Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia
October 2011
Dairy intensification and milk market quality
in Amhara region, Ethiopia
By
Addis Bitew, Mesfin Bahata, Kindu Mekonnen and Alan Duncan
October 2011
ILRI works with partners worldwide to help poor people keep their farm animals alive and productive, increase and sustain their livestock and farm productivity, and find profitable markets for their animal products. ILRI s headquarters are in Nairobi, Kenya; we have a second principal campus in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and 14 offices in other regions of Africa and Asia. ILRI is part of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (www.cgiar.org), which works to reduce hunger, poverty and environmental degradation in developing countries by generating and sharing relevant agricultural knowledge, technologies and policies
© 2011 International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)
This publication is copyrighted by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). It is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution-Non-commercial-Share Alike 3.0 Unported License. To view this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/. Unless otherwise noted, you are free to copy, duplicate, or reproduce, and distribute, display, or transmit any part of this publication or portions thereof without permission, and to make translations, adaptations, or other derivative works under the following conditions:
ATTRIBUTION. The work must be attributed, but not in any way that suggests endorsement by ILRI or the author(s). NON-COMMERCIAL. This work may not be used for commercial purposes.
SHARE ALIKE. If this work is altered, transformed, or built upon, the resulting work must be distributed only under the same or similar license to this one.
NOTICE: For any reuse or distribution, the license terms of this work must be made clear to others. Any of the above conditions can be waived if permission is obtained from the copyright holder. Nothing in this license impairs or restricts the author s moral rights. Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.
Proofreading, design and layout ILRI Editorial and Publishing Services, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Citation: Addisu Bitew, Mesfin Bahta, Kindu Mekonnen and Alan Duncan. 2011. Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, ILRI.
This is an output of the project Livestock intensification: investigating impacts on livelihoods in dairy value chains in India and Ethiopia- funded by the OPEC Fund for International Development.
International Livestock Research Institute
P O Box 30709, Nairobi 00100, Kenya P O Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone + 254 20 422 3000 Phone + 251 11 617 2000 Email [email protected] Email [email protected]
www.ilri.org
2 Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia
Table of Contents
List of Tables iv Foreword v Acknowledgements vi Executive summary vii 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Background of the study 1 1.2 Objectives 2 2. Approaches and methods 3 2.1 Selection of study districts 3 2.2 Pretesting of the questionnaires 3 2.3 Handling of the survey 3 2.4 Selection of respondents 3 2.5 Interview/discussion/documentation 4 2.6 Data management, entry and analysis 4 3. Results and discussion 5 3.1 Marketing aspect of intensification 5 3.1.1 Market structure main buyers 5 3.1.2 Prevailing market channels and actors 6 3.1.3 Milk collection, handling, processing and selling 6 3.1.4 Input supply and services to the producer 7 3.2 Production aspect of intensification 9 3.2.1 Feeding pattern (grazing, seasonal stall feeding pattern and availability of feeds, use of concentrates) 9 3.2.2 Breeding and reproduction 11 3.3 Trends, issues and government role 14 3.3.1 Trends in dairy development 14 3.3.2 Main issues in dairy development 16 4. Conclusions and recommendations 17 References 18
Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia iii
List of Tables
Table 1. Name of sample districts, KAs and villages surveyed in Amhara region 4 Table 2. Market share (%) of most important milk buyers of liquid milk and main processed products by milk marketing quality 5 Table 3. Variety and share (%) of milk products produced by households by season 5 Table 4. Share of milk (%) bought by different buyer types 5 Table 5. Share (%) of milk bought by various intermediate actors 6 Table 6. Average number of market channel actors (adjusted by share of milk) 6 Table 7. Share of households selling milk (%) 6 Table 8. Milk sold, consumed and processed (%) for sale/consumption 7 Table 9. Share (%) of milk sold at type of place (from three most important buyers) 7 Table 10. Availability of services in villages (producers) 8 Table 11. Share (%) of milk suppliers reached by non-fed services and inputs provided by milk buyers 8 Table 12. Feed composition by market quality 9 Table 13. Stall-fed diet composition (%) by market quality and season 9 Table 14. Dominant concentrate types by market quality (% of total concentrate offered) 10 Table 15. Seasonal contribution of grazing (%) by dairy animal type and market quality 10 Table 16. Price and source of purchased dry fodder and concentrate. 11 Table 17. Feeds provided by buyers (% reach) 11 Table 18. Animal type (%) by market quality 12 Table 19. Dominant breeds (%) by market quality 12 Table 20. Reproductive and milk yield performance by animal type and market quality 12 Table 21. Types of mating (%) by market quality 13 Table 22. Source and price of AI service 13 Table 23. Share (%) of AI service by animal type and market quality 14 Table 24. Average time (years) for which different types of dairy development facilities have been available 14 Table 25. Availability (%) of different types of dairy development facilities at different times according to the views of milk producers 15 Table 26. Trends in dairy development over the past 10 years (%) 16 Table 27. Main issues in dairy development (% of responses) 16
iv Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia
Foreword
The report covers survey results of a study on livestock intensification in Amhara region. The research was conducted for 12 months from September 2009 until September 2010. Amhara Regional Agricultural Research Institute (ARARI) and ILRI jointly handled the research activities. A total of six woredas were included for the study. The overall objective of the study was to generate an overview of dominant dairy marketing chains and institutions in selected woredas (districts) of Amhara region in Ethiopia as well as productivity levels to illustrate their current distribution and to aid the identification of high-potential areas for future interventions. Our interest in this study was mainly to understand the relationship between market quality and on-farm practice and specifically the extent to which production has intensified in response to market quality. Quality in this context means where reliable and attractive dairy procurement systems have been established, which often also support the delivery of livestock-related services. We hope that by looking at how market quality influences intensification of dairy production some indications will emerge on where efforts should be focused to allow dairy-derived incomes to improve for poor dairy cow keepers in the Amhara region.
The data is presented in relatively crude form in order to make the information publicly available as soon after collection as possible. More polished outputs synthesising information from this study will follow.
