The Secrets of African Managerial Success
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David K. Leonard It has become fashionable to despair at the quality of of the Ministry of Finance from 1980 to 1986; Simeon African public sector management) Generally the Nyachae, Provincial Commissioner from 1964 to problem is attributed to the social and political 1979, then head of the President's policy staff and context within which governmental activities must be finally Chief Secretary from 1983 to 1986; and Ishmael conducted on the continent [see Hyden 1983; Mons Muriithi, Director of Veterinary Services from 1966 to 1981;Price1975]. Thereisno doubt that the 1984.I have probed thelives of these men in environment for public management is frequently considerable depth, interviewing them and their inhospitable in Africa. families, professional associates, friends and village The environmental argument explains too much, acquaintances. Altogether I conducted nearly 300 however, and is thereby unduly pessimistic. It implies interviews with almost 200 people in pursuit of these that almost all public sector activities should fail, since biographies. theyareallsubjecttothe same unfavourable The four men have varied in the extent and clarity of environment. As Barbara Grosh has shown, a good their success as public servants. The most unambiguous number of indigenously managed Kenyan parastatals case is that of Charles Karanja. The Kenya Tea have in fact been successes [Grosh 1987]. The same DevelopmentAuthority is aninternationally can be said for many civil service initiatives. In these acknowledged success story [Paul 1982:11, 60-2] and cases African managers have prevailed despite the Karanja saw it through its period of greatest growth, inauspicious context within which they worked. Why including itS movement into the new and difficult and how? The answer is important to the developmental areas of manufacturing and international marketing. future of the continent. The choice of Simeon Nyachae is more controversial. In search of the secrets of African managerial success I His service to the President was always impeccable but am writing the biographies of four Kenyans who have some of the enterprises with which he was associated been particularly effective in their management of during his tenure as Provincial Commissioner did not rural development initiatives, that domain of public have a positive developmental impact. (For example, activity in which failure is most prevalent [Hirschman he was chair of the failed Wheat Board.) A change 1987; Israel 1987:18-26]. Within their life and career gradually overtook him when he assumed responsibility histories I have found some clues as to why they were for national policy, however. Kenya's Financial Times able to breathe success on many of the enterprises wrote of his term as Chief Secretary that he: which they led. Of course the resulting insights must be bestrode the Kenya civil service like the Shakes- treated cautiously until they have been verified pearean colossus.For most of thatperiod, through quantitative research on a systematic sample Nyachae's influence permeated every department of managers.Ioffer them now, not as proven of government operations and he was the most generalisations, but to promote discussion and to articulate exponent of most economic policies . strengthen our understanding of some of the forms of He was the prime moving force behind the managerial behaviour that are at least possible on the government's district focus for rural development continent. programmes and its most lucid spokesman The four men whom I have studied are: Charles Kibe Kisero 1987:4]. Karanja, General Manager of the Kenya Tea I think that he had a major and, on balance, positive Development Authority from 1970 to 1981; Harris impact in this period. Mutio Mule, who moved through the ranks of the Planning Department to become Permanent Secretary Harris Mule was a quieter,less obtrusive man. Working behind the scenes he was a prime architect of Kenya's Arid and Semi-Arid Lands and District I am grateful for the high quality of research assistance that I have Focus programmes (the latter with Nyachae). These received on this project from Martha Saavedra, Zeverino Mogaka, were progressive, redistributive programmes. He also Kamene Mutambuki, Samwell Ngigi, and Fred Schaffer. Funding for the research was provided by the National Science Foundation was responsible with Philip Ndegwa, Governor of the (SES-8599532), a Fulbright Fellowship, and the Institute of Central Bank of Kenya, for the country's early and International Studies, University of California, Berkeley. courageous economic readjustment inthe1980s, 35 which might be thought of as a conservative policy. asked that he be permitted to take on the new One international observer of Kenya's economic functions and to be firedif he failed. Kenyatta policies called Mule 'one of the ten best stabilisers in expressed his high regard for Karanja and gave his the world'. Both Kenyans and foreigners agree that he permission. The other actors then withdrew their was exceptionally good at handling donor agencies opposition and the KTDA successfully assumed these and their pressures. Mule's internal management of new roles. This action would not have been possible if the Ministry of Finance was more mixed; he was Karanja had not earlier in his career come to the criticised for not Africanising rapidly enough and personal attention of Kenyatta, inspired his confidence some departments were not tightly administered. and had direct access to him. Ishmael Muriithi presided over a dramatic expansion The self-assurance which Karanja'spresidential in Kenya's veterinary services and withitthe connections gave him also provided the KDTA with successful explosion of smaliholder dairy production. an impressive degree of autonomy, much more than His iron mangerial hand turned limp however, when was granted to it by its legal charter. Twice in the President Kenyatta died and the expansive public 1970's the Kenya Government negotiated a Tripartite budgets on which he had relied began to run dry. His Agreement whereby organised labour agreed to a final years were not effective ones. freeze on wages in return for a lOper cent increase in All of these men were responsible for important employment by private employers and the state. This successes, but they had failures as well.2 Thus the agreement provedparticularlycostlytopublic assessment of the managerial attributes of these men organisations because whereas the private firms that follows is a subtle one, giving greater weight to returned to their previous employment those factors that are associated with the successes and levels relatively quickly through normal attrition in steering away from those elements that seem to be their labour force, the state increased the numbers of responsible for their failures. Given the discriminating its established positions and remained permanently nature of this analysis and the brevity that is necessary fixed at the higher level. Karanja correctly felt that this to aBulletinarticle, full proof will not always be agreement would be disadvantageous to the farmers possible for the conclusions that are drawn. whom the KTDA served, as the increased costs would have to be deducted from the payments made to them. Political Connections and Organisational He felt so confident of his personal standing with the Autonomy President that he never implemented the Agreement, by making seasonal workers permanent. This resulted One of the older pieces of wisdom on public in no increase in expenditure and protected the health enterprises is that their effective management requires of his organisation from a disadvantageous political political autonomy. Organisations are expected to decision. prosper to the extent that their leaderships are appointed for their technical, not their political When Kenyatta died Karanja lost his direct contact qualifications [Hanson1959].It is evident from my with the President, but he was so confident of the case studies that this analysis is over simple. importance of the KTDA and of the quality of his Although all of my subjects were professionally well management that he continued to act with the same qualified for the positions that they held, their independence and decisiveness. Ultimately this cost managerial success and the autonomy of their him his position. The dénouement came during a time organisations was criticallydependent on their of high tea prices on the world market when packaged political connections.3 In1973 Charles Karanja tea that Kenya subsidised for its domestic market was wanted his Kenya Tea Development Authority being smuggled to Ethiopia. A Cabinet Minister and (KTDA) to expand vertically into the technically important supporter of President Moi publicly difficultareasof processing andinternational accused the KTDA of responsibility for the smuggling marketing. He was opposed in this decision by the and the shortage of tea in his constituency. Stung by World Bank, which was KTDA's major financier, and this questioning of the KTDA's integrity, Karanja the multinational tea corporations that were then held a press conference to point out that the Minister handling these functions for the KTDA. As a owned the major shop in his constituency which consequence, the Minister of Agriculture and his received KTDA tea allotments, implying that if there Permanent Secretary decided firmly against the were smuggling the Minister must be responsible for it expansion. But Karanja would not be stopped. He himself. The Minister denied