Section 24G Application for the Ruigtevallei to Dreunberg 132 Kv Power Line

Section 24G Application for the Ruigtevallei to Dreunberg 132 kV Power Line

Environmental Impact Report

BIODIVERSITY AND AVIFAUNAL SPECIALIST STUDY

Indwe Environmental Consulting 12 Preston Avenue Vincent East London

15 May 2014

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

I, Brendon Steytler as duly authorised representative of Indwe Environmental Consulting, hereby confirm my independence (as well as that of Gibb (Pty) Ltd. [reference to specialist’s employer]) as the Biodiversity specialist for the Ruigtevallei-Dreunberg 132kV Power line and declare that neither I nor Indwe Environmental Consulting have any interest, be it business, financial, personal or other, in any proposed activity, application or appeal in respect of which GIBB was appointed as environmental assessment practitioner in terms of the National Environmental Management Act, 1998 (Act No. 107 of 1998), other than fair remuneration for work performed in terms of the NEMA, the Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations, 2010 and any specific environmental management Act) for the Ruigtevallei-Dreunberg 132kV Power line. I further declare that I am confident in the results of the studies undertaken and conclusions drawn as a result of it. I have disclosed, to the environmental assessment practitioner, in writing, any material information that have or may have the potential to influence the decision of the competent authority or the objectivity of any report, plan or document required in terms of the NEMA, the Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations, 2010 and any specific environmental management Act. I have further provided the environmental assessment practitioner with written access to all information at my disposal regarding the application, whether such information is favourable to the applicant or not. I am fully aware of and meet the responsibilities in terms of NEMA, the Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations, 2010 and any other specific and relevant legislation (national and provincial), policies, guidelines and best practice.

Signature:

Full Name: Brendon Mark Steytler Date: 21 May 2014 Title / Position: Principal Member Qualification(s): B.Sc. Agric. (Wildlife Science) M. Env & Dev.(Protected Area Management) Experience (years/ months): 11 years Registration(s): South African Council for Natural Scientific Professions

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

I, Jon Smallie as duly authorised representative of WildSkies Ecological Services (Pty) Ltd., hereby confirm my independence (as well as that of WildSkies Ecological Services (Pty) Ltd.. as the Avifaunal specialist for the Ruigtevallei Dreunberg 132kV overhead power line and declare that neither I nor WildSkies Ecological Services (Pty) Ltd. have any interest, be it business, financial, personal or other, in any proposed activity, application or appeal in respect of which GIBB was appointed as environmental assessment practitioner in terms of the National Environmental Management Act, 1998 (Act No. 107 of 1998), other than fair remuneration for work performed in terms of the NEMA, the Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations, 2010 and any specific environmental management Act) for the Ruigtevallei Dreunberg 132kV overhead power line. I further declare that I am confident in the results of the studies undertaken and conclusions drawn as a result of it. I have disclosed, to the environmental assessment practitioner, in writing, any material information that have or may have the potential to influence the decision of the competent authority or the objectivity of any report, plan or document required in terms of the NEMA, the Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations, 2010 and any specific environmental management Act. I have further provided the environmental assessment practitioner with written access to all information at my disposal regarding the application, whether such information is favourable to the applicant or not. I am fully aware of and meet the responsibilities in terms of NEMA, the Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations, 2010 and any other specific and relevant legislation (national and provincial), policies, guidelines and best practice.

Signature:

Full Name: Jonathan James Smallie Date: 21 May 2014 Title / Position: Director – WildSkies Ecological Services (Pty) Ltd.. Qualification(s): B.Sc. (hons) Wildlife Science – University of Natal M.Sc. Env. Sci. – University of Witwatersrand Experience (years/ months): 14 years Registration(s): South African Council for Natural Scientific Professions Registration Number: 400020/06

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The Ruigtevallei – Dreunberg power line was subject to a Basic Assessment (BA) process and environmental authorisation for the project was issued in November 2012. Environmental authorisation was granted for Route Alternative 3.

Eskom erroneously commenced with construction of Route Alternative 1 (their preferred route), for which they did not have an environmental authorisation. The Environmental Control Officer (ECO) stopped work on the line but only after a substantial portion of the unauthorised section had been built.

GIBB (Pty) Ltd. is currently undertaking a Section 24G application to apply for authorisation for Route Alternative 1. To reduce the environmental impacts of Route Alternative 1, GIBB and Eskom have proposed some deviations to the power line Route 1 (which is now Route 4). These deviations were not assessed as part of the basic assessment process and so specialist studies need to be undertaken for these sections and assessed equally against all alternatives.

An Avifauna and Biodiversity Report was undertaken by GIBB for the original Basic Assessment process. As part of the section 24G process GIBB requires more in-depth specialist studies to be undertaken in relation to avifauna and biodiversity.

Indwe Environmental Consulting in association with Wildskies (Pty) Ltd. was subsequently appointed to undertake revised avifauna and biodiversity study.

The biodiversity assessment comprised a desktop study using systematic biodiversity conservation planning outputs and data. In addition, a baseline survey to ground-truth the desktop analysis was conducted along the proposed power line route alternatives.

In predicting the avifaunal impacts of a proposed power line on birds, a combination of science, field experience and common sense was required and was applied accordingly.

The study area is located within the Gariep Municipality of the Eastern Cape Province. The Gariep Municipality is situated in the West of the Joe Gqabi District Municipality and South of the Orange River, which separates the municipality from the Northern Cape and Free State Provinces. The proposed 132kV power line will cover a distance of approximately 90 kilometres in a South Easterly direction from the Ruigtevallei substation, approximately 35 kilometres North West of Venterstad, to the Dreunberg substation.

From a biodiversity conservation perspective the proposed power line crosses areas of high biodiversity conservation importance being protected areas, National Protected Area Expansion Areas, Critical Biodiversity Areas and Important Bird Areas. Despite this, no critically endangered ecosystems occur in the area.

Two dominant vegetation types dominate the study area and both of these are classified as Least Threatened vegetation types in terms of the VEGMAP conservation priority classification.

A number of small to large mammals of conservation significance are known to occur in the study area but are not considered to be at medium to high risk as a result of the proposed development.

In terms of avifauna, a fairly wide diversity of species (approximately 280 species) could be found in the broader area within which this project falls. The area is relatively undisturbed by human activities currently, crop agriculture being restricted to localized areas, and the remainder being used for extensive livestock farming. This means that the area is important to a number of Red Listed bird species which can co-exist with farming activities in the area fairly comfortably. These include raptors, such as the Verreaux‟s Eagle (Aquila verreauxii) and various smaller buzzards, kestrels and falcons; and large terrestrial bird species, most important of which is the Blue Crane (Anthropoides paradiseus).

The site is also comprised of both grassy and Karoo like vegetation elements, meaning that a broader diversity of bird species can utilise the area. An example of this is that both Blue (Eupodotis caerulescens) (a grassland specialist) and Karoo (Eupodotis vigorsii) (a shrubby Karoo specialist) Korhaans occur in the area.

Priority bird species include Kori Bustard, Ludwig’s Bustard, Blue Crane, Grey Crowned Crane, Maccoa Duck, Martial Eagle, Tawny Eagle, Verreaux’s Eagle, Lanner Flacon, Peregrine Falcon, Greater Flamingo, Black Harrier, Karoo Korhaan, Southern Black Korhaan, Melodious Lark, African Marsh-Harrier, Greater Painted-snipe, African Rock Pipit, Secretarybird, Abdim’s Stork, Black Stork, Yellow-billed Stork, White Stork and Cape Vulture.

Impacts related to general biodiversity and avifauna were identified as follows:

Impact Phase Route 1 Route 2 Route 3 Route 4

Disruption to strategic/ Construction regional biodiversity spatial planning initiatives L L L L Vegetation clearance Construction and loss, loss of plant species, and habitat fragmentation L L L L Increased Alien Plant Construction Invasion L L L L Disturbance to Construction Resident Fauna L L L L Disturbance to Aquatic Construction Biodiversity L L L L Destruction of bird Construction habitat L L L L Disturbance of birds Construction H L H L Increased Alien Plant Operation Invasion L L L L Disturbance to Operation Resident Fauna L L L L Collision of birds with Operation earth wire M M M M Electrocution of birds Operation on pylons L L L L Destruction of bird Operation habitat L L L L Disturbance of birds Operation L L L L Destruction of habitat Cumulative and habitat fragmentation L L L L Disturbance of birds Cumulative and fauna L L L L Collision of birds Cumulative M M M M Electrocution of birds Cumulative L L L L

Most general biodiversity impacts are likely to occur in the construction phase. These were all assessed to be of Low significance. Nonetheless mitigation measures have been prescribed to reduce the risk associated with these impacts. No fatal flaws were identified.

From an avifaunal perspective, most impacts were found to occur in the operation phase as this is the phase in which birds are actually killed through collision and electrocution. One exception to this is that disturbance of birds during construction was found to be of High significance if the power line is built too close to the Verreaux‟s Eagle nests. Potential collision with the earth wire was rated as Medium significance, even after the application of mitigation measures.

The likely impacts of the proposed power line on birds are:

• Collision of birds on certain sections of the lines (in fact most of the length of the line), particularly in the grassland, dams, wetlands, crop lands and at river crossings. These sections have been identified roughly by this report, but it is recommended that an avifaunal walk-through be conducted once the routes are finalized and exact tower positions are surveyed and pegged. This walk through will identify the exact spans of line posing a collision risk. These spans will then need to be fitted with the best available Eskom approved line marking device in order to make the line more visible to birds. These devices must be installed in accordance with Eskom Distribution guidelines on this aspect, and maintained in effective working order for the lifespan of the line. • Electrocution of large birds, for example Cape Vulture Gyps coprotheres perched on the pylons could be a risk and should be mitigated by using the Eskom Bird Perch on all pole tops on the lines. This will provide safe perching area well above the dangerous hardware. • Destruction of habitat is likely to be of relatively low significance since much of the habitat is so uniform in this study area and so little habitat will be affected. • Disturbance of birds is also likely to be of low significance, except where sensitive species are breeding (i.e. Routes 1 and 3). Two potential Verreaux‟s Eagle nests are present in the broader area, at least one of which is confirmed to be active this season.

The GIS analysis undertaken to compare the alternative route alignments has revealed that from a general biodiversity perspective, Route 3 is the appears to have less negative impact in accordance with the ranking criteria and Route 4 has the most environmental impact. However given the history of the project, the extent of the biodiversity impacts is largely related to the extent of the construction footprint. Given that Route 4 is already partially constructed, the extent and probability of general biodiversity related impacts will be greatly reduced by completing the partially built route. The likelihood of impacts will increase in terms of probability and extent, if this route has to be decommissioned and then re-constructed along a new alternative route.

The avifauna assessment revealed that the order of preference for the four routes from an avifaunal perspective is: Route 4, followed by Route 1 (but only if the eagle nest is avoided), then Route 2 and then Route 3. The difference in ranking between Routes 1, 4 and 2 is relatively small, whilst the difference between these three routes and the remaining Route 3 is far greater. Construction of the power line on Route 3 is not advised.

While these preferences are somewhat contradictory, both specialists are of the opinion that Route 4 should be completed, in order to prevent further decommissioning impacts and new construction impacts associated with constructing a new route.

SECTION 24G APPLICATION FOR THE RUIGTEVALLEI TO DREUNBERG 132 KV POWER LINE

CONTENTS

Chapter Description Page

1 DETAILS OF SPECIALIST AND EXPERTISE 1

2 INTRODUCTION 2

2.1 Background 2

2.2 Legislative and Policy Context 2

2.3 Assessment Methodology 8

2.4 Biodiversity Assessment 8

2.5 Avifauna Assessment 9

2.6 Description of any Assumptions Made, Uncertainties or Gaps in Knowledge 10

3 DESCRIPTION OF AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 11

3.1 Location 11

3.2 Land Use 12

3.3 Climate 13

3.4 Topography and Geology 13

3.5 Spatial Setting and Conservation Planning 13

3.6 Vegetation Types 17

3.7 Fauna 21

3.8 Reptiles and Amphibians 23

3.9 Avifauna 23

4 IMPACTS IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT 32

4.1 Identification of Impacts 32

4.2 Identified Impacts in accordance with Project Phases 35

4.3 Impact Assessment Methodology 36

4.4 Impact Assessment – Proposed Development 39

4.5 Comparison of Alternatives 42

5 MONITORING PROGRAMME 48

6 CONCLUSION 49

APPENDIX 1 50

ABBREVIATIONS

AEWA African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement BA Basic Assessment BLMC Biodiversity Land Management Class CBAs Critical Biodiversity Areas CAR Co-ordinated Avifaunal Road-count CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species CMS Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals CR Critically endangered CWAC Co-ordinated Waterbird Count DEA Department of Environmental Affairs ECO Environmental Control Officer ECBCP Eastern Cape Biodiversity Conservation Plan EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EMP Environmental Management Plan EN Endangered GIS Geographic Information System IBA Important Bird Areas IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature NFEPA National Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Area NEMA National Environmental Management Act NPAES National Protected Areas Expansion Strategy NSBA National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment SANBI South African National Biodiversity Institute SABAP South African Bird Atlas Project

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1 DETAILS OF SPECIALIST AND EXPERTISE

Indwe Environmental Consulting is a registered environmental consultancy that specialises in all facets of environmental management. Our focus is on project based environmental studies. Broadly the services offered are Basic Assessments, Full Environmental Impact Assessments, Specialist Assessments, Strategic Environmental Studies (State of the Environment Reporting, Strategic Environmental Assessments, Environmental Management Frameworks), Environmental Auditing and Integrated Waste Management Planning.

Through strategic partnerships with other emerging consultancies we offer specialist environmental services throughout the Eastern Cape and abroad.

Brendon Steytler is the Principal member of Indwe Environmental Consulting. Brendon is a professionally registered Environmental Scientist (Pr.Sci.Nat. No. 400304/06) and holds a Masters Degree in Environment and Development and a Bachelors Degree in Wildlife Science. Brendon has been involved in many diverse EIA‟s and other environmental studies within the Eastern Cape for the last eleven years.

Specialist Biodiversity Studies which have relevance to this project include:

 Biodiversity study for the Dumasi Tombo 132kV overhead power line  Biodiversity study walk through assessment for the Melkspruit 132kV overhead power line  Biodiversity study for the proposed Eskom water supply pipeline at the Mbhashe River  Ecological Management Plan associated with land rehabilitation projects in Wards 5, 9, 14, 16 and 17 of Emalahleni Municipality.

Specialist Avifaunal Impact Assessments for:

 Aggeneis – Helios 400kV power line, Avifauna Impact Assessment, Northern Cape  Candover – Mbazwana 132kV power lines and substations, Avifauna Impact Assessment. KwaZulu Natal  Nondoboyu – Ndumo 132KV power line, Avifauna Impact Assessment. KwaZulu Natal  Melkhout– Patensie 132kV power line, Avifauna Impact Assessment, Eastern Cape  Tombo – Mafini 132kV power line, Avifauna Impact Assessment, Eastern Cape  Canyon Springs Wind Farm, Avifauna Impact Assessment, Eastern Cape.

Jon Smallie is the Director of Wildskies (Pty) Ltd. which is a specialist ecological consultancy with a focus on avifauna. Jon has been involved in bird interactions with energy infrastructure for 14 years. During this time he has completed impact assessments for at least 100 projects, many of which involved Eskom distribution power lines and substations. A full Curriculum Vitae can be supplied on request.