Addisu Bitew 12 October 2011 Bahir Dar
Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia v
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the agricultural experts and the farmers of the study areas that have devoted their time during villages and farmers selection, and group discussion. This work was funded by the OPEC Fund for International Development.
vi Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia
Executive summary
Ethiopia is one of the largest livestock-keeping countries in Africa. So far, most dairy animals are being kept for subsistence purposes in smallholder mixed crop livestock, pastoral and agropastoral systems, whereas some urban and peri-urban dairy systems can be found around the major centres. Most of the milk production comes from indigenous breeds, yielding around 500 lt/head per annum, and the milk products are sold in informal markets. However, population growth, increasing urbanization and an improved road network are leading to a gradually increasing demand for milk and milk products even in rural areas.
The study was carried out in June 2010 in selected villages of Amhara region of Ethiopia, representing three levels of market quality (high, medium and low), with the general objective of developing a systematic understanding of the links between market opportunities and productivity increases in livestock, with a focus on dairy production. Market quality in this case refers to reliability or assured clearance of milk at reasonable price. This involves effective market chains or efficient market chains; sustainable market linkages with appropriate prices; and sustainability of supply of inputs such as feeds, veterinary and AI services. The present report focuses on aspects of dairy intensification in Amhara region.
Six districts were selected in Amhara region based on the level of market quality (high, medium and low market qualities). Each market quality was represented by two districts. Basona Werana and Gonder represented high market quality, Wegera and Gozamin medium market quality, and Tehulderie and Goncha Sisoenesie low market quality. The selection of the districts was the result of a combination of purposive and random approaches. Village survey questionnaires were prepared for milk producers, key informants and buyers. Three villages per district were selected for the study, making a total sample of 18 villages for Amhara region.
Findings showed that milk marketing cooperatives were the dominant milk buyers from producers at all milk marketing quality levels. Milk marketing cooperatives have been increasing in number, although there were limitations in recruitment of members, and the capacity to collect, process and market milk. Veterinary and artificial insemination (AI) services were provided from district agricultural development offices, except for some villages that had veterinary clinics and AI centres.
Stall feeding and feeding of concentrates for crossbred dairy cattle was more prominent in high market quality sites compared to medium and low market quality sites, which indicated the level of feed intensification as the market quality improved. The contribution of grazing to total diet was higher for indigenous than crossbred cows. The proportion of crossbred cows exceeded that of indigenous cows in high market quality sites but the reverse applied in medium and low market quality sites. Milk yield data indicate that there is room for increasing average productivity by improving management practices.
The major constraints to dairy development related to: breeding (shortage of improved breeds and inefficient AI services); feeding (shortage of feed and water, and high feed cost); health (disease incidence, shortage and high prices of drugs, and limited veterinary service); and market- and dairy- derived income (low prices of milk and poor demand for milk during fasting season). Due consideration should be given to alleviate these problems to increase productivity and improve dairy-derived income.
Key words: Market quality, livestock inputs and services, milk and milk products.
Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia vii
1. Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
Livestock systems in general are going through a period of unprecedented change (Seré et al. 2008) and dairy systems are no exception. The rapidly evolving scene is a response to a series of drivers including population growth and urbanization, both of which contribute to increased demand for livestock products. We are now half-way through the so-called Livestock Revolution (Delgado et al. 1999) that was projected at the end of the 1990s, and the predictions for increased demand for livestock products are being borne out indeed the demand for dairy products in some parts of the world has increased at a much faster rate than was predicted in the late 1990s (APHCAP, CFC and FAO 2008).
At the same time, poverty rates in rural areas remain stubbornly high and Millennium Development Goals appear difficult to achieve. Dairy development has often been identified as having an especially large potential for providing pathways out of poverty for poor rural livestock keepers, because livestock already form a considerable share of their assets and family labour is often not their greatest constraint. Increasing the productivity of the existing assets has often been regarded as the most sustainable approach to alleviate poverty (Bachmann 2004). However, noticeable productivity increases of dairy production systems can only be observed in limited areas. With the renewed interest in agricultural development by the international donor community, large interventions in this field are being developed.
However, a key question during the design phase is how to learn from previous experiences in deciding where and how to focus interventions. Especially in dairy production, major success factors are not easy to identify due to the complexities of marketing and production (Staal et al. 2008). Based on limited observations, our hypothesis is that, at the household level, the main driver of intensification in dairy production appears to be the quality and effectiveness of available marketing chains. Quality in this context means that reliable and attractive dairy procurement systems have been established, which often also support the delivery of livestock-related services. In such instances, households seem to think it worthwhile to intensify by investing in better feeds and higher-yielding animals. However, very little systematic research has been conducted on the comparative and interdependent contributions that milk marketing, feed supply and animal breeding activities provide towards productivity increases and poverty reduction.
Ethiopia is one of the largest livestock-keeping countries in Africa and also one of the poorest. Most dairy animals are kept for subsistence purposes in smallholder mixed crop livestock, pastoral and agropastoral systems, although some urban and peri-urban dairy systems can be found around the major centres. Most of the milk production comes from indigenous breeds, yielding around 500 lt/head per annum, and the milk products are sold in informal markets. However, population growth, increasing urbanization and an improved road network are leading to a gradually increasing demand for milk and milk products even in rural areas. A number of specialized smallholder and commercial dairy farms have emerged since 2000, and milk production has registered an average annual growth rate of 3%, compared with a growth rate of 1.6 1.7% during the three preceding decades (Ahmed et al. 2004). However, it has been calculated that milk production would have to grow at 4% annually to meet the predicted rise in demand (Azage 2003).
As part of the rural development process in Ethiopia, dairy cooperatives are emerging. To date, they are mainly involved in milk collection, processing and marketing. Yet, the supply of feeds and access to appropriate livestock breeds are major biophysical constraints to enhanced milk production in Ethiopia. These constraints are compounded by inefficiencies in the operation of milk and input markets in the country.
Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia 1
There have been various historic government initiatives to promote dairy development on a national scale, although these have tended to focus on technical aspects of feed supply and breed improvement, without considering the integrated nature of market opportunities and the quality of input supply services. A deeper insight into the current dairy systems with regard to their milk marketing and feed supply characteristics could be extremely beneficial for the design of future dairy initiatives. These have the potential of securing the livelihoods of the most vulnerable members of society, especially as climate and production risks are becoming more threatening.
