers, sometimes with the aid of health geographers without medical education. This shift changes the definition of care, no longer limiting it to spaces such as hospitals or doctor's offices. Also, the social model gives primacy to the intimate encounters performed at non-traditional spaces of medicine and healthcare as well as to the individuals as health consumers.[1]

This alternative methodological approach means that medical geography is broadened to incorporate philosophies such as Marxian political economy, structuralism, social interactionism, humanism, feminism and queer theory.[2]

History of health geography The relationship between space and health dates back to Hippocrates, who stated that "airs, waters, places" all played significant roles impacting human health and history.[2] A classic piece of research in health geography was done in 1854 as a cholera outbreak gripped a neighborhood in London. Death tolls rang around the clock and the people feared that they were being infected by vapors coming from the ground. John Snow thought that if he could locate the source of the disease, it could be contained. He drew maps showing the homes of people who had died of cholera and the locations of water pumps. He found that one pump, the public pump on Broad Street, was central to most of the victims. He figured that infected water from the pump was the culprit. He instructed the authorities to remove the handle to the pump, making it unusable. After that the number of new cholera cases decreased.

Areas of study Health geography is considered to be divided into two distinct elements. The first of which is focused on geographies of disease and ill health, involving descriptive research quantifying disease frequencies and distributions, and analytic research concerned with finding what characteristics make an individual or population susceptible to disease. This requires an understanding of epidemiology.[3] The second stream of health geography is the geography of health care, primarily facility location, accessibility and utilization. This requires the use of spatial analysis and often borrows from Behavioral economics.[4] Geographies of disease and ill health

Health geographers are concerned with the prevalence of different diseases along a range of spatial scales from the local to global, and inspects the natural world, in all of its complexity, for correlations between diseases and locations. This situates health geography alongside other geographical sub-disciplines that trace human-environment relations. Health geographers use modern spatial analysis tools to map the diffusion of various diseases, as individuals spread them amongst themselves, and across wider spaces as they migrate.[2] Health geographers also consider all types of spaces as presenting health risks, from natural disasters, to interpersonal violence, stress and other potential dangers.[1

Geography of health care provision Although health care is a public good, it is not equally available to all individuals. Demand for public services is continuously increasing. People need advance knowledge and fastest prediction technology, that Health Geography offers. The latest example is Telemedicine Mobility and Disease Tracking.

With the advent of mobile technology and its spread, it is now possible to track individual mobility. Corelating the movement of individuals by tracking the devices using access towers or other tracking systems, it is now possible to determine and even control disease spread. While privacy laws will come in the way of tracking individuals, the commercial mobile service providers are using anonymizing techniques or getting government waiver to track people .

Regional Geography Regional geography is the study of world regions. Attention is paid to unique characteristics of a particular region such as natural elements, human elements, and regionalization which covers the techniques of delineating space into regions.

Regional geography is also a certain approach to geographical study, comparable to quantitative geography or critical geography. This approach prevailed during the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, a period when then regional geography paradigm was central within the geographical sciences. It was later criticised for its descriptiveness and the lack of theory. Strong criticism was leveled against it in particular during the 1950s and the quantitative revolution. Main critics were G. H. T. Kimble[1] and Fred K. Schaefer.[2]

The regional geography paradigm has had an impact on many other geographical sciences, including economic geography and geomorphology. Regional geography is still taught in some universities as a study of the major regions of the world, such as Northern and Latin America, Europe, and Asia and their countries. In addition, the notion of a city-regional approach to the study of geography gained some credence in the mid-1990s through the work of geographers such as Saskia Sassen, although it was also criticized, for example by Michael Storper.[3]

Notable figures in regional geography were Alfred Hettner in Germany, with his concept of chorology; Paul Vidal de la Blache in France, with the possibilism approach (possibilism being a softer notion than environmental determinism); and, in the United States, Richard Hartshorne with his concept of areal differentiation.

Some geographers have also attempted to reintroduce a certain amount of regionalism since the 1980s. This involves a complex definition of regions and their interactions with other scales.[4

Settlement Geography Settlement geography is a branch of geography that investigates the earth's surface's part settled by humans. According to the United Nations' Vancouver Declaration on Human Settlements (1976), "human settlements means the totality of the human community – whether city, town or

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 100 Settlement Geography Vancouver Declaration on Human Settlements (1976), "human settlements means the totality of the human community – whether city, town or village – with all the social, material, organizational, spiritual and cultural elements that sustain it".

Traditionally, it belongs to cultural geography and is divided into the geography of urban settlements (cities and towns) and rural settlements (e.g. villages and hamlets). Thereby, settlements are mostly seen as elements of the cultural landscape that developed over time. Apart from Australia, Europe and India, the term is actually rarely used in English-speaking geography. One of the last English books on settlement geography was published by Cambridge University Press in the 90s. [1] However, it is a traditional and actual branch in many other countries (e.g., German Siedlungsgeographie, French Geographie de l'habitat, Italian Geografia insediativa, Polish Geografia osadnictwa).

Due to processes of urban sprawl such as counter urbanization,[2] peri-urbanisation or postsuburbanisation the existing dichotomy between the urban and the rural is losing importance, especially in industrialized countries and newly industrialized countries. This point of view is already represented by many planning strategies such as the unified settlement planning. Hence, an integrative geography of settlements that considers the urban and the rural settlements as a continuum[3] is regaining the importance lost during the 20th century. Further it is used in prehistoric, [4] historic[5] and present-focusing [6] [7] [8] geographic research.

Referring to Stone (1965), settlement geography is the description and analysis of the distribution of buildings by which people attach themselves to the land. Further, that the geography of settling designate the action of erecting buildings in order to occupy an area temporarily or permanently. It should be understood that buildings are one tangible expression of man-land relationships and that specification of this focus assumes study may be at any scale from quite general to most specific; there is no restriction to large-scale study of individual building plans or architectural details. Buildings are simply one representation of the process of people living in an area they are a mappable division of the landscape to which attention needs direction.[9]

With respect to Stone's definition, Jordan (1966) emphasizes that settlement geography not exclusively investigates the distributions, but even more the structures, processes and interactions between settlements and its environment (such as soil, geomorphology, economy or society), which produce them.[10] More recently, however,

the study of settlement has evolved into the interaction of humans with the physical and ecological world. This more holistic study is concerned with sustainability and seeks to better understand the present landscape and plan the future.[11]

In sum, settlement geography describes and explains the settlements' location, substance, form and structure, as well as the functions and processes that produced them over time (Genesis, from Greek γέννησις, "origin, birth" or historical development). As an applied science, it projects future settlement development and contributes to the sustainable development of human-environmental systems

Population Geography Population geography is a division of human geography. It is the study of the ways in which spatial variations in the distribution, composition, migration, and growth of populations are related to the nature of places. Population geography involves demography in a geographical perspective. It focuses on the characteristics of population distributions that change in a spatial context.

Examples can be shown through population density maps. A few types of maps that show the spatial layout of population are choropleth, isoline, and dot maps. Population geography studies:

•Demographic phenomena (natality, mortality, growth rates, etc.) through both space and time •Increase or decrease in population numbers •The movements and mobility of populations •Occupational Structure •The way in which places in turn react to population phenomena e.g. immigration

Research topics of other geographic sub-disciplines, such as settlement geography, have also a population-geographic dimension:

•Grouping of people in settlements •The way from the geographical character of places e.g. settlement patterns

All of the above are looked at over space and time.

Demography Demography (prefix, Demo- from Ancient Greek δῆμος dēmos, means "the people" and -graphy from γράφω graphō, implies writing, description or measurement.[1]) is the statistical study of populations, especially human beings. As a very general science, it can analyze any kind of dynamic living population, i.e., one that changes over time or space (see population dynamics). Demography encompasses the study of the size, structure, and distribution of these populations, and spatial and/or temporal changes in them in response to birth, migration, ageing, and death. Based on the demographic research of the earth, earth’s population up to the year 2050 and 2100 can be estimated by the demographers. Demographics are quantifiable characteristics of a given population.

Formal demography limits its object of study to the measurement of population processes, while the broader field of social demography or population studies also analyzes the relationships between economic, social, cultural and biological processes influencing a population.[4]

From

Philosophy of Geography Philosophy of geography is that subfield of philosophy which deals with epistemological, metaphysical, and axiological issues in geography, with geographic methodology in general, and with more broadly related issues such as the perception and representation of space and place.

Though methodological issues concerning geographical knowledge have been debated for centuries, Richard Hartshorne (1899-1992) is often credited with its first major systematic treatment in English, The Nature of Geography: A Critical Survey of Current Thought in the Light of the Past, which appeared in 1939, and which prompted several volumes of critical essays in subsequent decades. John Kirtland Wright (1891–1969), an American geographer notable for his cartography and study of the history of geographical thought, coined the related term geosophy in 1947, for this kind of broad study of geographical knowledge. Other books oft-cited as key works in the field includeDavid Harvey's 1969 Explanation in Geography and Henri Lefebvre's 1974 The Production of Space. It was a discussion of issues raised by the latter which in part inspired the founding of a Society for Philosophy and Geography in the 1990s.

The Society for Philosophy and Geography was founded in 1997 by Andrew Light, a philosopher currently at George Mason University, and Jonathan Smith a geographer at Texas A&M University. Three volumes of an annual peer-reviewed journal, Philosophy and Geography, were published by Rowman & Littlefield Press which later became a bi-annual journal published by Carfax publishers. This journal merged with another journal started by geographers, Ethics, Place, and Environment, in 2005 to become Ethics, Place, and Environment: A journal of philosophy and geography published by Routledge. The journal was edited by Light and Smith up to 2009, and has published work by philosophers, geographers, and others in allied fields, on questions of space, place, and the environment broadly construed. It has come to be recognized as instrumental in expanding the scope of the field of environmental ethics to include work on urban environments.

In 2009 Smith retired from the journal and Benjamin Hale from the University of Colorado came on as the new co-editor. Hale and Light relaunched the journal in January 2011 as Ethics, Policy, and Environment.[1] While the journal has since focused more on the relationship between environmental ethics and policy, it still welcomes submissions on relevant work from geographers.

A book series, also initially published by Rowman & Littlefield, and later by Cambridge Scholars Press, began in 2002 to publish the transactions of the Society for Philosophy and Geography's annual meetings, organized by Gary Backhaus and John Murungi of Towson University.[2] In 2005 the society sponsoring these annual meetings became theInternational Association for the Study of Environment, Space, and Place, and in 2009 the book series gave way to a peer-reviewed journal, Environment, Space, Place, published semiannually and currently edited by C. Patrick Heidkamp, Troy Paddock, and Christine Petto of Southern Connecticut State University.[3]

From

Social Geography (ies) Social geography is the branch of human geography that is most closely related to social theory in general and sociology in particular, dealing with the relation of social phenomena and its spatial components. Though the term itself has a tradition of more than 100 years,[1] there is no consensus on its explicit content.[2] In 1968, Anne Buttimernoted that "[w]ith some notable exceptions, (...) social geography can be considered a field created and cultivated by a number of individual scholars rather than an academic tradition built up within particular schools". [3] Since then, despite some calls[4] for convergence centred on the structure and agency debate,[5] its methodological, theoretical and topical diversity has spread even more, leading to numerous definitions of social geography[6] and, therefore, contemporary scholars of the discipline identifying a great variety of different social geographies.[7] However, as Benno Werlen remarked,[8] these different perceptions are nothing else than different answers to the same two (sets of) questions, which refer to the spatial constitution of society on the one hand, and to the spatial expression of social processes on the other.[9][note 1]

The different conceptions of social geography have also been overlapping with other sub-fields of geography and, to a lesser extent, sociology. When the term emerged within the Anglo-American tradition during the 1960s, it was basically applied as a synonym for the search for patterns in

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 101 When the term emerged within the Anglo-American tradition during the 1960s, it was basically applied as a synonym for the search for patterns in the distribution of social groups, thus being closely connected to urban geography and urban sociology.[10] In the 1970s, the focus of debate within American human geography lay on political economic processes (though there also was a considerable number of accounts[11] for a phenomenological perspective on social geography),[12] while in the 1990s, geographical thought was heavily influenced by the "cultural turn". Both times, as Neil Smith noted, these approaches "claimed authority over the 'social'".[13] In the American tradition, the concept of cultural geography has a much more distinguished history than social geography, and encompasses research areas that would be conceptualized as "social" elsewhere.[14] In contrast, within some continental European traditions, social geography was and still is considered an approach to human geography rather than a sub-discipline,[15][note 2] or even as identical to human geography in general.[16]

From Behavioural / Cognitive Geography Behavioral geography is an approach to human geography that examines human behavior using a disaggregate approach. Behavioral geographers focus on the cognitive processes underlying spatial reasoning, decision making, and behavior.

In addition, behavioral geography is an ideology/approach in human geography that makes use of the methods and assumptions of behaviorism to determine the cognitive processes involved in an individual's perception of, and/or response and reaction to their environment.

Behavioral geography is that branch of human science, which deals with the study of cognitive processes with its response to its environment, through behaviorism.

Cognitive geography is an interdiscipline of cognitive science and geography, which studies maps in the mind. It is one of the studies into the foundations of geography.

An important topic in cognitive geography is the cognitive map. Cognitive geography has been described as "the study of the maps in people’s minds."[1][2] It also investigates "how peoples may see their world."[3]

From CRITICAL GEOGRAPHIES Critical geography takes a critical theory (Frankfurt School) approach to the study and analysis of geography. The development of critical geography can be seen as one of the four major turning points in the history of geography (the other three being environmental determinism, regional geography and quantitative revolution). Though post-positivist approaches remain important in geography the critical geography arose as a critique of positivism introduced by quantitative revolution

Two main schools of thought emerged from human geography and one existing school (behavioural geography) which made a brief comeback. Behavioural geography sought to counter the perceived tendency of quantitative geography to deal with humanity as a statistical phenomenon. It flourished briefly during the 1970s and sought to provide a greater understanding of how people perceived places and made locational decisions and sought to challenge mathematical models of society, in particular the use of econometric techniques. But the lack of a sound theoretical base left behavioural geography open to critique as merely descriptive and amounting to little more than a listing of spatial preferences.

Radical geography emerged during the 1970s and 1980s as the inadequacies of behavioralist methods became clear. It sought to counter the positivist quantitative methods with normative techniques drawn from Marxist theory: quantitative methods, it argued, were not useful unless alternatives or solutions were given to problems.

The final and, arguably, most successful of the three schools was humanistic geography, initially formed part of behavioural geography but fundamentally disagreed with the use of quantitative methods in assessing human behaviour and thoughts in favour of qualitative analysis. Humanistic geography used many of the techniques that the humanities use such as source analysis and the use of text and literature to try to ‘get into the mind’ of the subject(s). Furthermore, Cultural geography revived due to humanistic geography and new areas of study such as Feminist geography, postmodernist and poststructuralist geography began to emerge.

