FROM A FEW TO ALL ARCTIC CIRCLE OULU FINLAND TAMPERE KANGASALA HÄMEENLINNA PORVOO OSLO ST. PETERSBURG TURKU HELSINKI STOCKHOLM COPENHAGEN A/459/00/POHJEUR5 Front cover: A well with counterpoise lift serving a small farm in the parish of Keuruu, Central Finland in 1892 (Hämäläinen et al. 1984. Perinnealbumi. Keski-Suomi I. Perinnetieto Oy. Kuopio. 672 pp.) © National Board of Antiquites (Museovirasto) The water tower of Maikkula in Oulu, completed in 1992 © Oulu Water and Sewage Works Back cover: Viinikanlahti biological-chemical wastewater treatment plant in the 1990s. © Tampere Water Petri S. Juuti Tapio S. Katko (eds.) FROM A FEW TO ALL LONG-TERM DEVELOPMENT OF WATER AND ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES IN FINLAND Petri S. Juuti & Tapio S. Katko (eds.) FROM A FEW TO ALL LONG-TERM DEVELOPMENT OF WATER AND ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES IN FINLAND KEYWORDS: Water Supply, Sanitation, Environmental History, Innovation, Water Policy, Finland © AUTHORS & KEHRÄMEDIA INC. 2004 ABOUT AUTHORS: Dr. Petri S. Juuti is a historian, and assistant professor at the Department of History, University of Tampere. His major area of interest is the urban environment, especially city-service development, water supply and sanitation, urban technology, pollution, and public policy. Author of several books. CONTACTS: [email protected] Dr. Tapio S. Katko is a sanitary engineer and senior research fellow of the Academy of Finland. Dr. Katko is working at Tampere University of Technology, Institute of Environmental Engineering and Biotechnology. His main research interests are long-term development of water and related infrastructure as well as institutional and management issues of water and sanitation services. Author of several books. CONTACTS: [email protected] ISBN 951-98151-2-0 COVERS & LAYOUT: KATRI WALLENIUS PRINTED BY RT-PRINT OY, PIEKSÄMÄKI 2004 CONTENTS FOREWORD Timo Myllyntaus..........................................................................................................................................................................................................7 PART I LONG-TERM DEVELOPMENT OF WATER AND SEWAGE SERVICES IN FINLAND Tapio S. Katko...................................................................................................................................................................................................................17 EARLY ATTEMPT TO PRIVATIZE – ANY LESSONS LEARNT? Tapio S. Katko, Petri S. Juuti & Jarmo J. Hukka.................................................................................................37 VIEWS ON THE HISTORY OF WATER,WASTEWATER AND SOLID WASTE SERVICES Tapio S. Katko & Henry Nygård............................................................................................................................................47 PART II FROM POLLUTED TO SWIMMABLE WATERS – TAMPERE CITY WATER AND SEWAGE WORKS, 1835–1998 Petri S. Juuti & Tapio S. Katko..................................................................................................................................................57 WATER AND CITY – ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY OF WATER AND SANITATION SERVICES IN TAMPERE, FINLAND, 1835–1921 Petri S. Juuti.....................................................................................................................................................................................................71 FOR THE ENVIRONMENT AND HEALT – HISTORY OF WATER AND SANITATION SERVICES IN PORVOO, FINLAND Petri S. Juuti , Tapio S. Katko & Riikka P. Rajala.................................................................................................93 WATER NATURALLY – WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION IN KANGASALA, 1800–2000 Petri S. Juuti & Tapio S. Katko...............................................................................................................................................115 PART III WATER POLLUTION CONTROL AND STRATEGIES IN FINNISH FOREST INDUSTRIES IN THE 20TH CENTURY Tapio S. Katko, Antero A. O. Luonsi & Petri S. Juuti....................................................................................129 SEEKING FOR CONVERGENCE BETWEEN HISTORY AND FUTURES RESEARCH Jari Y. Kaivo-oja, Tapio S. Katko & Osmo T. Seppälä....................................................................................151 EPILOGUE FROM A FEW TO ALL Petri S. Juuti & Tapio S. Katko................................................................................................................................................174 FIGURES & TABLES PART I LONG-TERM DEVELOPMENT OF WATER AND WATER NATURALLY SEWAGE SERVICES IN FINLAND – WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION IN KANGASALA, Figure 1 Water veins and radiation lines.........................21 