Turkish Cultural Heritage: a Cup of Coffee
Total Page：16
File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb
Accepted Manuscript Turkish cultural heritage: A cup of coffee Birsen Yılmaz, Nilüfer Acar-Tek, Saniye Sözlü PII: S2352-6181(17)30184-1 DOI: 10.1016/j.jef.2017.11.003 Reference: JEF 136 To appear in: Journal of Ethnic Foods Received Date: 13 October 2017 Revised Date: 7 November 2017 Accepted Date: 8 November 2017 Please cite this article as: Yılmaz B, Acar-Tek N, Sözlü S, Turkish cultural heritage: A cup of coffee, Journal of Ethnic Foods (2017), doi: 10.1016/j.jef.2017.11.003. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Turkish cultural heritage: A cup of coffee Running Title: Turkish coffee and its culture Birsen Yılmaz 1*, Nilüfer Acar-Tek 2, Saniye Sözlü 3 1Gazi University Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Ankara/Turkey, Tel: +90 312 2162968, Fax: +90 312 2162636, E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: 0000-0002-4866-2818 Link: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4866-2818 2Gazi University Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Ankara/Turkey, Tel: +90 312 2162603, Fax: +90 312 2162636, E-mail: [email protected] 3Gazi University Faculty of Health Sciences,MANUSCRIPT Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Ankara/Turkey, Tel: +90 312 2162968, Fax: +90 312 2162636, E-mail: [email protected] Word count: 4481 ACCEPTED ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Turkish cultural heritage: A cup of coffee Abstract Setting out a fabulous journey from a tiny bean, coffee is the stimulant of heart and mind and a mysterious plant which stiffens friendship and takes your tiredness away during the day. Although information on how and where to get the coffee is not clear, Sheikh Şazeli is regarded as “father” by coffee makers. Coffee word originates from “Kaffa” a primary coffee production center Abyssinia in Africa can be the homeland of coffee. According to this consideration, in Abyssinia coffee was consumed with bread after it was pulped then it was brought to Yemen and Yemeni people started to cultivate coffee. The word “kahve” in Turkish does not mean the coffee plant like its synonym in Arabic but means the beverage made by boiling. Originating from Brazil and Central America, moderate-roasted Turkish coffee is harmonized from Arabic type high quality coffee beans and grinded finely. The way of its preparation differentiates Turkish coffee fromMANUSCRIPT others. With a new way of preparation invented by Turkish people, this coffee was called Turkish coffee as it is boiled in copper coffee pots. Turkish coffee spread around the world with this name has been and indispensable part of cultural and social history for Turks. Key words Coffee, Turkish coffee , Turkish culture, nutrition, traditional food ACCEPTED 1 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Introduction From past to today coffee has been a part of our daily life and a socialization means, which keeps social life vivid and alive. Coffee plant has been represented as an essential part of special moments thanks to its idiosyncratic smell and taste [1]. Despite various prohibitions and beliefs against coffee throughout its history, coffee rituals are still common around the world as “coffee culture” or “coffee drinking habits.” Whereas coffee is prepared and served differently in different cultures, it still represents a cultural symbol which strengthens the ties and friendships between people [2]. Apart from these, coffee consumption has been the subject of health related researches. Type, processing, cooking and consumption frequency of coffee have an impact on health outputs [3]. Components (>1000) of the coffee, especially caffeine, have been related to various diseases. It has been recently shown that medium amount of coffee/caffeine intake (200 mg caffeine once / daily 400 mg) has no harmful effect on human health. Coffee, which includes yet undiscoMANUSCRIPTvered components, is the second most consumed drink after water [4]. Coffee consumption has been associated generally with type 2 diabetes, Parkinson, Alzheimer, anxiety and depression, cognitive functions, sleep duration and quality [5]. Many various types of coffee and the different procedures of roasting and extraction of coffee bring along noteworthy biological differences in its structure [6]. Turkish coffee, which is extremely-fine grinded unlike the filter coffees traditionally consumed in the West, is prepared by boiling slowly in the water [7]. Turkish coffee has been found to include biological active components and caffeine in higher amounts when compared to other coffee types and preparationACCEPTED styles [8]. Studies which were made on Turkish coffee in 1990-2017 and which could establish a basis for this compilation were scanned. With this aim, “Google Academic”, “Pubmed”, “Scopus”, “Web of Science”, “American Journal of Clinical Nutrition”, “Elsevier”, “Turkey Citation Index (Türkiye Atıf Dizini)” and “Ulakbim” data bases were used to scan scientific articles. 