Feminist Geographies Feminist geography is an approach in human geography which applies the theories, methods and critiques of feminism to the study of the human environment, society and geographical space.[1]

Marxist Geography Marxist geography is a strand of critical geography that uses the theories and philosophy of Marxism to examine the spatial relations of human geography. In Marxist geography, the relations that geography has traditionally analyzed—natural environment and spatial relations—are reviewed as outcomes of the mode of material production. To understand geographical relations, on this view, the social structure must also be examined. Marxist geography attempts to change the basic structure of society.

From Environmental Geography Environmental social science is the broad, transdisciplinary study of interrelations between humans and the natural environment. Environmental social scientists work within and between the fields of anthropology, communication studies, economics, geography, history, political science, psychology, and sociology; and also in the interdisciplinary fields of environmental studies, human ecology and political ecology, among others.

Time Geography Time geography or time-space geography is an evolving transdisciplinary perspective on spatial and temporal processes and events such as social interaction, ecological interaction, social and environmental change, and biographies of individuals.[1] Time geography "is not a subject area per se,"[2] but rather an integrative ontological framework and visual language in which space and time are basic dimensions of analysis of dynamic processes. Time geography was originally developed by human geographers, but today it is applied in multiple fields related to transportation, regional planning, geography, anthropology, time use research, ecology, environmental science, and public health.[3] "It is a basic approach, and every researcher can connect it to theoretical considerations in her or his own way."[4]

Swedish geographer Torsten Hägerstrand created time geography in the mid-1960s based on ideas he had developed during his earlier empirical research on human migration patterns in Sweden.[5] He sought "some way of finding out the workings of large socio-environmental mechanisms" using "a physical approach involving the study of how events occur in a time-space framework."[6] Hägerstrand was inspired in part by conceptual advances in spacetime physics and by the philosophy of physicalism.[7]

Hägerstrand's earliest formulation of time geography informally described its key ontological features: "In time-space the individual describes a path" within a situational context; "life paths become captured within a net of constraints, some of which are imposed by physiological and physical necessities and some imposed by private and common decisions."[8] "It would be impossible to offer a comprehensive taxonomy of constraints seen as time-space phenomena," Hägerstrand said, but he "tentatively described" three important classes of constraints:

•capability constraints — limitations on the activity of individuals because of their biological structure and/or the tools they can command, •coupling constraints — limitations that "define where, when, and for how long, the individual has to join other individuals, tools, and materials in order to produce, consume, and transact" (closely related to critical path analysis), and •authority constraints — limitations on the domain or "time-space entity within which things and events are under the control of a given individual or a given group."[9]

Examples of the visual language of time geography: space-time cube, path, prism, bundle, and other concepts.

Hägerstrand illustrated these concepts with novel forms of graphical notation (inspired in part by musical notation),[10] such as:

•the space-time aquarium (or space-time cube), which displays individual paths in axonometric graphical projection of space and time coordinates; •the space-time prism, which shows individuals' possible behavior in time-space given their capability constraints and coupling constraints; •bundles of paths, which are the conjunction of individual paths due in part to their capability constraints and coupling constraints, and which help to create "pockets of local order"; •concentric tubes or rings of accessibility, which indicate certain capability constraints of a given individual, such as limited spatial size and limited manual, oral-auditive and visual range; and •nested hierarchies of domains, which show the authority constraints for a given individual or a given group.[11]

While this innovative visual language is an essential feature of time geography, Hägerstrand's colleague Bo Lenntorp emphasized that it is the product of an underlying ontology, and "not the other way around. The notation system is a very useful tool, but it is a rather poor reflection of a rich world-view. In many cases, the notational apparatus has been the hallmark of time geography. However, the underlying ontology is the most

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 102 world-view. In many cases, the notational apparatus has been the hallmark of time geography. However, the underlying ontology is the most important feature."[12] Time geography is not only about time-geographic diagrams, just as music is not only about musical notation. Hägerstrand later explained: "What is briefly alluded to here is a 4-dimensional world of forms. This cannot be completely graphically depicted. On the other hand one ought to be able to imagine it with sufficient clarity for it to be of guidance in empirical and theoretical research." [13] By 1981, geographers Nigel Thrift and Allan Pred were already defending time geography against those who would see it "merely as a rigid descriptive model of spatial and temporal organization which lends itself to accessibility constraint analysis (and related exercises in social engineering)."[14] They argued that time geography is not just a model of constraints; it is a flexible and evolving way of thinking about reality that can complement a wide variety of theories and research methods. In the decades since then, Hägerstrand and others have made efforts to expand his original set of concepts.[15] By the end of his life, Hägerstrand had ceased using the phrase "time geography" to refer to this way of thinking and instead used words like topoecology.[16]

Later developments in time geography Since the 1980s, time geography has been used by researchers in the social sciences,[17] the biological sciences,[18] and in interdisciplinary fields.

In 1993, British geographer Gillian Rose noted that "time-geography shares the feminist interest in the quotidian paths traced by people, and again like feminism, links such paths, by thinking about constraints, to the larger structures of society." [19]

However, she noted that time geography had not been applied to issues important to feminists, and she called it a form of "social science masculinity."[20] Over the following two decades, feminist geographers have revisited time geography and have begun to use it as a tool to address feminist issues.[21]

GIS software such as GeoTime has been developed to facilitate time-geographic visualization and visual analytics.

Time geography has also been used as a form of therapeutic assessment in mental health.[22]

From Cartography Cartography (from Greek χάρτης khartēs, "map"; and γράφειν graphein, "write") is the study and practice of making maps. Combining science, aesthetics, and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively.

The fundamental problems of traditional cartography are to:[citation needed]

•Set the map's agenda and select traits of the object to be mapped. This is the concern of map editing. Traits may be physical, such as roads or land masses, or may be abstract, such as toponyms or political boundaries. •Represent the terrain of the mapped object on flat media. This is the concern of map projections. •Eliminate characteristics of the mapped object that are not relevant to the map's purpose. This is the concern of generalization. •Reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped. This is also the concern of generalization. •Orchestrate the elements of the map to best convey its message to its audience. This is the concern of map design.

Modern cartography constitutes many theoretical and practical foundations of geographic information systems.

The earliest known map is a matter of some debate, both because the definition of "map" is not sharp and because some artifacts speculated to be maps might actually be something else. A wall painting, which may depict the ancient Anatolian city of Çatalhöyük (previously known as Catal Huyuk or Çatal Hüyük), has been dated to the late 7th millennium BCE.[1][2] Among the prehistoric alpine rock carvings of Mount Bego (F) and Valcamonica (I), dated to the 4th millennium BCE, geometric patterns consisting of dotted rectangles and lines are widely interpreted[3][4] in archaeological literature as a plan depiction of cultivated plots.[5] Other known maps of the ancient world include the Minoan "House of the Admiral" wall painting from c. 1600 BCE, showing a seaside community in an oblique perspective and an engraved map of the holy Babylonian city of Nippur, from the Kassite period (14th – 12th centuries BCE).[6]

The oldest surviving world maps are the Babylonian world maps from the 9th century BCE.[7] One shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by a circular landmass showing Assyria, Urartu[8] and several cities, in turn surrounded by a "bitter river" (Oceanus), with seven islands arranged around it.[9] Another depicts Babylon as being further north from the center of the world.[7]

The ancient Greeks and Romans created maps, beginning at latest with Anaximander in the 6th century BC.[10] In the 2nd century AD, Ptolemy produced his treatise on cartography, Geographia.[11] This contained Ptolemy's world map – the world then known to Western society (Ecumene). As early as the 8th century, Arab scholars were translating the works of the Greek geographers into Arabic.[12]

In ancient China, geographical literature spans back to the 5th century BC. The oldest extant Chinese maps come from the State of Qin, dated back to the 4th century BC, during the Warring States period. In the book of the Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao, published in 1092 by the Chinese scientist Su Song, a star map on the equidistant cylindrical projection.[13][14] Although this method of charting seems to have existed in China even prior to this publication and scientist, the greatest significance of the star maps by Su Song is that they represent the oldest existent star maps in printed form.

Early forms of cartography of India included the locations of the Pole star and other constellations of use.[15] These charts may have been in use by the beginning of the Common Era for purposes of navigation.[15]

Mappa mundi are the Medieval European maps of the world. Approximately 1,100 mappae mundi are known to have survived from the Middle Ages. Of these, some 900 are found illustrating manuscripts and the remainder exist as stand-alone documents.[16]

The Tabula Rogeriana, drawn by Muhammad al-Idrisi for Roger II of Sicily in 1154 The Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi produced his medieval atlas Tabula Rogeriana in 1154. He incorporated the knowledge of Africa, the Indian Ocean and the Far East, gathered by Arab merchants and explorers with the information inherited from the classical geographers to create the most accurate map of the world up until his time. It remained the most accurate world map for the next three centuries. [17]

Europa regina in Sebastian Münster's "Cosmographia", 1570 In the Age of Exploration, from the 15th century to the 17th century, European cartographers both copied earlier maps (some of which had been passed down for centuries) and drew their own based on explorers' observations and new surveying techniques. The invention of the magnetic compass, telescope and sextant enabled increasing accuracy. In 1492, Martin Behaim, a German cartographer, made the oldest extant globe of the Earth.[18]

Johannes Werner refined and promoted the Werner projection. In 1507, Martin Waldseemüller produced a globular world map and a large 12-panel world wall map (Universalis Cosmographia) bearing the first use of the name "America". Portuguese cartographer Diego Ribero was the author of the first known planisphere with a graduated Equator (1527). Italian cartographer Battista Agnese produced at least 71 manuscript atlases of sea charts.

Due to the sheer physical difficulties inherent in cartography, map-makers frequently lifted material from earlier works without giving credit to the original cartographer. For example, one of the most famous early maps of North America is unofficially known as the "Beaver M ap", published in 1715 by Herman Moll. This map is an exact reproduction of a 1698 work by Nicolas de Fer. De Fer in turn had copied images that were first printed in books by Louis Hennepin, published in 1697, and François Du Creux, in 1664. By the 18th century, map-makers started to give credit to the original engraver by printing the phrase "After [the original cartographer]" on the work.[19] In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were manually constructed with brushes and parchment; therefore, varied in quality and were limited in distribution. The advent of magnetic devices, such as the compass and much later, magnetic storage devices, allowed for the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate them digitally.

Advances in mechanical devices such as the printing press, quadrant and vernier, allowed for the mass production of maps and the ability to make accurate reproductions from more accurate data. Optical technology, such as the telescope, sextant and other devices that use telescopes, allowed for accurate surveying of land and the ability of mapmakers and navigators to find their latitude by measuring angles to the North Star at night or the sun at noon.

Advances in photochemical technology, such as the lithographic and photochemical processes, have allowed for the creation of maps that have fine details, do not distort in shape and resist moisture and wear. This also eliminated the need for engraving, which further shortened the time it takes to make and reproduce maps.

In the 20th century, Aerial photography, satellite imagery, and remote sensing provided efficient, precise methods for mapping physical features, such as coastlines, roads, buildings, watersheds, and topography. Advancements in electronic technology ushered in another revolution in cartography. Ready availability of computers and peripherals such as monitors, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document) and analytic stereo plotters, along with computer programs for visualization, image processing, spatial analysis, and database management, democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps. The ability to superimpose spatially located variables onto existing maps created new uses for maps and new industries to explore and exploit these potentials. See also digital raster graphic.

These days most commercial-quality maps are made using software that falls into one of three main types: CAD, GIS and specialized illustration software. Spatial information can be stored in a database, from which it can be extracted on demand. These tools lead to increasingly dynamic, interactive maps that can be manipulated digitally. With the field rugged computers, GPS and laser rangefinders, it is possible to perform mapping directly in the terrain.

There are technical and cultural aspects to the producing maps. In this sense, maps are biased. The study of bias, influence, and agenda in making a

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 103 There are technical and cultural aspects to the producing maps. In this sense, maps are biased. The study of bias, influence, and agenda in making a map is what comprise a map's deconstruction. A central tenet of deconstructionism is that maps have power. Other assertions are that maps are inherently biased and that we search for metaphor and rhetoric in maps.[20]

It was the Europeans who promoted an epistemological understanding of the map as early as the 17th century. [20] An example of this understanding is that, "[European reproduction of terrain on maps] reality can be expressed in mathematical terms; that systematic observation and measurement offer the only route to cartographic truth…".[20] 17th century map-makers were careful and precise in their strategic approaches to maps based on a scientific model of knowledge. Popular belief at the time was that this scientific approach to cartography was immune to the social atmosphere.

A common belief is that science heads in a direction of progress, and thus leads to more accurate representations of maps. In this belief European maps must be superior to others, which necessarily employed different map-making skills. "There was a 'not cartography' land where lurked an army of inaccurate, heretical, subjective, valuative, and ideologically distorted images. Cartographers developed a 'sense of the other' in relation to nonconforming maps."[20]

Though cartography has been a target of much criticism in recent decades, a cartographer's 'black box' always seemed to be naturally defended to the point where it overcame the criticism. However, to later scholars in the field, it was evident that cultural influences dominate map-making.[20] For instance, certain abstracts on maps and the map-making society itself describe the social influences on the production of maps. This social play on cartographic knowledge "…produces the 'order' of [maps'] features and the 'hierarchies of its practices.'"[21]

Depictions of Africa are a common target of deconstructionism.[22] According to deconstructionist models, cartography was used for strategic purposes associated with imperialism and as instruments and representations of power[23] during the conquest of Africa. The depiction of Africa and the low latitudes in general on the Mercator projection has been interpreted as imperialistic and as symbolic of subjugation due to the diminished proportions of those regions compared to higher latitudes where the European powers were concentrated.[24]

Maps furthered imperialism and colonization of Africa through practical ways such as showing basic information like roads, terrain, natural resources, settlements, and communities. Through this, maps made European commerce in Africa possible by showing potential commercial routes, and made natural resource extraction possible by depicting locations of resources. Such maps also enabled military conquests and made them more efficient, and imperial nations further used them to put their conquests on display. These same maps were then used to cement territorial claims, such as at the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885.[23]

Before 1749, maps of the African continent had African kingdoms drawn with assumed or contrived boundaries, with unknown or unexplored areas having drawings of animals, imaginary physical geographic features, and descriptive texts. In 1748 Jean B. B. d'Anville created the first map of the African continent that had blank spaces to represent the unknown territory.[23] This was revolutionary in cartography and the representation of power associated with map making.

Spatial and Geographical Sciences Spatial Science is an academic discipline incorporating fields such as surveying, geographic information systems, hydrography and cartography. Spatial science is typically concerned with the measurement, management, analysis and display of spatial information describing the Earth, its physical features and the built environment.[1]

The term spatial science is primarily used in Australia.