1.2 Objectives
The general objective of the study was to develop a systematic understanding of the links between market opportunities and productivity increases in livestock, with a focus on dairy production, and to assess the potential pro-poor implications of different intensification scenarios.
2 Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia
2. Approaches and methods
2.1 Selection of study districts
A preliminary selection of the study districts was done based on the expert knowledge of participants during the project inception workshop that was organized in 2010 at ILRI campus in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The ARARI research team met in Bahir Dar and revised the selection of study districts to match the local circumstances. Selection of the study districts was based on quality of the market that included infrastructure, market chains and services. Three market quality categories were classified into high, medium and low quality markets. High market quality sites are characterized as having effective procurement chains for milk compared to the low quality markets. Six districts were selected in Amhara region. Each market quality was represented by two districts. Basona Werana and Gonder represented high market quality, Wegera and Gozamin medium market quality, and Tehulderie and Goncha Sisoenesie low market quality. The selection of the districts was a combination of purposive and random approaches.
2.2 Pretesting of the questionnaires
Village survey questionnaires were prepared for milk producers, key informants and buyers. Refined questionnaires were pretested prior to conducting the actual survey. The questionnaires were improved based on the feedback from the pretesting exercises.
2.3 Handling of the survey
Consultations were made with the livestock experts of each district to select Kebele Administrations (KAs) and villages within each KA. Three villages per district were selected purposively for the study based on their experience in dairy development. A total of 18 villages were selected in Amhara region (three per district) (Table 1).
2.4 Selection of respondents
The respondents for the study were milk producers, buyers and key informants. The producers were from three groups per woreda and 18 villages in all, and there were three milk buyers per woreda giving 18 surveys in all. One key informant in each of the six woredas were surveyed. Milk buyers included cooperatives, private dairies, traders and consumers. Milk producers were individuals or groups of farmers that supplied milk to the buyers. The milk producers were classified into large herd size (>3 mature dairy cows) and small herd size (<3 mature dairy cows). Ten to twelve milk producers were selected in each village for the questionnaire survey. Sample milk producers were composed of different social categories (sex, wealth and age).
Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia 3
Table 1. Name of sample districts, KAs* and villages surveyed in Amhara region
No. Zone District KA* Village 1 North Shoa Basona Werana Angolela Mendermeserta 2 North Shoa Basona Werana Kore margefia Kabigizaw 3 North Shoa Basona Werana Bakelo Tachamba 4 South Wollo Tehulederie Etecha Weleager 5 South Wollo Tehulederie Bededo Sidesto 6 South Wollo Tehulederie Ketie Andegnamergisso 7 North Gonder Gonder Ancho Tawjiba 8 North Gonder Gonder Saynasabia Shembekit 9 North Gonder Gonder Debadefecha Goshterara 10 North Gonder Wegera Gunkobaldergie Tachmender 11 North Gonder Wegera Ambagiorgis zuria Tabotmaderia 12 North Gonder Wegera Sakdeber Fendeka 13 East Gojjam Goncha Sisoenesie Buza Goma 14 East Gojjam Goncha Sisoenesie Genborie Swarm 15 East Gojjam Goncha Sisoenesie Enesequel Awabelgebriel 16 East Gojjam Gozamin Wonka Jeremen 17 East Gojjam Gozamin Addisnagulit Kuchashebay 18 East Gojjam Gozamin Enerata Yetsde *KA Kebele Association
2.5 Interview/discussion/documentation
The village survey was led by the researchers of ARARI. It was also facilitated and backed up by the development agents and ILRI staff members. The district experts linked researchers and development agents. The development agents were important to mobilize the farmers and link them with the researchers. The researchers from ARARI conducted the survey using local languages. They also used various mechanisms to ensure that there was active participation from the different social groups. The coordinates of the locations where each interview took place were recorded with a global positioning system, and included in the questionnaire.
2.6 Data management, entry and analysis
Each questionnaire was coded. The information from the coded questionnaires of each district was entered into the Microsoft Office Access database. The data was analysed using descriptive statistics of Microsoft Office Access.
4 Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia
3. Results and discussion
3.1 Marketing aspect of intensification
3.1.1 Market structure main buyers
Milk marketing cooperatives were the dominant milk buyers in the surveyed villages (Table 2). Different milk products were produced at household level both for market and household consumption. Butter had the largest share among the milk products produced by households in all seasons and market quality sites, followed by cheese and curd (Table 3). Lemma et al. (2005) conducted a study of milk and dairy product production, utilization and marketing systems by rural smallholders in East Shoa zone of Oromia. They reported that, out of the total milk produced per household per day, about 83.3% was used for further processing to make butter, and the remaining 16.7% was consumed on a daily basis. Contrary to this, in a study conducted among pastoralists on the Borana plateau, 69% of the milk produced was used as fresh milk and the remainder was soured for direct consumption or butter processing (Coppock et al. 1992). Milk marketing cooperatives collect, process and sell milk and milk products. In medium and low market quality sites, producers also sold a considerable proportion of their milk and main processed products directly to consumers (Table 4).
Table 2. Market share (%) of most important milk buyers of liquid milk and main processed products by milk marketing quality
Share of milk buyers High market Medium market Low market quality quality quality Cooperatives 89 65 69 Consumers 11 32 30 Cafeteria and hotels 0 3 1
Table 3. Variety and share (%) of milk products produced by households by season
Share of milk products High market Medium market Low market quality quality quality Curd Dry season 8.5 6.8 6.3 Rainy season 8.2 6.8 6.8 Harvest season 8.2 7.0 7.5 Cheese + butter Dry season 46.8 44.1 56.9 Rainy season 47.1 44.1 53.3 Harvest season 47.4 43.9 52.5 Note: The sum for the respective seasons at the different market quality does not add up to 100 because of other liquid milk products that are not included in the table.