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2 INTRODUCTION

2.1 Background

Eskom erroneously commenced with construction of Route Alternative 1 (their preferred route) for which they did not have an environmental authorisation. The Environmental Control Officer (ECO) stopped work on the line but only after a substantial portion of the unauthorised section had been built.

GIBB (Pty) Ltd. is currently undertaking a Section 24G application to apply for authorisation for Route Alternative 4 which is Route 1 with some minor deviations to reduce the environmental impacts. These deviations were not assessed as part of the basic assessment process and so specialist studies need to be undertaken for these sections.

Indwe Environmental Consulting in association with Wildskies (Pty) Ltd. was subsequently appointed to undertake revised avifauna and biodiversity study.

2.1.1 Terms of Reference

As per the brief provided by Gibb (Pty) Ltd., the avifauna and ecology specialist studies were required to consider:

 A comprehensive comparison of all route alternatives (4 in total – the three original routes and the amended route).  An assessment of all alternatives to an equal degree. Impact rating tables are to be provided to ensure that DEA is able to clearly see how impact significance between the options varies.  An indication if any of the routes are fatally flawed. (Note that choosing a route other than that which has already been partially built, will mean impacts associated will be deconstructing the partially built line. These impacts must be considered).  A closing statement indicating which route is preferred, and the implications of building each of the alternatives.

2.2 Legislative and Policy Context

2.2.1 Convention on Biological Diversity

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): dedicated to promoting sustainable development. The Convention recognizes that biological diversity is about more than plants, animals and micro-organisms and their ecosystems – it is about people and our need for food security, medicines, fresh air and water, shelter, and a clean and healthy environment in which to live. It is an international convention signed by 150 leaders at the Rio 1992 Earth Summit. South Africa is a signatory. An important principle encompassed by the CBD is the precautionary principle which essentially states that where serious threats to the environment exist, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used a reason for delaying management of

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these risks. The burden of proof that the impact will not occur lies with the proponent of the activity posing the threat.

2.2.2 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals

The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) (also known as CMS or Bonn Convention) aims to conserve terrestrial, aquatic and avian migratory species throughout their range. It is an intergovernmental treaty, concluded under the aegis of the United Nations Environment Programme, concerned with the conservation of wildlife and habitats on a global scale. Since the Convention's entry into force, its membership has grown steadily to include 117 (as of 1 June 2012) Parties from Africa, Central and South America, Asia, Europe and Oceania. South Africa is a signatory to this convention.

2.2.3 The African-Eurasion Waterbird Agreement

The African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement: The Agreement on the Conservation of African- Eurasian Migratory Water birds (AEWA) is the largest of its kind developed so far under the CMS. The AEWA covers 255 species of birds ecologically dependent on wetlands for at least part of their annual cycle, including many species of divers, grebes, pelicans, cormorants, herons, storks, rails, ibises, spoonbills, flamingos, ducks, swans, geese, cranes, waders, gulls, terns, tropic birds, auks, frigate birds and even the south African penguin. The agreement covers 119 countries and the European Union (EU) from Europe, parts of Asia and Canada, the Middle East and Africa. In this case the White Stork Ciconia Ciconia is particularly relevant.

2.2.4 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, also known as the Washington Convention) is a multilateral treaty to protect endangered plants and animals. It was drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The convention was opened for signature in 1973, and CITES entered into force on 1 July 1975. Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten the survival of the species in the wild, and it accords varying degrees of protection to more than 35,000 species of animals and plants.

Species are listed in Appendices I –III. In terms of the convention a CITES permit is required for possession or removal of such species.

2.2.5 National Environmental Management Act (Act 107 of 1998)

The National Environmental Management Act (Act 107 of 1998) commonly known as “NEMA” is South Africa‟s overarching framework for environmental legislation. The objective of NEMA is to provide for operative environmental governance by establishing principles for decision- making on matters affecting the environment, institutions that will promote co-operative governance, and procedures for co-ordinating environmental functions exercised by organs of state.

NEMA sets out a number of principles that aim to give effect to the environmental policy of South Africa. These principles are designed to, amongst others, serve as a general framework for environmental planning, as guidelines by reference to which organs of state must exercise their functions and guide other law concerned with the protection or management of the environment.

The principles include a number of internationally recognized environmental law norms and some principles specific to South Africa, i.e. the:

 Preventive principle

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 Precautionary principle  Polluter pays principle  Equitable access for the previously disadvantaged to ensure human wellbeing

Chapter 5 of NEMA is designed to promote integrated environmental management. Environmental management must place people and their needs at the forefront of its concerns, and serve their physical, psychological, developmental, cultural and social interests equitably. Development must be socially, environmentally and economically sustainable. Sustainable development therefore requires the consideration of all relevant factors including:

 The avoidance, or minimisation and remediation, of disturbance of ecosystems and loss of biological diversity  The avoidance, or minimisation and remediation, of pollution and degradation of the environment  The avoidance, or minimisation and remediation, of disturbance of landscapes and sites that constitute the nation‟s cultural heritage  That waste is avoided, or, minimised and re-used or recycled where possible and otherwise disposed of in a responsible manner  That the use and exploitation of non-renewable natural resources should be undertaken responsibly and equitably  That the development, use and exploitation of renewable resources and the ecosystem of which they are part should not exceed the level beyond which their integrity is jeopardised  The application of a risk-averse and cautious approach  That negative impacts on the environment and on people‟s environmental rights be anticipated and prevented, and where they cannot be altogether prevented, are minimised and remedied

Regulations promulgated under NEMA include the Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations published under Government Notice No. R 543 for those activities that require environmental authorisation by means of a Basic Assessment Process or a Scoping and Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Process.

2.2.6 National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (Act 10 of 2004)

The National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (Act 10 of 2004) provides for the management and conservation of South Africa‟s biodiversity within the framework of the NEMA. This Act allows for the protection of species and ecosystems that warrant national protection, the sustainable use of indigenous biological resources, the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from bio-prospecting involving indigenous biological resources and the establishment and functions of the South African National Biodiversity Institute.

Key elements of the Act are:

 The identification, protection and management of species of high conservation value  The identification, protection and management of ecosystems and areas of high biodiversity value  Biodiversity Initiatives such as the Eastern Cape Biodiversity Conservation Plani may become accepted as bioregional plans and are thus implemented as legislation  Alien invasive species control of which the management responsibility is directed to the landowner  Section 53 of the Act identifies that any process or activity that is regarded as a threatening process in terms of a threatened ecosystem, requires environmental authorization via a full Environmental Impact Assessment (Government Notice No. 545).

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2.2.7 National List of Threatened Terrestrial Ecosystems

The National List of Threatened Terrestrial Ecosystems published in Government Notice No. 1002 of 9 December 2011, published under the provisions of section 52 of the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (Act 10 of 2004), classifies sensitive ecosystems into one of the following categories:

 Critically endangered (CR) ecosystems, being ecosystems that have undergone severe degradation of ecological structure, function or composition as a result of human intervention and are subject to an extremely high risk of irreversible transformation  Endangered (EN) ecosystems, being ecosystems that have undergone degradation of ecological structure, function, or composition as a result of human intervention, although they are not critically endangered ecosystems  Vulnerable (VU) ecosystems, being ecosystems that have a high risk of undergoing significant degradation of ecological structure, function or composition as a result of human intervention, although they are not critically endangered ecosystems or endangered ecosystems  Protected ecosystems, being ecosystems that are of high conservation value or of high national or provincial importance, although they are not listed as critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable.

The aim of listing ecosystems is to provide for the protection of ecosystems outside protected areas by reducing the rate of ecosystem and species extinction. This is to be achieved by preventing further degradation and loss of structure, function and composition of threatened ecosystems by preserving witness sites of exceptionally high conservation value and enabling or facilitating proactive management of these ecosystems. Protection of landscape scale ecological processes and ecosystem services may be a by-product of listing threatened ecosystems, but does not form part of its primary purpose.

The current list deals with terrestrial ecosystems only, and is the first in a phased approach to the listing of ecosystems in all environments, including freshwater, estuarine and marine environments. In terms of the enabling Act these ecosystem lists are to be reviewed in a five- yearly cycle at least.

In terms of the NEMA EIA Regulations 2010, the listing of threatened ecosystems links to activities listed under Listing Notice 3 (GN R546), the so-called sensitive areas list. In particular, it relates to Activity 12 which identifies the clearance of 300 m2 or more of indigenous vegetation in a listed critically endangered or endangered ecosystem as an activity requiring environmental authorisation subject to the undertaking of a basic assessment process.

GN 1002, however, provides the following caveat to the application of GN R546, Activity 12: “It is important to note that while the original extent of each listed ecosystem has been mapped, a basic assessment report, in terms of the EIA regulations, is triggered only in remaining natural habitat within each ecosystem and not in portions of the ecosystem where natural habitat has already been irreversibly lost.”

2.2.8 Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act (Act 43 of 1983)

The Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act (Act 43 of 1983) protects the viability of agricultural resources within South Africa. The objects of the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act (Act 43 of 1983) are to provide for the conservation of the natural agricultural resources of the Republic through the maintenance of the production potential of the land; by the combating and prevention of erosion and weakening or destruction of water sources and wetlands; and by the protection of vegetation and combating of weeds and invader plants.

Key elements of the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act (Act 43 of 1983) are:

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 To categorize species regarded as alien invader and weed plants as well as those identified as responsible for bush encroachment  To protect activities occurring in wetlands  To protect the loss in land productivity through erosion, cultivation of virgin land and overgrazing.

Under the Act, landowners are legally responsible for the control of invasive alien plants on their properties. The 198 alien species listed as declared weeds and invaders have been divided into the three following categories:

 Category 1 plants are prohibited plants that must be controlled  Category 2 plants are commercially used plants, which may be grown in demarcated areas, provided that a permit is obtained and that steps are taken to prevent their spread  Category 3 plants are ornamentally used plants that may no longer be planted to prevent the spreading thereof. They are prohibited within the floodline of watercourses and wetlands.

2.2.9 National Forests Act (Act 84 of 1998)

The National Forests Act (Act 84 of 1998) provides for the management and conservation of South Africa‟s Forests. According to this act, the Minister may declare a tree, group of trees, woodlands or a species of tree as protected.

The prohibitions provide that „no person may cut, damage, disturb, destroy or remove any protected tree, or collect, remove, transport, export, purchase, sell donate or in any other manner acquire or dispose of any protected tree except under license granted by the Minister‟. The act also prohibits the destruction of indigenous trees in any natural forest without a license.

2.2.10 Provincial Nature Conservation Ordinance 1974

The Provincial Nature Conservation Ordinance of 1974 provides for the protection and conservation of the Eastern Cape‟s flora and fauna. The ordinance is administered by the Department of Economic Development, Environmental Affairs and Tourism. Permits are required in terms of the ordinance for the removal, replanting and possession of listed species.

2.2.11 Eastern Cape Biodiversity Conservation Plan 2007

The Eastern Cape Biodiversity Conservation Plan is considered the only bioregional conservation planning tool that covers the study area. The key objectives of the ECBCP study can be summarised as using systematic conservation planning to map critical biodiversity areas, which are required for biodiversity persistence and using this information to inform protected area planning and rural land-use planning.

The ECBCP study acknowledges that there is an urgent obligation for government to promote economic development, whilst ensuring that the values of biodiversity are maintained for current and future generations. The ECBCP is the first biodiversity conservation planning study to include spatial assessment of population pressure and primary resource dependencies within the planning framework.

The ECBCP identified Critical Biodiversity Areas (CBAs), which are terrestrial and aquatic features in the landscape which are considered as critical for conserving biodiversity and maintaining ecosystem functioning. These form the key output of the ECBCP.

The ECBCP provides guidelines for regulating land-use change so as to avoid or where not possible to minimize biodiversity impacts in critical biodiversity areas (CBAs). The approach of the ECBCP was to list land-use types that should or should not be permitted for each of the biodiversity importance categories and to specify land-use types that are not compatible with the conservation or ecological integrity of CBAs.

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The ECBCP study established guidelines for regulating land-use change so as to avoid or minimize biodiversity impacts in critical biodiversity areas (CBAs). The study approach was to list land-uses that could or could not be permitted for each of the biodiversity importance categories and also specified land-use types that are considered incompatible with the conservation or ecological integrity of CBAs.

A Biodiversity Land Management Class (BLMC), as defined by the ECBCP refers to the desired ecological state that a parcel of land should be kept in, so as to ensure the persistence of biodiversity.

Four BLMC (landscape scale) are used:

 Class 1: Natural landscapes: maintain in as natural a state as possible and manage for no biodiversity loss  Class 2 : Near natural landscapes: maintain in near-natural state with minimal loss in ecosystem integrity and functioning  Class 3: Functional landscapes: manage land to maintain basic ecosystem processes despite expecting significant loss in natural vegetation cover, biodiversity maintained in critical patches and ecosystem corridors  Class 4: Production landscapes: manage land to optimize sustainable agricultural production.

2.2.12 The National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment (NSBA) 2004 & 2011

The NSBA report, which was first published in 2004, and revised in 2011, presents the results and recommendations for the first comprehensive spatial assessment of biodiversity in South Africa. The report has four components, of which only two, namely the terrestrial and freshwater components are applicable to the proposed Eskom project.

The aim of the NSBA is to inform the policy, planning and daily operations of a wide range of sectors. The focus of the NSBA initiative is to mainstream biodiversity priorities throughout the economy, thereby creating links between biodiversity and socio-economic development. The NSBA report states that although South Africa has extraordinary biodiversity resources, there is no need to perceive biodiversity conservation and socio economic development as opposing goals. The conservation of biodiversity actually strengthens the economy and contributes to social development, and is the foundation for sustainable development.

The NSBA identifies several possible approaches to biodiversity planning. The approach most often used in South Africa, is systematic biodiversity planning, which is based on three key principles:

 The need to conserve representative samples of biodiversity pattern, such as species and habitats (the representation principle).  The need to conserve the ecological and evolutionary processes, which allow biodiversity to persist over time (the persistence principle).  The need to set quantitative biodiversity targets that indicate how much of each biodiversity feature should be conserved in order to maintain functioning landscapes.

Ecosystems are defined in various ways and at different spatial scales. The NSBA used the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI‟s) VEGMAP data to provide units for terrestrial ecosystems to provide a consistent map at an appropriate scale of 1:250 000.

2.2.13 National Protected Areas Expansion Strategy (NPAES) 2008ii

The National Protected Areas Expansion Strategy (NPAES) flows out of the earlier National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment 2004, which showed that the current national protected area system does not adequately conserve South Africa‟s biodiversity, nor does it adequately protect key ecological processes essential to the country‟s ability to sustain human

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development and adapt to climate change. Based on systematic biodiversity planning principles, the NPAES is a first attempt at integrating conservation planning for both terrestrial and aquatic environments into the broader spatial planning domain.

According to the strategy document, the primary goal of NPAES “is to achieve cost-effective protected area expansion for ecological sustainability and adaptation to climate change” (NPAES 2008, pg 7). A secondary goal is the delivery of socio-economic benefits, particularly in rural areas, thereby contributing to the achievement of the broader national development goals. In order to achieve these goals the NPAES identifies priority areas, sets targets and makes recommendations on mechanisms for the expansion of protected areas. The strategy is subject to a five year revision cycle and serves to co-ordinate the efforts of the many stakeholders in protected areas management.