Australian universities which offer degrees in spatial science include Curtin University,[2] the University of Tasmania,[3] the University of Adelaide[4] and Melbourne University.[5]

Texas A&M University offers a bachelor's degree in Spatial Sciences and is home to its own Spatial Sciences Laboratory. [6] Beginning in 2012, the University of Southern California started to place more emphasis on the spatial science branch of its geography department, with traditional human and physical geography courses and concentrations either not being offered on a regular basis or phased out. In place, the university now offers graduate programs strictly related to spatial science and its geography department offers a spatial science minor rather than the original geography major.[7]

Spatial information practitioners within the Asia-Pacific region are represented by the professional body called the Surveying and Spatial Sciences Institute (SSSI)

Political Geography Political geography is concerned with the study of both the spatially uneven outcomes of political processes and the ways in which political processes are themselves affected by spatial structures. Conventionally political geography adopts a three-scale structure for the purposes of analysis with the study of the state at the centre, above this is the study of international relations (or geopolitics), and below it is the study of localities. The primary concerns of the sub-discipline can be summarised as the inter-relationships between people, state, and territory.

The origins of political geography lie in the origins of human geography itself and the early practitioners were concerned mainly with the military and political consequences of the relationships between physical geography, state territories, and state power. In particular there was a close association with regional geography, with its focus on the unique characteristics of regions, and environmental determinism with its emphasis on the influence of the physical environment on human activities. This association found expression in the work of the German geographer Friedrich Ratzel who, in 1897 in his book Politische Geographie, developed the concept of Lebensraum (living space) which explicitly linked the cultural growth of a nation with territorial expansion, and which was later used to provide academic legitimation for the imperialist expansion of the German Third Reich in the 1930s.

The British geographer Halford Mackinder was also heavily influenced by environmental determinism and in developing his concept of the 'geopolitical pivot of history' or heartland (first developed in 1904) he argued that the era of sea power was coming to an end and that land based powers were in the ascendant, and, in particular, that whoever controlled the heartland of 'Euro-Asia' would control the world. This theory involved concepts diametrically opposed to the ideas of Alfred Thayer Mahan about the significance of sea power in world conflict. The heartland theory hypothesized the possibility of a huge empire being created which didn't need to use coastal or transoceanic transport to supply its military industrial complex, and that this empire could not be defeated by the rest of the world allied against it. This perspective proved influential throughout the period of the Cold War, underpinning military thinking about the creation of buffer states between East and West in central Europe.

The heartland theory depicted a world divided into a Heartland (Eastern Europe/Western Russia); World Island (Eurasia and Africa); Peripheral Islands (British Isles, Japan, Indonesia and Australia) and New World (The Americas). Mackinder claimed that whoever controlled the Heartland would have control of the world. He used this warning to politically influence events such as the Treaty of Versailles, where buffer states were created between the USSR and Germany, to prevent either of them controlling the Heartland. At the same time, Ratzel was creating a theory of states based around the concepts of Lebensraum and Social Darwinism. He argued that states were analogous to 'organisms' that needed sufficient room in which to live. Both of these writers created the idea of a political and geographical science, with an objective view of the world. Pre-World War II political geography was concerned largely with these issues of global power struggles and influencing state policy, and the above theories were taken on board by German geopoliticians (see Geopolitik) such as Karl Haushofer who - perhaps inadvertently - greatly influenced Nazi political theory. A form of politics legitimated by 'scientific' theories such as a 'neutral' requirement for state expansion was very influential at this time.

The close association with environmental determinism and the freezing of political boundaries during the Cold War led to a considerable decline in the importance of political geography which was described by Brian Berry in 1968 as 'a moribund backwater'. Although in other areas of human geography a number of new approaches were invigorating research, including quantitative spatial science, behavioural studies, and structural Marxism, these were largely ignored by political geographers whose main point of reference continued to be the regional approach. As a result, much political geography of this period was descriptive with little attempt to produce generalisations from the data collected. It was not until 1976 that Richard Muir could argue that political geography might not be a dead duck but could in fact be a phoenix.

From the late-1970s onwards, political geography has undergone a renaissance, and could fairly be described as one of the most dynamic of the sub-disciplines today. The revival was underpinned by the launch of the journal Political Geography Quarterly (and its expansion to bi-monthly production as Political Geography). In part this growth has been associated with the adoption by political geographers of the approaches taken up earlier in other areas of human geography, for example, Ron J. Johnston's (1979) work on electoral geography relied heavily on the adoption of quantitative spatial science, Robert Sack's (1986) work on territoriality was based on the behavioural approach, Henry Bakis (1987) shows the role of information and telecommunications networks on political geography, and Peter Taylor's (e.g. 2007) work on World Systems Theory owes much to developments within structural Marxism. However the recent growth in the vitality and importance of the sub-discipline is also related to changes in the world as a result of the end of the Cold War, including the emergence of a new world order (which as yet is only poorly defined), and the development of new research agendas, such as the more recent focus on social movements and political struggles going beyond the study of nationalism with its explicit territorial basis. There has also been increasing interest in the geography of green politics (see, for example, David Pepper's (1996) work), including the geopolitics of environmental protest, and in the capacity of our existing state apparatus and wider political institutions to address contemporary and future environmental problems competently.

Political geography has extended the scope of traditional political science approaches by acknowledging that the exercise of power is not restricted to states and bureaucracies, but is part of everyday life. This has resulted in the concerns of political geography increasingly overlapping with those of other human geography sub-disciplines such as economic geography, and, particularly, with those of social and cultural geography in relation to the study of the politics of place (see, for example, the books by David Harvey (1996) and Joe Painter (1995)). Although contemporary political geography maintains many of its traditional concerns (see below) the multi-disciplinary expansion into related areas is part of a general process within human geography which involves the blurring of boundaries between formerly discrete areas of study, and through which the discipline as a whole is enriched. In particular, then, modern political geography often considers:

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 104 •How and why states are organized into regional groupings, both formally (e.g. the European Union) and informally (e.g. the Third World) •The relationship between states and former colonies, and how these are propagated over time, for example through neo-colonialism •The relationship between a government and its people •The relationships between states including international trades and treaties •The functions, demarcations and policing of boundaries •How imagined geographies have political implications •The influence of political power on geographical space •How Communications (telephone, radio, TV, ICT, Internet, social networks) have political implications [1] •The study of election results (electoral geography)

Critical political geography is mainly concerned with the criticism of traditional political geographies vis-a-vis modern trends. As with much of the move towards 'Critical geographies', the arguments have drawn largely from postmodern, post structural and postcolonial theories. Examples include:

•Feminist geography, which argues for recognition of the power relations as patriarchal and attempts to theorise alternative conceptions of identity and identity politics. Alongside related concerns such as Queer theory and Youth studies •Postcolonial theories which recognise the Imperialistic, universalising nature of much political geography, especially in Development geography

Transportation Geography Transport geography, also transportation geography, is a branch of geography that particularly investigates the movement of and connections between people, goods, and/or information on the Earth's surface.

Transportation geography detects, describes and explains the Earth's surface's transportation spaces regarding location, substance, form, function and genesis, and asks for the effects of transportation on other spatial processes and/or land use and land cover patterns. Moreover, it contributes to transport, urban and regional planning.

Transportation, or more basically, movement, is fundamental to the economic activity of exchange. Therefore, transport geography and economic geography are largely interrelated. At the most basic level, humans move and thus interact with each other by walking, but transportation geography typically studies more complex and regional or global systems of transportation that include multiple interconnected modes like public transit, personal cars, bicycles, freight railroads, the Internet, airplanes and more. Such systems are increasingly urban in character. Thus, transport and urban geography are closely intertwined. Cities are very much shaped, indeed created, by the types of exchange and interaction facilitated by movement.[1] Increasingly since the 19th century, transportation has been seen as a way cities, countries or firms compete with each other in a variety of spaces and contexts.[2]

In terms of transport modes, the primary forms are air, rail, road, and water. Each one has its own cost associated with speed of movement, as a result of friction and place of origin and destination. For moving large amounts of goods, ships are generally used. Maritime shipping is able to carry more at a cheaper price around the world. For moving people who prefer to minimize travel time, and maximize comfort and convenience, air and road are the most common modes in usage. A railroad is often used to transport goods in areas away from water.

" Transportation modes are an essential component of transport systems since they are the means by which mobility is supported. Geographers consider a wide range of modes that may be grouped into three broad categories based on the medium they exploit: land, water and air. Each mode has its own requirements and features, and is adapted to serve the specific demands of freight and passenger traffic. This gives rise to marked differences in the ways the modes are deployed and used in different parts of the world. Recently, there is a trend towards integrating the modes through intermodality and linking the modes ever more closely into production and distribution activities. At the same time; however, passenger and freight activity is becoming increasingly separated across most modes." [3

Road transportation Road transportation networks are the type of transportation that is connected with movements on constructed roads; carrying people and goods from one place to another by means of lorries, cars, etc

Maritime transportation Water transportation is the slowest form of transportation in the movement of goods and people. Strategic chokepoints around the world have continued to play significant roles in maritime industry.

(Travel and) Tourism Geography Tourism geography is the study of travel and tourism, as an industry and as a social and cultural activity. Tourism geography covers a wide range of interests including the environmental impact of tourism, the geographies of tourism and leisure economies, answering tourism industry and management concerns and the sociology of tourism and locations of tourism.

Tourism geography is that branch of science which deals with the study of travel and its impact on places.

Geography is fundamental to the study of tourism, because tourism is geographical in nature. Tourism occurs in places, it involves movement and activities between places and it is an activity in which both place characteristics and personal self-identities are formed, through the relationships that are created among places, landscapes and people. Physical geography provides the essential background, against which tourism places are created and environmental impacts and concerns are major issues, that must be considered in managing the development of tourism places.

The approaches to study will differ according to the varying concerns. Much tourism management literature remains quantitative in methodology and considers tourism as consisting of the places of tourist origin (or tourist generating areas), tourist destinations (or places of tourism supply) and the relationship (connections) between origin and destination places, which includes transportation routes, business relationships and traveler motivations.[1] Recent developments in Human geography have resulted in approaches such as those from cultural geography, which take more theoretically diverse approaches to tourism, including a sociology of tourism, which extends beyond tourism as an isolated, exceptional activity and considering how travel fits into the everyday lives and how tourism is not only a consumptive of places, but also produces the sense of place at a destination.[2] The Tourist dy Dean MacCannell and The Tourist Gaze by John Urry are classics in this field.

History History (from Greek ἱστορία, historia, meaning "inquiry, knowledge acquired by investigation")[2] is the study of the past, particularly how it relates to humans.[3][4] It is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of information about these events. Scholars who write about history are called historians. Events occurring prior to written record are considered prehistory.

History can also refer to the academic discipline which uses a narrative to examine and analyse a sequence of past events, and objectively determine the patterns of cause and effect that determine them.[5][6] Historians sometimes debate the nature of history and its usefulness by discussing the study of the discipline as an end in itself and as a way of providing "perspective" on the problems of the present.[5][7][8][9]

Stories common to a particular culture, but not supported by external sources (such as the tales surrounding King Arthur), are usually classified as cultural heritage or legends, because they do not show the "disinterested investigation" required of the discipline of history.[10][11] Herodotus, a 5th- century BC Greek historian is considered within the Western tradition to be the "father of history", and, along with his contemporary Thucydides, helped form the foundations for the modern study of human history. Their works continue to be read today, and the gap between the culture-focused Herodotus and the military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contention or approach in modern historical writing. In Asia, a state chronicle, the Spring and Autumn Annals was known to be compiled from as early as 722 BC although only 2nd century BC texts survived.

Ancient influences have helped spawn variant interpretations of the nature of history which have evolved over the centuries and continue to change today. The modern study of history is wide-ranging, and includes the study of specific regions and the study of certain topical or thematical elements of historical investigation. Often history is taught as part of primary and secondary education, and the academic study of history is a major discipline in university studies.

Historians write in the context of their own time, and with due regard to the current dominant ideas of how to interpret the past, and sometimes write to provide lessons for their own society. In the words of Benedetto Croce, "All history is contemporary history". History is facilitated by the formation of a 'true discourse of past' through the production of narrative and analysis of past events relating to the human race.[17] The modern discipline of history is dedicated to the institutional production of this discourse.

All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form constitute the historical record. [18] The task of historical discourse is to identify the sources which can most usefully contribute to the production of accurate accounts of past. Therefore, the constitution of the historian's archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents (by falsifying their claims to represent the 'true past').

The study of history has sometimes been classified as part of the humanities and at other times as part of the social sciences.[19] It can also be seen as a bridge between those two broad areas, incorporating methodologies from both. Some individual historians strongly support one or the other classification.[20] In the 20th century, French historian Fernand Braudel revolutionized the study of history, by using such outside disciplines as economics, anthropology, and geography in the study of global history.

Traditionally, historians have recorded events of the past, either in writing or by passing on an oral tradition, and have attempted to answer historical questions through the study of written documents and oral accounts. From the beginning, historians have also used such sources as

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 105 historical questions through the study of written documents and oral accounts. From the beginning, historians have also used such sources as monuments, inscriptions, and pictures. In general, the sources of historical knowledge can be separated into three categories: what is written, what is said, and what is physically preserved, and historians often consult all three.[21] But writing is the marker that separates history from what comes before.

Archaeology is a discipline that is especially helpful in dealing with buried sites and objects, which, once unearthed, contribute to the study of history. But archaeology rarely stands alone. It uses narrative sources to complement its discoveries. However, archaeology is constituted by a range of methodologies and approaches which are independent from history; that is to say, archaeology does not "fill the gaps" within textual sources. Indeed, "historical archaeology" is a specific branch of archaeology, often contrasting its conclusions against those of contemporary textual sources. For example, Mark Leone, the excavator and interpreter of historical Annapolis, Maryland, USA; has sought to understand the contradiction between textual documents and the material record, demonstrating the possession of slaves and the inequalities of wealth apparent via the study of the total historical environment, despite the ideology of "liberty" inherent in written documents at this time.