Table 4. Share of milk (%) bought by different buyer types
Milk buyers High market Medium market Low market quality quality quality Direct 2 32 30 Formal 89 68 70 Informal 9 Direct, consumers buy directly from producers; Formal, milk marketed through cooperatives; Informal, milk marketed through unofficial milk collector and retailer. The percentage of formal milk buyers was high in low market quality category due to some sites (Tehulederie) that sell milk to the cooperatives.
Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia 5
3.1.2 Prevailing market channels and actors
The share of milk marketed by various intermediate actors and average number of market channel actors is presented in Tables 5 and 6. Milk cooperatives, consumers and private milk collection centres were the major intermediate actors for buying milk from producers in the surveyed villages. The average number of market channel actors was relatively higher for high market quality sites than medium and low market quality sites due to the availability of milk processing plants. In high market quality sites (Debre Birhan and Gonder), milk processing plants collected milk from cooperatives where it was processed, packed and distributed for sale, either through milk selling shops or directly to consumers.
Table 5. Share (%) of milk bought by various intermediate actors
Market actors High market Medium Low market quality market quality quality Consumer 13 65 41 Cooperative milk collection centres 75 18 19 Distributor or agent 1 15 39 Private milk collection centres 9 Processing centres 1 2 1 Shopkeeper 1
Table 6. Average number of market channel actors (adjusted by share of milk)
Information source High market Medium market Low market quality quality quality
Key informant 3.8 2.5 2.5 Milk buyer 4.5 3.4 3.2 Milk producer/village 4.2 2.6 2.6
3.1.3 Milk collection, handling, processing and selling
The share of households selling milk varied according to farm types. In high and medium market quality sites, the percent of households selling milk increased as the farm size (landholding) tended to increase (Table 7). An increase in farm size created the opportunity for allotting plots of land for feed production, which led to better milk production and sale at the household level.
Table 7. Share of households selling milk (%)
Herd size Farm type High market Medium market Low market type quality quality quality Large herd Non-cultivating 0.41 0.00 0.00 Small farm 16.26 7.35 21.18 Large farm 29.27 9.71 5.88 Small herd Non-cultivating 0.00 0.00 0.00 Small farm 36.77 9.71 10.98 Large farm 37.46 13.82 9.80
In high market quality sites, the proportion of raw milk marketed was high compared to that in medium and low market quality sites. This was because there was a good supply of milk by producers to milk
6 Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia
marketing cooperatives. There was also better access to raw milk markets. In the high market quality sites, Shola dairy processing plant buys milk from cooperatives in Basona Werana district, and Jantekel union milk processing centre buys milk from cooperatives in Gonder Zuria district. In medium and low market quality sites where access to raw milk marketing is low, milk is processed into other dairy products (mainly butter) and supplied to the market. In all market quality sites, the proportion of raw milk and processed milk products used for sale was higher than that utilized for home consumption, which indicates that dairying is used to generate cash income for smallholder farmers. The consumption of raw milk varied from 7 to 13% of the household milk production, based on seasons and market quality sites (Table 8). Lemma et al. (2005) reported that 16.7% of the raw milk produced per household in east Shoa zone of Ethiopia was used for consumption on a daily basis. The remainder was retained for further processing and 85.7% of the butter produced was marketed. In all market quality sites, much of the milk was sold at milk collection centres of the milk marketing cooperatives. Some milk was sold at the markets in medium and low market quality sites, respectively (Table 9).
Table 8. Milk sold, consumed and processed (%) for sale/consumption
Percent share Seasons High market Medium market Low market quality quality quality Sold Dry season 60.0 15.6 25.8 Rainy season 62.3 18.8 25.8 Harvest season 61.4 18.9 27.5 Consumed Dry season 10.9 12.3 7.8 Rainy season 10.6 13.3 7.4 Harvest season 10.6 13.2 7.8 Processed for Dry season 13.5 20.1 25.7 consumption Rainy season 11.1 23.4 25.3 Harvest season 12.0 24.3 24.3 Processed for sale Dry season 15.5 52.0 40.6 Rainy season 16.0 44.5 41.5 Harvest season 16.0 43.7 40.4
Table 9. Share (%) of milk sold at type of place (from three most important buyers)
Milk selling places High market Medium market Low market quality quality quality
In village 5.7 Milk collection centre 98.1 84.9 58.9 Processing centre 35.4 1.9 15.1
3.1.4 Input supply and services to the producer
The availability of services related to dairy development is shown in Table 10. As many of the farmers in the surveyed KAs indicated, there was a growing trend in the availability and quality of all-weather roads that passed through or in proximity to their villages. The presence of road infrastructure has facilitated milk marketing in many of the villages. Milk marketing cooperatives have increased in number, although the number of members, and their capacity to collect, process and market milk vary between districts. Angolela milk marketing cooperative in Basona Werana district of North Shoa zone collected the highest
Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia 7
amount of milk (1400 lt/day on average) from producers. Veterinary clinics and AI stations were far from most villages and producers. District agricultural development offices provided veterinary and AI services. Similarly, milk marketing cooperatives provided information/training regarding feeding, livestock management, health and hygiene to milk producers in all market quality districts. This was mostly given by the cooperative committee members and experts in the district agricultural development offices. None of the milk buyers regardless of market quality appeared to organize expert visits, demonstrate best practices, and provide AI services to milk suppliers. In the higher market quality sites, milk buyers provided financial assistance (loans) to some of the milk suppliers for purchasing feed and live animals (Table 11).
Table 10. Availability of services in villages (producers)
Distance from services centres High market Medium market Low market quality (km) quality quality All weather road 1.7 1.2 1.3
Milk cooperative 1.3 3.3 0.8
Private dairy
Market 8.3 5.4 4.1
Veterinary clinic 8.2 4.5 4.1
AI service 9.4 7.9 5.0
Note: Most high market quality sites are far from the district towns but they are closer to asphalt roads. On the other hand, most low and medium market quality sites are closer to district towns but the roads are gravel and take more time to transport the outputs and get services. The availability and quality of services in the high market quality sites is relatively better than the low and medium market quality sites.
