<<

9:

VOLUME 9, ISSUE 9, SEPTEMBER 2020

AGE OF

THIS MONTH This issue on the Cenozoic • Cenozoic Dioramas page 2 is the last in the Paleontology series. The Cenozoic Era • Complete Your Timeline! page 9 covers the time from the end of to present day. • DNA Mutations

• Build Models page 19 Over the course of this series, • Bit of Wobble page 26 we have included information • Meiosis page 33 and activities on DNA. DNA, the • Lethal Gene page 35 blueprint for all life, is the • Mutations page 43 foundation of biology. A fundamental understanding of americanum is the POWER WORDS DNA helps us to understand largest . It was 30 feet, • Cenozoic Era: current how species originate, have a and lived from 400,000 to 8,000 and most recent of the 3 range of existence, and go ago in Argentina, Bolivia, and Uruguay. geological of the extinct. This issue will complete Eon; it the DNA activities with are still here and doing well in follows the explorations of how DNA the tropics of South and Central Era 66 MYA to present mutates, and the consequences America! • : an in of mutations. the Cenozoic Era from The Cenozoic Era is the Age of 56 to 34 MYA My scientific research is on the Mammals. was • Epoch: geologic time group xenarthrans home to many species of saber- within a Period (ground and tree sloths, toothed cats, dire , short- , , faced bears, terror , CAREER CONNECTION glyptodonts, and pampatheres). , American cheetahs • See separate issue Ground sloths appear in the (not true cheetahs), and other 62.Careers Special record during the Eocene wonderful . Issue: https:// Epoch (35 million years ago) in tra.extension.colostate.edu/ (Argentina and Chili). PBS Digital’s Eon Series is stem-k12/stem-resources/ All ground sloths are extinct, but phenomenal. Check it out! the tree sloths (no fossil record) https://www.youtube.com/channel/

COLORADO STATE UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 4-H PROGRAMS ARE AVAILABLE TO ALL WITHOUT DISCRIMINATION

CENOZOIC LIFE — Dioramas 2

The Cenozoic started at ~66 Period POWER WORDS MYA, when the fossil record has This Period demarks the • ~: stands for an abrupt loss of extinction of non-avian approximately , and the slow rise of dinosaurs at 65.8 MYA. It ends • browse: feed on mammal fossils. It is called the the transition from warm, tropical leaves, twigs, or other K-Pg boundary, the transition Eocene to the cooler . high-growing vegetation between the Mesozoic and the The tropical forests retreated to • delineation: the action Cenozoic. K-Pg stands for K = the equator, and grasslands of indicating the exact Kreide, a German word for chalk expanded in the mid-latitudes as position of a border or and Pg = Paleogene. It may the cooled around 50 boundary also be called K-T. The T MYA. • demark: set the limits stands for , an obsolete of something or to term for the Paleogene and The Cenozoic is called the Age distinguish among . of Mammals. Once dinosaurs things, to divide them went extinct, mammals began to up speciate, increased in body size • KYA: thousand years starting around 40 MYA, and ago dominated the landscape. They • MYA: million years ago thrived until the and • obsolete: no longer began disappearing from the used Australian ~50 KYA (K = 1,000), North America Continent ~10 KYA, and The finger is pointing to the white chalky layer Madagascar ~2 KYA. All these that divides the Mesozoic from the Cenozoic times were shortly after the

The Cenozoic contains three Periods: extinct cousins, ground • Paleogene from ~66 MYA to sloths, glyptodonts, and ~23 MYA pampatheres). It is now • Neogene from ~23 MYA to thought to be in an extinct ~2.6 MYA Order Palaeanodonta. • from ~2.6 MYA to today The “dawn horse” fossil, appearance of . Hyracotherium angustidens, Epochs are divisions within a Ernanodon antelios (image originated in the early Period. Epochs are very useful above) is a fossil found in China. Eocene. This early horse for scientists studying It lived during the . It stood 12” at the shoulders, organisms. You will see the was originally placed with the had three toes, and rooted Cenozoic commonly divided by Superorder (sloths, teeth. This small, forest- Epochs, for example, the anteaters, armadillos, and their Pleistocene Ice Ages. The seven Cenozoic Epochs are: MATERIALS • computer with internet • Paleocene • sturdy shoebox with separate lid • Eocene Paleogene • playdough, plaster of Paris, or papier mâché • • art supplies (e.g. tape, scissors, markers, glue, • Miocene poster paint, tissue paper, etc.) • Neogene • craft knife or box cutter (& parent supervision) • Pleistocene Quaternary • cellophane wrap (party section of store) • • lots of creativity and imagination

CENOZOIC LIFE — Dioramas 3 dwelling horse browsed on Hyracotherium (up to 18 inches POWER WORDS leaves and twigs. Horse at the shoulder). They had three • abrasive: causing speciation is a truly wonderful toes, but the ankle and wrist damage, wear, or story. You will later explore how bones were beginning to removal of surface horses changed through time change. The muzzle elongated. material by grinding or when you complete your The teeth were better for rubbing timeline in the next activity. chewing tough vegetation (tooth • graze: eat grass in a image shown below). field Neogene Period The Neogene Period ends with This Period starts with the the onset of the first of the continued cooling of the climate. The result of this climate change is our modern ecosystems: • tropics retreat to the equator • most are formed around the 30° latitude • higher latitudes are home to hardwood trees and grasslands between 30° to 50° latitude • In latitudes 50°—70° Cenozoic . ecosystems are dominated Many of the species we see by forests today originated in the Neogene. • above the 70° latitude is the We find fossil dogs, pigs and tundra as well as many other • both the north and south familiar from this time. poles of our planet are ice covered Some, however, are preserved only in their fossils. The rise of grasslands are a The terror birds lived through major cause of horse speciation. most of the Cenozoic. They Grasses contain a mineral called originated in . silica. We make glass from With the onset of the first Ice silica. That means, eating grass Age, the around the is like chewing bits of glass. It wears down teeth.

Horses are grazing herbivores. Deer and elk are browsing herbivores. With the increase in grasslands, horses that inherited teeth better adapted to eating more abrasive vegetation thrived. Through time, inheriting beneficial genes, horses Top image is a North American Terror speciated into new kinds of from the American Museum of horses that were better able to Natural History in New York City. Image eat grasses. below includes my son standing next to a South American terror bird on display in sp. were a of Museo de La Plata, Argentina. 13 species of horses larger than

CENOZOIC LIFE — Dioramas 4 world lowered as water was American species to South POWER WORDS stored in the growing ice sheets. America vastly changed the • †: called dagger and it fauna. It is still home to felids means extinct There was volcanic activity that (e.g. jaguars and pumas), • cause and effect: began forming the Isthmus of canids (amazingly diverse dogs cause is the why Panama. The lowering oceans like wolves, foxes, and bush something happened exposed the Isthmus. South dogs), raccoons, deer, bear, and effect is the what America was isolated from all , horses, camels ( happened the other land masses for about and alpaca are both in the camel • Great American Biotic 95 million years. Wonderful family), and so many more Interchange: animals speciated in “Splendid species. (abbreviated Isolation” (the title of a book by GABI) land and paleontologist George Gaylord Quaternary Period freshwater fauna Simpson about this fascinating The Quaternary Period starts migrated from story). 2.6 MYA with the first of the 5 North America via Ice Sheets expanding then Central America to Panama slowly emerged from retreating from the Arctic to the South America and the and became a land USA. If you are interested in vice versa bridge between North and South learning more about climate America starting about 9 MYA. change, see the ST[EMpower] The Great American Biotic issues found here: https:// Interchange (GABI) refers to tra.extension.colostate.edu/stem South American animals -k12/stem-resources/ disbursing north, and North • 46. Weather Forecasting American mammals disbursing • 47. Here Comes the to South America. The symbol Sun “†” (called dagger) means • 48. Climate extinct. †Ground sloths, • 49. Earth in Space †glyptodonts, armadillos, †terror • 50. Oceans Climate birds, opossums, and • 51. Greenhouse porcupines made their way Gases north. The maximum ice The North American species sheet reach 37° N. were much more successful. Only 5 groups of mammals thrived in South America during its 95 million isolation: • xenarthrans (sloths, anteaters, and armadillos) • (like deer and cows), but wonderful different species, now all extinct • (different than ’s) • New World monkeys • Rodents, like the largest , the capybaras