There are varieties of ways in which history can be organized, including chronologically, culturally, territorially, and thematically. These divisions are not mutually exclusive, and significant overlaps are often present, as in "The International Women's Movement in an Age of Transition, 1830–1975." It is possible for historians to concern themselves with both the very specific and the very general, although the modern trend has been toward specialization. The area called Big History resists this specialization, and searches for universal patterns or trends. History has often been studied with some practical or theoretical aim, but also may be studied out of simple intellectual curiosity.[22]

The history of the world is the memory of the past experience of Homo sapiens sapiens around the world, as that experience has been preserved, largely in written records. By "prehistory", historians mean the recovery of knowledge of the past in an area where no written records exist, or where the writing of a culture is not understood. By studying painting, drawings, carvings, and other artifacts, some information can be recovered even in the absence of a written record. Since the 20th century, the study of prehistory is considered essential to avoid history's implicit exclusion of certain civilizations, such as those of Sub-Saharan Africa and pre-Columbian America. Historians in the West have been criticized for focusing disproportionately on the Western world.[23] In 1961, British historian E. H. Carr wrote:

The line of demarcation between prehistoric and historical times is crossed when people cease to live only in the present, and become consciously interested both in their past and in their future. History begins with the handing down of tradition; and tradition means the carrying of the habits and lessons of the past into the future. Records of the past begin to be kept for the benefit of future generations. [24]

This definition includes within the scope of history the strong interests of peoples, such as Australian Aboriginals and New Zealand Māori in the past, and the oral records maintained and transmitted to succeeding generations, even before their contact with European civilization.

Histiography Historiography is the study of the methodology of historians in developing history as an academic discipline, and by extension is any body of historical work on a particular subject. The historiography of a specific topic covers how historians have studied that topic using particular sources, techniques, and theoretical approaches. Scholars discuss historiography by topic – such as the "Historiography of the United Kingdom", the "Historiography of Canada", "Historiography of the British Empire", the "historiography of early Islam", the "historiography of China – and different approaches and genres, such as political history and social history. Beginning in the nineteenth century, with the ascent of academic history, there developed a body of historiographic literature. The extent to which historians are influenced by their own groups and loyalties – such as to their nation state – is a debated question.[1]

The research interests of historians change over time, and there has been a shift away from traditional diplomatic, economic, and political history toward newer approaches, especially social and cultural studies. From 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history increased from 31 to 41 percent, while the proportion of political historians decreased from 40 to 30 percent.[2] In 2007, of 5,723 faculty in the departments of history at British universities, 1,644 (29%) identified themselves with social history and 1,425 (25%) identified themselves with political history.[3]

Ancient History Ancient history is the aggregate of past events[1] from the beginning of recorded human history and extending as far as the Early Middle Ages or the Postclassical Era. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with Sumerian Cuneiform script, the oldest discovered form of coherent writing from the protoliterate period around the 30th century BC.[2]

The term classical antiquity is often used to refer to history in the Old World from the beginning of recorded Greek history in 776 BC (First Olympiad). This roughly coincides with the traditional date of the founding of Rome in 753 BC, the beginning of the history of ancient Rome, and the beginning of the Archaic period in Ancient Greece. Although the ending date of ancient history is disputed, some Western scholars use the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD (the most used),[3][4] the closure of the Platonic Academy in 529 AD,[5] the death of the emperor Justinian I in 565 AD,[6] the coming of Islam[7] or the rise of Charlemagne[8] as the end of ancient and Classical European history. In India, ancient history includes the early period of the Middle Kingdoms,[9][10][11] and, in China, the time up to the Qin Dynasty.[12][13]

Medieval History In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery. The Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The Medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages.

Depopulation, deurbanization, invasion, and movement of peoples, which had begun in Late Antiquity, continued in the Early Middle Ages. The barbarian invaders, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the 7th century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Eastern Roman Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, an Islamic empire, after conquest by Muhammad's successors. Although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with Antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power. The empire's law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or "Code of Justinian", was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages.

In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions. Monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th and early 9th century. It covered much of Western Europe but later succumbed to the pressures of internal civil wars combined with external invasions—Vikings from the north, Hungarians from the east, and Saracens from the south.

During the High Middle Ages, which began after 1000, the population of Europe increased greatly as technological and agricultural innovations allowed trade to flourish and the Medieval Warm Period climate change allowed crop yields to increase. Manorialism, the organisation of peasants into villages that owed rent and labour services to the nobles, and feudalism, the political structure whereby knights and lower-status nobles owed military service to their overlords in return for the right to rent from lands and manors, were two of the ways society was organised in the High Middle Ages.

The Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence but making the ideal of a unified Christendom more distant. Intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. The theology of Thomas Aquinas, the paintings of Giotto, the poetry of Dante and Chaucer, the travels of Marco Polo, and the Gothic architecture of cathedrals such as Chartres are among the outstanding achievements toward the end of this period and into the Late Middle Ages.

The Late Middle Ages was marked by difficulties and calamities including famine, plague, and war, which significantly diminished the population of Europe; between 1347 and 1350, the Black Death killed about a third of Europeans. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the interstate conflict, civil strife, and peasant revolts that occurred in the kingdoms. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages and beginning the early modern period.

The Age of Discovery / Exploration The Age of Discovery is an informal and loosely defined European historical period from the 15th century to the 18th century, marking the time in which extensive overseas exploration emerged as a powerful factor in European culture. Many lands previously unknown to Europeans were discovered during this period, though most were already inhabited and from the perspective of many non-Europeans it marked the arrival of settlers and invaders from a previously unknown continent. Global exploration started with the Portuguese discovery of the Atlantic archipelagos of Madeira and the Azores, the western coast of Africa, and discovery of the ocean route to the East in 1498, and the trans-atlantic ocean discovery of the Americas on behalf of the Crown of Castile (Spain) in 1492. These expeditions led to numerous naval expeditions across the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans, and land expeditions in the Americas, Asia, Africa, and Australia that continued into the late 19th century, and ended with the exploration of the polar regions in the 20th century.

European overseas exploration led to the rise of global trade and the European colonial empires, with the contact between the Old World, Europe, Asia and Africa, and the New World, the Americas, producing the Columbian Exchange: a wide transfer of plants, animals, food, human populations (including slaves), communicable diseases and culture between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. This represented one of the most-significant global events concerning ecology, agriculture, culture in history. The Age of Discovery and later European exploration allowed the global mapping of the world, resulting in a new world-view and distant civilizations coming into contact, but also led to the propagation of diseases that decimated populations not previously in contact with Eurasia and Africa, and to the enslavement, exploitation, military conquest, and economic dominance of Europe and its colonies over native populations. It also allowed for the expansion of Christianity throughout the world, becoming the world's largest religion.[1][2]

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 106 18th and 19th Century History 20th Century / Modern World History World history became a popular genre in the 20th century with universal history.

In the 1920s, several best-sellers dealt with the history of the world, including surveys The Story of Mankind (1921) by Hendrik Willem van Loon and The Outline of History (1918) by H.G. Wells.

Influential writers who have reached wide audiences include H. G. Wells, Oswald Spengler, Arnold J. Toynbee, Pitirim Sorokin, Carroll Quigley, Christopher Dawson,[13] and Lewis Mumford. Scholars working the field include Eric Voegelin,[14] William Hardy McNeill and Michael Mann.[15]

Spengler's Decline of the West (2 vol 1919–1922) compared nine organic cultures: Egyptian (3400 BC-1200 BC), Indian (1500 BC-1100 BC), Chinese (1300 BC-AD 200), Classical (1100 BC-400 BC), Byzantine (AD 300–1100), Aztec (AD 1300–1500), Arabian (AD 300–1250), Mayan (AD 600–960), and Western (AD 900–1900). His book was a smashing success among intellectuals worldwide as it predicted the disintegration of European and American civilization after a violent "age of Caesarism," arguing by detailed analogies with other civilizations. It deepened the post-World War I pessimism in Europe, and was warmly received by intellectuals in China, India, and Latin America who hoped his predictions of the collapse of European empires would soon come true.[16]

In 1936–1954, Toynbee's ten-volume A Study of History came out in three separate installments. He followed Spengler in taking a comparative topical approach to independent civilizations. Toynbee said they displayed striking parallels in their origin, growth, and decay. Toynbee rejected Spengler's biological model of civilizations as organisms with a typical life span of 1,000 years. Like Sima Qian, Toynbee explained decline as due to their moral failure. Many readers rejoiced in his implication (in vols. 1–6) that only a return to some form of Catholicism could halt the breakdown of western civilization which began with the Reformation. Volumes 7–10, published in 1954, abandoned the religious message, and his popular audience slipped away, while scholars picked apart his mistakes.,[17]

McNeill wrote The Rise of the West (1963) to improve upon Toynbee by showing how the separate civilizations of Eurasia interacted from the very beginning of their history, borrowing critical skills from one another, and thus precipitating still further change as adjustment between traditional old and borrowed new knowledge and practice became necessary. McNeill took a broad approach organized around the interactions of peoples across the Earth. Such interactions have become both more numerous and more continual and substantial in recent times. Before about 1500, the network of communication between cultures was that of Eurasia. The term for these areas of interaction differ from one world historian to another and include world-system and ecumene. Whatever it is called, the importance of these intercultural contacts has begun to be recognized by many scholars.[18]

World History World history, global history or transnational history (not to be confused with diplomatic or international history) is a field of historical study that emerged as a distinct academic field in the 1980s. It examines history from a global perspective. It is not to be confused with comparative history, which, like world history, deals with the history of multiple cultures and nations, but does not do so on a global scale.

World history looks for common patterns that emerge across all cultures. World historians use a thematic approach, with two major focal points: integration (how processes of world history have drawn people of the world together) and difference (how patterns of world history reveal the diversity of the human experiences).

Law Law is a system of rules that are enforced through social institutions to govern behavior.[2] Laws can be made by a collective legislature or by a single legislator, resulting in statutes, by the executive through decrees and regulations, or by judges through binding precedent, normally in common law jurisdictions. Private individuals can create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that may elect to accept alternative arbitration to the normal court process. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, and the rights encoded therein. The law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people.

A general distinction can be made between (a) civil law jurisdictions (including Catholic canon law and socialist law), in which the legislature or other central body codifies and consolidates their laws, and (b) common law systems, where judge-made precedent is accepted as binding law. Historically, religious laws played a significant role even in settling of secular matters, which is still the case in some religious communities, particularly Jewish, and some countries, particularly Islamic. Islamic Sharia law is the world's most widely used religious law.[3]

The adjudication of the law is generally divided into two main areas referred to as (i) Criminal law and (ii) Civil law. Criminal law deals with conduct that is considered harmful to social order and in which the guilty party may be imprisoned or fined. Civil law (not to be confused with civil law jurisdictions above) deals with the resolution of lawsuits (disputes) between individuals or organizations. These resolutions seek to provide a legal remedy (often monetary damages) to the winning litigant. Under civil law, the following specialties, among others, exist: Contract law regulates everything from buying a bus ticket to trading on derivatives markets. Property law regulates the transfer and title of personal property and real property. Trust law applies to assets held for investment and financial security. Tort law allows claims for compensation if a person's property is harmed. Constitutional law provides a framework for the creation of law, the protection of human rights and the election of political representatives. Administrative law governs what executive branch agencies may and may not do, procedures that they must follow to do it, and judicial review when a member of the public is harmed by an agency action. International law governs affairs between sovereign states in activities ranging from trade to military action. To implement and enforce the law and provide services to the public by public servants, a government's bureaucracy, military, and police are vital. While all these organs of the state are creatures created and bound by law, an independent legal profession and a vibrant civil society inform and support their progress.

Law provides a rich source of scholarly inquiry into legal history, philosophy, economic analysis and sociology. Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, and justice. There is an old saying that 'all are equal before the law', although Jonathan Swift argued that 'Laws are like cobwebs, which may catch small flies, but let wasps and hornets break through.' In 1894, the author Anatole France said sarcastically, "In its majestic equality, the law forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in the streets, and steal loaves of bread."[4] Writing in 350 BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle declared, "The rule of law is better than the rule of any individual."[5] Mikhail Bakunin said: "All law has for its object to confirm and exalt into a system the exploitation of the workers by a ruling class". [6] Cicero said "more law, less justice".[7] Marxist doctrine asserts that law will not be required once the state has withered away.[8]

Sociology of Law The sociology of law (or legal sociology) is often described as a sub-discipline of sociology or an interdisciplinary approach within legal studies.[1] Some see sociology of law as belonging "necessarily" to the field of sociology[2] whilst others tend to consider it a field of research caught up between the disciplines of law and sociology.[3] Still others regard it neither as a sub-discipline of sociology nor as a branch of legal studies but as a field of research on its own right within the broader social science tradition. Accordingly, it may be described without reference to mainstream sociology as "the systematic, theoretically grounded, empirical study of law as a set of social practices or as an aspect or field of social experience",.[4] It has been seen as treating law and justice as fundamental institutions of the basic structure of society mediating "between political and economic interests, between culture and the normative order of society, establishing and maintaining interdependence, and constituting themselves as sources of consensus, coercion and social control".[5]

Irrespective of whether sociology of law is defined as a sub-discipline of sociology, an approach within legal studies, or a field of research in its own right, it remains intellectually dependent mainly on the traditions, methods and theories of mainstream sociology and, to a lesser extent on other social sciences such as social anthropology, political science, social policy, criminology and psychology; as such, it reflects social theories and employs social scientific methods to study law, legal institutions and legal behavior.[6]

More specifically, sociology of law consists of various approaches to the study of law in society, which empirically examine and theorize the interaction between law, legal, non-legal institutions and social factors.[7] Areas of socio-legal inquiry include the social development of legal institutions, forms of social control, legal regulation, the interaction between legal cultures, the social construction of legal issues, legal profession, and the relation between law and social change.

Sociology of law also benefits from and occasionally draws on research conducted within other fields such as comparative law, critical legal studies, jurisprudence, legal theory, law and economics and law and literature. Its object encompasses the historical movement of law and justice and their relentless contemporary construction, e.g., in the field of jurisprudence focused on institutional questions conditioned by social and political situations, in interdisciplinary dominions such as criminology, and through analysis of the economic efficiency and the social impact of legal norms.[8]

Linguistics Linguistics is the scientific[1] study of language.[2] There are three aspects to this study: language form, language meaning, and language in context.[3] The earliest activities in the description of language have been attributed to the 4th century BCE Indian grammarian Pāṇini, who was an early student of linguistics[4][5] and wrote a formal description of the Sanskrit language in his Aṣṭādhyāyī.[6]

Linguistics analyzes human language as a system for relating sounds (or signs in signed languages) and meaning.[7] Phonetics studies acoustic and articulatory properties of the production and perception of speech sounds and non-speech sounds. The study of language meaning, on the other hand, deals with how languages encode relations between entities, properties, and other aspects of the world to convey, process, and assign meaning, as well as to manage and resolve ambiguity. While the study of semantics typically concerns itself with truth conditions, pragmatics deals with how context influences meanings.[8]

Grammar is a system of rules which govern the form of the utterances in a given language. It encompasses both sound[9] and meaning, and includes

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 107 Grammar is a system of rules which govern the form of the utterances in a given language. It encompasses both sound[9] and meaning, and includes phonology (how sounds and gestures function together), morphology (the formation and composition of words), and syntax (the formation and composition of phrases and sentences from words).[10]

In the early 20th century, Ferdinand de Saussure distinguished between the notions of langue and parole in his formulation of structural linguistics. According to him, parole is the specific utterance of speech, whereas langue refers to an abstract phenomenon that theoretically defines the principles and system of rules that govern a language.[11] This distinction resembles the one made by Noam Chomsky between competence and performance, where competence is individual's ideal knowledge of a language, while performance is the specific way in which it is used.[12]

The formal study of language has also led to the growth of fields like psycholinguistics, which explores the representation and function of language in the mind; neurolinguistics, which studies language processing in the brain; and language acquisition, which investigates how children and adults acquire a particular language.