Table 11. Share (%) of milk suppliers reached by non-feed services and inputs provided by milk buyers
Services and inputs High market Medium Low market quality market quality quality Information/training Regarding feeding 100 100 100
Livestock management 100 100 100
Health and hygiene 100 100 100
Breeding 100 0 0
Visits AI service 0 0 0
Arrange vet doctor visit 0 0 0
Arrange expert visit 0 0 0
Arrange demonstration 0 0 0
Financial assistance Short term loan (<1 month) 0 0 0
25 0 0
Long term (>1 year) 3 0 0
For buying dairy animals 25 0 0
8 Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia
3.2 Production aspect of intensification
3.2.1 Feeding pattern (grazing, seasonal stall feeding pattern and availability of feeds, use of concentrates)
There was slightly more stall feeding and less use of grazing of dairy cattle in high market quality sites compared to medium and low market quality sites. The relatively higher proportion of crossbred dairy cattle in high market quality sites demanded better feeding for better milk production. Therefore, farmers in the surveyed villages practised limited grazing, kept their crossbred dairy cattle indoors, and through stall feeding, tried to maximize the milk yield obtained from their farms. The contribution of concentrate (mainly composed of agro-industrial by-products) to total diet was also higher in high market quality sites (Table 12). This was an indication of the change in the level of feed intensification (feeding practices) to bring an increase in animal productivity.
Table 12. Feed composition by market quality
Proportions of feed types High market Medium market Low market quality quality quality Stall feeding % of total diet 61 55 56 Dry fodder % of total diet 36 36 39 Green fodder % of total diet 10 13 13 Concentrate % of total diet 15 5 4 Grazing % of total diet 39 45 44
The stall-fed diet composition varied among market quality sites and seasons. The proportion of dry fodder (mainly crop residues and hay) in the diet of dairy cattle comprised the highest share during the dry season. In contrast, green fodder (mainly grass from natural pasture and weeds from crop lands) in the stall-fed diet of dairy cattle contributed more in the rainy season in both the high and medium market quality sites. In low market quality site at Tehulderie, the proportion of green fodder was high during the harvest season, due to the availability of short rains. In all seasons, the proportion of concentrate in the stall-fed diet was high in high market quality sites as compared to medium and low market quality sites (Table 13). The dominant concentrate components were wheat bran, noug cake and local brewery by- products (Table 14).
Table 13. Stall-fed diet composition (%) by market quality and season
Seasons Stall feed High market Medium market Low market quality quality quality Rainy season Dry fodder 49 50 77 Green fodder 22 40 20 Concentrate 29 10 3 Harvest season Dry fodder 62 76 60 Green fodder 9 14 30 Concentrate 29 10 9 Dry season Dry fodder 68 79 75 Green fodder 7 10 17 Concentrate 24 11 7
Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia 9
Table 14. Dominant concentrate types by market quality (% of total concentrate offered)
Concentrate components High market Medium market Low market quality quality quality Wheat bran 35 16 14 Noug cake 43 28 19 Molasses 2 Atella (local brewery waste) 8 51 63 Brewery yeast Barley bran 5 4 Cotton seed cake 3 Bean hull 7 Lentil seed coat 1
The contribution of grazing to total feed was high during the harvest season in all market quality sites. Dairy cattle grazed from pastureland and crop aftermath during the harvest season. In all seasons, grazing contributed more to the feed requirement of indigenous than crossbred cows (Table 15). Indigenous cows were allowed to graze freely throughout the year and were expected to meet their feed requirement from grazing, especially in the wet and harvest (crop aftermath grazing) seasons, and supplemented during the dry season when the condition of grazing pasture deteriorated. Crossbred cows that demanded better nutrition for better milk production were only allowed to graze for a limited number of hours in a day when grazing pasture was in better condition. They were mostly kept indoors during the dry season to meet their feed requirements through stall feeding.
Table 15. Seasonal contribution of grazing (%) by dairy animal type and market quality
Seasons Type of breeds High market Medium Low market quality market quality quality Rainy season Indigenous cow 41 55 28 Crossbreed cow 20 34 13 Harvest season Indigenous cow 97 84 93 Crossbreed cow 58 57 61 Dry season Indigenous cow 17 30 37 Crossbreed cow 11 10 22
Price and source of purchased dry fodder and concentrate are shown in Table 16. The main feed types were crop residues, hay and industrial by-products. The price of the feeds varied depending on their nutritional quality. The price of grass pea straw (2.33 Birr/kg) was high compared to other dry fodder feed types. Yitay et al. (2009) have reported that grass pea straw had better crude protein content of 9.6% of dry matter compared to teff (5.4%), wheat (2.4%) and barley (3.4%) straw. Among concentrate feed ingredients, the highest price was recorded for molasses (3.53 Birr/lt) and the lowest price was for industrial brewery by-products (0.15 Birr/lt). Price of molasses was higher because it was not produced locally but was brought from a distance, whereas brewery by-products were produced locally in Gonder and bought at a relatively cheap price.
A study by Berhanu et al. (2009) of feed marketing in Ethiopia has indicated that crop residues and hay are major marketable roughage feeds. Within the village and within kebeles are the main sources to purchase dry fodder. Milk producers needed to leave their villages to purchase many of the concentrate feed ingredients (Table 16). Buyers (milk marketing cooperatives) occasionally supplied concentrate feed ingredients to milk producers. There was no supply of compound feed and veterinary drugs by buyers to
10 Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia
milk producers (Table 17). The financial capital of most milk marketing cooperatives was not strong, which hindered them from supplying different inputs (feed and veterinary drugs) to their members.
Table 16. Price and source of purchased dry fodder and concentrate.
Average price Percent of respondents (Birr/kg) Within the Within Beyond village kebele kebele Dry fodder 1.21 56 37 7 Barley straw 1.10 48 36 16 Wheat + barley straw 1.67 50 50 0 Grasspea straw 2.33 50 50 0 Hay 1.28 42 42 16 Maize stover 0.87 100 0 0 Oat straw 0.78 50 38 13 Sorghum stover 0.68 63 38 0 Teff straw 1.20 47 41 12 Wheat straw 0.99 57 36 7 Concentrate 1.89 16 20 64 Barley bran 1.50 33 33 33 Bean hull 2.76 0 33 67 Brewery by-product 0.15 0 0 100 Cottonseed cake 2.65 0 0 100 Local brewery by-product 0.16 50 50 0 Molasses 3.53 0 0 100 Noug cake 2.47 14 14 71 Wheat bran 1.90 30 30 40 Note: Figures for dry fodder and concentrate are averages of all the other values for dry fodder and concentrate, respectively.