The massive migration of North

CENOZOIC LIFE — Dioramas 5

The southern border of Colorado jumping from a species to POWER WORDS is 37° N (orange line on map). humans. This is such a • Holarctic: There were areas not covered fascinating line of research! The Holarctic is the by ice called refugia. As the North America had wonderful name for the name implies, it was a refuge mammals during the biogeographic realm for some species to survive Pleistocene. Elephants were that encompasses the during these times of massive very diverse (over 30 known majority of habitats climate change. species). and found throughout the northern of Cenozoic megafauna (mega the world means big and fauna means • refuge: something life) thrived on all providing shelter continents. The graph below • refugium (plural show the total percentage of refugia): an area in megafauna before the arrival of which a population of humans (Homo sapiens). organisms can survive Notice that there is very little through a period of loss of megafauna on the unfavorable conditions, African Continent, however in especially glaciation Australia, North America, and

(pictured above) were widely distributed

throughout the Holarctic. Ground sloths roamed from Saber-toothed cats and dire as far south as to wolves were two of the top as far north as Alaska and predators during this time, and Yukon. Glyptodonts, thousands of their fossils, as completely encased in a well as other species, have been bony skeleton were common. found in La Brea Tar Pits in Los

Angeles. American cheetahs were as Madagascar, there is fast as modern tremendous loss of these cheetahs, and looked animals. similar to them. They There is a clear cause and were, however, effect relationship. The cause cousins of today’s is the arrival of humans, and the puma. effect is the loss of large species. The other factors in the loss of megafauna in North America are climate change (the 5 different ice sheets during the Ice Age), and the potential of humans bringing novel diseases that passed to endemic species. Similar to the novel Coronavirus

CENOZOIC LIFE — Dioramas 6

Building dioramas are the next • Research information about POWER WORDS best thing to building a time your Period and the Epochs • contrast: strikingly machine! See for yourself what within it online. The prior different from the Paleogene, Neogene, and pages are very brief something else early Quaternary Epochs looked summaries of the major • diorama: a model like. Here’s how! features of climate and representing a scene succession of faunal species with three-dimensional There are two types of during the Cenozoic. Fill in figures, either in dioramas, each using a with more specific miniature or as a large- different orientation of the box. information. For example, scale museum exhibit; One is the peephole diorama. what was happening to a scenic painting, The advantage is a truly 3D Colorado? When did the viewed through a world. form? peephole, in which • Verify that your website is changes in color and from either a university or direction of illumination natural history museum to simulate changes in the ensure that your information weather, time of day, is authentic. For example, etc. the University of Michigan, • orientation: relative the Smithsonian and the position of something American Museum of Natural History have great information. The other type of diorama is the • The websites in the green open box scene. It provides boxes below were selected interest in the full scape. to give you ideas for building Using everyday materials, like each diorama’s landscape, for example, trees (website paper, paint, and pebbles, you you. can create wonderful dioramas! 8), horsetails (very similar to • The basic steps to bamboo, website 9), building a diorama: mountains (website 3, 4, and 1. select a simple sturdy 5), or water (website 6 and shoe box with a lid 7). The first website has 2. paint the outside and complete directions for how label what will be to build a diorama, including inside selecting good boxes, and 3. Paint the interior of the second website takes the shoe box with the you from beginning to end on background a Sierra Mountain diorama. Directions: 4. build the topography, • It has lots of great tips for Pick one of the three Periods the hills, mountains, for your diorama: ○ Paleogene WEBSITES  Paleocene Epoch How to:  Eocene Epoch  Oligocene Epoch 1. https://www.youtube.com/results? ○ Neogene search_query=Stephanie+Barnett+diorama  Miocene Epoch 2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ganUXUa0sw  Pliocene Epoch Topography: ○ Quaternary 3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=os1SA2ZpVdE  Pleistocene Epoch 4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uK0XcoUX9u0  Holocene Epoch 5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pm-wEpu1yBo

CENOZOIC LIFE — Dioramas 7

streams, etc. background would be the POWER WORDS 5. add water to streams, grasses, horizon, and sky. If • corrugated : material, lakes, or oceans you are looking inland, it surface, or structure 6. add vegetation could be a distant mountain shaped into alternate 7. add animals range. ridges and grooves • When you have gathered • Create your topography for • terrain: a stretch of enough information about the your scene. For example, land, especially with climate, landscape, website 2 uses plastic cups regard to its physical and animals of the Period that are then covered with features you selected, sketch your paper mâché. You can use • topography: the ideas for your diorama. recycled corrugated arrangement of the • Paint the outside of the cardboard boxes cut to give natural and artificial shoebox with spray paint, the overall shape (image on physical features of an poster (tempera) paint, or left; see https:// area wrap with paper, like a tra.extension.colostate.edu/ present. Allow the paint to stem-k12/stem-resources/ dry completely. Using a 47.Here Comes the Sun, contrasting color marker or pages 19-22 for directions), poster paint, write the name which can then be covered of the Period (e.g. with paper mâché, aluminum “Neogene”). foil, or homemade playdough • The directions are for the (see https://tra.extension. open box diorama. If you colostate.edu/stem-k12/stem want to make a peephole -resources/ 57.Paleontology

5, page 6 for directions to make playdough). You can carve your terrain from recycled foam (website 11). • Allow the paper mâché or playdough to dry. • Paint your terrain. Websites 3, 6, and 10 have ideas. If you would like to use rock pigments for a natural look, see the

Water: diorama, you need to constantly refer to close and 6. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NwXBvc-FmhU far from the peephole. You 7. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MbjF4oaZ6hQ don’t want something large in Vegetation: front blocking the view. 8. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UdvwhJoYqAM • Paint the inside of the box 9. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jw-CaMe6ltE with the distant scene. Paper Mâché Clay Perhaps you are overlooking 10. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1YQ6eUqcEh8 a grassland plain. The

CENOZOIC LIFE — Dioramas 8

ST[EMpower] issue https:// South America, collecting fauna POWER WORDS tra.extension. and fossils for the American • binomial name: two colostate.edu/stem-k12/stem Museum of Natural History part naming to -resources/ 42.Pigments. It (AMNH). He found the remains identify species; the contains ideas for making of a ground sloth, including rusty first part is the genus your own paint pigments red fur and feces (poop). That is and the second part is from natural sources, like our so absolutely cool! the species. red rock mountains. There is • foreground: the part of also a Munsell color chart Have fun! Learn lots! a view that is nearest to that you can use to get more Science is awesome! the observer realistic colors. • specific: refers to • Add vegetation to your “species” part of a diorama. The plants of the binominal name Cenozoic are more and more (genus species) like the plants of today. • teem: be full of or • Add animals that were found swarming with during that time, sculped from homemade playdough or paper mâché covered aluminum foil shaped like these organisms. The websites below will get you started with fauna and flora.