2 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Besides, resources in the Gazi University Central Library were also scanned and theses on coffee were examined. The terms such as “Turkish coffee”, “Turkish tradition”, “Turkish culture”, “coffee”, “boiled coffee”, “Turkish press coffee” were used as keywords. At the end of this scanning, it was found out that the number of articles and studies about Turkish coffee is very low. Besides, the studies about this issue focus only on the components of coffee without regarding the preparation and cooking techniques. Only one compiled article was detected about coffee and Turkish coffee culture [9]. Apart from that, there is a study which analyses the effect of Turkish coffee on sportspeople’s performance in 2015. This research is the first study to discuss the metabolic reactions and ergogenic effects of Turkish coffee on sports people [6]. Other studies generally focus on such issues as caffeine ingredient of Turkish coffee , its relation with diseases and its metabolic effects [4, 5, 8]. This compilation has been done by analyzing studies on Turkish coffee and its historical process in order to make an extensive research on Turkish coffee , an invaluable cultural heredity. MANUSCRIPT Etymology of the word “Coffee” Etymology of coffee is not certainly known; however, there are various arguments on it. According to one view, it is an African word [10]. Sir James Murray argues that the word “coffee” is originally from African language in his New English Dictionary [11]. Coffee is named after “Kaffa”, a city in the Soha region of Ethiopia and the motherland of the coffee plant and the primary production center of coffee. Thus, this high upland region in Africa is thought to be theACCEPTED motherland of coffee [12]. Another argument is that the word coffee originally comes from Arabic. In the 15 th century Arabic, the word “bunn” (bun) was used for both coffee tree and its fruit. Coffee fruit is called “kahva” in Arabic [2, 13]. It has been claimed that the word “kahva” in Arabic is an altered version of “Kaffa”. The word coffee (kahve) in Turkish is used for the drink which is obtained by boiling and brewing of this plant 3 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT [12, 14]. Turkish coffee can be expressed in different forms in different countries. In a research conducted in 2013, the word “Turkish coffee” was scanned on the web via the Google search engine. The results obtained are shown in Table 1 [15]. Table 1. Turkish coffee in different countries* Countries Local terms English equivalent Albania afe turke Turkish coffee Arab world qahoua `arabiyah - Arabic coffee Armenia sur č ̣ Coffee Bosnia and Herzegovina bosanska kahva Bosnian coffee Bulgaria Турско Кафе Turkish coffee Croatia turska kava Turkish coffee Cyprus kypriakós kafés Cypriot coffee κυπριακός καφές Greece ελληνικός καφέςMANUSCRIPT Greek coffee Hungary török kávé Turkish coffee *The data in this table was taken from the mentioned reference. Emergence and spread of coffee and Turks’ first meeting with coffee Old resources’ arguments on coffee’s origin are close to each other [2]. There is no written proof about who was the first to drink coffee; however, the most common argument is about a shepherd called Khaldi and living in Yemen. Rumor has it that while herding the goats, shepherd Khaldi realized a difference in his goats and found out that this difference emerged after the goats hadACCEPTED eaten a yellow-green fruit. Afterwards, Khaldi made a drink by plucking out some leaves from this plant. This drink drew attention of the merchants in the region and thus started spreading [16]. According to Kâtip Çelebi’s story, Sheikh Şazeli boiled the coffee seeds which had been given to him during a long conversation with his disciple Sheikh Ahmet while he was going 4 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT for pilgrimage in 1258, and then drank it. Thus, Sheikh Şazeli is called “pir” (father, master) by coffee sellers [17]. We also have information regarding that coffee was used for bread-making by mixing in the dough in Abyssinia and it was first used as drink in 1500s. Accounts we have indicate that coffee originally came from Africa and seeds coming from Ethiopia spread to Yemen from Southern Ethiopia and then to Mecca and Medina towards the end of the Middle Ages. Coffee spread with the Muslims who visited these cities during Hajj and took coffee to their homelands on their way back. Under the light of these data the story of coffee, which began in Yemen in the 14 th century, reached to Mecca and Medina in the 15 th century and then to Cairo, Damascus, Halep and Istanbul [18].