Linguistics also includes nonformal approaches to the study of other aspects of human language, such as social, cultural, historical and political factors.[13] The study of cultural discourses and dialects is the domain of sociolinguistics, which looks at the relation between linguistic variation and social structures, as well as that of discourse analysis, which examines the structure of texts and conversations.[14] Research on language through historical and evolutionary linguistics focuses on how languages change, and on the origin and growth of languages, particularly over an extended period of time.

Corpus linguistics takes naturally occurring texts or films (in signed languages) as its primary object of analysis, and studies the variation of grammatical and other features based on such corpora. Stylistics involves the study of patterns of style: within written, signed, or spoken discourse.[15] Language documentation combines anthropological inquiry with linguistic inquiry to describe languages and their grammars.

Lexicography covers the study and construction of dictionaries. Computational linguistics applies computer technology to address questions in theoretical linguistics, as well as to create applications for use in parsing, data retrieval, machine translation, and other areas. People can apply actual knowledge of a language in translation and interpreting, as well as in language education – the teaching of a second or foreign language. Policy makers work with governments to implement new plans in education and teaching which are based on linguistic research.

Areas of study related to linguistics include semiotics (the study of signs and symbols both within language and without), literary criticism, translation, and speech-language pathology.

Before the 20th century, the term philology, first attested in 1716,[16] was commonly used to refer to the science of language, which was then predominantly historical in focus.[17][18] Since Ferdinand de Saussure's insistence on the importance of synchronic analysis, however, this focus has shifted[19] and the term "philology" is now generally used for the "study of a language's grammar, history, and literary tradition", espe cially in the United States[20] (where philology has never been very popularly considered as the "science of language").[21]

Although the term "linguist" in the sense of "a student of language" dates from 1641,[22] the term "linguistics" is first attested in 1847.[22] It is now the common academic term in English for the scientific study of language.

Today, the term linguist applies to someone who studies language or is a researcher within the field, or to someone who uses the tools of the discipline to describe and analyze specific languages.[23]

While some theories on linguistics focus on the different varieties that language produces, among different sections of society, others focus on the universal properties that are common to all human languages. The theory of variation therefore would elaborate on the different usages of popular languages like French and English across the globe, as well as its smaller dialects and regional permutations within their national boundaries. The theory of variation looks at the cultural stages that a particular language undergoes, and these include the following.

Lexicon The lexicon is a catalogue of words and terms that are stored in a speaker's mind. The lexicon consists of words and bound morphemes, which are parts of words that can't stand alone, like affixes. In some analyses, compound words and certain classes of idiomatic expressions and other collocations are also considered to be part of the lexicon. Dictionaries represent attempts at listing, in alphabetical order, the lexicon of a given language; usually, however, bound morphemes are not included. Lexicography, closely linked with the domain of semantics, is the science of mapping the words into an encyclopedia or a dictionary. The creation and addition of new words (into the lexicon) is called coining, and the new words are called neologisms.

It is often believed that a speaker's capacity for language lies in the quantity of words stored in the lexicon. However, this is often considered a myth by linguists. The capacity for the use of language is considered by many linguists to lie primarily in the domain of grammar, and to be linked with competence, rather than with the growth of vocabulary. Even a very small lexicon is theoretically capable of producing an infinite number of sentences.

Discourse A discourse is a way of speaking that emerges within a certain social setting and is based on a certain subject matter. A particular discourse becomes a language variety when it is used in this way for a particular purpose, and is referred to as a register.[24] There may be certain lexical additions (new words) that are brought into play because of the expertise of the community of people within a certain domain of specialisation. Registers and discourses therefore differentiate themselves through the use of vocabulary, and at times through the use of style too. People in the medical fraternity, for example, may use some medical terminology in their communication that is specialised to the field of medicine. This is often referred to as being part of the "medical discourse", and so on.

Dialect A dialect is a variety of language that is characteristic of a particular group among the language speakers.[25] The group of people who are the speakers of a dialect are usually bound to each other by social identity. This is what differentiates a dialect from a register or a discourse, where in the latter case, cultural identity does not always play a role. Dialects are speech varieties that have their own grammatical and phonological rules, linguistic features, and stylistic aspects, but have not been given an official status as a language. Dialects often move on to gain the status of a language due to political and social reasons. Differentiation amongst dialects (and subsequently, languages too) is based upon the use of grammatical rules, syntactic rules, and stylistic features, though not always on lexical use or vocabulary. The popular saying that a "language is a dialect with an army and navy" is attributed as a definition formulated by Max Weinreich.

Universal grammar takes into account general formal structures and features that are common to all dialects and languages, and the template of which pre-exists in the mind of an infant child. This idea is based on the theory of generative grammar and the formal school of linguistics, whose proponents include Noam Chomsky and those who follow his theory and work.

"We may as individuals be rather fond of our own dialect. This should not make us think, though, that it is actually any better than any other dialect. Dialects are not good or bad, nice or nasty, right or wrong – they are just different from one another, and it is the mark of a civilised society that it tolerates different dialects just as it tolerates different races, religions and sexes." [26]

Structures Linguistic structures are pairings of meaning and form. Any particular pairing of meaning and form is a Saussurean sign. For instance, the meaning "cat" is represented worldwide with a wide variety of different sound patterns (in oral languages), movements of the hands and face (in sign languages), and written symbols (in written languages).

Linguists focusing on structure attempt to understand the rules regarding language use that native speakers know (not always consciously). All linguistic structures can be broken down into component parts that are combined according to (sub)conscious rules, over multiple levels of analysis. For instance, consider the structure of the word "tenth" on two different levels of analysis. On the level of internal word structure (known as morphology), the word "tenth" is made up of one linguistic form indicating a number and another form indicating ordinality. The rule governing the combination of these forms ensures that the ordinality marker "th" follows the number "ten." On the level of sound structure (known as phonology), structural analysis shows that the "n" sound in "tenth" is made differently from the "n" sound in "ten" spoken alone. Although most speakers of English are consciously aware of the rules governing internal structure of the word pieces of "tenth", they are less often aware of the rule governing its sound structure. Linguists focused on structure find and analyze rules such as these, which govern how native speakers use language.

Linguistics has many sub-fields concerned with particular aspects of linguistic structure. The theory that elucidates on these, as propounded by Noam Chomsky, is known as generative theory or universal grammar. These sub-fields range from those focused primarily on form to those focused primarily on meaning. They also run the gamut of level of analysis of language, from individual sounds, to words, to phrases, up to cultural discourse.

Sub-fields that focus on a structure-focused study of language:

•Phonetics, the study of the physical properties of speech sound production and perception •Phonology, the study of sounds as abstract elements in the speaker's mind that distinguish meaning (phonemes) •Morphology, the study of morphemes, or the internal structures of words and how they can be modified •Syntax, the study of how words combine to form grammatical phrases and sentences •Semantics, the study of the meaning of words (lexical semantics) and fixed word combinations (phraseology), and how these combine to form the meanings of sentences •Pragmatics, the study of how utterances are used in communicative acts, and the role played by context and non-linguistic knowledge in the

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 108 •Pragmatics, the study of how utterances are used in communicative acts, and the role played by context and non-linguistic knowledge in the transmission of meaning •Discourse analysis, the analysis of language use in texts (spoken, written, or signed) •Stylistics, the study of linguistic factors (rhetoric, diction, stress) that place a discourse in context •Semiotics, the study of signs and sign processes (semiosis), indication, designation, likeness, analogy, metaphor, symbolism, signification, and communication.

Relativity As constructed popularly through the "Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis", relativists believe that the structure of a particular language is capable of influencing the cognitive patterns through which a person shapes his or her world view. Universalists believe that there are commonalities between human perception as there is in the human capacity for language, while relativists believe that this varies from language to language and person to person. While the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is an elaboration of this idea expressed through the writings of American linguists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, it was Sapir's student Harry Hoijer who termed it thus. The 20th century German linguist Leo Weisgerber also wrote extensively about the theory of relativity.

Relativists argue for the case of differentiation at the level of cognition and in semantic domains. The emergence of cognitive linguistics in the 1980s also revived an interest in linguistic relativity. Thinkers like George Lakoff have argued that language reflects different cultural metaphors, while the French philosopher of language Jacques Derrida's writings have been seen to be closely associated with the relativist movement in linguistics, especially through deconstruction[27] and was even heavily criticised in the media at the time of his death for his theory of relativism. [28]

Style Stylistics is the study and interpretation of texts for aspects of their linguistic and tonal style. Stylistic analysis entails the anal ysis of description of particular dialects and registers used by speech communities. Stylistic features include rhetoric,[29] diction, stress, satire, irony, dialogue, and other forms of phonetic variations. Stylistic analysis can also include the study of language in canonical works of literature, popular fiction, news, advertisements, and other forms of communication in popular culture as well. It is usually seen as a variation in communication that changes from speaker to speaker and community to community. In short, Stylistics is the interpretation of text.

Philosophy Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.[1][2] The Ancient Greek word φιλοσοφία (philosophia) was probably coined by Pythagoras[3] and literally means "love of wisdom" or "friend of wisdom".[4][5][6][7][8] Philosophy has been divided into many sub-fields. It has been divided chronologically (e.g., ancient and modern); by topic (the major topics being epistemology, logic, metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics); and by style (e.g., analytic philosophy).

As a method, philosophy is often distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its questioning, critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational argument.[9] As a noun, the term "philosophy" can refer to any body of knowledge.[10] Historically, these bodies of knowledge were commonly divided into natural philosophy, moral philosophy, and metaphysical philosophy.[8]

Philosophy has been divided into many sub-fields. In modern universities, these sub-fields are distinguished either by chronology or topic or style.

•Chronological divisions include ancient, medieval, modern, and contemporary.[14] •Topical divisions include epistemology, logic, metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics.[15][16] •Divisions of style include analytic, continental, and social/political philosophy, among others.

Some of the major areas of study are considered individually below.

Epistemology Epistemology is concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge,[17] such as the relationships between truth, belief, perception and theories of justification. Skepticism is the position which questions the possibility of completely justifying any truth. The regress argument, a fundamental problem in epistemology, occurs when, in order to completely prove any statement, its justification itself needs to be supported by another justification. This chain can do three possible options, all of which are unsatisfactory according to the Münchhausen trilemma. One option is infinitism, where this chain of justification can go on forever. Another option is foundationalism, where the chain of justifications eventually relies on basic beliefs or axioms that are left unproven. The last option, such as in coherentism, is making the chain circular so that a statement is included in its own chain of justification.

Rationalism is the emphasis on reasoning as a source of knowledge. Empiricism is the emphasis on observational evidence via sensory experience over other evidence as the source of knowledge. Rationalism claims that every possible object of knowledge can be deduced from coherent premises without observation. Empiricism claims that at least some knowledge is only a matter of observation. For this, Empiricism often cites the concept of tabula rasa, where individuals are not born with mental content and that knowledge builds from experience or perception. Epistemological solipsism is the idea that the existence of the world outside the mind is an unresolvable question.

Parmenides (fl. 500 BC) argued that it is impossible to doubt that thinking actually occurs. But thinking must have an object, therefore something beyond thinking really exists. Parmenides deduced that what really exists must have certain properties—for example, that it cannot come into existence or cease to exist, that it is a coherent whole, that it remains the same eternally (in fact, exists altogether outside time). This is known as the third man argument. Plato (427–347 BC) combined rationalism with a form of realism. The philosopher's work is to consider being, and the essence (ousia) of things. But the characteristic of essences is that they are universal. The nature of a man, a triangle, a tree, applies to all men, all triangles, all trees. Plato argued that these essences are mind-independent "forms", that humans (but particularly philosophers) can come to know by reason, and by ignoring the distractions of sense-perception.

Modern rationalism begins with René Descartes. Reflection on the nature of perceptual experience, as well as scientific discoveries in physiology and optics, led Descartes (and also John Locke) to the view that we are directly aware of ideas, rather than objects. This view gave rise to three questions:

1.Is an idea a true copy of the real thing that it represents? Sensation is not a direct interaction between bodily objects and our sense, but is a physiological process involving representation (for example, an image on the retina). Locke thought that a "secondary quality" such as a sensation of green could in no way resemble the arrangement of particles in matter that go to produce this sensation, although he thought that "primary qualities" such as shape, size, number, were really in objects. 2.How can physical objects such as chairs and tables, or even physiological processes in the brain, give rise to mental items such as ideas? This is part of what became known as the mind-body problem. 3.If all the contents of awareness are ideas, how can we know that anything exists apart from ideas?

Descartes tried to address the last problem by reason. He began, echoing Parmenides, with a principle that he thought could not coherently be denied: I think, therefore I am (often given in his original Latin: Cogito ergo sum). From this principle, Descartes went on to construct a complete system of knowledge (which involves proving the existence of God, using, among other means, a version of the ontological argument).[18] His view that reason alone could yield substantial truths about reality strongly influenced those philosophers usually considered modern rationalists (such as Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Leibniz, and Christian Wolff), while provoking criticism from other philosophers who have retrospectively come to be grouped together as empiricists.

Logic Logic is the study of the principles of correct reasoning. Arguments use either deductive reasoning or inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is when, given certain statements (called premises), other statements (called conclusions) are unavoidably implied. Rules of inference from premises include the most popular method, modus ponens, where given “A” and “If A then B”, then “B” must be concluded. A common convention for a deductive argument is the syllogism. An argument is termed valid if its conclusion does follow from its premises, whether the premises are true or not, while an argument is sound if its conclusion follows from premises that are true. Propositional logic uses premises that are propositions, which are declarations that are either true or false, while predicate logic uses more complex premises called formulae that contain variables. These can be assigned values or can be quantified as to when they apply with the universal quantifier (always apply) or the existential quantifier (applies at least once). Inductive reasoning makes conclusions or generalizations based on probabilistic reasoning. For example, if “90% of humans are right- handed” and “Joe is human” then “Joe is probably right-handed”. Fields in logic include mathematical logic (formal symbolic logic) and philosophical logic.

Metaphysics Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of reality, such as existence, time, the relationship between mind and body, objects and their properties, wholes and their parts, events, processes, and causation. Traditional branches of metaphysics include cosmology, the study of the world in its entirety, and ontology, the study of being.