The diorama to the right is the ground sloth “Rusty” from Macbride Hall University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA . It depicts Rusty in the foreground. Rusty is a Megalonyx jeffersonii ground sloth from 12,000 years ago that lived during the Wisconsin Glacial Episode (one of the 5 major ice sheets grinding to the USA). The specific name, jeffersonii, is named after Thomas Jefferson. He found one of the WEBSITES OF CENOZOIC FAUNA enormous claws from this extinct Paleogene species. • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Paleogene_animals Neogene Teddy Roosevelt, our 26th • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Neogene_animals president of the United States, Quaternary loved nature. He traveled to • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Quaternary_animals

CENOZOIC LIFE — Complete Your Timeline 9

This is our final issue in the The diversity of life is truly POWER WORDS series Paleontology. In this wondrous. Every Era has Review Geologic Time: activity, you will complete the amazing, weird and wonderful time is divided according to Cenozoic section, and with that, (even terrifying) animals. The the fossil record finish the entire Phanerozoic Cenozoic Era has fauna that is • Eon: The Earth’s history timeline. It is chockful of much more familiar to us that is divided in four Eons information about the history of the preceding eras of the from formation to today. Earth, including continent and Mesozoic. They The current Eon is locations moved by plate are ancestors of our modern Phanerozoic tectonics, climate, and the species. • Era: the Phanerozoic is origin, speciation, and extinction divided into three of some major groups of The largest known terrestrial Eras—Paleozoic, organisms. animal were sauropod Mesozoic, and dinosaurs. Argentinosaurus, the Cenozoic 130 feet sauropod dinosaur • Period: Each Era is currently is the longest known subdivided into a animal. Another dinosaur, also different number of found in Argentina, may be even periods. For example, bigger, but only a few bones the Cenozoic has three have been found. Periods: Paleogene, Neogene, and The largest terrestrial mammal, Quaternary although much smaller, was • Epoch: Each Period is really big. It was 17 feet tall, 30 subdivided into Epochs, Saber tooth cat Smilodon fatalis was found feet long, and weighed 44,000 for example, the throughout the United States, and moved pounds. Neogene is divided into into South America after the Isthmus of transouralicum in the image Miocene and Pliocene Panama land bridge formed. This fossil is below shows the skull and the See geologic timeline on page 11 in Museo de La Plata, Argentina.

In this activity, you will explore the internet to locate the oldest record known of various organisms from this time era. You will find basic information about each Period’s climate and organisms on pages 12-13 to get you started. You also have the climate and continents’ location on your timeline.

Paraceratherium transouralicum was as tall as a three story Irish elk Megaloceros giganteus from building! was the largest deer known

CENOZOIC LIFE — Complete Your Timeline 10 body outlined with a metal The list does not include POWER WORDS sculpture. The fossils in front bacteria, archaea, protists • Eurasia: Europe and and below are bear-sized (organisms with eukaryote cells, considered animals. It is a member of the but they are mostly single celled together as one Family (in the same organisms), or fungi. These continent Order as horses and ) that organisms were certainly • geologic timeline (also lived in Eurasia. We find the present in abundance. There known as geologic time fossils in Oligocene strata (35- are some plants in the table, but scale): 20 MYA). most of the organisms are • stratum (plural strata): animals. a layer or a series of The most massive animal known layers of rock in the to ever live is the blue , Get ready for wonder! ground Balaenoptera musculus. The record blue whale was a bit over Directions: 108 feet and weighed 440,000 • The list of organisms is not pounds! It was a female caught comprehensive by any by whalers in the 1800s. The means, but it includes a image below is a full size model variety of animals and plants. of a blue whale in the Hall of • The table on pages 13-14

MATERIALS Mammals, American Museum of • your Phanerozoic Eon timeline Natural History in New York. • sharpies or markers in a variety of colors

• pencil You do not need to find every • yardstick or meterstick organism on this list, but you • computer with internet may...just may...get pulled into • printer (color optional) this incredible time! It is, after • glue stick or tape all, the closest thing we do have • print pages 13—18 double-sided to a time machine. • art supplies (optional)

CENOZOIC LIFE — Complete Your Timeline 11

• Find your own fossils to finish your Cenozoic Late & Middle Permian: 252 - 299 timeline. Be sure that Equatorial MYA rainforest disappeared as these species lived in the deserts spread across central Cenozoic. Hint, if you are Pangea. Thoug h the southern interested in predators, ice sheets were Carbonife gone, an ice cap rous covered the search “Cenozoic fossil Upper North predators.” Add at least 3 (Pennsylv Pole. Rainfore Carbonife

to 11 different species. rous Lower Complete the table on (Mississip sts covered South China as pian) pages 17-18. it crossed the 323 - 359 Equator. • Search the internet to MYA locate images and information.

Profallotaspis jakutensis Profallotaspis • Copy and paste the image Early Permian: Much of the 359 - 419 to a word document, and Southern MYA Hemisphere resize it to fit on your was covered by ice as glaciers pushed timeline. For example, you northward. Co al was produced could make your images in both each 3” x 3” (or so). Since MYA: 521 trilobite Oldest 417 - 443 that does not convey the MYA Equatorial proper scale, note the size rainforests and Paleozoic Paleozoic Era in Temperate forests during next to the image. the warmer "" Examples: Ordovicia periods. n 443 - ○ Paraceratherium 485 MYA transouralicum (the enormous rhino) 30 feet long, and stood 17

feet high; Oligocene; from Eurasia 485 - 540 MYA • As you collect images of each organism, be sure to identify it on your word document. • If you found the range the Geologic Timeline: • When you have found all the species fossils lived, you U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Names animals and plants you want can indicate that with a Committee, 2007, Divisions of geologic to include on your timeline, vertical line that starts at time—Major chronostratigraphic and cut out them with scissors. their first (origin) fossil geochronologic units: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2007-3015, 2 p. • Do not tape or glue down occurrence, and their last anything yet. Wait until you (extinction) fossil has one of the first fossils have completed your table occurrence. See the found for representatives of and images of all the example above from the the groups and organisms you are adding to Paleozoic Era trilobites. some invertebrate groups. your timeline. Include each of those on • Once you are done, place all YOUR your timeline. the images in the correct • The tables on pages 15—16 Period. Arrange them until TIMELINE includes horse species. you like how it looks. Tape IS Have fun. Include all these species on or glue all your images. DONE! Learn lots. your timeline. Complete the • Include information (like size) Science is table. by each image. AWESOME!

CENOZOIC LIFE — Horse Speciation 12

Horse speciation is a complex story. Dr. McFadden developed the graph below. Can you describe what this graph means?