Table 17. Feeds provided by buyers (% reach)
Feeds and other livestock inputs High market Medium market Low market provided by buyers quality quality quality Concentrate components 84 100
Compound feed
Veterinary drugs
3.2.2 Breeding and reproduction
In high market quality sites, there was a higher proportion of crossbred than indigenous cows, whereas, in medium and low market quality sites, there was a higher proportion of indigenous cows (Table 18). However, this does not mean that the total number of crossbred cows was greater than the number of indigenous cows in the study districts. The greater number of crossbred cows in the high market quality sites was an indication of the efforts made in breed improvement that were aimed at increasing productivity of milk. In all market quality sites, the local/indigenous cattle were not characterized and respondent farmers simply termed them as local cattle. The dominant crossbred cattle were local animals
Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia 11
crossed with Holstein Friesian breed, followed by local animals crossed with Jersey breed. In high market quality sites, Fogera crossed with Holstein Friesian distributed from cattle multiplication ranches were also reported (Table 19).
Table 18. Animal type (%) by market quality
Breeds High market Medium market Low market quality quality quality Indigenous cow 23 72 87 Crossbreed cow 77 28 13
Table 19. Dominant breeds (%) by market quality
Breeds High market Medium market Low market quality quality quality Local/indigenous Local 100 100 100 Crossbreds Fogera × HF 9 1 Local × Fogera 6 5 Local × HF 79 81 86 Local × Jersey 6 13 14
HF: Holstein Friesian.
Reproductive and milk yield performance of indigenous and crossbred cows by market quality is presented in Table 20. There was variation in reproductive and milk yield performance between indigenous and crossbred cattle. Age at first calving of crossbred cows was lower by 17 18 months than that of indigenous cows in all market quality sites. This finding is in agreement with the previous study of Yitay et al. (2009). Age at first calving in the present study was lower when compared to 57 months for local and 47 months for crossbred cattle reported by Solomon et al. (2009). On the other hand, it was higher when compared to the findings of Kelay (2002) and Haile et al. (2009). High age at first calving for indigenous cows indicates a need for better management and breed improvement. The calving interval of crossbred cows was lower by 6 8 months than that of the indigenous cows. Yitay et al. (2009) have also indicated a significantly lower calving interval for crossbred than local cows. In contrast, Solomon et al. (2009) have reported a non-significant effect of breed on calving interval. Higher calving interval in the present study demonstrates the need for improvement through proper management and breeding practices.
Table 20. Reproductive and milk yield performance by animal type and market quality
Calving, lactation and milk yield Breeds High market Medium Low market quality market quality quality Age of 1st calving (months) Indigenous cow 50 53 52 Crossbreed cow 32 35 35 Calving interval (months) Indigenous cow 21 25 21 Crossbreed cow 15 17 15 Lactation length (months) Indigenous cow 8.1 10 11 Crossbreed cow 10 11 10 Average milk yield (lt/day) Indigenous cow 2.1 1.6 1.5 Crossbreed cow 7.9 5.8 6.1 Maximum milk yield (lt/day) Indigenous cow 3.9 2.5 2.4 Crossbreed cow 13 7.8 9.0 Average annual milk yield (lt) Indigenous cow 296 220 280 Crossbreed cow 1803 1314 1400
12 Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia
Average daily milk yield for indigenous cows was similar among market quality sites. Crossbred cows gave better average daily milk yield in high market quality sites compared to medium and low market quality sites (Table 20). Average daily milk yield for indigenous and crossbred cows obtained in this study was comparable to that reported by Brokken and Senait (1992) and Yitay et al. (2009). However, it was high compared to the average milk yield of 1.0 lt/day for local Arsi cows (Lemma et al. 2005) and 4.5 lt/day for crossbred cows under a smallholder management system in northeastern Amhara region (Solomon et al. 2009). As can be speculated from the maximum daily milk yield in the present study, there is room for improving average daily milk yield by implementing better management practices.
Duration of lactation ranged between 8 and 11 months in all breeds and market quality sites. The shortest lactation duration of 8 months was for indigenous cows in high market quality sites. This result was comparable to the lactation of 9.7 months reported by Addisu et al. (2010) for Fogera cattle at on- station farms, and 9.3 months reported by Ababu et al. (2004) for F1 crossbred dairy cattle at smallholder herds in Ethiopia. However, it was lower compared to the lactation of 13.7 months reported by Agyemang et al. (1991) for N Dama cattle kept under village management in Gambia.
Mating of indigenous cows through indigenous bulls accounted for a higher proportion of breeding methods than the use of AI and improved bulls in medium and low market quality sites. In high market quality sites, the use of improved bulls was dominant for mating indigenous cows. Improved bulls were also the most common method for mating crossbred cows followed by AI in high and medium market quality sites. In most of the surveyed villages, farmers reported that improved bulls were used as an alternate mating option in situations in which AI was not reliable. In low market quality sites, the use of AI exceeded that of improved and indigenous bulls for mating the relatively smaller number of crossbred cows (Table 21). The source of AI service was the government (Office of Agriculture) in high and medium market quality sites (Table 22). In low market quality sites, in addition to AI technicians in the office of agriculture, trained farmers (considered as private suppliers) also provided AI service based on special payment arrangements. The price paid per successful insemination was on average 4.00 Birr (Table 22). The government provided more than 80% of the AI service for both the indigenous and crossbred cows in all market quality sites (Table 23).
Table 21. Types of mating (%) by market quality
Breeds Means of High market Medium market Low market insemination quality quality quality Indigenous AI 19 9.0 17 Improved bull 51 41 10 Indigenous bull 30 50 73 Crossbreed AI 29 25 81
Improved bull 67 75 11 Indigenous bull 4.0 0.0 8.0
Table 22. Source and price of AI service
AI sources Share of AI (%) Price per insemination (Birr) Government 94 4.00 NGOs Private 19 4.10 Others
NGO, non-governmental organization.
Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia 13
Table 23. Share (%) of AI service by animal type and market quality
Breeds AI source High market Medium market Low market quality quality quality Indigenous Government 100 100 82
NGOs
Private 18
Others
Crossbreed Government 100 100 80
NGOs
Private 20
Others
3.3 Trends, issues and government role
3.3.1 Trends in dairy development
AI service has been available for longer in high market quality sites, followed by medium and low market quality sites (Table 24). In high and medium market quality sites, milk cooperatives were established earlier than in low market quality sites. The earliest starting date of veterinary service was recorded in medium market quality sites. In earlier times, farmers used to receive veterinary services only from nearby district agricultural development offices. However, in recent years, veterinary services have been available also in rural areas (villages). Electricity and telephone services are mainly available in district towns and peri-urban areas, although efforts are under way to expand the services to rural areas.
Table 24. Average time (years) for which different types of dairy development facilities have been available
Dairy development facilities Milk producer/village High market Medium market Low market quality quality quality AI services 17 10 6 Cross breeding 18 12 8 Milk cooperatives 9 7 5 Private dairies Bulk milk cooler Accessible veterinarians 11 17 16 Electricity 3 4 Landline 3 Mobile 2 2 2 Access to metalled road 4
The availability of AI services and crossbreeding has shown a growing trend (Table 25). Crossbreeding of cows had reached up to 74% in high market quality sites. This was because of the high proportion of
14 Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia
crossbred cows in high market quality sites, in which farmers gave priority to breed them either through AI or using crossbred bulls to keep the required level of exotic genes for future progeny for better milk production. At the time of the survey, milk cooperatives collected above half of the estimated milk production only in high market quality sites. The evidence from the present study indicated that milk collection and marketing by cooperatives was not strong. This calls for capacity building schemes to enhance their skills and necessary facilities to establish new ones and thereby increase milk collection and marketing. Access to veterinarians was similar over the years in all market quality sites. Currently, the availability of electricity has increased in high and low market quality sites, whereas telephone (mobile) services have increased in all market quality sites. Mobile telephones have facilitated communication with AI technicians when cows came in to heat and facilitating timely insemination.
The majority (55 67%) of milk producers responded that there was a decreasing trend in herd size per household at all market quality sites (Table 26). The trend in the amount of milk and productivity of dairy animals indicated an increase in high and medium market quality sites, whereas the amount of milk decreased and productivity of dairy animals had no clear trend in low market quality sites. The trend in the sale of milk, milk products and dairy-derived income increased over the past 10 years in all market quality sites. The practice of grazing dairy animals decreased, whereas stall feeding increased over the past 10 years in all market quality sites.
Table 25. Availability (%) of different types of dairy development facilities at different times according to the views of milk producers
Dairy development facilities Market Current Average of Average of Average of qualities average 5 years ago 10 years ago 20 years ago AI services (% of cows) High 24 16 24 36 Medium 17 8 5 0 Low 43 19 11 0 Cross breeding (% of cows) High 74 49 31 11 Medium 36 17 6 1 Low 18 17 10 3 Milk cooperatives (% of High 59 48 45 60 collection) Medium 15 11 40 0 Low 36 27 0 0 Private dairies High 0 0 0 0 (% of collection) Medium 0 0 0 0 Low 0 0 0 0 Bulk milk cooler (% of High 0 0 0 0 collection) Medium 0 0 0 0 Low 0 0 0 0 Accessible veterinarians High 2 2 2 2 (no.) Medium 3 3 2 1 Low 2 3 3 2 Households own electricity High 41 24 0 0 (%) Medium 0 0 0 0 Low 40 17 0 0 Households own landline High 33 7 0 0 telephone (%) Medium 0 0 0 0 Low 0 0 0 0 Households own mobile High 34 5 0 0 telephone (%) Medium 7 2 0 0 Low 14 0 0 0
Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia 15
Table 26. Trends in dairy development over the past 10 years (%)
Dairy development activities Market qualities Producers Increased Decreased Constant Herd size/household High 45 55 0 Medium 42 58 0 Low 33 67 0 Amount of milk/household High 73 27 0 Medium 75 25 0 Low 42 58 0 Productivity dairy animals High 82 18 0 Medium 67 33 0 Low 50 50 0 Sale of milk by producers High 91 9 0 Medium 92 0 8 Low 50 0 50 Sale of milk products by producers High 91 9 0 Medium 100 0 0 Low 75 25 0 Dairy-derived income High 91 9 0 Medium 83 17 0 Low 67 25 8 Grazing dairy animals High 0 100 0 Medium 0 92 8 Low 0 100 0 Stall feeding dairy animals High 100 0 0 Medium 92 0 9 Low 100 0 0
3.3.1 Main issues in dairy development
The main problems in dairy development identified by milk producers at the surveyed villages are summarized in Table 27. The issues raised mainly related to breeding (shortage of improved breed and inefficient AI service); feeding (shortage of feed and water, and high feed cost); health (disease incidence, shortage and high prices of drugs, and limited veterinary service); and market and dairy-derived income (low prices of milk and low demand for milk during fasting season).
Table 27. Main issues in dairy development (% of responses)
Main problems Milk producer/village High market quality Medium market quality Low market quality AI service not available/far away 73 67 58 High feed cost 45 8 High incidence of diseases 18 67 33 High prices of drugs 9 8 Income share is very low 8 8 Lack of infrastructure 8 Lack of surplus milk 17 Low milk demand 45 33 25 Low prices of milk 90 59 Limited veterinary service 64 17 50 Shortage of feed 27 25 33 Shortage of improved breeds 27 33 33 Shortage of green fodder/grazing 27 50 58 Shortage of water 25 Lack of awareness 9 8 17 Poor market 9 Shortage of drugs 8 8
16 Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia
4. Conclusions and recommendations
Milk marketing cooperatives and consumers were the dominant milk buyers from producers in all milk marketing quality sites. In high and medium market quality sites, as the size of the farm (landholding) increased, the number of households selling milk also increased. The reason for such a positive relationship could be attributed due to the availability of the conditions that supported feed intensification through allotting land for fodder production, which in turn resulted in better milk production for sale. The availability of milk processing plants in high market quality sites has enhanced the production, collection and marketing of milk and milk products, and therefore has contributed to increased dairy-derived income.