Within metaphysics itself there are a wide range of differing philosophical theories. Idealism, for example, is the belief that reality is mentally constructed or otherwise immaterial while realism holds that reality, or at least some part of it, exists independently of the mind. Subjective idealism describes objects as no more than collections or "bundles" of sense data in the perceiver. The 18th-century philosopher George Berkeley contended that existence is fundamentally tied to perception with the phrase Esse est aut percipi aut percipere or "To be is to be perceived or to perceive".[19]

In addition to the aforementioned views, however, there is also an ontological dichotomy within metaphysics between the concepts of particulars and universals as well. Particulars are those objects that are said to exist in space and time, as opposed to abstract objects, such as numbers. Universals are properties held by multiple particulars, such as redness or a gender. The type of existence, if any, of universals and abstract objects

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 109 Universals are properties held by multiple particulars, such as redness or a gender. The type of existence, if any, of universals and abstract objects is an issue of serious debate within metaphysical philosophy. Realism is the philosophical position that universals do in fact exist, while nominalism is the negation, or denial of universals, abstract objects, or both.[20] Conceptualism holds that universals exist, but only within the mind's perception.[21]

The question of whether or not existence is a predicate has been discussed since the Early Modern period. Essence is the set of attributes that make an object what it fundamentally is and without which it loses its identity. Essence is contrasted with accident: a property that the substance has contingently, without which the substance can still retain its identity

From Political Sciences Political science is a social science discipline that deals with systems of government and the analysis of political activity and political behavior.[1] It deals extensively with the theory and practice of politics which is commonly thought of as the determining of the distribution of power and resources. Political scientists "see themselves engaged in revealing the relationships underlying political events and conditions, and from these revelations they attempt to construct general principles about the way the world of politics works."[2] Political science is related to and draws upon the fields of economics, law, sociology, history, philosophy, geography, psychology, and anthropology.

Although it was codified in the 19th century, when the contemporary form of the academic social sciences was established, the study of political science has ancient roots that can be traced back to the works of Aristotle, Plato, and Chanakya which were written nearly 2,500 years ago. Political science is commonly divided into distinct sub-disciplines which together constitute the field:

•Comparative politics •International political economy •International relations •Political theory •Public administration •Public law •Political methodology

Comparative politics is the science of comparison and teaching of different types of constitutions, political actors, legislature and associated fields, all of them from an intrastate perspective. International relations deals with the interaction between nation-states as well as intergovernmental and transnational organizations. Political theory is more concerned with contributions of various classical and contemporary thinkers and philosophers.

Political science is methodologically diverse and appropriates many methods originating in social research. Approaches include positivism, interpretivism, rational choice theory, behavioralism, structuralism, post-structuralism, realism, institutionalism, and pluralism. Political science, as one of the social sciences, uses methods and techniques that relate to the kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources such as historical documents and official records, secondary sources such as scholarly journal articles, survey research, statistical analysis, case studies, experimental research and model building.

Political scientists study matters concerning the allocation and transfer of power in decision making, the roles and systems of governance including governments and international organizations, political behavior and public policies. They measure the success of governance and specific policies by examining many factors, including stability, justice, material wealth, peace and public health.

Some political scientists seek to advance positive (attempt to describe how things are, as opposed to how they should be) theses by analyzing politics. Others advance normative theses, by making specific policy recommendations.

Political scientists provide the frameworks from which journalists, special interest groups, politicians, and the electorate analyze issues. According to Chaturvedy, "...Political scientists may serve as advisers to specific politicians, or even run for office as politicians themselves. Political scientists can be found working in governments, in political parties or as civil servants. They may be involved with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) or political movements. In a variety of capacities, people educated and trained in political science can add value and expertise to corporations. Private enterprises such as think tanks, research institutes, polling and public relations firms often employ political scientists." [3] In the United States, political scientists known as "Americanists" look at a variety of data including constitutional development, elections, public opinion and public policy such as Social Security reform, foreign policy, US Congressional committees, and the US Supreme Court — to name only a few issues.

Political science, possibly like the social sciences as a whole, "as a discipline lives on the fault line between the 'two cultures' in the academy, the sciences and the humanities."[4] Thus, in some American colleges where there is no separate School or College of Arts and Sciences per se, political science may be a separate department housed as part of a division or school of Humanities or Liberal Arts.[5] Whereas classical political philosophy is primarily defined by a concern for Hellenic and Enlightenment thought, political scientists are also marked by a great concern for "modernity" and the contemporary nation state, along with the study of classical thought, and as such share a greater deal of terminology with sociologists (e.g. structure and agency).

Most United States colleges and universities offer B.A. programs in political science. M.A. or M.A.T. and Ph.D. or Ed.D. programs are common at larger universities. The term political science is more popular in North America than elsewhere; other institutions, especially those outside the United States, see political science as part of a broader discipline of political studies, politics, or government. While political science implies use of the scientific method, political studies implies a broader approach, although the naming of degree courses does not necessarily reflect their content.[6] Separate degree granting programs in international relations and public policy are not uncommon at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. Master's level programs in political science are common when political scientists engage in public administration.[7]

The national honor society for college and university students of government and politics in the United States is Pi Sigma Alpha.

Modern political science was founded by Niccolò Machiavelli. Because political science is essentially a study of human behavior, in all aspects of politics, observations in controlled environments are often challenging to reproduce or duplicate, though experimental methods are increasingly common (see experimental political science).[8] Citing this difficulty, former American Political Science Association President Lawrence Lowell once said "We are limited by the impossibility of experiment. Politics is an observational, not an experimental science." [9] Because of this, political scientists have historically observed political elites, institutions, and individual or group behavior in order to identify patterns, draw generalizations, and build theories of politics.

Like all social sciences, political science faces the difficulty of observing human actors that can only be partially observed and who have the capacity for making conscious choices unlike other subjects such as non-human organisms in biology or inanimate objects as in physics. Despite the complexities, contemporary political science has progressed by adopting a variety of methods and theoretical approaches to understanding politics and methodological pluralism is a defining feature of contemporary political science.

The advent of political science as a university discipline was marked by the creation of university departments and chairs with the title of political science arising in the late 19th century. In fact, the designation "political scientist" is typically for those with a doctor ate in the field, but can also apply to those with a master's in the subject.[10] Integrating political studies of the past into a unified discipline is ongoing, and the history of political science has provided a rich field for the growth of both normative and positive political science, with each part of the discipline sharing some historical predecessors. The American Political Science Association was founded in 1903 and the American Political Science Review was founded in 1906 in an effort to distinguish the study of politics from economics and other social phenomena.

From Social Policy Social policy is a term which is applied to various areas of policy, usually within a governmental or political setting (such as the welfare state and study of social services).[1]

It can refer to guidelines, principles, legislation and activities that affect the living conditions conducive to human welfare, such as a person's quality of life. The Department of Social Policy at the London School of Economics defines social policy as "an interdisciplinary and applied subject concerned with the analysis of societies' responses to social need", which seeks to foster in its students a capacity to understand theory and evidence drawn from a wide range of social science disciplines, including economics, sociology, psychology, geography, history, law, philosophy and political science.[2] The Malcolm Wiener Center for Social Policy at Harvard University describes social policy as "public policy and practice in the areas of health care, human services, criminal justice, inequality, education, and labor".[3] Social policy research and teaching at the Department of Social Policy at Oxford is largely focused on international comparative work, as a full picture of the development and operation of a particular system can only be gained by benchmarking against other jurisdictions. Social policy might also be described as actions that affect the well-being of members of a society through shaping the distribution of and access to goods and resources in that society. [4] Social policy often deals with wicked problems.[5]

The discussion of "social policy" in the United States and Canada can also apply to governmental policy on social issues such as tackling racism,[6] LGBT issues (such as same-sex marriage)[7] and the legal status of abortion,[8] guns,[9] euthanasia,[10] recreational drugs[11] and prostitution.[12]

Social policy aims to improve human welfare and to meet human needs for education, health, housing and economic security. Important areas of social policy are wellbeing and welfare, social security, justice, unemployment insurance, living conditions, animal rights, pensions, health care, social housing, family policy, social care, child protection, social exclusion, education policy, crime and criminal justice, urban development, and labor issues.

United States politicians who have favored increasing government observance of social policy often do not frame their proposals around typical

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 110 United States politicians who have favored increasing government observance of social policy often do not frame their proposals around typical notions of welfare or benefits; instead, in cases like Medicare and Medicaid, President Lyndon Johnson presented a package called the Great Society that framed a larger vision around poverty and quality of life. Insurance has been a growing policy topic, and a recent example of health care law as social policy is the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act formed by the 111th U.S. Congress and signed into law by President Barack Obama, a Democrat, on March 23, 2010.

Moreover, former president Franklin D. Roosevelt's ground breaking New Deal is a paragon example of Social Policy that focused predominantly on a program of providing work and stimulating the economy through public spending on projects, rather than on cash payment. The programs were in response to the Great Depression affecting the United States in the 1930s.

An American education policy proposal from a Republican president is the No Child Left Behind Act. This Act took effect on January 8, 2002, and was put in place to raise standards in education so different individuals can have a greater outcomes in terms of their education. The No Child Left Behind Act requires every state to assess students on basic skills to receive federal funding. However, this Act did not create a national standard since each state develops their own set of standards and assessments. Critics of most all social policies point toward a depiction of a welfare state on the make of a Hobbesian Leviathan.

Relevant to aspects of social policy: Social Security (US) DSS (UK) Medicare Mediaid NHS Great Society Housing Policies Criminology Health Policy Education Policy

Social Justice Social justice is the fair and just relation between the individual and society. This is measured by the explicit and tacit terms for the distribution of wealth, opportunities for personal activity and social privileges. In Western as well as in older Asian cultures, the concept of social justice has often referred to the process of ensuring that individuals fulfill their societal roles and receive what was their due from society.[1][2][3] In the current global grassroots movements for social justice, the emphasis has been on the breaking of unspoken barriers for social mobility, the creation of safety nets and economic justice.[4][5][6][7][8] Social justice assigns rights and duties in the institutions of society, which enables people to receive the basic benefits and burdens of cooperation. The relevant institutions often include taxation, social insurance, public health, public school, public services, labour law and regulation of markets, to ensure fair distribution of wealth, equal opportunity and equality of outcome.[9]

Interpretations that relate justice to a reciprocal relationship to society are mediated by differences in cultural traditions, some of which emphasize the individual responsibility toward society and others the equilibrium between access to power and its responsible use. [10] Thence, social justice is invoked today while reinterpreting historical figures such as Bartolomé de las Casas, in philosophical debates about differences among human beings, in efforts for gender, racial and social equality, for advocating justice for migrants, prisoners, the environment, and the physically and mentally disabled.[11][12][13][14][15][16][17]

While the concept of social justice can be traced through the theology of Augustine of Hippo and the philosophy of Thomas Paine, the term "social justice" became used explicitly from the 1840s. A Jesuit priest named Luigi Taparelli is typically credited with coining the term, and it spread during the revolutions of 1848 with the work of Antonio Rosmini-Serbati.[2][18][19] In the late industrial revolution, progressive American legal scholars began to use the term more, particularly Louis Brandeis and Roscoe Pound. From the early 20th century it was also embedded in international law and institutions; the preamble to establish the International Labour Organization recalled that "universal and lasting peace can be established only if it is based upon social justice." In the later 20th century, social justice was made central to the philosophy of the social contract, primarily by John Rawls in A Theory of Justice (1971). In 1993, the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action treats social justice as a purpose of the human rights education.[20][21]

Polity A polity is a state or one of its subordinate civil authorities, such as a province, prefecture, county, municipality, city, or district.[1] It is generally understood to mean a geographic area with a corresponding government. Thomas Hobbes considered bodies politic in this sense in Leviathan.[2] In previous centuries, body politic was also understood to mean "the physical person of the sovereign:" emperor, king or dictator in monarchies and despotisms, and the electorate in republics. In present times, it may also refer to representation of a group, such as ones drawn along ethnic or gender lines. Cabinets in liberal democracies are chosen to represent the body politic.[citation needed]

Psychology Psychology is the study of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of human experience.[1] It is an academic discipline and an applied science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles and researching specific cases.[2][3] In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, or cognitive scientist. Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behavior, while also exploring the physiological and biological processes that underlie cognitive functions and behaviors.

Psychologists explore concepts such as perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, personality, behavior, and interpersonal relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind.[4] Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. In addition, or in opposition, to employing empirical and deductive methods, some—especially clinical and counseling psychologists—at times rely upon symbolic interpretation and other inductive techniques. Psychology has been described as a "hub science",[5] with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the social sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities, and philosophy.

While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental health problems, it is also directed towards understanding and solving problems in several spheres of human activity. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society.[6][7] The majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a wide range of topics related to mental processes and behavior, and typically work in university psychology departments or teach in other academic settings (e.g., medical schools, hospitals). Some are employed in industrial and organizational settings, or in other areas[8] such as human development and aging, sports, health, and the media, as well as in forensic investigation and other aspects of law.

Social Psychology In psychology, social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others.[1] In this definition, scientific refers to the empirical method of investigation. The terms thoughts, feelings, and behaviors include all psychological variables that are measurable in a human being. The statement that others' presence may be imagined or implied suggests that we are prone to social influence even when no other people are present, such as when watching television, or following internalized cultural norms. Social psychologists typically explain human behavior as a result of the interaction of mental states and immediate social situations.

Social psychologists therefore deal with the factors that lead us to behave in a given way in the presence of others, and look at the conditions under which certain behavior/actions and feelings occur. Social psychology is concerned with the way these feelings, thoughts, beliefs, intentions and goals are constructed and how such psychological factors, in turn, influence our interactions with others.

Social psychology is a discipline that had traditionally bridged the gap between psychology and sociology. During the years immediately following World War II there was frequent collaboration between psychologists and sociologists.[2] However, the two disciplines have become increasingly specialized and isolated from each other in recent years, with sociologists focusing on "macro variables" (e.g., social structure) to a much greater extent. Nevertheless, sociological approaches to social psychology remain an important counterpart to psychological research in this area.

In addition to the split between psychology and sociology, there has been a somewhat less pronounced difference in emphasis between American social psychologists and European social psychologists. As a generalization, American researchers traditionally have focused more on the individual, whereas Europeans have paid more attention to group level phenomena (see group dynamics).[3][page needed]

Psychoanalytical Sociology Psychoanalytic sociology is the research field that analyzes society using the same methods that psychoanalysis applied to analyze an individual.[1]

'Psychoanalytic sociology embraces work from divergent sociological traditions and political perspectives': its common 'emphasis on unconscious mental processes and behavior renders psychoanalytic sociology a controversial subfield within the broader sociological discipline'[2] (as with psychoanalysis in academic psychology); and some[who?] sociologists consider the field to be insufficiently empirical and largely pseudoscientific.[citation needed]

Similarly, sociatry applies psychiatry to society itself.