From McFadden, Bruce. 2005. “Fossil Horses – Evidence of Evolution.” Science Vol. 307. no. 5716, pp. 1728 – 1730

CENOZOIC LIFE — Complete Your Timeline 13

instead) ”

Size division “ 10 feet 10 — 8

: a principal taxonomic category : a principal taxonomic category : classification of organisms, it falls organisms, classification of it :

Class Class Domain,andPhylum below Kingdom, Phylum kingdomandbelow that class above ranks (botanists the word use

Power Words: Power • • Mammalia

Phylum

Chordata

Time Range Time

1.8 MYA to 10,000 years years 1.810,000 to MYA ago First FossilFirst Evidence the Cenozoic in Era (plural of muchforphylum). Searchas

phyla phyla

Period was foundwas 100 years before it studied.was Quaternary

Megalonyx Megalonyx

sp. Organism Include all of the organisms in this table on your timeline. They representof someThey timeline. your Include intable on organisms this allthe of fossils majortheoldest in the find notablemay be You to find table. complete your to informationas can you cell blank. Leave everything. that species; e.g. each informationabout table, On include interesting your of the back Nyasasurusparringtoni

Example: jeffersonii Marsupialia (opossum) Mimoperadectes houdei , () Utaetus , (sloth) segnis Thinobadistes Chiroptera (bat) Onychonycteris finneyi Rodentia (rodent) Alagomys russelli (carnivore) Hesperocyon gregarius (rabbit) Lagomorph Palaeolagus haydeni Artiodactyla (whale) cetoides Artiodactyla () Diacodexis sp. () Mammut americanum • •

CENOZOIC LIFE — Complete Your Timeline 14

t

Interesting Facts Interesting First Fossil EvidenceCenozoic the First in Era Thomas Jefferson recorded the fossil bones of this animal found in a cave in West Virginia. He thought it belonged to a gian abelonged to Virginia. thought founda init cave of West theanimal infossil He bones this Thomas recorded Jefferson South groundrelatedto American sloths. He later giant it means claw.) was realized claws.enormous cat (Megalonyx with

Megalonyx Megalonyx

sp. Organism Example: jeffersonii (opossum) Marsupialia Mimoperadectes houdei Cingulata, (armadillo) Utaetus Pilosa, (sloth) Thinobadistes segnis Chiroptera (bat) Onychonycteris finneyi Rodentia (rodent) Alagomys russelli Carnivora (carnivore) Hesperocyon gregarius Lagomorph (rabbit) Palaeolagus haydeni Artiodactyla (whale) Basilosaurus cetoides Artiodactyla (ungulate) Diacodexis sp. Proboscidea (elephant) Mammut americanum

CENOZOIC LIFE — Complete Your Timeline 15

Size

Class

Phylum

Time Range Time

Horse Fossil Evidence in the Cenozoic the EvidenceHorseEra Fossil in

Period

sp.

sp.

sp.

sp.

sp. sp. sp. sp. sp. sp.

sp. Organism Epihippus Equus Hipparion Hyracotherium Kalobatippus Merychippus Mesohippus Miohippus Neohipparion Orohippus Pliohippus

CENOZOIC LIFE — Complete Your Timeline 16

Interesting Facts Interesting Horse Fossil Evidence in the Cenozoic the EvidenceHorseEra Fossil in

sp.

sp.

sp.

sp.

sp. sp. sp. sp. sp. sp.

sp. Organism Epihippus Equus Hipparion Hyracotherium Kalobatippus Merychippus Mesohippus Miohippus Neohipparion Orohippus Pliohippus

CENOZOIC LIFE — Complete Your Timeline 17

Size

Class

Phylum

Time Range Time

Find Your Own Fossils Own from the Cenozoic Era Your Find

Period

Organism

CENOZOIC LIFE — Complete Your Timeline 18

Interesting Facts Interesting Find Your Own Fossils Own from the Cenozoic Era Your Find

Organism

DNA MUTATIONS — Build the Models 19

The Paleontology series has POWER WORDS covered concepts of DNA • base pair: a pair of replication, RNA translation, complementary bases and protein synthesis. To do in a double-stranded this final activity on mutations, nucleic acid molecule; you will need to complete the Adenine always pairs earlier activities (or review them with Thymine in DNA to refresh your memory). and Uracil in RNA, and Please visit https:// Guanine always pairs tra.extension.colostate.edu/stem with Cytosine -k12/stem-resources/ history. If a child inherits a • characteristic: a • 55. Paleontology 3 page 18 mutated gene from both parents, feature or quality • 57. Paleontology 5 pages 16-18 the condition is often fatal. belonging to a species • 58. Paleontology 6 pages 7-21 serving to identify it • 59. Paleontology 7 pages 2-10 If a mutation occurs in junk • codon: a sequence of three nucleotides which together form a unit of genetic code in a DNA or RNA molecule • complementary: in a gene sequence, the rules of base pairing: ○ Adenine - Thymine or Adenine - Uracil ○ Guanine - Cytosine continued on page 20…

may have no impact. If the mutation occurs in coding a protein, it usually is debilitating or fatal. Most mutations on active genes are fatal. Not all, though. Like sickle cell anemia, the mutation, can provide protection.

The activity in 59.Paleontology 7 There are four activities to included an introduction to the DNA, it will have no impact. If a explore some of the amino acid wobble. If DNA mutation is within the wobble, it mutates, it may have no impact whatsoever to the protein. MATERIALS • color mini marshmallows Mutations, however, may have • white mini marshmallows devastating consequences. For • licorice sticks (red and black) example, sickle cell anemia was • toothpicks caused by a single mutation. If • print pages 24-25 single sided a child inherits the mutated • scissors gene from one parent, it can • tape protect them from malaria, the • pencil or pen most deadly disease in • scrap of paper or sticky label

DNA MUTATIONS — Build the Models 20 mutations in DNA and their • The image below shows POWER WORDS consequences: three base pairs. A pairs continued from page 19... • DNA and the mRNA gene with T and G pairs with C: • debilitate: make weak synthesizing the wildtype A T G and infirm protein (no mutations) T A C • express: cause an • Examining the RNA / amino inherited characteristic acid wobble or gene to appear in a • Examining a mutation that is phenotype usually fatal • fatal: causing death • Examining a mutation that is • gene: unit of heredity not fatal with different transferred from a consequences parent to offspring; determines offspring’s Directions: characteristic • The Paleontology series has • mutation: changing the covered the DNA concepts: structure of a gene, to ○ replication (preparing the produce a different form cell for division) • nitrogen base: ○ transcription (constructing Adenine, Thymine, complimentary RNA Uracil, Guanine, and from DNA) Cytosine ○ translation (using RNA’s • nitrogenous base: code to produce proteins) Adenine, Thymine, • You need to review these Uracil, Guanine, and concepts before proceeding. Cytosine See page 19 for the website, the issues and pages that Build the Marshmallow Model: continued on page 21… cover DNA, RNA, and • Cut out your DNA paper protein synthesis. template on page 24 • Build the marshmallow • These activities are designed between the dashed lines. strands using the paper to continue using the Keep the double strands model as your template. marshmallow / licorice stick together (the licorice sticks • You need 45 toothpicks. models. You can also opt to with the two marshmallows Evenly space 15 only use the paper pictures rows between them). There toothpicks on one licorice on pages 24-25. If you use are 3 sections. twist, and push them into the marshmallow models, • Tape the strands end to end the twist. red licorice represents DNA, making one double strand • Space 15 more and black licorice represents DNA. The gene is on the toothpicks on the second mRNA. The tRNA is “ATGGT” strand, indicated licorice twist; push them represented by red licorice, by the gold arrow. The other into the twist. and the paper model is on strand is not expressed. • Repeat one more time page 24. • Connect the marshmallows FUN FACT: to the licorice sticks, and • Your DNA could stretch from the earth to the connect the licorice sticks sun and back ~600 times. end to end with toothpicks. • We're all 99.9 percent alike. • The gene is 42 base pairs • Genes make up only about 3 percent of (complementary pairing): your DNA. ○ DNA: adenine (A)— • The human genome contains 3 billion base thymine (T) pairs of DNA. ○ DNA and RNA: guanine (G)—cytosine (C)