1800–2000 Figure 2 The establishment of common rural water..22 Figure 1 Location of Kangasala.........................................116 Figure 3 The diffusion of piped water, sewers...............23 Figure 2 Water supply and sanitation............................118 Figure 4 The establishment of water supply..................24 Figure 3 The population of Kangasala..........................120 Figure 5 Specific water consumption................................26 Figure 4 A well with counterpoise lift........................121 Figure 6 Urban waste water treatment plants.............27 Figure 5 Beautifull new well in Kangasala................123 Figure 7 Total production and waste water loading...29 Figure 6 Mobile sewer............................................................125 Figure 8 The development of water supply...................33 PART III EARLY ATTEMPT TO PRIVATIZE WATER POLLUTION CONTROL AND STRATEGIES IN – ANY LESSONS LEARNT? FINNISH FOREST INDUSTRIES IN THE 20TH CENTURY Figure 1 William von Nottbeck..............................................39 Box 1 Can untreated wastewaters..................................134 Box 1 Von Nottbeck’s terms for establishing.................40 Figure 1 Production of the pulp.......................................136 Figure 2 Trends of wastewater loadings......................140 VIEWS ON THE HISTORY OF WATER,WASTEWATER Figure 3 Comparison of effluents from pulp.............141 AND SOLID WASTE SERVICES Figure 4 Lifespan of selected environmental..........146 Figure 1 Decline of per capita water consumption..52 Table 1 Estimated loadings from forest.......................143 PART II SEEKING FOR CONVERGENCE BETWEEN HISTORY AND FROM POLLUTED TO SWIMMABLE WATERS FUTURES RESEARCH – TAMPERE CITY WATER AND SEWAGE WORKS, Figure 1 A and B series........................................................... 152 1835–1998 Figure 2 The balance of predictability.............................156 Figure 1 Evolution of Tampere City Water.......................60 Figure 4 Typical sense making models.........................162 Figure 2 Underground, high-level water reservoir...63 Figure 5 Past, present and futures...................................165 Figure 3 Viinikanlahti...................................................................65 Figure 6 Decision making..................................................... 166 Figure 4 Inter-municipal cooperation..............................66 Figure 7 An overall framework..........................................169 Figure 5 Total pumping rate since 1977..........................66 Figure 8 A perspective........................................................... 169 Table 1 Milestones of the Tampere City Water............61 Table 1 Three epistemologies...........................................155 Table 2 Three forms of futures-oriented....................155 WATER AND CITY – ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY OF WATER AND SANITATION SERVICES IN TAMPERE, FINLAND, 1835–1921 Figure 1 Location of the case city Tampere................72 Figure 2 Ecohistorical stages of Tampere..............87–89 Table 1 Years of establishing the first urban.................74 Table 2 Three systems of urban water supply..............77 Table 3 Periods of water supply and sanitation..........90 FOR THE ENVIRONMENT AND HEALT – HISTORY OF WATER AND SANITATION SERVICES IN PORVOO, FINLAND Figure 1 Water tower of Slätberget....................................94 Figure 2 Installation of the watertermain......................94 Figure 3 Development of water consumption............99 Figure 4 Water and sewage services in 2003.............107 Figure 5 Water intake and plants 1913–2003...........108 Figure 6 Two old wells in Porvoo.......................................113 Table 1 Treatment requirements of effluents..........102 Table 2 Public-private cooperation.................................102 Table 3 Key organisational changes................................106 FOREWORD Timo Myllyntaus WRITING ON WATER The importance of water has always been self-evident for human beings. Without water, there would be neither flora nor fauna, no life at all on the Earth. In about 450 BC, the Greek philosopher Empedocles attempted to crystallize this idea scientifically by proposing that all substances are made up of a combination of four elements – earth, air, fire, and water. That idea, later developed by Plato and Aristotle, persisted for more than 2,000 years. These two philosophers also elaborated on the contents of the concept tecnologia, technology.1 The human being has used technology to govern water and bring it under his dominion. In the antiquity, technology related to water constituted a central part of craftsmanship. Entire civilizations were built up on the infrastructure of complicated irrigation systems. Shipbuilding was the basis