Crossbred cows were found in higher proportion than indigenous cows in high market quality sites as compared to medium and low market quality sites. Crossbred cows that demanded better nutrition for better milk production were only allowed to graze for a limited number of hours each day when grazing pasture was in a better condition, and were mostly kept indoors during the dry season, to meet their feed requirements through stall feeding.
There was variation in reproductive and milk yield performance between indigenous and crossbred cattle. Crossbred cows had a lower age at first calving, reduced calving interval, and better daily milk yield than indigenous cows had in all market quality sites. High age at first calving, long calving interval, and lower daily milk yield for indigenous cows indicated the need for improvement through management and breed improvement works. The average daily milk production for crossbred cattle was also low compared to their genetic potential, thus improvement should be made through better feeding and other management practices.
The level of market quality has an impact on dairy intensification with regard to feed, breed and milk production and marketing. As the level of market quality improved, the trends towards better feed production and utilization, use of improved dairy cattle, milk production, marketing and dairy derived income has also improved.
The major constraints to dairy intensification were issues related to: breeding (shortage of improved breed and inefficient AI service); feeding (shortage of feed and water, and high feed cost); health (disease incidence, shortage and high prices of drugs, and limited veterinary service); and market and dairy- derived income (low prices of milk and low demand for milk during fasting season). Due consideration should be given to alleviate these problems to increase productivity and improve dairy-derived income.
Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia 17
References
Ababu Dekeba, Workneh Ayalew and Hegde, B.P. 2004. Observation on the performance of crossbred dairy cattle in smallholder herds in Degem district, Ethiopia. Proceedings of the 11th Annual Conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, August 28 30, 2003. ESAP, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 441 pp.
Addisu Bitew, Mengistie Taye, Adebabay Kebede, Getinet Mekuriaw, Asaminew Tasew, Tezera Mulugeta and Gebeyehu Goshu. 2010. Milk yield and calf growth performance of cattle under partial suckling system at Andassa Livestock Research Center, North west Ethiopia. Livestock Research for Rural Development 22(8): 2010. http://www.lrrd.org
Agyemang, K., Dwinger, R.H., Grieve, A.S. and Bah, M.L. 1991. Milk production characteristics and productivity of kept under village management in the Gambia. Journal of Dairy Science 74:1599 1608. http://jds.fass.org/cgi/reprint/74/5/1599.pdf
Ahmed, M.A.M., Ehui, S. and Assefa Y. 2004. Dairy development in Ethiopia. IPFRI‐EPT, Washington DC, USA.
APHCAP, CFC and FAO. 2008. Strategy and investment plan for smallholder dairy development in Asia. FAO, Bangkok, Thailand.
Asfaw Negassa. 2009. Improving smallholder farmers marketed supply and market access for dairy products in Arsi Zone, Ethiopia. Research Report 21. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya.
Azage Tegegne. 2003. Financing market oriented dairy development: the case of Ada'a‐Liben district Dairy Association, Ethiopia. Urban Agriculture Magazine, 9.
Bachmann, F. 2004. Livelihood and livestock: Lessons from Swiss Livestock and Dairy Development Programmes in India and Tanzania. Inter-cooperation, Berne, Switzerland.
Berhanu Gebremedhin, Adane Hirpa and Kahsay Berhe. 2009. Feed marketing in Ethiopia: Results of rapid market appraisal. Improving productivity and market success (IPMS) of Ethiopian farmers project. Working Paper 15. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya.
Brokken, R.F. and Senait Seyoum. 1992. Dairy marketing in sub-Saharan Africa. In: Proceedings of a symposium held at the ILCA (International Livestock Center for Africa), 26 30 November, 1990. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Coppock D.L., Holden, S.J. and Mulugeta Asefa. 1992. Review of dairy marketing and processing in a semiarid pastoral system in Ethiopia. In: Brokken, R.F. and Senait S. (eds), Dairy marketing in Sub Saharan Africa. Proceedings of a symposium held at International Livestock Center for Africa (ILCA), 26 30 November, 1990. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp. 315 334.
Delgado, C., Rosegrant, M., Steinfeld, H., Ehui, S. and Courbois C. 1999. Livestock to 2020: the next food revolution. IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute), Washington, DC, USA.
Haile, A., Joshi, B.K., Ayalew, W., Tegegne, A. and Singh, A. 2009. Genetic evaluation of Boran cattle and their crosses with Holstein Friesian in central Ethiopia: reproductive traits. Journal of Agricultural Science 147:81 89.
Jantekel dairy cooperative union. 2009. Three years strategic business plan. September 2009 2012. Gonder.
Kelay, B. 2002. Analyses of dairy cattle breeding practices in selected areas of Ethiopia. PhD Thesis, Department of Animal Breeding, Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany.
18 Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia
Lemma Fita, Fekadu Beyene and Hegde, P.B. 2005. Rural smallholders milk and dairy products production, utilization and marketing systems in East Shoa zone of Oromia. ESAP Proceedings of the 12th Annual conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) held from August 12 14, 2004 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Seré, C., van der Zijpp, A.J., Persley, G. and Rege, J.E.O. 2008. Dynamics of livestock production systems, drivers of change and prospects for animal genetic resources. Animal Genetic Resources Information 42:3 27.
Solomon Abraha, Kelay Belihu, Merga Bekana and Fikre Lobago. 2009. Milk yield and reproductive performance of dairy cattle under smallholder management system in North Eastern Amhara Region, Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production 41:1597 1604.
Staal, S.J., Pratt, A.N. and Jabbar, M. 2008. Dairy development for the resource poor. Part 3: Pakistan and India dairy development case studies. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Rome, Italy.
Yitay Alemayehu, Wurzinger M, Azage Tegegne and Zollitsch, W. 2009. Performance and limitation of two dairy production systems in the north western Ethiopian highlands. Tropical Animal Health and Production 41:1143 1150.
Dairy intensification and milk market quality in Amhara region, Ethiopia 19