In setting targets for the expansion of protected areas the NPAES has focused on where rather than on how many hectares should be conserved, in doing so it has taken into consideration biodiversity distribution in relation to current protected areas, and biodiversity thresholds. Biodiversity thresholds, also referred to as biodiversity targets, represent tipping points beyond which irreversible loss of ecosystem functioning or of species is likely to occur. Biodiversity targets refer to how much of a biodiversity feature (e.g. an ecosystem) should ideally be protected to ensure it will persist. They are based on the ecological characteristics of the biodiversity feature concerned, and although they may be refined over time as our scientific knowledge and information improves, they are not “action targets” or political targets. Protected area targets refer to the area of land that should be included in the protected area network by a certain date. They are action targets or political targets that should be updated every few years. Protected area targets should be a subset of biodiversity targets.

It is critical to understand that in most cases it is not necessary to protect the entire focus area, as these are areas within which protected area expansion is spatially efficient (in terms of improving the representivity of protected area network and meeting protected area targets) rather than the protected area targets themselves (source: NPAES Resource Document, p 60).

The greatest actual areas are required in the Grassland, Nama Karoo, Savanna and Succulent Karoo biomes. Two critical points need to be emphasised:

 Firstly, the actual areas which should receive priority attention will need to be defined by detailed planning that takes into account both opportunities and constraints at a local level and should form part of the provincial spatial biodiversity plans as they are developed.  Secondly, the actual area requirements for meeting the protected targets are defined in terms of individual vegetation types, and hence for an efficient and representative reserve network, protected area expansion needs to be appropriately directed to the individual vegetation types which are under-represented rather than to a biome.

2.2.14 Permit Requirements

Permits will be required for removal or disturbance of any species listed in the Provincial Nature Conservation Ordinance, 1974.

2.3 Assessment Methodology

2.4 Biodiversity Assessment

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All power line route alternatives were assessed in an equal manner at desktop level. Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis was undertaken in order to rank the alternatives in accordance with recognised biodiversity features and criteria.

Databases available from SANBI and its partners, such as the National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment (NSBA), National Protected Areas Expansion Strategy (NPAES), National Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Area (NFEPA), Eastern Cape Biodiversity Conservation Plan (ECBCP) the Vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland (VEGMAP) and were reviewed and the associated implications on biodiversity assessed.

Impacts were identified and assessed according to an Impact Assessment Methodology provided by GIBB (Pty) Ltd.

2.5 Avifauna Assessment

In predicting the impacts of a proposed power line on birds, a combination of science, field experience and common sense is required. More specifically the methodology used to predict impacts in the current study was as follows:

 The various avifaunal data sets listed below and the micro habitats within the study area were examined to determine the likelihood of these relevant species occurring on or near the site, and the importance of the study area for these species.  The potential impacts of the proposed facility on these species were described and evaluated.  Sensitive areas within the proposed site, where the above impacts are likely to occur, were identified using field work, various GIS (Geographic Information System) layers and Google Earth.  Recommendations were made for the management and mitigation of impacts.  In simple terms, this study assessed which species could occur on site, where they could occur on site, how important the site is for them, how susceptible they will be to impacts associated with the power line, and how this risk can be managed.

The study made use of the following data sources:

 Bird distribution data of the Southern African Bird Atlas Projectiii obtained from the Avian Demography Unit of the University of Cape Town, in order to ascertain which species occur in the study area. The relevant quarter degree squares for this project are 3025DA, 3025DC, 3025DD and 3026CC.  The more recent SABAP2 data was also consulted onlineiv. The relevant pentads for this project are 3035_2530, 3040_2530, 3040_2535, 3045_2530, 3045_2535, 3045_2540, 3045_2545, 3045_2550, 3045_2555, 3045_2610, 3050_2535, 3050_2540, 3050_2545, 3050_2550, 3050_2555, 3050_2600, 3050_2605 and 3050_2610.  The conservation status of all bird species occurring in the aforementioned degree square and pentads was then determined with the use of the most recent edition of The Eskom Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Swazilandv and the IUCN 2013 Red List.  A classification of the vegetation types in the study area was obtainedvi.  The Important Bird Areasvii, Co-ordinated Avifaunal Roadcountviii and Co-ordinated Waterbird Countix projects were consulted to determine whether any data is available for the site.  Information on the micro-habitat level was obtained through visiting the area and obtaining a first-hand perspective.  Electronic 1:50 000 maps were obtained from the Surveyor General.  Aerial photography of the area was used, obtained from the Surveyor General.  Satellite Imagery of the area was studied using Google Earth ©2013.

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2.6 Description of any Assumptions Made, Uncertainties or Gaps in Knowledge

The following factors may potentially detract from the accuracy of the predicted results:

 The study took place in the early winter months and hence many flowering plants, wetlands and non-perennial streams were not clearly visible.  It has been assumed that the data contained in the above databases and lists are reliable. However, ecosystems are dynamic, whereas databases and lists tend to represent relatively static „snap shots‟ of ecosystem status at a particular period in time.  The above-mentioned biodiversity related datasets are assumed to be the latest available information and are most applicable to the study area.  The study area did not involve an in-depth study on resident fauna and flora along the power line routes. The extent of the study area and the distance of the power line alternatives did not allow for this.  This report is the result of a short term study, no long term studies were conducted on site.  The SABAP1 data is now fairly old but no reliable more recent data on bird species presence and abundance in the study area exists. This assessment relies heavily upon secondary data sources with regards to bird abundances such as the SABAP1. However, primary information on bird habitat was collected during the site visit and is used directly in determining which species are likely to occur where on site.  Unfortunately the SABAP 2 data is not yet readily available with sufficient coverage for the study area. As a result the data has been consulted informally.  Predictions in this study are based on experience of these and similar species in different parts of South Africa, through the authors‟ experience working in the field of wildlife – energy interaction since 1999. However bird behaviour can‟t be reduced to formulas that will hold true under all circumstances.

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3 DESCRIPTION OF AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

3.1 Location

The study area is located within the Gariep Municipality of the Eastern Cape Province. The Gariep Municipality is situated in the West of the Joe Gqabi District Municipality and south of the Orange River, which separates the municipality from the Northern Cape and Free State Provinces. The proposed 132kV power line will cover a distance of approximately 90 kilometres in a south easterly direction from the Ruigtevallei substation, approximately 35 kilometres north-west of Venterstad, to the Dreunberg substation.

Figure 1: Locality plan of the study area and proposed power line route alternatives.

The Alternatives are as follows:

 Route 1: Blue (as assessed in BA)

Route 1 traverses a small extent of the Oviston Nature Reserve, but other than this runs adjacent to an existing 66 kV power line for approximately 16 kilometres and then adjacent to the R58, allowing relatively easy access. Route 1 is also the shortest route between the two existing substations and is approximately 80 km in total length. This is the route which Eskom had commenced with construction.

 Route 2: Pink (as assessed in BA)

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This route runs adjacent to the existing 66kV for approximately 16 kilometres from Ruigtevallei substation and consists of two deviations off Route 1 on the Dreunberg substation side. This alternative route also crosses and runs next to a number of streams and dams in the area and access to these areas may be gained from existing access routes and may require formal road construction to take place if the terrain necessitates it. This route is approximately 81.5 km in length.

 Route 3: Green (as assessed in BA, the approved route)

This route runs adjacent to an existing 66kV power line for almost its entire route, with minor deviations. Access to the construction site will be gained by means of existing access roads used during maintenance of the existing 66kV power line. This is the longest route measuring approximately 85 kilometres. The Basic Assessment report recommended this as the preferred route.

 Route 4: Blue dash (Eskoms preferred route) This route is fairly close to the R58 for most of its route, and is very similar to Route 1 but includes some deviations to avoid environmental impacts identified by GIBB (Pty) Ltd in their Section 24G application.

The following diversions are included

(a) Deviation 1. Verreaux‟s Eagle Nest A pair of Verreaux‟s Eagles have historically been using a local rocky outcrop to nest. Route 1 runs very close to the nest (approximately 80m). The route has been amended to avoid the nesting area. The line now runs approximately 2.4 km south of the nest.

(b) Deviation around farm dam During the site visit in November 2013 the EAP identified a farm dam which was traversed by the power line (Route 1). Although there was no water in the dam during the site inspection it was confirmed through reviewing satellite imagery and communication from local land owners that the dam does fill with water regularly. Dams form important habitat for bird and so the EAP motivated to Eskom for a route deviation. Eskom were able to reroute the line following negotiations with the landowner.

(c) Deviation to avoid farm pivots The original Route 1 included a ~1km section of line, approximately 5km west of Venterstad, which passed through the Oviston Nature Reserve. As part of this Section 24G application, the EAP has recommended that this be moved southwards.

3.2 Land Use

Land use within the study area comprises mainly extensive livestock agriculture mainly under sheep and Nguni cattle production. Some game farming occurs. Land cover is generally natural grassland and shrubland around hills and koppies. The SANBI note that approximately 97% of the Gariep Municipality is in a largely natural state. There is limited arable agriculture in the study area and where this occurs is centred on localities with access to reliable water resources, and are generally under centre pivot irrigation.

Degraded lands tend to occur around water courses where extensive erosion has occurred.

The most notable feature from a land use perspective is the Gariep Dam which is South Africa‟s largest open water resource with a radius of 360 square kilometres.

The Oviston Nature Reserve is a protected area that is situated along the southern boundary of the Gariep Dam.

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Surrounding infrastructure in close proximity to the proposed power line route alternatives include existing overhead power lines up to 66kV, fence lines and farm homesteads and outbuildings.

The R58 road is the only main surfaced road which links Burgersdorp through Venterstad and Oviston to Gariep. All other district roads are gravel and provide access to the farms.

3.3 Climate

The climate of the study area (Mucina and Rutherford, 2006) may be described as semi-arid, with a mean annual precipitation range between 290 mm and 390 mm per annum. Summer rainfall predominates with peak rainfall occurring between January and March. During winter frosts occur between May and July. The average temperature ranges between 12-30o C in summer and 0-15o C in winter.

3.4 Topography and Geology

The study area comprises large open grassy plains with occasional hills, ridgelines and koppies.

According to the Edmond (2011), the Ruigtevallei – Dreunberg study area is situated on the northern margins of the Eastern Cape Province, just south of the Orange River and the Gariep Dam, between the towns of Colesberg and Burgersdorp. Most of this hilly, semi-arid region lies at elevations between 1250 and 1450 m amsl and is extensively dissected by episodically flowing, south bank tributaries of the Orange River drainage system, such as the Suurbergspruit, Brakspruit and Oudagspruit, that are associated with substantial alluvial deposits. The greater part of the study area is underlain by recessive-weathering sedimentary rocks of the Beaufort Group (Karoo Supergroup) while more resistant-weathering dolerite intrusions build several koppies and ridges.

3.5 Spatial Setting and Conservation Planning

(a) Protected Areas and National Protected Area Expansion Focus Areas

A complex of protected areas surround the Gariep Dam. This includes the Oviston Nature Reserve, Tussen die Rivere Nature Reserve and the Gariep Nature Reserve. All mentioned areas are proclaimed protected areas.

All alternative routes traverse the Oviston Nature Reserve in the same location (a formally). Added to this the same alternative routes traverse a National Protected Area Expansion Focus

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Area in the North West.

Figure 2: Protected Areas, National Protected Area Expansion Areas and Important Bird Areas in the Study Area.

(b) Critically Endangered Ecosystems

The proposed power line does not traverse any ecosystems that have been classified as Endangered or Vulnerable in terms of The National List of Threatened Terrestrial Ecosystems published in Government Notice No. 1002 of 9 December 2011.

Terrestrial Critical Biodiversity Areas

According to the Plan a Terrestrial Critical Biodiversity Area Category 1 (CBA 1) area occurs around the Gariep Dam and includes the Oviston Nature Reserve. All route alternatives in the vicinity of the Ruigetvallei Substation traverse this area. The northern alternative routes traverse this CBA 1 area to the West of Venterstad. Thereafter they traverse an area designated as a Critical Biodiversity Area Category 2 (CBA 2) which extends eastward and includes the Dreunberg substation area.

In terms of the ECBCP, the recommended land use for CBA areas is as follows:

 CBA 1- Class 1: Natural landscapes: maintain in as natural a state as possible and manage for no biodiversity loss  CBA 2- Class 2 : Near natural landscapes: maintain in near-natural state with minimal loss in ecosystem integrity and functioning

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Ideally overhead power lines should avoid such Critical Biodiversity Areas. However since most of the proposed servitudes will cross grassland and low shrubland, the need for extensive clearing of tall vegetation and associated biodiversity impact such as fragmentation is minimal. The recommended land use objectives as defined in the ECBCP for such Critical Biodiversity Areas is therefore not likely to be compromised and cannot be seen as a fatal flaw in terms of the project.

Figure 3: Plan showing Terrestrial Critical Biodiversity Areas as is identified in the Eastern Cape Biodiversity Conservation Plan (Berliner & Desmet, 2007). It can be see that the alternative power line routes cross a CBA 1 area in the West. Most of the study area falls under CBA 2 area.

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Aquatic Critical Biodiversity Areas

Berliner & Desmet (2007) identify Aquatic CBAs on the basis of sub-quaternary catchments as the ecological integrity of rivers relates strongly to that of their catchments (Amis et al. in press, Snyder et al. 2005). Berliner & Desmet (2007) go on to state that “maintaining rivers within a desired ecological state suitable for contributing to biodiversity targets requires that water and land-use management focus on the whole catchment and not just the river channel”.

In order to conserve these catchments and subsequent aquatic systems transformation thresholds and permissible mean annual run-off (MAR) reduction have been set at three levels of sensitivity and are used to limit the overall transformation of these sub-quaternary catchments (Berliner & Desmet, 2007).

For aquatic CBA areas the recommended thresholds are as follows:

 CBA 1 - Less than 10 % of total area of sub-quaternary catchment should be transformed and less than 15% reduction in MAR.  CBA 2 - less than Less than 15 % of total area of sub-quaternary catchment should be transformed and less than 25% reduction in MAR.

Figure 4: Plan showing Aquatic Critical Biodiversity Areas as is identified in the Eastern Cape Biodiversity Conservation Plan (Berliner & Desmet, 2007). It can be see that the alternative power line routes cross a CBA 1 area in the vicinity of the Gariep Dam. A CBA 2 area.

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Figure 5: Many drainage areas are heavily degraded and eroded within the study area. These are all impacting on the aquatic biodiversity of the area.

3.6 Vegetation Types

According to Mucina and Rutherford (2006) the study area comprises a mosaic of predominantly Grassland vegetation types interspersed with elements of Karoo vegetation (Figure 6). According to Mucina and Rutherford (2006) the predominant vegetation type within the study area which area traversed by the four alternative routes is Eastern Upper Karoo, interspersed with Besemkaree Koppies.

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Figure 6: Plan showing vegetation types traversed by the proposed power line route alternatives.

Both vegetation types are categorised as Least Threatened vegetation types in terms of the conservation status. They are well represented in the Gariep area and are well conserved in the nature reserve complex surrounding the Gariep Dam.

Eastern Upper Karoo

This vegetation type predominates in the study area and is associated with areas of flat to low or moderate slope gradients and deeper soils. It has a short structure, being dominated by dwarf microphyllous shrubs and grasses (primarily Aristida and Eragrostis species). Mucina and Rutherford (2006) note that grass cover increases along a gradient from south-west to north-east. In the context of the study area the Burgersdorp end of the route appears to have slightly more grass cover and less dwarf shrubs than the Oviston end, which appears to have slightly more dwarf shrubs and lesser grass cover. However, grass cover is closely linked to precipitation and in periods of high rainfall, such as the 2010-2011 summer, cover density will be higher than during periods of low rainfall.