DNA MUTATIONS — Build the Models 21

with the third licorice twist. POWER WORDS • Use the paper template on continued from page 20... page 24 for the color • nucleobase Adenine, marshmallow sequence. Thymine, Uracil, Each color marshmallow Guanine, and Cytosine represents a different • nucleoside: The nitrogen base (Adenine is nitrogen base plus a orange, Thymine is yellow, sugar molecule Guanine is green, and • nucleotide: the Cytosine is pink—below). nitrogen base plus the • Use the DNA paper sugar molecule plus template, push the matching Marshmallow Toothpick Licorice phosphate color marshmallow ⅔ on the • replication: copying or toothpick. in section 1, 2, and 3. reproducing • When you complete the third Your Model should look • synthesis: production licorice twist, you will have like the image below, of chemical compounds three toothpicks without Model Marshmallow DNA. by reaction from simpler marshmallows at the end. • Label the 5’ and 3’ end of materials (e.g. mRNA to Remove those toothpicks. DNA (read 5’ as “five prime” amino acid protein You needed them to space and 3’ as “three prime”). The strand) the marshmallows. image of the licorice / • trait: distinguishing • Add the complementary marshmallow model below quality or characteristic; nucleobase (marshmallow) identifies the top as the 5’ to a genetically on each of the toothpicks. 3’ strand, and the lower as determined Leave a gap between the the 3’ to 5’ strand. The characteristic marshmallows as shown in bottom strand’s direction is the image above right. opposite to the upper strand, continued on page 22… ○ A-T (orange -yellow) and the 3’ is on the left and ○ G-C (green- pink) the 5’ is on the right. Use a Wild Messenger RNA (mRNA) • Push your second licorice paper strip and a piece of • The DNA unzips between twist onto the open ends tape to attach to the licorice the two strands. To of the toothpicks to twist as depicted. “unzip your DNA, you cut complete the ladder. Take • The gene starts at the 5’ the toothpicks between care you do not get poked! ends and moves down the the two base pair • Join the three licorice / strand (licorice stick) towards marshmallows. marshmallow ladders the 3’ end. Cut out your paper mRNA 5’ Model Marshmallow DNA 3’

3’ 5’ together. Push the toothpick into the end of one DNA Marshmallow Color Code twist (image above indicated Adenine (A) = orange (O) pairs with Thymine (T) = yellow (Y) in DNA by the orange arrow). Use a Thymine (T) = yellow (Y) pairs with Adenine (A) = orange (O) in DNA toothpick to join the twist Guanine (G) = green (G) pairs with Cytosine (C) = pink (P) in DNA & RNA together end to end. Be sure Cytosine (C) = pink (P) pairs with Guanine (G) = green (G) in DNA & RNA that you keep the correct sequence of marshmallows RNA Marshmallow Color Code on page 22 (also repeated on page 23)

DNA MUTATIONS — Build the Models 22

model on page 24. Tape toothpicks on the second POWER WORDS your three sections together licorice twist; push them into continued from page 21... to make one long strand, as the twist. • transcription: the imaged below. Compare the • Repeat one more time with information in a strand paper model of DNA to the the third black licorice twist. of DNA is copied into a paper model of mRNA. • Use the paper RNA template new molecule of What do you notice? The for the color marshmallow messenger RNA RNA strand is the same as sequence. Each color (mRNA) the strand of DNA that is not marshmallow represents a • translation: sequence different nitrogen base of nucleotide triplets in (Adenine is orange, Thymine a messenger RNA; is yellow, Guanine is green, gives rise to a specific and Uracil is white—see sequence of amino green box below). acids during synthesis • When you complete the third of a protein licorice twist, you will have • wildtype: a gene that three toothpicks without functions normally marshmallows at the end. Remove those toothpicks. You needed them for correct

spacing. • Join the three licorice/ marshmallow sections together. Push the toothpick into the end of one twist

used except Thymine is (image on the right indicated replaced by Uracil! by the arrow). Use a • toothpick to join the twist Build your mRNA model from Toothpick marshmallows and black together end to end. Be sure

licorice. This is the that you keep the correct Marshmallow “wildtype” mRNA, marshmallow sequence in transcribed from unmutated sections 1, 2, and 3. Licorice DNA. Use the paper RNA DNA (modeled with red licorice) “unzipped” for transcribing mRNA (modeled with black licorice).

mRNA transcribed from the above DNA sequence. DNA “unzipped” strand not being transcribed. After transcription, it will hydrogen bond with the complementary DNA strand again.

model as the template. RNA Marshmallow Color Code • You need 23 toothpicks and Adenine (A) = orange (O) pairs with Uracil (U) = white (W) in RNA 3 black licorice twists. Cut Uracil (U) = white (W) pairs with Adenine (A) = orange (O) in RNA the toothpicks in half. Guanine (G) = green (G) pairs with Cytosine (C) = pink (P) in DNA & RNA • Evenly space 15 half Cytosine (C) = pink (P) pairs with Guanine (G) = green (G) in DNA & RNA toothpicks on the black licorice twist, and push them DNA Marshmallow Color Code on page 4 into the twist. • Space 15 more half

DNA MUTATIONS — Build the Models 23

Your model should look like Each color marshmallow POWER WORDS the image below “Model represents a different Science vocabulary is Marshmallow mRNA.” nitrogen base (Adenine is confusing. Molecular orange, Thymine is yellow, biology (DNA and RNA) is Synthesizing a Protein Guanine is green, and Uracil hard to grasp. Some • On your paper model of the is white—see green box to interchangeable terms: mRNA (black licorice), group the right). Place the • nitrogen base the nitrogen bases in marshmallow / licorice model • nitrogenous base threes, called codons, with a tRNA on the paper tRNA and • nucleobase pen or pencil. For example: set aside. UAC | CAC | GUG | GAC... • Complementary pair tRNA’s They all are terms for the • Print page 25 and cut apart three nitrogen bases with molecules Adenine, each of the 14 Transfer RNA the mRNA’s codon (three Thymine, Uracil, Guanine (tRNA) boxes. Each tRNA nitrogen bases). See #2 and Cytosine. Each of codons (three nitrogen image below for the these molecules contain a bases) holds one amino complementary pairs nitrogen atom. acid. The different sequence between tRNA and mRNA. of the three nitrogen bases • Tape the 14 tRNA boxes Each molecule bonds with is specific for the amino acid. together in the correct a sugar molecule and a • You need 21 toothpicks and sequence. You will need phosphate chain. The 3 red licorice twists. Cut the them for the next activity. nucleobase with their toothpicks in half. Cut each sugar molecule are called licorice twist into 5 equal Note: The final protein will not nucleosides. When the pieces. You will have 15 include the “start” and “stop” phosphate chain is added, licorice twist pieces. You codons. they are called only need 14 pieces. Set nucleotides. Wow! one licorice piece aside (or

#1: Model Marshmallow mRNA: mRNA transcribed from the DNA sequence.

#2: Codons on tRNA carrying an amino acid complementary pair with mRNA codons

#3: Wildtype protein (no mutations)

you could eat it…) RNA Marshmallow Color Code • Evenly space 3 Adenine (A) = orange (O) pairs with Uracil (U) = white (W) in RNA half toothpicks on each of Uracil (U) = white (W) pairs with Adenine (A) = orange (O) in RNA the red licorice twist pieces, Guanine (G) = green (G) pairs with Cytosine (C) = pink (P) in DNA & RNA and push them into the Cytosine (C) = pink (P) pairs with Guanine (G) = green (G) in DNA & RNA twist. • Use the paper tRNA DNA Marshmallow Color Code on page 4 template for the color marshmallow sequence.