Sociology Sociology is the study of social behavior or society, including its origins, development, organization, networks, and institutions.[1][2][3][4][5] It is a

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 111 Sociology Sociology is the study of social behavior or society, including its origins, development, organization, networks, and institutions.[1][2][3][4][5] It is a social science that uses various methods of empirical investigation[6] and critical analysis[7] to develop a body of knowledge about social order, disorder, and change. Many sociologists aim to conduct research that may be applied directly to social policy and welfare, while others focus primarily on refining the theoretical understanding of social processes. Subject matter ranges from the micro level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems and the social structure.[8]

The traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification, social class, social mobility, religion, secularization, law, sexuality and deviance. As all spheres of human activity are affected by the interplay between social structure and individual agency, sociology has gradually expanded its focus to further subjects, such as health, medical, military and penal institutions, the Internet, education, and the role of social activity in the development of scientific knowledge.

The range of social scientific methods has also expanded. Social researchers draw upon a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques. The linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-twentieth century led to increasingly interpretative, hermeneutic, and philosophic approaches towards the analysis of society. Conversely, the end of the 1990s and the beginning of 2000s have seen the rise of new analytically, mathematically and computationally rigorous techniques, such as agent-based modelling and social network analysis.[9][10]

Social research informs politicians and policy makers, educators, planners, lawmakers, administrators, developers, business magnates, managers, social workers, non-governmental organizations, non-profit organizations, and people interested in resolving social issues in general. There is often a great deal of crossover between social research, market research, and other statistical fields.[11]

Public Sociology Public sociology refers to an approach to the discipline which seeks to transcend the academy in order to engage with wider audiences. It is perhaps best understood as a style of sociology rather than a particular method, theory, or set of political values. Michael Burawoy contrasted it with professional sociology, a form of academic sociology that is concerned primarily with addressing other professional sociologists.

Burawoy and other promoters of public sociology have sought to encourage the discipline to engage in explicitly public and political ways with issues stimulated by debates over public policy, political activism, the purposes of social movements, and the institutions of civil society. If there has been a "movement" associated with public sociology, then, it is one that has sought to revitalize the discipline of sociology by leveraging its empirical methods and theoretical insights to engage in debates not just about what is or what has been in society, but about what society might yet be. Thus, many versions of public sociology have had an undeniably normative[1] and political character—a fact that has led a significant number of sociologists to oppose the approach.[2]

Historical Sociology Historical sociology is a branch of sociology focusing on how societies develop through history. It looks at how social structures that many regard as natural are in fact shaped by complex social processes. The structure in turn shapes institutions and organizations, which affect the society - resulting in phenomena ranging from gender bias and income inequality to war.

Contemporary historical sociology is primarily concerned with how the state has developed since the Middle Ages, analyzing relations between states, classes, economic and political systems.

History of Sociology Sociology as a scholarly discipline emerged primarily out of enlightenment thought, shortly after the French Revolution, as a positivist science of society. Its genesis owed to various key movements in the philosophy of science and the philosophy of knowledge. Social analysis in a broader sense, however, has origins in the common stock of philosophy and necessarily pre-dates the field. Modern academic sociology arose as a reaction to modernity, capitalism, urbanization, rationalization, secularization, colonization and imperialism. Late 19th century sociology demonstrated a particularly strong interest in the emergence of the modern nation state; its constituent institutions, its units of socialization, and its means of surveillance. An emphasis on the concept of modernity, rather than the Enlightenment, often distinguishes sociological discourse from that of classical political philosophy.[1]

Various quantitative social research techniques have become common tools for governments, businesses and organizations, and have also found use in the other social sciences. Divorced from theoretical explanations of social dynamics, this has given social research a degree of autonomy from the discipline of sociology. Similarly, "social science" has come to be appropriated as an umbrella term to refer to various disciplines which study humans, interaction, society or culture.[2]

Medical Sociology Medical sociology is the sociological analysis of medical organizations and institutions; the production of knowledge and selection of methods, the actions and interactions of healthcare professionals, and the social or cultural (rather than clinical or bodily) effects of medical practice. The field commonly interacts with the sociology of knowledge, science and technology studies, and social epistemology. Medical sociologists are also interested in the qualitative experiences of patients, often working at the boundaries of public health, social work, demography and gerontology to explore phenomena at the intersection of the social and clinical sciences. Health disparities commonly relate to typical categories such as class and race. Objective sociological research findings quickly become a normative and political issue.

Early work in medical sociology was conducted by Lawrence J Henderson whose theoretical interests in the work of Vilfredo Pareto inspired Talcott Parsons interests in sociological systems theory. Parsons is one of the founding fathers of medical sociology, and applied social role theory to interactional relations between sick people and others. Key contributors to medical sociology since the 1950s include Howard S. Becker, Mike Bury, Peter Conrad, Jack Douglas, David Silverman, Phil Strong, Bernice Pescosolido, Carl May, Anne Rogers, Anselm Strauss, Renee Fox, and Joseph W. Schneider

The field of medical sociology is usually taught as part of a wider sociology, clinical psychology or health studies degree course, or on dedicated master's degree courses where it is sometimes combined with the study of medical ethics/bioethics. In Britain, sociology was introduced into the medical curriculum following the Goodenough report in 1944: "In medicine, ‘social explanations’ of the aetiology of disease meant for some doctors a redirection of medical thought from the purely clinical and psychological criteria of illness. The introduction of ‘social’ factors into medical explanation was most strongly evidenced in branches of medicine closely related to the community — Social Medicine and, later, General Practice" (Reid 1976).

Economic Sociology Economic sociology is the study of the social cause and effect of various economic phenomena. The field can be broadly divided into a classical period and a contemporary one.

The classical period was concerned particularly with modernity and its constituent aspects which are rationalisation, secularisation, urbanisation, social stratification, and so on. As sociology arose primarily as a reaction to capitalist modernity, economics played a role in much classic sociological inquiry. The specific term "economic sociology" was first coined by William Stanley Jevons in 1879, later to be used in the works of Émile Durkheim, Max Weber and Georg Simmel between 1890 and 1920.[1] Weber's work regarding the relationship between economics and religion and the cultural "disenchantment" of the modern West is perhaps most iconic of the approach set forth in the classic period of economic sociology.

Contemporary economic sociology may include studies of all modern social aspects of economic phenomena; economic sociology may thus be considered a field in the intersection of economics and sociology. Frequent areas of inquiry in contemporary economic sociology include the social consequences of economic exchanges, the social meanings they involve and the social interactions they facilitate or obstruct. [2]

Sociology of Culture / Cultural Sociology The sociology of culture and, the related, cultural sociology concerns the systematic analysis of culture, usually understood as the ensemble of symbolic codes used by a members of a society, as it is manifested in the society. For Georg Simmel, culture referred to "the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history". Culture in the sociological field is analyzed as the ways of thinking and describing, the ways of acting, and the material objects that together shape a people's way of life.

Contemporary sociologists' approach to culture is often divided between a "sociology of culture" and "cultural sociology" - the terms are similar, though not interchangeable.[1] The sociology of culture is an older concept, and considers some topics and objects as more-or-less "cultural" than others. By way of contrast, Jeffrey C. Alexander introduced the term "cultural sociology," an approach that sees all, or most, social phenomena as inherently cultural at some level.[2] For instance, a leading proponent of the "strong program" in cultural sociology, Alexander argues: "To believe in the possibility of cultural sociology is to subscribe to the idea that every action, no matter how instrumental, reflexive, or coerced vis-a-vis its external environment, is embedded to some extent in a horizon of affect and meaning."[3] In terms of analysis, sociology of culture often attempts to explain some discretely cultural phenomena as a product of social processes, while cultural sociology sees culture as a component of explanations of social phenomena.[4] As opposed to the field of cultural studies, cultural sociology does not reduce all human matters to a problem of cultural encoding and decoding. For instance, Pierre Bourdieu's cultural sociology has a "clear recognition of the social and the economic as categories which are interlinked with, but not reducible to, the cultural."[5]

Sociology of Health and Illness The Sociology of health and illness or Nutritional influence in Health and Illness, examines the interaction between society and health. The objective of this topic is to see how social life has an impact on morbidity and mortality rate, and vice versa.[1] This aspect of sociology differs from medical sociology in that this branch of sociology discusses health and illness in relation to social institutions such as family, employment, and school. The sociology of medicine limits its concern to the patient-practitioner relationship and the role of health professionals in society.[2] The sociology of health and illness covers sociological pathology (causes of disease and illness), reasons for seeking particular types of medical aid, and patient compliance or noncompliance with medical regimes.[2]

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 112 compliance or noncompliance with medical regimes.[2] Health, or lack of health, was once merely attributed to biological or natural conditions. Sociologists have demonstrated that the spread of diseases is heavily influenced by the socioeconomic status of individuals, ethnic traditions or beliefs, and other cultural factors. [3] Where medical research might gather statistics on a disease, a sociological perspective on an illness would provide insight on what external factors caused the demographics who contracted the disease to become ill.[3]

This topic requires a global approach of analysis because the influence of societal factors varies throughout the world. This will be demonstrated through discussion of the major diseases of each continent. These diseases are sociologically examined and compared based on the traditional medicine, economics, religion, and culture that is specific to each region. HIV/AIDS serves as a common basis of comparison among regions. While it is extremely problematic in certain areas, in others it has affected a relatively small percentage of the population. [4] Sociological factors can help to explain why these discrepancies exist.

There are obvious differences in patterns of health and illness across societies, over time, and within particular society types. There has historically been a long-term decline in mortality within industrialized societies, and on average, life-expectancies are considerably higher in developed, rather than developing or undeveloped, societies.[5] Patterns of global change in health care systems make it more imperative than ever to research and comprehend the sociology of health and illness. Continuous changes in economy, therapy, technology and insurance can affect the way individual communities view and respond to the medical care available. These rapid fluctuations cause the issue of health and illness within social life to be very dynamic in definition.

Advancing information is vital because as patterns evolve, the study of the sociology of health and illness constantly needs to be updated.[2]

Sociology of Education The sociology of education is the study of how public institutions and individual experiences affect education and its outcomes. It is mostly concerned with the public schooling systems of modern industrial societies, including the expansion of higher, further, adult, and continuing education.[1]

Education has often been very much so seen as a fundamentally optimistic human endeavour characterised by aspirations for progress and betterment.[2] It is understood by many to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving greater equality, and acquiring wealth and social status.[3] Education is perceived as a place where children can develop according to their unique needs and potential.[2] It is also perceived as one of the best means of achieving greater social equality.[3] Many would say that the purpose of education should be to develop every individual to their full potential, and give them a chance to achieve as much in life as their natural abilities allow (meritocracy). Few would argue that any education system accomplishes this goal perfectly.

Some take a particularly negative view, arguing that the education system is designed with the intention of causing the social reproduction of inequality.

Sociology of the Family The sociology of the family examines the family as an institution and a unit of socialization. This unit of socialization is identified thr ough various sociological perspectives; particularly with regards to the relationship between the nuclear family and industrial capitalism, and the different gender roles and concepts of childhood which arose with it.

Sociological studies of the family look at:

•demographic characteristics of the family members: family size, age, ethnicity, and gender of the members •social class of the family, the economic level and mobility of the family, the professions of its members, the education levels of the family members •what spheres of life are important in and to the family unit •the effect of social change on the family •the interactions of the family with other social organizations. •diversity of family forms in contemporary societies in relation to ideology, gender differences, and state policies such as those concerned with marriage •interaction between family members within the family. How they rely on one another. How they work together/rely on the work of someone in the family.

Examples of specific issues looked at include:

•Changing roles of family members. Each member is restricted by the sex roles of the traditional family. These roles such as the father as the worker and the mother as the homemaker are declining. The mother is becoming the supplementary provider and she retains the responsibilities of child rearing. Therefore, the female role in the labor force is “compatible with the demands of the traditional family.”[1] Sociology studies the adaptation of the males role to caregiver as well as provider. The gender roles are increasingly interwoven. •Increase in sole occupancy dwellings and smaller family sizes •Average age of marriage being older •Average number of children decreasing and first birth at later age •The historical pattern of fertility, from baby boom to baby bust (instability) •The ageing population, and the trend towards greater life expectancy •Rising divorce rates and people who will never marry[1] •How the choices of the parents affect their children •Same sex couples and marriages •Children of same sex couples

Social Stratification Social stratification is a society's categorization of people into socioeconomic strata, based upon their occupation and income, wealth and social status, or derived power (social and political). As such, stratification is the relative social position of persons within a social group, category, geographic region, or social unit. In modern Western societies, social stratification typically is distinguished as three social classes: (i) the upper class, (ii) the middle class, and (iii) the lower class; in turn, each class can be subdivided into strata, e.g. the upper-stratum, the middle-stratum, and the lower stratum.[1] Moreover, a social stratum can be formed upon the bases of kinship or caste, or both.

The categorization of people by social strata occurs in all societies, ranging from the complex, state-based societies to tribal and feudal societies, which are based upon socio-economic relations among classes of nobility and classes of peasants. Historically, whether or not hunter-gatherer societies can be defined as socially stratified or if social stratification began with agriculture and common acts of social exchange, remains a debated matter in the social sciences.[2] Determining the structures of social stratification arises from inequalities of status among persons, therefore, the degree of social inequality determines a person's social stratum. Generally, the greater the social complexity of a society, the more social strata exist, by way of social differentiation.[3]

Sociology of Communications

Sociology of the Community Sociology of Community is a book written by Maximilian Weber, a German economist and sociologist. The original edition was published in German, but various translations into English exist. The text covers Weber's views on economy, community, ethnicity and nationalism.

Sociology of Religion religion, sociology of The scientific study of religious institutions, beliefs, and practices had its origins in Marxism and the neo-Hegelian critique of religion, but it is primarily associated with the late nineteenth-century research into religious phenomena by Emile Durkheim, GeorgSimmel, William Robertson Smith, Ernst Troeltsch, and Max Weber. A psychoanalytic theory of religious behaviour was also developed by Sigmund Freud (in, for example, Civilization and its Discontents, 1930). The sociology of religion should be distinguished from religious sociology, which has been employed by the Roman Catholic Church to improve the effectiveness of its missionary work in industrial societies, but it is related to both the phenomenology and anthropology of religion.

The sociology of religion should be seen as a critique of nineteenth-century positivist theories, which were concerned to explain the origins of religion on rationalist and individualistic assumptions. This positivist tradition regarded religion as the erroneous beliefs of individuals which would eventually disappear when scientific thought became widely established in society. It was assumed, for example, that Darwinism would undermine the religious belief in a divine creator. Religion was thought to be irrational.

The sociology of religion, by contrast, was concerned with religion as nonrational, collective, and symbolic. It was not interested in the historical origins of religion in ‘primitive society’. Religion was not based on erroneous belief, but responded to the human need for meaning. It was not individualistic but social and collective. It was about symbol and ritual rather than belief and knowledge. The growth of scientific knowledge was therefore irrelevant to the social functions of religion.