Although overall species diversity is relatively low in the Nama-Karoo biome there is a high diversity of plant life forms within the biome. It is therefore unremarkable that Mucina and Rutherford list four succulent shrub species, three low shrub species and one tall shrub species as endemic to the Eastern Upper Karoo. However, none of these occur within the study area.

Besemkaree Koppies Shrubland

This vegetation type is closely associated with koppies, ridges and dolerite sills within the study area. Besemkaree Koppies Shrubland has a two layered structure with the upper layer dominated by tall shrubs (many of them Searsia sp (previously Rhus) commonly termed karee, hence the name), and the lower layer dominated by small leaved dwarf shrubs and

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grasses. Three succulent shrubs and a small tree are noted by Mucina and Rutherford as being endemic to this vegetation type.

Figure 7: View of typical grassy plain (Eastern Upper Karroo) along the existing 66kV power line route.

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Figure 8: View of typical Eastern Upper Karroo vegetation with signs of overgrazing from sheep.

Figure 9: View of Besemkarree Koppies shrubland with Aloe ferox (A CITES listed species).

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Vegetation Types and Avifauna

In terms of avifauna, the main relevance of the vegetation classification to this study is that both vegetation types are open and dominated by grasses interspersed with small shrubs. We can therefore expect the avifaunal community to be dominated by grassland dependant species, although sufficient shrubby vegetation is present to cater for species dependent thereon. This is described in more detail in Table 2.

3.7 Fauna

Although the study area comprises primarily commercial agricultural holdings, land cover in the area is mostly natural vegetation. Human population densities outside the three nodes of Burgersdorp, Venterstad and Oviston are low. Natural faunal assemblages retain a degree of intactness, but those species presenting direct competition to commercial livestock agriculture or risk to human life have largely been lost or are frequently hunted (e.g. Black-Backed Jackal).

The Oviston Nature Reserve supports populations of large mammals many of which are of conservation significance. Although the reserve is fenced, the actual fence itself is often breached and consequently mammals frequent neighbouring farms (local farmer, pers.comm.)

The majority of commercial farms traversed by the route alternatives generally produce livestock such as cattle and sheep. Traditionally large carnivores and ungulates have therefore been hunted out on these properties. However with the rise in commercial value of hunting species over the past two decades, conservation efforts on the private farms has increased and faunal populations with commercial value such as antelope have increased.

Small and medium sized mammals are well represented and many were observed during the site investigation.

Mammals of significance which could be impacted upon by the proposed power line are listed in Table 1 below:

Table 1: Potential mammals of conservation significance found in the study area which could be impacted by the proposed power line. Species Common Name Conservation Likelihood of Comment Status – impact IUCN Red List Orycteropus afer Aardvark Least Possible Although they Threatened fairly low in abundance, they are habitat generalists and are known to be fairly common on the farms in the study area. Proteles cristata Aardwolf Least Possible Although they Concern are solitary, they are habitat generalists and are known to be fairly common on the farms in the study area. Felis silvestris lybica African Wild Cat Not Assessed Unlikely Rare Otocyon megalotis Bat Eared Fox Least possible Bat Eared Fox Concern are common in the study area

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Species Common Name Conservation Likelihood of Comment Status – impact IUCN Red List Connochaetes gnou Black Wildebeest Least Unlikely Populations are Concern restricted to the Oviston Nature Reserve Canis mesomelas Black-backed Least Possible Common in the jackal Concern study area

Hyaena brunnea Brown Hyena Near Unlikely Rare Threatened Aonyx capensis Cape Clawless Least Unlikely Generally Otter Concern confined to watercourses and wetland areas Vulpes chama Cape Fox Least Unlikely Rare Concern Xerus inauris Cape Ground Least Possible Common in the Squirrel Concern Study area

Lepus capensis Cape Hare Least Possible Common in the Concern Study area Hystrix africaeaustralis Cape Porcupine Least Possible Common in the Concern Study area Caracal caracal Caracal Least Unlikely Not in great Concern numbers Papio ursinus Chacma Baboon Least Possible Fairly common Concern in the study area Sylvicapra grimmia Common Duiker Least Possible Common in the Concern study area Tragelaphus oryx Common Eland Least Unlikely Restricted to Concern Nature Reserve Tragelaphus Greater Kudu Least Possible Fairly common strepsiceros Concern in the study area

Redunca fulvorufula Mountain Least Possible Fairly common Reedbuck Concern in the study area

Oryx gazelle Gemsbuck Least Unlikely Restricted to Concern nature reserve Procavia capensis Rock Dassie Least Unlikely Confined to

Concern rocky areas Lepus saxatilis Scrub Hare Least Possible Fairly common Concern in study area Felis nigripes Small Spotted Cat Vulnerable Unlikely Rare

Genetta genetta Small Spotted Least Unlikely Fairly common Genet Concern in study area

Atelerix frontalis South African Least Unlikely Rare Hedgehog Concern

Pronolagus rupestris Smith‟s Red Rock Least Unlikely Rare Rabbit Concern

Hydrictis maculicollis Spotted – necked Not Assessed Unlikely Rare Otter

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Species Common Name Conservation Likelihood of Comment Status – impact IUCN Red List

Antidorcas marsupialis Springbok Least Possible Common on Concern farms Raphicerus campestris Steenbuck Least Possible Common Concern Suricata suricatta Suricate Least Possible Common

Concern Chlorocebus Vervet Monkey Least Possible Common pygerythrus Concern Atilax paludinosus Water Mongoose Least Unlikely Rare, confined Concern to water courses Cynictis penicillata Yellow Mongoose Least Possible Common Concern

3.8 Reptiles and Amphibians

No reptile species and few amphibians of conservation significance appear to be present in the study area. However, the African Bullfrog (Pyxicephalus adspersus), which is considered to be Near Threatened has been recorded from the study areax (Du Preez and Curruthers, 2009).

3.9 Avifauna

The following description of Bird Micro Habitats is pertinent to the species that are likely to be found in the study area.

3.9.1 Bird Micro Habitats

In addition to the description of vegetation, it is important to understand the habitats available to birds at a smaller spatial scale, i.e. micro habitats. Micro habitats are shaped by factors other than vegetation, such as topography, land use, food sources and anthropogenic factors. These factors are critically important in mapping the site in terms of avifaunal sensitivity and ultimately informing the mitigation requirements. Investigation of this study area revealed the presence of grassland, Karoo shruband, rocky ridges, dams, wetlands, rivers, drainage lines and arable lands (

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Figure 10).

The most sensitive of these micro habitats are the grassland and shrubland areas, dams, crop lands and the wetland areas, particularly where they are relatively undisturbed. These areas provide important habitat for those species listed in Table 2.

Table 2 shows the micro habitats that each Red Listed bird species typically frequents in the study area. It must be stressed that birds can and will, by virtue of their mobility, utilise almost any areas in a landscape from time to time. However, the analysis below represents each species‟ most preferred or normal habitats. These locations are where most of the birds of that species will spend most of their time – so logically that is where impacts on those species will be most significant. Table 2 makes use of the authors‟ extensive experience gained through personal observations of the relevant bird species.

(a) Grassland

Grasslands represent a significant feeding area for many bird species in densely populated areas. Specifically, these open grassland patches could typically attract Kori Bustard (Ardeotis kori), Ludwig‟s Bustard (Neotis ludwigii), Blue Crane (Anthropoides paradiseus), Grey Crowned Crane (Balearica regulorum), Lanner Falcon (Falco biarmicus), Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus), Black Harrier (Circus maurus), Karoo Korhaan (Eupodotis vigorsii), African Marsh-Harrier (Circus ranivorus), Melodious Lark (Mirafra cheniana), African Rock Pipit (Anthus crenatus), Secretarybird (Sagittarius serpentarius), Abdim‟s Stork (Ciconia abdimii), White Stork (Ciconia ciconia), Cape Vulture (Gyps coprotheres) and a host of non-Red List species i.e. korhaans, kestrels and smaller passerines that forage in these open areas. The grassland patches are also a favourite foraging area for game birds such as francolins and guineafowl. This in turn attracts large raptors because of both the presence and accessibility of prey. The majority of species mentioned above, are vulnerable to interactions with electrical infrastructure.

(b) Rocky Ridges

Rocky outcrops are situated throughout the study area and provide habitat for raptors such as Verreaux's Eagle (Aquila verreauxii), Martial Eagle (Polemaetus bellicosus), Tawny Eagle (Aquila rapax), Peregrine Falcon, African Rock Pipit (Anthus crenatus) as well as several non- Red List species i.e. Booted Eagle (Aquila pennatus), kestrels and eagle-owls. It has been shown elsewhere that both Verreaux‟s and Martial eagles favour breeding on or adjacent to these ridges or koppiesxi. Species such as larks, starlings and canaries may also make these rocky areas their home. While raptor species prefer to fly in the vicinity of the ridges as air currents are favourable, these areas are not preferred habitat for most large terrestrial species sensitive to collision with the proposed power lines.

Many thousands of earthen and other dams exist in the southern African landscape. Whilst dams have altered flow patterns of streams and rivers, and affected many bird species detrimentally, a number of species have benefited from their construction. The construction of these dams has probably resulted in a range expansion for many water bird species that were formerly restricted to areas of higher rainfall. These include the pelicans, darters and cormorants. Many species from these families occur in this study area including storks, flamingos and a variety of non-Red Data species such as ducks, geese and herons.

Several dams can be found within close proximity to the proposed power line alternatives, the most notable of which is the Gariep dam. The Gariep Dam is the largest storage reservoir in South Africa and its primary purpose is for irrigation, domestic and industrial use as well as for power generation. The near-by nature reserve boasts a bird list of approximately 220 species.

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Dams are an exceptionally important source of water for most bird species and will be regularly utilised not only as a source of drinking water and food, but also for bathing.

An aspect particularly relevant to this study area is the use of dams as nocturnal roost sites by flocks of Blue Cranes. Cranes roost communally in the shallows of dams in the evenings to escape predators. This means that they enter and exit these areas in the dusk and dawn when light intensity and visibility is low, and they are therefore particularly susceptible to collision with obstacles such as power lines. In this study area, due to the abundance of Blue Cranes, all dams have been treated as potential roost sites.

(d) Wetlands

Wetlands are characterized by slow flowing water and tall emergent vegetation, and provide habitat for many water birds. The conservation status of many of the bird species that are dependent on wetlands reflects the critical status of wetlands nationally, with many having already been destroyed. Wetlands hold water for much of the year and may represent attractive areas for certain species year round – not only after rainfall. Of the collision sensitive species found within this study area, the Blue Crane, Grey Crowned Crane, White Stork, African Marsh Harrier and Maccoa Duck (Oxyura maccoa) are likely to use wetlands extensively.

(e) Rivers and drainage lines

Most rivers in southern Africa are in the east and extreme south, in the higher rainfall areas. Various species of water bird are mostly restricted to riverine habitat in southern Africa and the distribution of these species correlates with the river courses in southern Africa. Several rivers are situated in the proposed site. Some sections of these rivers are characterised by tall, fringing riparian forest and well developed woodland quite distinct from the surrounding vegetation. These well vegetated areas usually support a diverse and distinct forest and woodland avifauna. These are areas of particular importance for birds, with riparian vegetation being extremely important to threatened riverine bird species and water bird communities.

(f) Arable land

Arable or cultivated land represents a significant feeding area for many bird species in any landscape for the following reasons: through opening up the soil surface, land preparation makes many insects, seeds, bulbs and other food sources suddenly accessible to birds and other predators; the crop or pasture plants cultivated are often eaten by birds, or attract insects which are in turn eaten by birds; during the dry season arable lands often represent the only green or attractive food sources in an otherwise dry landscape. In this study area, there are irrigated arable lands in localised areas where access to permanent water is available. White Storks, Blue Cranes and Blue Korhaans are likely to visit these irrigated crops in summer and Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis, Abdim‟s Stork and Black-headed Heron (Ardea melanocephala) will follow tractors in the planting season to forage for insects that have been exposed.

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Figure 10: Photographs of the Micro Habitats Available to Avifauna in the Study Area.

3.9.2 Relevant Bird Populations

It is necessary to provide a broader perspective on the study area in order to gain some understanding of the importance of the potential bird impacts on a national scale. What needs to be established is the relative importance of the study area for power line sensitive species, especially Red List species, as this will have a bearing both on the expected frequency of the impacts and the significance of those impacts. Various data sources were used in determining the distribution and abundance of bird species in the study area:

(a) Southern African Bird Atlas Project 1

This data was collected over an 11 year period between 1986 and 1997. Although it is now quite old, it remains the best long term data set on bird distribution and abundance available to us at present. This data was collected on the basis of quarter degree squares (QDS), which is also a relatively large spatial scale. The species recorded in the relevant QDS could have been recorded anywhere within this square and not necessarily on the exact site of the proposed developments (Harrison et al, 1997). It does however provide a good indication of what could be found in the study area.

A total of 264 species have been recorded within the 3025DA, 3025DC, 3025DD and 3026CC quarter degree squares, 23 of which are Red List species (Taylor, 2014). These include: Kori Bustard, Ludwig‟s Bustard, Blue Crane, Grey Crowned Crane, Maccoa Duck, Martial Eagle, Tawny Eagle, Verreaux‟s Eagle, Lanner Flacon, Peregrine Falcon, Greater Flamingo, Black Harrier, Karoo Korhaan, Southern Black Korhaan, Melodious Lark, African Marsh-Harrier, Greater Painted-snipe, African Rock Pipit, Secretarybird, Abdim‟s Stork, Black Stork, Yellow- billed Stork and Cape Vulture. The White Stork, which is not listed, but is protected internationally through the Bonn Convention on Migratory species, was also recorded. Many of these species can be considered to be abundant in this area, and some have already been significantly impacted by power lines (an example being Cape Vulture). The majority of the Red Data species listed above are physically large species, meaning that they are capable of interacting directly with electrical infrastructure through collision, electrocution, nesting, and electrical faulting. All bird species, including even the smaller ones are vulnerable to indirect impact by the proposed development through factors such as disturbance and habitat destruction.

(b) Southern African Bird Atlas Project 2

SABAP 2 data for the pentads (which are roughly 8km x 8km squares, and are smaller than the QDS‟s used in SABAP1) in the study area was also examined. The proposed power line traverses no fewer than 18 pentads (3035_2530, 3040_2530, 3040_2535, 3045_2530, 3045_2535, 3045_2540, 3045_2545, 3045_2550, 3045_2555, 3045_2610, 3050_2535, 3050_2540, 3050_2545, 3050_2550, 3050_2555, 3050_2600, 3050_2605 and 3050_2610) with a total of 228 species having been recorded across them. Unfortunately only one pentad has been counted several times (n=34), this level of coverage does not allow formal use of this SABAP2 data for this project, but it has been informally consulted.

Cranes, bustards, storks and other large birds that spend most of their time on the ground, need wide, open spaces and are certainly not restricted to protected areas. Agricultural habitats are used extensively for feeding, roosting and breeding, often because no natural, pristine habitats are available, and sometimes because the agricultural habitats are especially attractive to birds. The Co-ordinated Avifaunal Roadcounts (CAR) project monitors the populations of 21 species of large „terrestrial‟ birds in agricultural habitats (Young et.al. 2003). Although CAR road counts do not give an absolute count of the all the individuals in a population, they do provide a measure of relative abundance in a particular area. There are

27 Ruigtevallei – Dreunberg 132 kV Power Line - May 2014

no CAR routes within the confines of the study area. This data will therefore not be assessed further.