DNA MUTATIONS — Build the Models 24

DNA mRNA original sequence

3’ 5’

3’ A C U G A U C G G G A C C A U 5’ A T G G T G C A C C T G A C T C A G T C C A G C T G G T A T A C C A C G T G G A C T G A G T C A G G T C G A C C A T C G G C A A T G A A C T C A A G T A A C G G C G C C G T T A C T T G A G T T C A T T C G C G C G G C A A U G A A C U A A U G A A C G G C C C T G A G G A G A A G T C T C T G A A G A G G A G T C G G A C T C C T C T T C A G A G A C T T C T C C T C A G G G G A C U C C U C U U C A G A G A C U C C U C U CA G G    

DNA MUTATIONS — Build the Models 25

tRNA tRNA tRNA tRNA Start—Methionine (Met) Valine (Val) Histidine (His) Leucine (Leu)

A U G G U G C A C C U G

tRNA tRNA tRNA tRNA Threonine (Thr) Proline (Pro) Glutamic Acid (Glu) Glutamic Acid (Glu)

A C U C C U G A G G A G

tRNA tRNA tRNA tRNA Lysine (Lys) Serine (Ser) Alanine (Ala) Valine (Val)

A A G U C U G C C G U U

tRNA tRNA Threonine (Thr) STOP

A C U U G A

DNA MUTATIONS — Bit of Wobble 26

There are a total of 64 codon • Find all the matching amino POWER WORDS combinations of nitrogen acids for each tRNA in the • allele: different form of bases. There are 4 nitrogen Wildtype protein. Stack the the same gene; for bases available for tRNA matching tRNA boxes on top example, red blood (Adenine, Uracil, Guanine, and of the original amino acid. cells have 4 alleles: A, Cytosine). Codons are in B, AB, and O (the red groups of 3. That means, 64 blood cells function the different combinations (see same, carrying oxygen pages 27-30 for all 64). There to the cells in the body) are a total of 22 amino acids. • reproductive cells: Two amino acids are eggs and sperm; each incorporated with special mature reproductive translation mechanisms. They cell contains half the are not included in this activity. usual DNA amount This activity focuses on the 20 common amino acids in humans. • You will not use all the 64 tRNA boxes. Directions: • When you have found all the • Lay out your tRNA sequence matching amino acids, with amino acids for the wild- complete the datasheet. type protein you built in the • Examine your datasheet. last activity (image #1). (pages 31-32), and analyze • Print pages 27-30, and cut the results by answering out the 64 different questions on page 32. combinations of codons. 1. Wildtype tRNA

2. Wildtype mRNA

3. Wildtype DNA 5’ 3’

3’ 5’ MATERIALS • Each tRNA includes • print pages 27-30 single sided the name of the amino • print pages 31-32 double sided acid (e.g. Valine), the • scissors abbreviation (Val), a • pencil symbol for that amino acid ( ), the codon (GUU), and the marshmallow model of the codon.

DNA MUTATIONS — Bit of Wobble 27

tRNA tRNA tRNA tRNA Phenylalanine (Phe) Phenylalanine (Phe) Leucine (Leu) Leucine (Leu)

U U U U U C U U A U U G

tRNA tRNA tRNA tRNA Serine (Ser) Serine (Ser) Serine (Ser) Serine (Ser)

U C U U C C U C A U C G

tRNA tRNA tRNA tRNA Tyrosine (Tyr) Tyrosine (Tyr) STOP STOP

U A U U A C U A A U A G

tRNA tRNA tRNA tRNA Cysteine (Cys) Cysteine (Cys) STOP Tryptophan (Trp)

U G U U G C U G A U G G

DNA MUTATIONS — Bit of Wobble 28

tRNA tRNA tRNA tRNA Leucine (Leu) Leucine (Leu) Leucine (Leu) Leucine (Leu)

C U U C U C C U A C U G

tRNA tRNA tRNA tRNA Proline (Pro) Proline (Pro) Proline (Pro) Proline (Pro)

C C U C C C C C A C C G

tRNA tRNA tRNA tRNA Histidine (His) Histidine (His) Glutamine (Glu) Glutamine (Glu)

C A U C A C C A A C A G

tRNA tRNA tRNA tRNA Arginine (Arg) Arginine (Arg) Arginine (Arg) Arginine (Arg)

C G U C G C C G A C G G

DNA MUTATIONS — Bit of Wobble 29

tRNA tRNA tRNA tRNA Isoleucine (Ile) Isoleucine (Ile) Isoleucine (Ile) Start—Methionine (Met)

A U U A U C A U A A U G

tRNA tRNA tRNA tRNA Threonine (Thr) Threonine (Thr) Threonine (Thr) Threonine (Thr)

A C U A C C A C A A C G

tRNA tRNA tRNA tRNA Asparagine (Asn) Asparagine (Asn) Lysine (Lys) Lysine (Lys)

A A U A A C A A A A A G

tRNA tRNA tRNA tRNA Serine (Ser) Serine (Ser) Arginine (Arg) Arginine (Arg)

A G U A G C A G A A G G

DNA MUTATIONS — Bit of Wobble 30

tRNA tRNA tRNA tRNA Valine (Val) Valine (Val) Valine (Val) Valine (Val)

G U U G U C G U A G U G

tRNA tRNA tRNA tRNA Alanine (Ala) Alanine (Ala) Alanine (Ala) Alanine (Ala)

G C U G C C G C A G C G

tRNA tRNA tRNA tRNA Aspartic Acid (Asp) Aspartic Acid (Asp) Glutamic Acid (Glu) Glutamic Acid (Glu)

G A U G A C G A A G A G

tRNA tRNA tRNA tRNA Glycine (Gly) Glycine (Gly) Glycine (Gly) Glycine (Gly)

G G U G G C G G A G G G

DNA MUTATIONS — Bit of Wobble Datasheet 31

How many combinations are there to code for the amino acid: Wildtype Wildtype Codon Codon Codon # in 1st # in 2nd # in 3rd tRNA Codon Position Position Position position position position start AUG (start) example X X X X X X X X X valine GUG GUU GUA GUC 3rd 3rd 3rd 0 0 3 example histidine CAC

leucine CUG

threonine ACU

proline CCU

glutamic GAG acid glutamic GAG acid lysine AAG

serine UCU

alanine GCC

valine GUU

threonine ACU

stop UGA (stop)

DNA MUTATIONS — Bit of Wobble Datasheet 32

Analyze your results:

• How many different nitrogen bases are different in the first position of the codon?

• How many different nitrogen bases are different in the second position of the codon?

• How many nitrogen bases are different in the third position?

• Which is the most common position change in the amino acid wobble?

Think about this: A mutation occurs on the DNA. It is an error if the mistake occurs during either transcription (making the mRNA) or translation (building the protein). The mistake is expressed in the protein, but it is not a permanent mistake. It becomes permanent only if the error occurs on the DNA.

Think about this: Almost all the cells in your body cannot pass a mutation to the next generation. Offspring (the next generation) can only inherit the mutation if the mistake happens in the reproductive cells.

• Looking at the first protein (after “Start”), Valine can have four mistakes in the third position, and the mutation still codes for the same amino acid. • We have been using a portion of the DNA gene for red blood cells. This section contains the mutation that produces sickle cell anemia. It is a recessive gene. If a child inherits the wildtype gene from both parents, there is no change in the blood cells. If a child inherits one sickle cell anemia allele (different form of a gene), that child has an advantage in areas where malaria is common. In the presence of the plasmodium (the parasite that causes malaria), the cell will form a sickle shape, and the plasmodium is killed. If the child inherits the sickle cell allele from both parents, it is usually fatal. • Below is the Wildtype DNA, mRNA, and tRNA in green. Sickle Cell Anemia has a single nucleobase mutation. It changes the amino acid. Small mutation with huge consequences! • Find and identify the change that occurred in the Mutant DNA, and how that changes the mRNA and tRNA. Record the amino acids that produce sickle cell anemia.