Émile Durkheim's The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (1912) is the classical statement of this sociological perspective. He defined religion as ‘a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden—beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a Church, all those who adhere to them’. By ‘elementary forms’ Durkheim meant the basic structures

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 113 unite into one single moral community called a Church, all those who adhere to them’. By ‘elementary forms’ Durkheim meant the basic structures of religious activity; he rejected as unscientific any inquiry into the primitive origins of religion, concentrating instead on the social functions of religious practices. He rejected also the rationalist critique of belief by focusing on practices relevant to the sacred. His approach has remained fundamental to a sociological understanding of religion.

The sociology of religion has thus been bound up with the problem of defining religion and distinguishing religion from magic. It has largely abandoned the idea that religion is a collection of beliefs in God. There has been an emphasis instead on practice in relation to the sacred. Alternative perspectives have defined religion as the ultimate concern which all human beings have to address. Many sociologists have subsequently identified the religious with the social.

There are two generally contrasted traditions in the sociology of religion: those of Durkheim and Weber. Whereas Durkheim was interested in the social functions of religion in general, in relation to social integration, Max Weber was primarily concerned with the problem of theodicy (any explanation of the fundamental moral problems of death, suffering, and evil) and the comparative study of the salvation drive. Weber identified two major religious orientations towards the world—mysticism and asceticism—in his The Sociology of Religion (1922). He was especially interested in religious attitudes towards economics and eroticism. He argued that inner-worldly asceticism (or the ethic of world mastery) represented the most radical attempt to impose a rational regulation on the world. He explored this theme in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905).

Some sociologists have claimed that, in modern societies, there has been a profound process ofsecularization (or religious decline) as a consequence of urbanization, cultural pluralism, and the spread of a scientific understanding of the world. This thesis has also been challenged by sociologists who argue that religion has been transformed rather than undermined.

The sociology of religion was originally at the theoretical core of sociology as a whole, because it was concerned to understand the character of rational action, the importance of symbols, and finally the nature of the social. It has been argued, however, that contemporary sociology of religion has lost this analytical importance, because it has concentrated on narrow empirical issues such as the pattern of recruitment to the Christian ministry. The comparative study of world religions, which was fundamental to Weber's approach, has been neglected.

Bryan Wilson's Religion in Sociological Perspective (1982) and Steve Bruce's Religion in Modern Britain (1995) both offer an excellent introduction to most of the topics raised in this entry and to the field as a whole. See also CIVIL RELIGION; INVISIBLE RELIGION; PRIVATE RELIGION;PROTESTANT ETHIC THESIS; RELIGIOUS INNOVATION; RELIGIOUS REVIVAL; SECT.

From Social Worlds social worlds A term which is frequently applied to ‘universes of discourse’ through which common symbols, organizations, and activities emerge. They involve cultural areas which need not be physically bounded. Typical examples might be the ‘social worlds’ of surfing, nursing, politics, or science. The Gay Community is a self-conscious social world. The concept has a long but vague history in symbolic interactionism and is discussed most clearly by Anselm Strauss (in Norman Denzin's edited Studies in Symbolic Interaction, 1978).

From

Sociology of the (Mass) Media Mass media are tools for the transfer of information, concepts, and ideas to both general and specific audiences. They are important tools in advancing public health goals. Communicating about health through mass media is complex, however, and challenges professionals in diverse disciplines. In an article in the Journal of Health Communication, Liana Winett and Lawrence Wallack wrote that "using the mass media to improve public health can be like navigating a vast network of roads without any street signs—if you are not sure where you are going andwhy, chances are you will not reach your destination" (1996, p. 173).

Using mass media can be counterproductive if the channels used are not audience-appropriate, or if the message being delivered is too emotional, fear arousing, or controversial. Undesirable side effects usually can be avoided through proper formative research, knowledge of the audience, experience in linking media channels to audiences, and message testing.

Sociological study of the Mass media involves analysing the Mass Media with the Sociological perspective in mind

World or Global Sociology Sociological Theory In sociology, sociological theories are statements of how and why particular facts about the social world are related.[1] They range in scope from concise descriptions of a single social process to paradigms for analysis and interpretation. Some sociological theories explain aspects of the social world and enable prediction about future events,[2] while others function as broad perspectives which guide further sociological analyses.[3]

Sociological Methodology Social research is research conducted by social scientists following a systematic plan. Social research methods can be classified along a quantitative/qualitative dimension.[1]

•Quantitative designs approach social phenomena through quantifiable evidence, and often rely on statistical analysis of many cases (or across intentionally designed treatments in an experiment) to create valid and reliable general claims. Related to quantity. •Qualitative designs emphasize understanding of social phenomena through direct observation, communication with participants, or analysis of texts, and may stress contextual subjective accuracy over generality. Related to quality.

While methods may be classified as quantitative or qualitative, most methods contain elements of both. For example, qualitative data analysis often involves a fairly structured approach to coding the raw data into systematic information, and quantifying intercoder reliability.[2] Thus, there is often a more complex relationship between "qualitative" and "quantitative" approaches than would be suggested by drawing a simple distinction between them.

Social scientists employ a range of methods in order to analyse a vast breadth of social phenomena: from census survey data derived from millions of individuals, to the in-depth analysis of a single agent's social experiences; from monitoring what is happening on contemporary streets, to the investigation of ancient historical documents. Methods rooted in classical sociology and statistics have formed the basis for research in other disciplines, such as political science, media studies, program evaluation and market research.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_research> Sociological Perspective C Wright-Mills and the 'Sociological The Sociological Imagination is a book written by sociologist C. Wright Mills in 1959. His goal in writing this book was to try to reconcile two Imagination' different and abstract concepts of social reality – the "individual" and "society." In doing so, Mills challenged the dominant sociological discourse and critiqued some of the most basic terms and definitions.

While Mills’ work was not well received at the time as a result of his professional and personal reputation, The Sociological Imagination is still one of the most widely read sociology books today and is a staple of undergraduate sociology courses.

Mills spends the beginning of the book aggressively attacking then current trends in sociology, and then goes on to explain sociology as he sees it: a necessary political and historical profession. He lays the groundwork for an ideal social science in his mind. Without reproducing the entirety of his book, it would be impossible to adequately relate his framework.

The most basic and important points here are keeping an eye to history and to agency, and avoiding strict adherence to any one methodology or any one theory. He also urges social scientists to work within the field as a whole rather than specializing heavily in sociology, political science, economics, psychology, etc. Mills imagines the human being as both a creature and an agent of the individual's milieu as well as of history. This is a key concept, which is often overlooked in social science.

The Sociological Imagination As A Concept

In The Sociological Imagination, Mills coined the same famous phrase, which is used throughout sociology today. The sociological imagination is the concept of being able to “think ourselves away” from the familiar routines of our daily lives in order to look at them anew. Mills defined sociological imagination as “the vivid awareness of the relationship between experience and the wider society.” It is the ability to see things socially and how they interact and influence each other. To have a sociological imagination, a person must be able to pull away from the situation and think from an alternative point of view. This ability is central to one's development of a sociological perspective on the world.

Objective / Objectivity noun

1. something that one's efforts or actions are intended to attain or accomplish; purpose; goal; target: the objective of a military attack; the objective of a fund-raising drive.

2. Grammar.

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 114 1.Also called objective case. (in English and some other languages) a case specialized for the use of a form as the object of a transitive verb or of a preposition, as him in The boy hit him, or me in He comes to me with his troubles. 2.a word in that case.

3. Also called object glass, object lens, objective lens. Optics. (in a telescope, microscope, camera, or other optical system) the lens or combination of lenses that first receives the rays from the object and forms the image in the focal plane of the eyepiece, as in a microscope, or on a plate or screen, as in a camera.

Subjective / Subjectivity 1.sub¦ject|ive [səbˈdʒɛktɪv]

ADJECTIVE

2.based on or influenced by personal feelings, tastes, or opinions: Contrasted with objective. "his views are highly subjective" · "there is always the danger of making a subjective judgement" synonyms: personal · personalized · individual · internal · emotional ·

3.instinctive · intuitive · impressionistic · biased · prejudiced · bigoted · idiosyncratic · irrational · gut · gut reaction

antonyms: objective · impartial

•dependent on the mind or on an individual's perception for its existence.

4.Grammar relating to or denoting a case of nouns and pronouns used for the subject of a sentence. NOUN

5.Grammar (the subjective) the subjective case. http://www.bing.com/search?q=subjective&qs=n&form=QBRE&pq=subjective&sc=8-10&sp=-1&sk=&cvid= 696520B80E1C4681ADF502E3628A3A61> Social Imaginary The imaginary, or social imaginary is the set of values, institutions, laws, and symbols common to a particular social group and the corresponding society through which people imagine their social whole. The concept of the imaginary has attracted attention in Sociology, Philosophy, and Media studies.

While not constituting an established reality, the social imaginary is nevertheless an institution in as much as it represents the system of meanings that govern a given social structure. These imaginaries are to be understood as historical constructs defined by the interactions of subjects in society. In that sense, the imaginary is not necessarily "real" as it is an imagined concept contingent on the imagination of a particular social subject. Nevertheless, there remains some debate among those who use the term (or its associated terms, such as imaginaire, as to the ontological status of the Imaginary). Some, such as Henry Corbin, understand the imaginary to be quite real indeed, while others ascribe to it only a social or imagined reality.

John R. Searle considered the ontology of the social imaginary to be complex, but that in practice 'the complex structure of social reality is, so to speak, weightless and invisible. The child is brought up in a culture where he or she simply takes social reality for granted....The complex ontology seems simple'.[18] He added the subtle distinction that social reality was observer-relative, and so would 'inherit that ontological subjectivity. But this ontological subjectivity does not prevent claims about observer-relative features from being epistemically objective'.[19]

Ontology 1.NOUN Ontological 2.the branch of metaphysics dealing with the nature of being.

3.a set of concepts and categories in a subject area or domain that shows their properties and the relations between them:

4."what's new about our ontology is that it is created automatically from large datasets" · "we're using ontologies to capture and analyse some of the knowledge in our department"

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 115 Social Science Academic Associations, Institutions and Societies 17 March 2016 12:02 Anthropological Associations, Institutions and Societies

•American Anthropological Association, a professional organization of scholars and practitioners in the field of anthropology

•American Association of Physical Anthropologists, based in the United States

•Anthropological Society of London, founded 1863

•Anthropological Society of Victoria, formed in 1934

•Anthropological Survey of India, the apex Indian organisation involved in anthropological studies and field data research

•Ardabil Anthropology Museum, a museum in Ardabil, Iran

•Australian Anthropological Society, the professional association representing anthropologists in Australia

•Indian Anthropological Society, the representative body of the professional anthropologists in India

•Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography, Russian institute of research, specializing in ethnographic studies of cultural and physical anthropology

•List of museums with major collections in ethnography and anthropology, a list article

•Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, a research institute based in Leipzig

•Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, an anthropology museum located on the University of New Mexico campus

•Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Cambridge, the University's collections of local antiquities, together with archaeological and ethnographic artefacts from around the world

•National Anthropological Archives, an archive maintained by the Smithsonian Institution

•Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn Anthropology Centre, an academic institution in Thailand

•Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, a long-established anthropological organisation

•Society for Medical Anthropology, an organization formed to promote study of anthropological aspects of health, illness, health care, and related topics

•South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, a University of South Carolina research institute

•USC Center for Visual Anthropology, a center located at the University of Southern California

Geographical Associations, Institutions and Societies

•American Geographical Society (U.S.)

•Anton Melik Geographical Institute (Slovenia)

•Association of American Geographers (AAG)

•Association of Pacific Geographers

•Australian Geographic

•Australian Geography Teachers Association

•Avalon Historico-Geographical Society

Brazilian Historic and Geographic Institute

•British Cartographic Society

•Canadian Geographic

•Canadian Association of Geographers

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 116 •Canadian Association of Geographers

•Egyptian Geographic Society

•European Geography Association

•Geographical Association, The

•Geographical Society of New South Wales (Australia)

•Gesellsschaft fur Erdkunde zu Berlin

•Harvard Geographic Society

•Hong Kong Geographical Society

•International Geographical Union

•International Glaciological Society

•International Social Science Council

•Israeli Geographical Association

•Lisbon Geographic Society

•National Geographic Society (U.S.)

•National Council for Geographic Education

• National Council for the Social Studies

•Norwegian Geographic Society

•Royal Canadian Geographical Society (Canada)

•Royal Dutch Geographical Society

•Royal Geographical Society (UK)

•Russian Geographical Society (Russia)

•Royal Canadian Geographical Society

•Royal Danish Geographical Society (Denmark)

•Royal Scottish Geographical Society

•Royal Geographical Society of Australasia

•Royal Meteorological Society

•Royal Netherlands Geographical Society

•Saudi Geographical Society

•Scottish Meteorological Society

•Sociedad Mexicana de geografia y Estadistica

•Societe de Geographie

•Societe Royale Belge de Geographie

•Society of Woman Geographers • •Society for the History of Discoveries

•Society of Cartographers

•Society of Woman Geographers

•Survey of Israel

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 117 •Survey of Pakistan

•Surveying and Spatial Sciences Institute

•Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography

•African Geographical Review

•Geographical Review

•UNSDI

Historical Associations, Institutions and Societies

Sociological Associations, Institutions and Societies

Governmental , Political and International Relations Associations, Institutions and Societies

Academic peer reviewed journals which are primarily focused on Cultural Geography or which contain articles that contribute to the area. • Antipode • Area • Cultural Geographies • Society and Space - Environment and Planning D • Geography Compass (Cultural Geography Section) • Social & Cultural Geography • Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers

From

Q11 BA International Studies Glossaries and Resour Page 118 Notable Geographers and Sociologists and other influential Social Scientists 17 March 2016 12:23 GEOGRAPHERS SOCIOLOGSTS OTHER Carl Ritter (1779-1859) Auguste Comte (1798-1857) Eratosthenes- Philosopher Carl Sauer Harriet Martineau Plato -Philosopher Xavier Hommaire de Hell (1812-1848) Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) Strabo - Philosopher Elisee Reclus (1830-1905) Georg Simmel (1858-1918) Immanuel Kant - Philosopher - (1724 - 1804) Peter Kropotkin (1842-1921) Max Weber (1864-1920) Peter Abell (1939 - ) Friedrich Ratzel (1844-1904) Harriet Martineau (1802-1876) Karl Marx (1818-1883) Nigel Thrift Ferdinand Tonnies (1855-1936) Paul Virilio Doreen Massey () Thorstein Veblen (1857-1929) Jacob Abbott (Author) Gillian Rose Michel Foucault Freidrich Ratzel Erving Goffman Carl Ritter

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