(d) Co-ordinated Waterbird Count (CWAC) Data

A CWAC site is any body of water, other than the oceans, which supports a significant number (set at approximately 500 individual waterbirds, irrespective of the number of species) of birds which use the site for feeding, and/or breeding and roosting (Harrison and Harebottle, 2002). This definition includes natural pans, vleis, marshes, lakes, rivers, as well as a range of manmade impoundments (i.e. sewage works). The presence of a CWAC site within the study area is an indication of a large number of bird species occurring there and the overall sensitivity of the area.

Two CWAC sites (Gariep Dam West and Gariep Dam East) associated with the Gariep Dam are located to the north of the proposed alignments. This large, state-owned dam surrounded by nature reserves, supports globally significant numbers of South African Shelduck Tadorna cana, Yellow-billed Duck Anas undulata, Egyptian Goose Alopochen aegyptiacus, Red-billed Teal Anas erythrorhyncha, Cape Shoveller Anas smithii, Spur-winged Goose Plectropterus gambensis, Yellow-billed Stork, Grey Ardea cinerea and Goliath Herons Ardea goliath, African Spoonbill Platalea alba and of Caspian Tern Sterna caspia. Certain parts of the proposed power line are fairly close to the dam (approximately 2 kilometres in places) but are also situated adjacent to existing other linear developments such as roads, which mitigates any risks slightly.

(e) Important Bird Areas

Some sites are exceptionally important for maintaining the taxa dependent upon the habitats and ecosystems in which they occur. Vigorous protection of the most critical sites is one important approach to conservation. Many species may be effectively conserved by this means. Patterns of bird distribution are such that, in most cases, it is possible to select sites that support many species. These sites, carefully identified on the basis of the bird numbers and species complements they hold, are termed Important Bird Areas (IBAs). IBAs are selected such that, taken together, they form a network throughout the species‟ biogeographic distributions. IBAs are key sites for conservation – small enough to be conserved in their entirety and often already part of a protected-area network. They are responsible for one (or more) of three things:

 Hold significant numbers of one or more globally threatened species  Are one of a set of sites that together hold a suite of restricted-range species or biome-restricted species  Have exceptionally large numbers of migratory or congregatory species

The Gariep/Oviston/Tussen-die-Riviere IBA (SA051) is located within close proximity to the proposed alignments. In fact Route 1 passes through the IBA for a short distance. Similarly to the aforementioned CWAC sites, this IBA regularly supports significant numbers and assemblages of water birds, including Egyptian Goose, South African Shelduck, Yellow-billed Duck and Caspian Tern.

Small numbers of Blue Crane have been reported to breed in the Karoo shrub-type vegetation surrounding the dam. Other typical species that are frequently seen in the reserves surrounding the dam are Ludwig's Bustard (Neotis ludwigii), Karoo Chat (Cercomela schlegelii), Sickle-winged Chat (Cercomela sinuate), Layard's Tit-Babbler (Sylvia layardi), Namaqua Warbler (Phragmacia substriata) and Black-headed Canary (Serinus alario). Large wide-ranging species that are found within this IBA include Martial Eagle Polemaetus bellicosus, Tawny Eagle (Aquila rapax) and Kori Bustard (Ardeotis kori). In areas where grasses have invaded the Karoo vegetation both Blue Korhaan (Eupodotis caerulescens) and Karoo Korhaan (Eupodotis vigorsii) are common.

28 Ruigtevallei – Dreunberg 132 kV Power Line - May 2014

3.9.3 Priority Species

Determining the focal species for this study, i.e. the most important species to be considered, is a four step process. Firstly, the micro-habitats available on site were identified. An analysis of the above existing avifaunal data represents the second step, i.e. which species occur historically in the area at significant abundances. The third step is to identify those species which have a high likelihood of being present on, and/or utilizing, the site, based on the above two steps and are more likely to be impacted upon by the power line development. In general, large, heavy flying birds are more vulnerable to collision with over-head power lines, while perching raptors are more vulnerable to electrocution. The fourth and final step was to consider the species conservation status or other reasons for protecting the species. This involved primarily consulting the Red List bird species (Taylor 2014).

The resultant list of ‘focal species’ for this study is as follows: Kori Bustard, Ludwig’s Bustard, Blue Crane, Grey Crowned Crane, Maccoa Duck, Martial Eagle, Tawny Eagle, Verreaux’s Eagle, Lanner Flacon, Peregrine Falcon, Greater Flamingo, Black Harrier, Karoo Korhaan, Southern Black Korhaan, Melodious Lark, African Marsh-Harrier, Greater Painted-snipe, African Rock Pipit, Secretarybird, Abdim’s Stork, Black Stork, Yellow-billed Stork, White Stork and Cape Vulture.

Although this assessment focuses on the impacts on Red Data species as these are the species of highest conservation concern, the impact on the more common species has also been taken into account, although not on an individual species basis. Certain key species known to interact with power lines were assessed, rather than an exhaustive list of all species. It should also be noted that since the impacts are usually the same across various species, the Red Data species can often be used as surrogate species for the others in terms of impacts and the necessary mitigation.

Figure 11: Flock of Blue Crane seen Foraging under the Partially Constructed Route.

29 Ruigtevallei – Dreunberg 132 kV Power Line - May 2014

Table 2 shows a summary of information pertaining to the 24 Focal species.

30 Ruigtevallei – Dreunberg 132 kV Power Line - May 2014

Table 2 Summary of Red Listed bird species that could potentially occur on site.

IUCN Taylor Preferred Likely Common name Species name SABAP1 SABAP2 TOPS Likelihood of occurrence 2013 2014 Habitat Interactions

Bustard, Kori Ardeotis kori X X NT NT VU Probable Grassland and Karoo shrubveld C, D, HD Bustard, Ludwig's Neotis ludwigii X X EN EN VU Confirmed Grassland and Karoo shrubveld C, D, HD Crane, Blue Anthropoides paradiseus X X VU NT EN Confirmed - abundant Grassland, arable land, dams, wetlands, pans C, D, HD Crane, Grey Crowned Balearica regulorum X EN EN EN Possible Grassland, arable land, dams, wetlands, pans C, E, D, HD Duck, Maccoa Oxyura maccoa X NT NT Confirmed Wetlands in open grassland C, D, HD Eagle, Martial Polemaetus bellicosus X NT EN VU Possible Generalist C, D, HD Eagle, Tawny Aquila rapax X LC EN VU Possible Generalist C, D, HD Eagle, Verreaux's Aquila verreauxii X X LC VU Confirmed - breeding Rocky ridges C, D, HD Falcon, Lanner Falco biarmicus X X LC VU Confirmed Grassland, arable land C, D, HD Falcon, Peregrine Falco peregrinus X LC VU Possible Grassland, rocky cliffs C, D, HD Flamingo, Greater Phoenicopterus ruber X X LC NT Possible Open water C, D, HD Harrier, Black Circus maurus X X VU EN Possible Grassland and Karoo shrubveld C, D, HD Korhaan, Karoo Eupodotis vigorsii X X LC NT Confirmed Karoo shrubveld C, D, HD Korhaan, Southern Black Afrotis afra X - VU Confirmed Karoo shrubveld C, D, HD Lark, Melodious Mirafra cheniana X X NT NT Possible Grassland HD, D Marsh-Harrier, African Circus ranivorus X LC EN PR Possible Grassland, wetland, pans C, D, HD Painted-snipe, Greater Rostratula benghalensis X LC VU Possible Dams HD, D Pipit, African Rock Anthus crenatus X X LC NT Probable Rocky ridges, grassland and Karoo shrubveld HD, D Secretarybird Sagittarius serpentarius X X VU VU Confirmed Grassland, arable land C, D, HD Stork, Abdim's Ciconia abdimii X LC NT Possible Grassland, arable land, pan edges C, D, HD Stork, Black Ciconia nigra X LC VU V Confirmed Riverine, cliffs C, D, HD Stork, White Ciconia ciconia X X BONN CONVENTION Probable Grassland, arable land, dams, wetlands, pans C, D, HD Stork, Yellow-billed Mycteria ibis X LC EN Possible Riverine, floodplain C, D, HD Vulture, Cape Gyps coprotheres X VU EN EN Confirmed Open grassland (foraging) C, E EN = Endangered; VU = Vulnerable; NT = Near-Threatened, LC = Least Concern (Taylor, 2014 and IUCN, 2013); C = Collision with power lines; D = Disturbance; HD = Habitat Destruction; E = Electrocution

31 Ruigtevallei – Dreunberg 132 kV Power Line - May 2014

4 IMPACTS IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT

4.1 Identification of Impacts

The following impacts were identified according the relevant phases of the project:

4.1.1 Biodiversity Related Impacts

(a) Disruption to strategic/ regional biodiversity spatial planning initiatives

The construction of large overhead power lines as a land use activity is not necessarily in line with conservation objectives set by national or regional biodiversity conservation planning initiatives especially in high biodiversity priority areas such as protected areas, protected area expansion areas and critical biodiversity areas. This is largely attributed to the potential negative biodiversity impacts that are discussed further in this section. Due to the study area being influenced by strategic / regional biodiversity spatial planning initiatives it is has been identified as an impact albeit an indirect one.

Alternatives have been evaluated on the influence that they have on protected areas, NPAES areas, and Terrestrial and Aquatic CBA‟s. Given that all alternative routes follow a common path through the NPAES area and the Oviston Nature Reserve, the amount servitude falling within Terrestrial and Aquatic CBA areas was calculated.

(b) Vegetation clearance and loss, loss of species, and habitat fragmentation

The construction of the power line may directly result in the clearance of some tall vegetation in the power line servitude albeit that there is very little tall vegetation present in the study area. Furthermore clearing will occur at the base of towers and at the guide anchor points. This could result in the direct loss of vegetation and potentially the loss of sensitive plant communities, endangered or protected plant species.

Figure 12: View of partially constructed route. Note the disturbance created from

founding the towers and the trampling caused by the construction access road.

In terms of alternatives the criteria used in the assessment process was the proportion of each power line route that falls within the Besemkaree Karoid Shrubland. This is where tall vegetation is present and clearing activities would potentially take place.

The disturbance to the vegetation and soils, during the construction phase, could increase the risk of alien plant invasion, especially where soils are exposed and disturbed from clearing activities, creation of access tracks and construction of towers and support guides.

Alien vegetation species were observed in the study area, although not in abundance. Opuntia ficus indica is the species most at risk to invade such disturbed areas. As a result of the potential invasion of alien plant species, indigenous species may be displaced through competition. This may in turn lead to loss of species and resultant negative biodiversity impacts.

The preference in alternatives was assessed in terms of the degraded area (as captured by ECBCP) under each power line route as it is these areas which already disturbed and degraded which are likely to be further at risk due to the presence of alien species in the seed bank.

(d) Disturbance to Resident Fauna

Increased levels of noise, pollution, disturbance, and human presence, during the construction phase, will be detrimental to fauna. Larger more mobile shy mammals would likely move away from the immediate area of construction as a result of the noise and human activities present. It is unlikely that such disturbance will lead to any mortalities of such species.

Some immobile mammals such as Porcupine and reptiles such as tortoises could be vulnerable to illegal harvesting or poaching during the construction phase, by the construction personnel that are likely to be present.

(e) Disturbance to Aquatic Biodiversity

Rivers, streams, wetlands and dams are all important areas from an aquatic biodiversity perspective. Disturbance to such areas could be created during the construction phase of the power line through catchment modification and hardening, increased silt loads from erosion and pollution from construction activities (e.g leakage of fuels, concrete spillages, solid waste, etc.).

4.1.2 Avifauna Related Impacts

Because of their size and prominence, electrical infrastructure constitutes an important interface between wildlife and man. Negative interactions between wildlife and electricity structures take many forms, but two common problems in southern Africa are electrocution of birds (and other animals) and birds colliding with power lines (Ledger & Annegarn 1981; Ledger 1983; Ledger 1984; Hobbs & Ledger 1986a; Hobbs & Ledger 1986b; Ledger, Hobbs & Smith, 1992; Verdoorn 1996; Kruger & Van Rooyen 1998; Van Rooyen 1998; Kruger 1999; Van Rooyen 1999; Van Rooyen 2000). Other problems are electrical faults caused by bird excreta when roosting or breeding on electricity infrastructure, (Van Rooyen & Taylor 1999) and disturbance and habitat destruction during construction and maintenance (operational) activities.

(a) Electrocution

Electrocution of birds on overhead lines is an important cause of unnatural mortality of raptors and storks. It has attracted plenty of attention in Europe, USA and South Africa (APLIC 1994; van Rooyen & Ledger 1999). Electrocution refers to the scenario where a bird is perched or attempts to perch on the electrical structure and causes an electrical short circuit by physically bridging the air gap between live components and/or live and earthed components (van

Rooyen 2004). Electrocution is possible on 132kV power lines such as those proposed, but will largely dependent on the pole structure used and the prevalence of vultures in the study area, since only these species are capable of bridging the air gap between the structures‟ live and grounded components. The proposed power line will be constructed using the steel monopole structure (Figure 13). The bird perch (located at the top of the structure) and the 45 degree steel rod from the insulator post to the pole should discourage various bird species from perching above the insulator strings and conductors, thereby minimising the risk of electrocution. Electrocution of birds within the Ruigtevallei and Dreunberg substations are also possible. However the hardware is too complex and the risk of Red List species being affected is too low, to warrant proactive mitigation. The impact of electrocution has been assessed formally later in this report. Species likely to be susceptible to this risk are shown in Table 2.

Figure 13 Photograph of the steel monopole structure type that will be used to construct the proposed power line (b) Collisions

Collisions occur when birds in flight do not see the overhead cables or see them too late to take evasive action. Most heavily impacted upon are bustards, storks, cranes and various species of water birds. These species are mostly heavy-bodied birds with limited manoeuvrability, which makes it difficult for them to take the necessary evasive action to avoid colliding with power lines (van Rooyen 2004, Anderson 2001). Unfortunately, many of the collision sensitive species are considered threatened in southern Africa. The Red List species vulnerable to power line collisions are generally long living, slow reproducing species under natural conditions. Some require very specific conditions for breeding, resulting in very few successful breeding attempts, or breeding might be restricted to very small areas. These species have not evolved to cope with high adult mortality, with the results that consistent high adult mortality over an extensive period could have a serious effect on a population‟s ability to sustain itself in the long or even medium term. Many of the anthropogenic threats to these species are non-discriminatory as far as age is concerned (e.g. habitat destruction, disturbance and power lines) and therefore contribute to adult mortality, and it is not known what the cumulative effect of these impacts could be over the long term. Collision of certain bird species particularly in the grassland, dams, wetlands and at river crossings are anticipated to be an impact of the proposed power lines and should be prevented as far as possible. Species believed to be susceptible to this impact are shown in Table 2.

During the construction phase and maintenance of power lines, some habitat destruction and alteration inevitably takes place. This happens with the construction of access roads and the clearing of servitudes. Servitudes have to be cleared of excess vegetation at regular intervals in order to allow access to the line for maintenance, to prevent vegetation from intruding into the legally prescribed clearance gap between the ground and the conductors and to minimize the risk of fire under the line which can result in electrical flashovers. These activities have an impact on birds breeding, foraging and roosting in or in close proximity of the servitude through modification of habitat.