Wildtype DNA ATG GTG CAC CTG ACT CCT GAG GAG AAG TCT GCC GTT ACT TGA Wildtype mRNA UAC CAC GUG GAC UGA GGA CUC CUC UUC AGA CGG CAA UGA ACU Wildtype tRNA AUG GUG CAC CUG ACU CCU GAG GAG AAG UCU GCC GUU ACU UGA Amino Acid start Val His Leu Thr Pro Glu Glu Lys Ser Ala Val Thr stop

Mutant DNA ATG GTG CAC CTG ACT CCT GTG GAG AAG TCT GCC GTT ACT TGA Mutant mRNA UAC CAC GUG GAC UGA GGA CAC CUC UUC AGA CGG CAA UGA ACU Mutant tRNA AUG GUG CAC CUG ACU CCU GUG GAG AAG UCU GCC GUU ACU UGA Mutant Amino Acid

In your own words, explain the Amino Acid Wobble. How is the wobble different than the mutation in Sickle Cell Anemia?

DNA MUTATIONS — Meiosis 33

Before doing this next activity, Mitosis is how our cells divide. POWER WORDS review 58.Paleontology 6: The two pairs of chromosomes • chromatid: one of two Paleozoic Mitosis replicate. The cell organizes the threads of DNA https://tra.extension. chromosomes chromosomes containing the double colostate.edu/stem-k12/ helix of DNA stem-resources/ 1 2 1 2 • chromosome: threadlike structure of Almost every cell in nucleic acids and our body has two pairs protein found in the of DNA; one set from nucleus of cells, our mother and the carrying genetic other set from our father. information in of genes The DNA is organized in • crossover: exchange chromosomes. Humans of genetic material have a total of 23 pairs of between homologous chromosomes. These cells are DNA so that the dividing cell chromatids diploid cells. each gets the pair of • diploid: containing two chromosomes from each complete sets of parent. chromosomes, one chromosomes from each parent. 1 2 That is every cell except for • gamete: egg or sperm gametes, the reproductive cells • haploid: having a (egg and sperm). They only single set of unpaired have one set of chromosomes chromosomes called haploid cells. Some of those chromosomes are from continued on page 34... the mom, and some are from the dad. Which cell gets which ○ https:// chromosome is random. www.youtube.com/ watch? Instead of dividing one time, it v=MNq015d03MU divides into two cells, and those ○ https:// • Orange is the mother’s two cells divide into four cells. www.youtube.com/ chromosomes watch?v=zrKdz93WlVk • Blue is the father’s chromosomes Directions: ○ https:// • Watch at least one of these www.youtube.com/ • There are two pairs of watch? chromosomes videos on meiosis: ○ https://www.youtube.com/ v=VzDMG7ke69g watch?v=7EvtgLLuJpo ○ https:// www.youtube.com/ replicated watch?v=nMEyeKQClqI chromosomes 1 2 MATERIALS • computer with internet • parent permission

DNA MUTATIONS — Meiosis 34

Meiosis Recombinant chromatids POWER WORDS continued from page 33... 1. 4. • homologous: same structural features and chromosomes 1 2 pattern of genes • meiosis: gamete cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes and spores • mitosis: a type of cell 5. division that results in 2. First division randomly two daughter cells each Chromosomes replicate—DNA separates mom’s and dad’s having the same duplicates an exact copy chromosomes into two cells number and kind of chromosomes as the replicated parent nucleus chromosomes • recombinant: DNA 1 2 united differently • replicate: make an exact copy of; reproduce

• Crossover: bits of DNA are randomly exchanged between the two homologous chromosomes • First division: homologous 3. 6. chromosomes randomly Chromosome crossover—the Second division—the replicated separates homologous chromosomes (with recombinant chromatics) • Second division: replicated randomly swap some genes separate randomly into 4 cells DNA randomly separates

crossover chromosomes 1 2

DNA MUTATIONS — Lethal Genes 35

Sickle Cell Anemia is beneficial • Sam is a lemon beagle POWER WORDS when inherited from only one (recessive—no black). • detriment: a cause of parent, but fatal if inherited from harm or damage both parents. The benefits • gene expression: the (protection from malaria) observable effect or outweigh the detriments (fatal if characteristic inherited from both parents). attributed to a particular gene Mutations are usually lethal or • genotype: the total debilitating. This activity genetic composition of examines a fatal gene found in an individual organism Angus cattle called Neuropathic • lethal: sufficient to hydrocephalus, abbreviated as cause death NH. It is a recessive gene. That • Mendelian trait: means the offspring need to passed down by inherit the allele from both dominant and recessive parents for the gene to be fatal. alleles of one gene • phenotype: the set of Before you do this activity, • Molly and Sam are from the observable review the inheritance activities same litter of seven puppies. characteristics of an in 57.Paleontology 5: Only two of the puppies are individual resulting from Speciation, pages 16-20 found lemon beagles. the interaction of its here: https:// • The capital letter represents genotype with the tra.extension.colostate.edu/stem the dominant allele, and the environment -k12/stem-resources/. little letter represents the recessive allele. continued from page 36... Genes follow certain patterns: ○ T = tricolored with white, • red, and black dominant or recessive Genetics Punnett Square (dominant allele is ○ t = white and red only— • What are the chances of no black expressed and recessive a lemon puppy? • Their mother was from a litter allele is hidden, like AO of a lemon mother and tri- blood type, only A is Mom (T/ t) colored father. Their father’s expressed, and O is hidden) T t • codominant (both alleles are parents were both lemon expressed, like people with beagles. T / t t / t blood type AB inherited A • Inheritance is random. A t tri-color lemon from one parent and B from Punnett square helps to

determine the probability of a Dad (t/t) the other parent) T / t t / t • Mendelian traits like a incomplete dominance t tri-color lemon (alleles blend together, like lemon puppy. curly hair and straight hair parents will have a child with MATERIALS wavy hair) • lunch-size paper bags • multiple genes influence the • red and black tempera paint (or markers) trait (like the 378 genes that • wite out correction fluid or tape modify skin color in humans!) • paint brushes

• print pages 38-42 single sided Introduction to Punnett Squares: • scissors My beloved beagles! • tape • Molly is a tricolor beagle • coin (like a quarter) (dominant—black in coat). • google eyes