Habitat destruction could be an impact in the grassland, shrubland and wetland areas, where natural vegetation is still relatively intact. However, the amount of habitat destroyed for a line of this type is relatively small, and the habitat is fairly uniform.

(d) Disturbance

Similarly, the above mentioned construction and maintenance activities can impact on birds through disturbance, particularly during bird breeding activities. Species that may be particularly affected include both the large terrestrial and smaller passerine species that are dependent on the grasslands as well as those species that are dependent on the various water sources in the area (dams, wetlands and river). Two potential breeding sites of Verreaux‟s Eagle were found and if the power line is built too close to these nests in breeding season these birds could be disturbed and breeding could fail. This has been assessed in more detail below.

4.2 Identified Impacts in accordance with Project Phases

4.2.1 Construction phase

General Biodiversity Related Impacts:

 Disruption to strategic/ regional biodiversity spatial planning initiatives  Vegetation clearance and loss, loss of plant species, and habitat fragmentation  Increased Alien Plant Invasion  Disturbance to Resident Fauna  Disturbance to Aquatic Biodiversity.

Avifauna Related Impacts:

 Habitat Destruction  Disturbance.

4.2.2 Operation Phase

General Biodiversity Related Impacts:

 Increased Alien Plant Invasion  Disturbance to Resident Fauna.

Avifauna Related Impacts:

 Electrocutions  Collisions  Habitat Destruction  Disturbance.

4.2.3 Decommissioning Phase

General Biodiversity Related Impacts:

 Disturbance to Resident Fauna

Avifauna Related Impacts:

 Habitat Destruction  Disturbance.

4.3 Impact Assessment Methodology

Impacts were described and then evaluated in terms of the criteria given below. Table 3 Impact Assessment rating criteria. Criteria Rating Scales Notes Positive This is an evaluation of the type of effect the construction, operation and management of the proposed development Nature Negative would have on the affected environment. Would it be positive, Neutral negative or neutral?

Low Site-specific, affects only the development footprint Extent Local (limited to the site and its immediate surroundings, This refers to the spatial scale at which the impact Medium including the surrounding towns and settlements within a 10 will occur. km radius); High Regional (beyond a 10 km radius) to national

Low Short-term: 0-5 years, typically impacts that are quickly reversible within the construction phase of the project Duration Medium Medium-term, 6-10 years, reversible over time

High Long-term, 10-60 years, and continue for the operational life span of the development Where the impact affects the environment in such a way that Low natural, cultural and social functions and processes are Intensity minimally affected This is a relative evaluation within the context of Where the affected environment is altered but natural, all the activities and the other impacts within the cultural and social functions and processes continue albeit in framework of the project. Does the activity destroy Medium a modified way; and valued, important, sensitive or the impacted environment, alter its functioning, or vulnerable systems or communities are negatively affected render it slightly altered? The specialist studies Where natural, cultural or social functions and processes are must attempt to quantify the magnitude of the altered to the extent that the impact will temporarily or impacts and outline the rationale used. High permanently cease; and valued, important, sensitive or vulnerable systems or communities are substantially affected. Low Impacted natural, cultural or social functions and processes will return to their pre-impacted state within the short-term. Degree of Reversibility Impacted natural, cultural or social functions and processes This considers the ability of the impacted Medium will return to their pre-impacted state within the medium to environment to return to its pre-impacted state long term. once the cause of the impact has been removed. Impacted natural, cultural or social functions and processes High will never return to their pre-impacted state.

Potential for impact on irreplaceable Low No irreplaceable resources will be impacted. resources This refers to the potential for an environmental Medium Resources that will be impacted can be replaced, with effort. resource to be replaced, should it be impacted. A resource could possibly be replaced by natural processes (e.g. by natural colonisation from surrounding areas), through artificial means (e.g. by reseeding disturbed areas or replanting There is no potential for replacing a particular vulnerable rescued species) or by providing a substitute High resource that will be impacted. resource, in certain cases. In natural systems, providing substitute resources is usually not possible, but in social systems substitutes are often possible (e.g. by constructing new social

Criteria Rating Scales Notes facilities for those that are lost). Should it not be possible to replace a resource, the resource is essentially irreplaceable e.g. red data species that are restricted to a particular site or habitat of very limited extent.

A combination of any of the following  Intensity, duration, extent and impact on irreplaceable resources are all rated low  Intensity, duration and extent are rated low but impact on Low irreplaceable resources is rated medium to high  Intensity is low and up to two of the other criteria are rated medium  Intensity is medium and all three other criteria are rated low Consequence  Intensity is medium and one other criteria is rated high, The consequence of the potential impacts is a with the remainder being rated low summation of above criteria, namely the extent,  Intensity is low and at least two other criteria are rated duration, intensity and impact on irreplaceable medium or higher resources. Medium  Intensity is rated medium and at least two of the other criteria are rated medium or higher  Intensity is high and at least two other criteria are medium or higher  Intensity is rated low, but irreplaceability and duration are rated high  Intensity and impact on irreplaceable resources are rated High high, with any combination of extent and duration  Intensity is rated high, with all of the other criteria being rated medium or higher Probability The probability of the impact actually occurring, Improbable. It is highly unlikely or less than 50 % likely that Low based on professional experience of the specialist an impact will occur. with environments of a similar nature to the site and/or with similar projects. It is important to distinguish between probability of the impact occurring and probability that the activity causing a potential impact will occur. Distinct possibility. It is between 50 and 70 % certain that the Medium Probability is defined as the probability of the impact will occur. impact occurring, not as the probability of the activities that may result in the impact. The fact that an activity will occur does not necessarily imply that an impact will occur. For instance, the fact that a road will be built does not necessarily imply that it will impact on a wetland. If the road is Most likely. It is more than 75 % certain that the impact will properly routed to avoid the wetland, the impact High may not occur at all, or the probability of the occur or it is definite that the impact will occur. impact will be low, even though it is certain that the activity will occur. Significance  Low consequence and low probability Low  Low consequence and medium probability Impact significance is defined to be a combination  Low consequence and high probability of the consequence (as described below) and probability of the impact occurring. The relationship between consequence and probability Low to medium  Low consequence and high probability highlights that the risk (or impact significance)  Medium consequence and low probability must be evaluated in terms of the seriousness (consequence) of the impact, weighted by the probability of the impact actually occurring. The following analogy provides an illustration of the relationship between consequence and probability. The use of a vehicle may result in an  Medium consequence and low probability accident (an impact) with multiple fatalities, not Medium  Medium consequence and medium probability only for the driver of the vehicle, but also for  Medium consequence and high probability passengers and other road users. There are  High consequence and low probability certain mitigation measures (e.g. the use of seatbelts, adhering to speed limits, airbags, anti- lock braking, etc.) that may reduce the

Criteria Rating Scales Notes consequence or probability or both. The probability of the impact is low enough that millions of vehicle users are prepared to accept the risk of driving a vehicle on a daily basis. Similarly, the consequence of an aircraft crashing is very high, but the risk is low enough that Medium to high  High consequence and medium probability thousands of passengers happily accept this risk to travel by air on a daily basis.

In simple terms, if the consequence and probability of an impact is high, then the impact will have a high significance. The significance defines the level to which the impact will influence the proposed development and/or environment. It determines whether mitigation measures need to High  High consequence and high probability be identified and implemented and whether the impact is important for decision-making. Degree of confidence in predictions Specialists are required to provide an indication of the degree of confidence (low, medium or high) Low that there is in the predictions made for each Medium impact, based on the available information and their level of knowledge and expertise. Degree of High confidence is not taken into account in the determination of consequence or probability.

4.4 Impact Assessment – Proposed Development

Impact Route alternative 1 Route alternative 2 Route alternative 3 Route alternative 4

Significance post mitigation post Significance mitigation post Significance mitigation post Significance mitigation post Significance

Significance pre-mitigation Significance pre-mitigation Significance pre-mitigation Significance pre-mitigation Significance

Irresplaceable Irresplaceable Irresplaceable Irresplaceable Irresplaceable

Consequence Consequence Consequence Consequence

Reversibility Reversibility Reversibility Reversibility

Probability Probability Probability Probability

Duration Duration Duration Duration

Intensity Intensity Intensity Intensity

Nature Nature Nature Nature

Extent Extent Extent Extent

CONSTRUCTION PHASE

Disruption to strategic/ regional biodiversity spatial planning initiatives N H H L M L L H L L N H H L M L L H L L N H H L M L L L L L N H H L M L L H L L Vegetation clearance and loss, loss of plant species, and habitat fragmentation N L H M L L M M M L N L H M L L M M M L N L H M L L M M M L N L H M L L M L M L Increased Alien Plant Invasion N L M M M M M M M L N L M M M M M M M L N L M M M M M M M L N L M M M M M M M L Disturbance to Resident Fauna N L L L L L L H L L N L L L L L L H L L N L L L L L L H L L N L L L L L L H L L Disturbance to Aquatic Biodiversity N M L L L L L L L L N M L L L L L L L L N M L L L L L L L L N M L L L L L L L L Destruction of bird habitat N L H L M L L H M L N L H L M L L H M L N L H L M L L H M L N L H L M L M H M L Disturbance of birds N L L M L M M H H H N L L M L M M L H L N L L M L M M H H H N L L M L M M L H L

OPERATIONAL PHASE Increased Alien Plant Invasion N M M H M M H M H L N M M H M M H M H L N M M H M M H M H L N M M H M M H M H L Disturbance to Resident Fauna N L L L L L L M L L N L L L L L L M L L N L L L L L L M L L N L L L L L L M L L Collision of birds with earth wire N H H M M M H H H M N H H M M M H H H M N H H M M M H H H M N H H M M M H H H M Electrocution of birds on pylons N H H M M M H H H L N H H M M M H H H L N H H M M M H H H L N H H M M M H H H L Destruction of bird habitat N L H L M L L H M L N L H L M L L H M L N L H L M L L H M L N L H L M L M H M L Disturbance of birds N L L M L M M H H L N L L M L M M L H L N L L M L M M H H L N L L M L M M L H L

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS Destruction of habitat and habitat fragmentation N L H L M L L H M L N L H L M L L H M L N L H L M L L H M L N L H L M L M H M L Disturbance of birds and fauna N L L M L M M H H L N L L M L M M L H L N L L M L M M H H L N L L M L M M L H L Collison of birds N H H M M M H H H M N H H M M M H H H M N H H M M M H H H M N H H M M M H H H M Electrocution of birds N H H M M M H H H L N H H M M M H H H L N H H M M M H H H L N H H M M M H H H L

4.4.1 Mitigation Measures

General Biodiversity Mitigation Measures

Given the history of the project, the extent of the biodiversity impacts is largely related to the extent of the construction footprint. Given that Route 4 is already partially constructed, the extent and probability of General Biodiversity related impacts will be greatly reduced by completing the partially built route. The likelihood of impacts will increase in terms of probability and extent, if this route has to be decommissioned and then re-constructed along a new alternative route.

By applying the following mitigation measures (which must be included in the EMP), the biodiversity related impacts of the power line will be further reduced:

 Construction camps and material storage areas to be located in disturbed ground. These areas should be approved by an Environmental Control Officer (ECO) prior to any construction on site establishment taking place.  Existing access roads to be used during the construction process wherever practically possible.  The clearance of trees must occur within the servitude only and clearing to occur only where absolutely necessary.  No structures should be located within 32m of any surface water feature such as the water courses, wetlands and farm dams.  No direct vehicle crossing through any water course should occur.  Construction should occur in the dry months to avoid impact to wetland areas.  The making of fires on site or collection of firewood must be strictly forbidden  No hunting, poaching, killing or collecting of species to occur by any construction or operation staff  All areas outside the permitted access roads and the power line servitude on the farms should be regarded as no go areas  All disturbed areas should be monitored for establishment of alien vegetation. If alien vegetation gets established, it must be controlled using prescribed and accepted methods.

Avifauna Mitigation Measures

Mitigation for bird collision with earth wire and conductor

 Selection of optimal route for power line is of critical importance in reducing the risk of collision. The avifaunal specialists‟ preferred route is route 4.  This report has identified as far as possible the sections of Route 4 that pose a high collision risk (see Figure 1). It is recommended that a final avifaunal walk through still be conducted on this route to finalise these spans of line and describe them accurately in terms of tower/pylon numbers. Once the final sections of line have been identified, these should be fitted with a suitable anti bird collision line marking device on the earth wire as per Eskom standards. Note that recent research has shown that birds do still collide close to pylons, so it is not adequate to mark the middle two-thirds of the span as has sometimes been done in the past. The full spans must be marked. The best possible device available and Eskom approved at the time of installation should be used. It is important that devices are alternated with light and dark colours in order to provide contrast against dark and light backgrounds respectively. It is essential that these devices be fitted as soon as possible after the stringing of the earth wire as the collision risk is realised as soon as the cable is strung and not only once the line is energised and commissioned. It will be Eskom‟s responsibility to monitor the integrity of these devices through the lifespan of the power line and replace or maintain devices where necessary.  It will be Eskom‟s responsibility to monitor the effectiveness of these measures and apply additional mitigation if impacts still occur.

Mitigation for electrocution of birds on pylons:

 Selection of optimal route for power line is of critical importance in reducing the risk of collision. The avifaunal specialists‟ preferred route is route 4.  The pylon structure must be bird friendly, and specifically must be safe for vultures, which are prevalent in the area. This means that the monopole must have a minimum of 2 000mm of phase –phase and phase –earth clearance, must have a bird perch on top and must have a 45 degree insulator post from the insulator to the pole/pylon. These measures should reduce the likelihood of vultures or other large birds being electrocuted on the proposed line.  It will be Eskom‟s responsibility to monitor the effectiveness of these measures and apply additional mitigation if impacts still occur.

Habitat destruction and disturbance – same mitigation as for biodiversity

4.5 Comparison of Alternatives

4.5.1 No Go Option

In terms of the No-go option there will be no negative significant impacts on biodiversity or avifauna in the region. If the No-go option were to be pursued, it would likely imply that Eskom would be required to remove existing structures, hence there would be minor disturbance related impacts, albeit at a very insignificant level.

4.5.2 Alternative Power line Routing – General Biodiversity Considerations

The methodology applied in the Impact Assessment and presented in Section 4.4 did not reveal significant differences across in the alternatives in terms of potential significance of impacts due to the fact that the actual difference in significance of the impacts associated with difference in alternative routes is small. These small differences, when assessed using the broad criteria usually applied in EIA processes, mean that most of the route options end up with the same significance rating.

Further to the above a group of criteria were therefore used in order to evaluate and rank the alternative routes from a biodiversity perspective.

Criteria were as follows:

Table 4: Criteria used in GIS analysis to compare alternatives Criteria Data Source Comment Wetlands within 250 m NFEPA wetland layer The number of wetlands and their coverage was calculated within 250m of each alternative route in order to assess the potential aquatic biodiversity impacts. Preference was given to those alternatives with the least coverage. Terrestrial CBA areas within ECBCP The coverage under 250 m Terrestrial CBA 1 and 2 areas was calculated in order to assess the impact on general biodiversity impacts. Preference was given to

Criteria Data Source Comment those alternatives that had the least coverage within CBA areas. Aquatic CBA areas within ECBCP The coverage under Aquatic 250 m CBA 1 and 2 areas was calculated in order to assess the impact on aquatic biodiversity. Preference was given to those alternatives that had the least coverage within CBA areas. Degraded areas under the ECBCP The coverage of each 22m servitude alternative servitude that fell within a degraded area was calculated. Preference was given to siting the power line in degraded areas. Shrubland areas under the Mucina and Rutherford. The coverage of each 22m servitude Extent of Besemkaree alternative servitude that fell Shrubland within shrubland was calculated. This was in order to gain an assessment of the potential clearing impacts as this is where tall vegetation was present. Preference was assigned to those alternatives with the least amount of shrubland.

Table 5: Wetlands within 250 m Wetlands within Ranking 250m No Ha Route 1 17 51.5 4 Route 2 23 48.8 1 Route 3 17 49.3 2 Route 4 18 51.1 3

Table 6: Terrestrial Critical Biodiversity Areas within 250 m Terrestrial CBA within 250m CBA 1 CBA 2 Total Ranking Route 1 699 2883.5 3582.5 3 Route 2 99.8 2991.7 3091.5 2 Route 3 99.5 1886.3 1985.8 1 Route 4 520.8 3217 3737.8 4

Table 7: Aquatic Critical Biodiversity Areas

Aquatic CBA within 250m CBA 1 CBA 2 Ranking Route 1 1335.7 2312.5 3 Route 2 935.8 2193.8 2 Route 3 0 2071.7 1 Route 4 1332.9 2645.1 4

Table 8: Degraded areas within each power line route alternative. Degraded area under servitude Ha Ranking Route 1 5.1 2 Route 2 0.7 4 Route 3 3.5 3 Route 4 8.9 1

Table 9: Shrubland areas within each power line route alternative. Shrubland within servitude Ha Ranking Route 1 26.6 3 Route 2 25.9 2 Route 3 13.4 1 Route 4 46.2 4

Table 10: Overall ranking of alternative power line routes based on GIS analysis.

Overall Ranking

Route 1 3 Route 2 2 Route 3 1 Route 4 4

The above analysis has revealed that from a general biodiversity perspective, Route 3 appears to have less negative impacts in accordance with the ranking criteria and Route 4 has the most environmental impact. However given the history of the project, the extent of the biodiversity impacts are largely related to the extent of the construction footprint. Given that Route 4 is already partially constructed, the extent and probability of General Biodiversity related impacts will be greatly reduced by completing the partially built route. The likelihood of impacts will increase in terms of probability and extent, if this route has to be decommissioned and then re-constructed along a new alternative route.

4.5.3 Alternative Power line Routing – Avifaunal Considerations

Since the alternative alignments follow more or less the same route and cross much the same habitat features in many respects, a comparison based on landscape features or relevant bird species abundance was not considered to be useful in this case. Essentially the alternative routes are too close together and too similar in terms of macro level features to be compared using macro level data sources. The alignments have rather been compared on the basis of field observations of certain features, as described below:

Route alternative 1:

Relevant bird features on this alignment include:

 The general proximity of this route to the R58 is an advantage in terms of avifaunal impacts, as the tar road, and in places the existing power line represent existing linear sources of disturbance and impact. In general it is preferred that new linear infrastructure be grouped with existing, so that impacts are grouped in the landscape.  Several flocks of Blue Cranes were recorded along this route, the most notable being a flock of 65 birds on the farm “Groenefontein 87”. While this route passes through some ideal habitat for this species and this explains the presence of this large wintering flock, the same can probably be said of the other alternatives.  An active Verreaux‟s Eagle nest was found at S30 44 21.19 E25 41 04.41, approximately 100 to 150m from the alignment. If the power line were built on this alignment it would pose a significant collision risk to these birds at their breeding site, in particular the young birds of each season, learning to fly, these youngsters would probably use the power line pylons as staging roosts while learning to fly, placing them at significant risk of collision with the earth wire. Construction of the power line could also potentially disturb these birds during breeding season, resulting in a breeding failure for that season.  Just west of Ventersstad this route passes through the Gariep dam Important Bird Area for approximately 5 kilometres, which is to be avoided if possible.

On the basis of the proximity to the Verreaux‟s Eagle nest alone, the use of this alternative route is not recommended.

Route alternative 2:

Relevant bird features on this alignment include:

 This route is fairly far from the R58 and other infrastructure for parts of its route but then similar to the above alternative for the remainder. The distance from the R58 and the existing power lines is a disadvantage for avifauna, for the reasons described above.  Just south-west of Ventersstad this route passes through an area containing centre pivot irrigation crop lands, a highly attractive area for several key bird species.

Route alternative 3 (approved route):

This route runs adjacent to an existing 66kV power line for almost it‟s entire route, with minor deviations. Access to the construction site will be gained by means of existing access roads used during maintenance of the existing 66kV power line. This is the longest route measuring approximately 85 kilometres. The Basic Assessment report recommended this as the preferred route.

Relevant bird features include:

 It is normally an advantage to place new power lines adjacent to existing lines. Typically then this route would have been preferred on that basis. However in this case, it is our opinion that the existing 66kV line was built on a particularly sensitive route for avifauna, for reasons including those below. It is therefore not ideal to compound this historic error by adding a new power line to the same route.  Directly south of Venterstad, to the east and west of the 390 tar road it passes through a very large „Karoo flats‟ area, which will attract large terrestrial bird species and hence be a significant collision risk if the power line is placed here.  An eagle nest was found on Tolkop (on the farm Vlakkefountain 61), likely to be a Verreaux‟s Eagle nest, although it could not be confirmed whether it is active this season. This nest is approximately 400 metres from the proposed route. If the power line were built on this alignment it would pose a significant collision risk to these birds at their breeding site, in particular the young birds of each season, learning to fly, these youngsters would probably use the power line pylons as staging roosts while learning to fly, placing them at significant risk of collision with the earth wire. Construction of the power line could also potentially disturb these birds during breeding season, resulting in a breeding failure.  A large dam is passed on the farm “Ezelshoek 65”, which appears likely to hold water all year round, which is rare in this area and makes it attractive to various bird species. A single Black Stork was recorded here and there is potential cliff breeding habitat for this species nearby.

This route is not recommended from an avifaunal perspective.

Route alternative 4 (Eskoms preferred route):

 This route is fairly close to the R58 for most of its route, and is very similar to Route 1 above, with the exception of diverting around the Verreaux‟s Eagle nest and the Important Bird Area. These are both significant improvements to the routing.  This route avoids the identified Verreaux‟s Eagle nests and does not appear to pass any particularly suitable cliff nesting habitat (although this cannot be guaranteed due to field work access and time constraints, and Verreaux‟s Eagles‟ ability to breed on artificial habitat such as power lines or communication towers.

Overall this route is the most preferred from an avifaunal perspective.

Since the power line has already largely been built, we were asked to consider the impacts of decommissioning of the built portions if that route was not the preferred route. In the case of avifauna, the impacts are significantly greater during the operational phase than during construction, so the impacts that have already occurred on the built portion are believed to be minimal, and any impacts associated with decommissioning these built portions would likewise be insignificant. In comparing the routes, far greater emphasis is placed on the collision and electrocution risk during the lifespan of the line (assumed to be at least 40 to 60 years), than the relatively brief construction or decommissioning phases.

To summarise the comparison of alternative routes:

The order of preference for the four routes from an avifaunal perspective is: Route 4, followed by Route 1 (but only if eagle nest is avoided), then Route 2 and then Route 3. The difference

in ranking between Routes 1, 4 and 2 is relatively small, whilst the difference between these three routes and the remaining Route 3 is far greater. Construction of the power line on Route 3 is not advised.

5 MONITORING PROGRAMME

The only two aspects which would require monitoring are: the potential influx of alien vegetation which would need to be controlled throughout the operational phase; and the effectiveness of the bird flight diverters installed on the earth wire to mitigate for bird collision risk.

6 CONCLUSION

This specialist Biodiversity and Avifaunal Study identified negative impacts associated with constructing the Ruigtevallei – Dreunberg 132kV power line in all project phases.

From an avifaunal perspective, most impacts were found to occur in the operation phase. Potential collision with the earth wire was rated as Medium significance even after the application of mitigation measures.

No fatal flaws were identified with any of the proposed routes. The methodology applied in the Impact Assessment and presented in Section 4.4 did not reveal significant differences across the alternatives in terms of potential significance of impacts due to the fact that the actual difference in significance of the impacts associated with difference in alternative routes is small. These small differences, when assessed using the broad criteria usually applied in EIA processes, mean that most of the route options end up with the same significance rating. The only difference is significance was 'Disturbance of birds' which was assessed to be High for Route 1 and Route 3, and Low for Route 2 and Route 4.

The avifauna assessment revealed that the order of preference for the four routes from an avifaunal perspective is: Route 4, followed by Route 1 (but only if eagle nest is avoided), then Route 2 and then Route 3. The difference in ranking between Routes 1, 4 and 2 is relatively small, whilst the difference between these three routes and the remaining Route 3 is far greater. Construction of the power line on Route 3 is not advised.

APPENDIX 1

FULL SPECIES LIST FOR THE BROADER AREA WITHIN WHICH THE SITE FALLS.

Taylor Common name Species name SABAP1 SABAP2 IUCN TOPS 2013 2014 Avocet, Pied Recurvirostra avosetta X X Barbet, Acacia Pied Tricholaema leucomelas X X Barbet, Crested Trachyphonus vaillantii X X Batis, Pririt Batis pririt X X Bee-eater, European Merops apiaster X X Bee-eater, Swallow-tailed Merops hirundineus X X Bee-eater, White-fronted Merops bullockoides X Bishop, Southern Red Euplectes orix X X Bishop, Yellow-crowned Euplectes afer X X Bokmakierie, Bokmakierie Telophorus zeylonus X X Bulbul, African Red-eyed Pycnonotus nigricans X X Bunting, Cape Emberiza capensis X X Bunting, Cinnamon-breasted Emberiza tahapisi X X Bunting, Lark-like Emberiza impetuani X X Bustard, Kori Ardeotis kori X X NT NT VU Bustard, Ludwig's Neotis ludwigii X X EN EN VU Buzzard, Jackal Buteo rufofuscus X X Buzzard, Steppe Buteo vulpinus X X Canary, Black-headed Serinus alario X X Canary, Black-throated Crithagra atrogularis X X Canary, Cape Serinus canicollis X X Canary, White-throated Crithagra albogularis X X Canary, Yellow Crithagra flaviventris X X Chat, Anteating Myrmecocichla formicivora X X Chat, Familiar Cercomela familiaris X X Chat, Karoo Cercomela schlegelii X X Chat, Sickle-winged Cercomela sinuata X X Cisticola, Cloud Cisticola textrix X X Cisticola, Desert Cisticola aridulus X X Cisticola, Grey-backed Cisticola subruficapilla X X Cisticola, Levaillant's Cisticola tinniens X X Cisticola, Wailing Cisticola lais X Cisticola, Wing-snapping Cisticola ayresii X Cisticola, Zitting Cisticola juncidis X X Cliff-Swallow, South African Hirundo spilodera X X Coot, Red-knobbed Fulica cristata X X Cormorant, White-breasted Phalacrocorax carbo X X Courser, Burchell's Cursorius rufus X

Taylor Common name Species name SABAP1 SABAP2 IUCN TOPS 2013 2014 Courser, Double-banded Rhinoptilus africanus X X Courser, Temminck's Cursorius temminckii X Crake, Black Amaurornis flavirostris X Crane, Blue Anthropoides paradiseus X X VU NT EN Crane, Grey Crowned Balearica regulorum X EN EN EN Crombec, Long-billed Sylvietta rufescens X X Crow, Cape Corvus capensis X X Crow, Pied Corvus albus X X Cuckoo, Black Cuculus clamosus X Cuckoo, Common Cuculus canorus X Cuckoo, Diderick Chrysococcyx caprius X X Cuckoo, Great Spotted Clamator glandarius X Cuckoo, Jacobin Clamator jacobinus X Cuckoo, Klaas's Chrysococcyx klaas X Cuckoo, Red-chested Cuculus solitarius X X Darter, African Anhinga rufa X X Dove, Laughing Streptopelia senegalensis X X Dove, Namaqua Oena capensis X X Dove, Red-eyed Streptopelia semitorquata X X Dove, Rock Columba livia X X Drongo, Fork-tailed Dicrurus adsimilis X X Duck, African Black Anas sparsa X X Duck, Maccoa Oxyura maccoa X NT NT Duck, White-backed Thalassornis leuconotus X Duck, White-faced Dendrocygna viduata X X Duck, Yellow-billed Anas undulata X X Eagle, Booted Aquila pennatus X X Eagle, Martial Polemaetus bellicosus X NT EN VU Eagle, Tawny Aquila rapax X LC EN VU Eagle, Verreaux's Aquila verreauxii X X LC VU Eagle-Owl, Cape Bubo capensis X Eagle-Owl, Spotted Bubo africanus X Egret, Cattle Bubulcus ibis X X Egret, Great Egretta alba X X Egret, Little Egretta garzetta X X Egret, Yellow-billed Egretta intermedia X X Eremomela, Yellow-bellied Eremomela icteropygialis X X Falcon, Amur Falco amurensis X X Falcon, Lanner Falco biarmicus X X LC VU Falcon, Peregrine Falco peregrinus X LC VU Finch, Scaly-feathered Sporopipes squamifrons X Firefinch, Red-billed Lagonosticta senegala X Fiscal, Common Lanius collaris X X

Taylor Common name Species name SABAP1 SABAP2 IUCN TOPS 2013 2014 Fish-Eagle, African Haliaeetus vocifer X X Flamingo, Greater Phoenicopterus ruber X X LC NT Flycatcher, Chat Bradornis infuscatus X X Flycatcher, Fairy Stenostira scita X X Flycatcher, Fiscal Sigelus silens X X Flycatcher, Spotted Muscicapa striata X X Francolin, Grey-winged Scleroptila africanus X X Francolin, Orange River Scleroptila levaillantoides X X Goose, Egyptian Alopochen aegyptiacus X X Goose, Spur-winged Plectropterus gambensis X X Goshawk, Gabar Melierax gabar X X Goshawk, Southern Pale Melierax canorus X X Chanting Grassbird, Cape Sphenoeacus afer X Grebe, Black-necked Podiceps nigricollis X Grebe, Little Tachybaptus ruficollis X X Greenshank, Common Tringa nebularia X X Guineafowl, Helmeted Numida meleagris X X Gull, Grey-headed Larus cirrocephalus X X Hamerkop, Hamerkop Scopus umbretta X X Harrier, Black Circus maurus X X VU EN Harrier, Pallid Circus macrourus X Harrier-Hawk, African Polyboroides typus X X Heron, Black-headed Ardea melanocephala X X Heron, Goliath Ardea goliath X X Heron, Grey Ardea cinerea X X Heron, Purple Ardea purpurea X Honeyguide, Greater Indicator indicator X X Honeyguide, Lesser Indicator minor X X Hoopoe, African Upupa africana X X House-Martin, Common Delichon urbicum X X Ibis, African Sacred Threskiornis aethiopicus X X Ibis, Glossy Plegadis falcinellus X Ibis, Hadeda Bostrychia hagedash X X Kestrel, Greater Falco rupicoloides X X Kestrel, Lesser Falco naumanni X X Kestrel, Rock Falco rupicolus X X Kingfisher, Brown-hooded Halcyon albiventris X Kingfisher, Giant Megaceryle maximus X X Kingfisher, Malachite Alcedo cristata X X Kite, Black-shouldered Elanus caeruleus X X Kite, Yellow-billed Milvus aegyptius X Korhaan, Black Eupodotis afra X Korhaan, Blue Eupodotis caerulescens X X

Taylor Common name Species name SABAP1 SABAP2 IUCN TOPS 2013 2014 Korhaan, Karoo Eupodotis vigorsii X X LC NT Korhaan, Northern Black Afrotis afraoides X Korhaan, Southern Black Afrotis afra X - VU Lapwing, Blacksmith Vanellus armatus X X Lapwing, Crowned Vanellus coronatus X X Lark, Cape Clapper Mirafra apiata X Lark, Clapper Mirafra apiata X Lark, Eastern Clapper Mirafra fasciolata X X Lark, Fawn-coloured Calendulauda africanoides X Lark, Karoo Long-billed Certhilauda subcoronata X Lark, Large-billed Galerida magnirostris X X Lark, Longbilled Mirafra curvirostris X Lark, Melodious Mirafra cheniana X X NT NT Lark, Pink-billed Spizocorys conirostris X Lark, Red-capped Calandrella cinerea X X Lark, Rufous-naped Mirafra africana X X Lark, Sabota Calendulauda sabota X X Lark, Spike-heeled Chersomanes albofasciata X X Longclaw, Cape Macronyx capensis X X Marsh-Harrier, African Circus ranivorus X LC EN PR Martin, Banded Riparia cincta X Martin, Brown-throated Riparia paludicola X X Martin, Rock Hirundo fuligula X X Masked-Weaver, Southern Ploceus velatus X X Moorhen, Common Gallinula chloropus X X Mousebird, Red-faced Urocolius indicus X X Mousebird, Speckled Colius striatus X X Mousebird, White-backed Colius colius X X Neddicky, Neddicky Cisticola fulvicapilla X X Night-Heron, Black-crowned Nycticorax nycticorax X X Nightjar, European Caprimulgus europaeus X Nightjar, Rufous-cheeked Caprimulgus rufigena X X Oriole, Eurasian Golden Oriolus oriolus X Osprey, Osprey Pandion haliaetus X X Ostrich, Common Struthio camelus X X Owl, Barn Tyto alba X X Painted-snipe, Greater Rostratula benghalensis X LC VU Palm-Swift, African Cypsiurus parvus X Penduline-Tit, Cape Anthoscopus minutus X X Pigeon, Speckled Columba guinea X X Pipit, African Anthus cinnamomeus X X Pipit, African Rock Anthus crenatus X X LC NT Pipit, Buffy Anthus vaalensis X

Taylor Common name Species name SABAP1 SABAP2 IUCN TOPS 2013 2014 Pipit, Long-billed Anthus similis X X Pipit, Plain-backed Anthus leucophrys X X Plover, Common Ringed Charadrius hiaticula X Plover, Kittlitz's Charadrius pecuarius X X Plover, Three-banded Charadrius tricollaris X X Pochard, Southern Netta erythrophthalma X Prinia, Black-chested Prinia flavicans X X Prinia, Drakensberg Prinia hypoxantha X Prinia, Karoo Prinia maculosa X X Prinia, Spotted Prinia hypoxantha X Quail, Common Coturnix coturnix X X Quailfinch, African Ortygospiza atricollis X X Quelea, Red-billed Quelea quelea X X Raven, White-necked Corvus albicollis X X Reed-Warbler, African Acrocephalus baeticatus X X Robin-Chat, Cape Cossypha caffra X X Rock-jumper, Drakensberg Chaetops aurantius X Rock-Thrush, Cape Monticola rupestris X X Rock-Thrush, Sentinel Monticola explorator X Rock-Thrush, Short-toed Monticola brevipes X X Roller, European Coracias garrulus X Ruff, Ruff Philomachus pugnax X X Sandgrouse, Namaqua Pterocles namaqua X X Sandpiper, Common Actitis hypoleucos X X Sandpiper, Curlew Calidris ferruginea X X Sandpiper, Marsh Tringa stagnatilis X X Sandpiper, Wood Tringa glareola X X Scimitarbill, Common Rhinopomastus cyanomelas X X Scrub-Robin, Karoo Cercotrichas coryphoeus X X Secretarybird, Secretarybird Sagittarius serpentarius X X VU VU Seedeater, Streaky-headed Crithagra gularis X X Shelduck, South African Tadorna cana X X Shoveler, Cape Anas smithii X X Shrike, Lesser Grey Lanius minor X Shrike, Red-backed Lanius collurio X X Snake-Eagle, Black-chested Circaetus pectoralis X X Snipe, African Gallinago nigripennis X X Sparrow, Greyheaded Passer diffusus X Sparrow, House Passer domesticus X X Sparrow, Northern Grey- Passer griseus X headed Sparrow, Southern Grey- Passer diffusus X X headed Sparrowhawk, Rufous-chested Accipiter rufiventris X

Taylor Common name Species name SABAP1 SABAP2 IUCN TOPS 2013 2014 Sparrowlark, Chestnut-backed Eremopterix leucotis X Sparrowlark, Grey-backed Eremopterix verticalis X X Sparrow-Weaver, White- Plocepasser mahali X X browed Spoonbill, African Platalea alba X X Spurfowl, Swainson's Pternistis swainsonii X Starling, Cape Glossy Lamprotornis nitens X X Starling, Common Sturnus vulgaris X X Starling, Pale-winged Onychognathus nabouroup X X Starling, Pied Spreo bicolor X X Starling, Red-winged Onychognathus morio X X Starling, Wattled Creatophora cinerea X X Stilt, Black-winged Himantopus himantopus X X Stint, Little Calidris minuta X X Stonechat, African Saxicola torquatus X X Stork, Abdim's Ciconia abdimii X LC NT Stork, Black Ciconia nigra X LC VU V Stork, White Ciconia ciconia X X BONN CONVENTION Stork, Yellow-billed Mycteria ibis X LC EN Sunbird, Dusky Cinnyris fuscus X X Sunbird, Malachite Nectarinia famosa X X Sunbird, Southern Double- Cinnyris chalybeus X X collared Swallow, Barn Hirundo rustica X X Swallow, Greater Striped Hirundo cucullata X X Swallow, Pearl-breasted Hirundo dimidiata X X Swallow, Red-breasted Hirundo semirufa X X Swallow, White-throated Hirundo albigularis X X Swamp-Warbler, Lesser Acrocephalus gracilirostris X X Swift, African Black Apus barbatus X X Swift, Alpine Tachymarptis melba X X Swift, Common Apus apus X Swift, Horus Apus horus X X Swift, Little Apus affinis X X Swift, White-rumped Apus caffer X X Tchagra, Brown-crowned Tchagra australis X Teal, Cape Anas capensis X X Teal, Red-billed Anas erythrorhyncha X X Tern, Whiskered Chlidonias hybrida X X Tern, White-winged Chlidonias leucopterus X X Thick-knee, Spotted Burhinus capensis X X Thrush, Karoo Turdus smithi X X Thrush, Olive Turdus olivaceus X Thrush, Olive Turdus olivaceus X X

Taylor Common name Species name SABAP1 SABAP2 IUCN TOPS 2013 2014 Tit, Ashy Parus cinerascens X Tit, Grey Parus afer X X Tit-Babbler, Chestnut-vented Parisoma subcaeruleum X X Tit-Babbler, Layard's Parisoma layardi X X Turtle-Dove, Cape Streptopelia capicola X X Vulture, Cape Gyps coprotheres X VU EN EN Wagtail, African Pied Motacilla aguimp X X Wagtail, Cape Motacilla capensis X X Warbler, Garden Sylvia borin X Warbler, Namaqua Phragmacia substriata X X Warbler, Rufous-eared Malcorus pectoralis X X Warbler, Willow Phylloscopus trochilus X X Waxbill, Black-faced Estrilda erythronotos X Waxbill, Common Estrilda astrild X X Weaver, Cape Ploceus capensis X X Wheatear, Capped Oenanthe pileata X X Wheatear, Mountain Oenanthe monticola X X White-eye, Cape Zosterops pallidus X White-eye, Cape Zosterops virens X X White-eye, Orange River Zosterops pallidus X X Whydah, Pin-tailed Vidua macroura X X Widowbird, Long-tailed Euplectes progne X X Woodpecker, Cardinal Dendropicos fuscescens X X Woodpecker, Ground Geocolaptes olivaceus X X

APPENDIX 2 SECTIONS OF THE POWER LINE WHICH REQUIRE MARKING

REFERENCES i Berliner,D. and Desmet, P. 2007. Eastern Cape Biodiversity Conservation Plan: Technical Report. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry Project No 2005-012, Pretoria. Gibb (Pty) Ltd. 2012. Biodiversity and Avifauna study for the Ruigtevallei –Dreunberg 132kV Power line. ii 2009. National Protected Area Expansion Strategy Resource Document. South African Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria iii Harrison, J.A., Allan, D.G., Underhill, L.G., Herremans, M., Tree, A.J., Parker, V & Brown, C.J. (eds). 1997. The atlas of southern African birds. Vol. 1&2. BirdLife South Africa: Johannesburg. iv http://sabap2.adu.org.za/v1/gap_analysis.php v Taylor, M.R. (ed.) 2014. The Eskom Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg. In press. vi Mucina & Rutherford. 2006. The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Strelitzia 19. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. vii Barnes, K.N. (ed.) 1998. The Important Bird Areas of Southern Africa. BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg. viii Young, D.J., Harrison, J.A., Navarro, R.A., Anderson, M.D. and Colahan, B.D. (eds). 2003. Big Birds on Farms: Mazda CAR Report 1993-2001. Avian Demographic Unit. University of Cape Town, South Africa ix Taylor, P.B., Navarro, R.A., Wren-Sargent, M., Harrison, J.A., and Kiesetter, S.L. (eds). 1999. TOTAL CWAC Report: Coordinated Waterbird Counts in South Africa 1992-1997. Avian Demographic Unit. University of Cape Town, South Africa x Duprees and Carruthers Van Rooyen, C.S. & Smallie, J. 2006. The Eskom-Endangered Willdife Trust Strategic Partnership: a brief summary. Nature & Faune, Volume 21, p25 xi Ledger, J.A. & Annegarn H.J. 1981. “Electrocution Hazards to the Cape Vulture (Gyps coprotheres) in South Africa”. Biological Conservation, 20, pp15-24. xi Ledger, J. 1983. Guidelines for Dealing with Bird Problems of Transmission Lines and Towers. Escom Test and Research Division Technical Note TRR/N83/005. xi Ledger, J.A. 1984. “Engineering Solutions to the problem of Vulture Electrocutions on Electricity Towers.” The Certificated Engineer, 57, pp 92-95. xi Hobbs, J.C.A. & Ledger J.A. 1986a. The Environmental Impact of Linear Developments; Power lines and Avifauna. (Third International Conference on Environmental Quality and Ecosystem Stability. Israel, June 1986). xi Hobbs, J.C.A. & Ledger J.A. 1986b. “Power lines, Birdlife and the Golden Mean.” Fauna and Flora, 44, pp 23- 27. xi Ledger, J.A., J.C.A. Hobbs & Smith T.V. 1992. Avian Interactions with Utility Structures: Southern African Experiences. (Proceedings of the International Workshop on Avian Interactions with Utility Structures, Miami, Florida, 13-15 September 1992. Electric Power Research Institute.) xi Verdoorn, G.H. 1996. Mortality of Cape Griffons Gyps coprotheres and African Whitebacked Vultures Pseudogyps africanus on 88kV and 132kV power lines in Western Transvaal, South Africa, and mitigation measures to prevent future problems. (2nd International Conference on Raptors: 2-5 October 1996. Urbino, Italy.)

xi Kruger, R. & Van Rooyen, C.S. 1998. Evaluating the risk that existing power lines pose to large raptors by using risk assessment methodology: the Molopo Case Study. (5th World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls: 4 - 8 August 1998. Midrand, South Africa.) xi Van Rooyen, C.S. 1998. Raptor mortality on power lines in South Africa. (5th World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls: 4 - 8 August 1998. Midrand, South Africa.) xi Kruger, R. 1999. Towards solving raptor electrocutions on Eskom Distribution Structures in South Africa. M. Phil. Mini-thesis. University of the Orange Free State. Bloemfontein. South Africa. xi Van Rooyen, C.S. 1999. An overview of the Eskom - EWT Strategic Partnership in South Africa. (EPRI Workshop on Avian Interactions with Utility Structures 2-3 December 1999, Charleston, South Carolina.) xi Van Rooyen, C.S. 2000. “An overview of Vulture Electrocutions in South Africa.” Vulture News, 43, pp 5-22. Vulture Study Group: Johannesburg, South Africa. xi Van Rooyen, C.S. & Taylor, P.V. 1999. Bird Streamers as probable cause of electrocutions in South Africa. (EPRI Workshop on Avian Interactions with Utility Structures 2-3 December 1999. Charleston, South Carolina) xi Avian Power Line Interaction Committee (APLIC). 1994. Mitigating Bird Collisions with Power Lines: The State of the Art in 1994. Edison Electric Institute. Washington D.C. xi Van Rooyen, C.S. & Ledger, J.A. 1999. “Birds and utility structures: Developments in southern Africa” in Ferrer, M. & G..F.M. Janns. (eds.) Birds and Power lines. Quercus: Madrid, Spain, pp 205-230 xi Van Rooyen, C.S. 2004a. The Management of Wildlife Interactions with overhead lines. In The fundamentals and practice of Overhead Line Maintenance (132kV and above), pp217-245. Eskom Technology, Services International, Johannesburg xi Van Rooyen, C.S. 2004b. Investigations into vulture electrocutions on the Edwardsdam-Mareetsane 88kV feeder, Unpublished report, Endangered Wildlife Trust, Johannesburg. xi Anderson, M.D. 2001. The effectiveness of two different marking devices to reduce large terrestrial bird collisions with overhead electricity cables in the eastern Karoo, South Africa. Draft report to Eskom Resources and Strategy Division. Johannesburg. South Africa.

2009. National Protected Area Expansion Strategy Resource Document. South African Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria

Almond, J.E. 2011 Palaeontological Specialist Study: Desktop assessment. Proposed Ruigtevallei – Dreunberg 132 kV transmission line, Gariep Local Municipality, Eastern Cape

Berliner,D. and Desmet, P. 2007. Eastern Cape Biodiversity Conservation Plan: Technical Report. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry Project No 2005-012, Pretoria.

Department of Environmental Affairs and South African National Biodiversity Institute,

Department of Environmental Affairs, 2011. National List of Threatened Terrestrial Ecosystems. Government Gazette 34809, Notice 1002. Government Printers, Pretoria

Driver, A., Maze, K., Rouget, M., Lombard, A.T., Nel, J., Turpie, J.K., Cowling, R.M., Desmet, P., Goodman, P., Harris, J., Jonas, Z., Reyers, B., Sink, K., and Strauss, T. 2005. National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment 2004: Priorities for Biodiversity Conservation in South Africa. Strelitzia 17. South African Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.

Gibb (Pty) Ltd. 2012. Biodiversity and Avifauna study for the Ruigtevallei –Dreunberg 132kV Power line.

Government of South Africa, 2010. National Protected Areas Expansion Strategy for South Africa 2008: Priorities for expanding the protected area network for ecological sustainability and climate change adaptation. Government of South Africa, Pretoria.