DNA MUTATIONS — Lethal Genes 36

• The chances are that two out livestock projects. He reviewed POWER WORDS of every four puppies will be this entire activity to ensure the continued from page 35... lemon colored. In Molly and Black Angus genetics is correct. • probability: the Sam’s case, it was 2 out of 7 likelihood that some (2 are lemon colored, and 5 Directions: random event will occur are tri-colored). We would Punnett Squares before the actual event actually expect 3 or 4 lemon • Geneticists use Punnett occurs colored beagles from a litter squares as a tool to evaluate • random: made, done, of seven. the probability of a specific happening, or chosen phenotype (a characteristic without method or Directions: expressed) based on the conscious decision • To better understand how genotype (the genes inheritance is random, flip a inherited from the mother coin 10 times. Record the and the father that may carry number of heads and the different alleles). number of tails on the • They are simple to complete. datasheet (page 38). Let’s look closer at Molly and • Repeat 10 more times and Sam, the beagles. record. Remember the capital letter • Repeat 10 more times and represents the dominant record. allele, and the little letter • Repeat 10 more times and represents the recessive record. allele. • Repeat 10 more times and ○ T = tricolored with white, record. red, and black • Repeat 10 more times and ○ t = white and red only— record. no black • Repeat 10 more times and Mom (T/ t) Mom (T/ t) record. T t T t • Repeat 10 more times and

record. t T / t / t T / t t / t • Repeat 10 more times and tri-color lemon record. t Dad (t/t) • Repeat 10 more times and Dad (t/t) T / t / t T / t t / t record. tri-color lemon • You have flipped the coin a total of 100 times. The more you flip the coin, the closer to • To complete the Punnett • Then determine the half heads and half tails. square, simply fill in each phenotype (tri-color or Each group of ten flips, parents genotype. lemon). however, may have very different results. You may Consider This: get 5 heads and 5 tails, or 2 • Most characteristics are not this simple. Our heads and 8 tails, or just traits are often influenced with many factors, about any other combination including: in any set of 10. ○ more than two alleles for a single gene (for

example A, B, AB and O blood types) Thanks Brandon Creamer! He ○ more than a single gene (skin color is is the 4-H Agent in Montrose influenced by more than 100 genes) County. When he was in 4-H, ○ environment (for example hydrangeas are he raised Black Angus for his blue if soil is basic and pink if acidic)

DNA MUTATIONS — Lethal Genes 37

• Coat Color and NH are both Mom (c / C) POWER WORDS single gene dominant / Genotype • heterozygous: having recessive alleles. two different alleles of a Remember than an allele is particular gene just a different form of the c / c C / c • homozygous: having gene (like our red blood cells red black two identical alleles of a are A, B, AB, or O—different particular gene forms for the same red blood • random assortment:

Genotype c / c C / c gene). For the purposes of Dad (c / c) refers to the way red black this activity, the chromosomes get characteristics are all organized into considered dominant / • Example for above Punnett daughter cells during recessive in simple square: gamete (sperm and Mendelian Inheritance. ○ This coat color gene is egg) formation; each • Offspring can inherit identified with the letter sperm and each egg homozygous or “C.” If you flip heads, will have different heterozygous alleles from dominant (black), use a combinations of their parents for each set of capital C. If you flip tails, chromosomes, some genes. Wow, those are big use a small letter “c” for of which will have come science words. recessive (red). Start from the person's ○ homo means same; with mom, and fill her mother and others from homozygous alleles genotype with the first the father means that the pair of two flips. The next two • trait: distinguishing genes are the same form flips determine the quality or characteristic; of the gene (i.e. O type father’s genotype. genetically determined blood and O type blood)  tails—small letter characteristic ○ hetero means different;  heads—capital letter heterozygous alleles  tails—small letter mean that the pair of  tails—small letter calves with randomly genes have different • Fill in the 4 squares with all selected traits (yellow forms of the gene (i.e. A the possible combinations traits calf, blue traits type blood and B type the offspring can inherit. calf, pink traits calf, and blood) • Determine the phenotype, green traits calf). Add • The parents also randomly the expressed coat color. google eyes. inherited alleles from their • Build your four Angus calves • A trait may not appear parents. To simulate that using the traits in the because selection is random assortment, you highlighted box. Each random. will flip the coin. If you flip a individual has a different • What would happen to a heads, that indicates a highlight color: yellow, blue, calf with parents “h/h” dominant allele. Place a pink, and green. At the end, homozygous for NH capital letter in the parent’s you will have 4 different recessive allele? genotype. Mom (letter / letter) If you have a calf If you flip a Genotype tails, that with the homozygous indicates a genotype for NH (Neuropathic

recessive / / Hydrocephalus) trait. Place a “h” “h” small letter blow up your bag, and

in the Genotype / / smack it with your parent’s hand to pop it! genotype. Dad (letter/letter)

DNA MUTATIONS — Lethal Genes Datasheet 38

Coin Flips: Coin flips are random events. The probability each flip is equal for heads or tails. The more flips, the closer to 50% heads and 50% tails. It is the same randomness in inheritance. Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Trial 6 Trial 7 Trial 8 Trial 9 Trial 10 Total

Heads

Tails

Characteristics: heads, dominant, capital letter … tails, recessive, small letter

Coat Color Nose Pad

oval Mom (_____/_____) Mom (_____/_____) “ black Genotype oval Genotype red round

— — — — / / / /

: C (heads) c (tails) : C (heads) t have paint, you can you have paint, t ’ nose pad and tape pad and nose : N (heads) n (tails) N (heads) : ” Genotype Genotype Dominant Dominant Recessive Recessive — / / — / / — — Dad (______/_____) Dad (______/_____) round “ Coat Color Heads Tails temperaPaintbag with the dry. thepaint to paint. Allow (Ifdon you marker. useor black red a Nose Pad Heads Tails pad the nosePage has 41 template. out the Cut or faceofon calf your the

Ears Tail Tuff

small

Mom (_____/_____) “ Mom (_____/_____) round

tapered big tuftbig or ”

small tuft Genotype — Genotype ” — —

— / / / /

big tuff big tapered “ “ 40 has the ear ear 40 the has - Dominant or : T (heads) t (tails) : T (heads) Dominant Genotype Genotype Recessive ” — Recessive — : E (heads) e (tails) E (heads) : — / / / / —

Dad (______/_____) Dad (______/_____) round Ears Heads Tails Pages 39 template. out the Cut “ calf. your earsadd to to Tail Tuff Heads Tails the tailPage has template. 42 Cut out the on calf tuff your and add to oftheback bag. your

White Spots Neuropathic

Hydrocephalus (NH)

(behind belly button)

Mom (_____/_____) Mom (_____/_____) no spots not lethal white spots Genotype lethal Genotype — —

— — / / / / out correcting correcting out : S (heads) s (tails) : S (heads)

- Dominant Dominant Genotype Genotype Recessive Recessive — — — / / — / / : H (heads) h (tails) : (heads) H Dad (______/_____) Dad (______/_____) White Spots White Heads Tails Use wite the or 43 makefluid to or tape of dotsyour white the belly on the button. belly calf below NH Heads Tails have If you dominant, completed calf! your up If bag blow recessive, your pop to and the bag it. smack

DNA MUTATIONS — Lethal Genes—Rounded Ears 39

Paint your ears the same color as your Rounded Ears (Dominant) “E” calf coat color

DNA MUTATIONS — Lethal Genes—Tapered Ears 40

Tapered Ears (recessive) “e” Paint your ears the same color as your calf coat color

DNA MUTATIONS — Lethal Genes—Nose Pad 41

Oval Nose Pad (Dominant) “N”

Paint your nose pad the same color as your calf coat color

Round Nose Pad (recessive) “n”

DNA MUTATIONS — Lethal Genes—Tail Tuff 42

Big Tail Tuff (Dominant) “T”

Small Tail Tuff (recessive) “t”

Paint your tails the same color as your calf coat color

DNA MUTATIONS — Bumblebee Mutations 43

A mutation can have no effect, position of the codon translates POWER WORDS detrimental effect, or beneficial into a different amino acid. • deletion: the loss or effect. As we discussed earlier, excision of a section of a mutation will have no effect if it Other types of mutations are: genetic code, or its occurs: • insertion—when one or product, from a nucleic • in a section of junk DNA more nucleobases are acid or protein • part of the wobble added into the DNA, causing sequence the sequence to change • insertion: the addition Mutations that occur in a section • deletion—when one or more of extra DNA or RNA of DNA of an active gene is nucleobases are removed into a section of genetic usually deleterious or fatal. from the DNA, causing the material Occasionally, however, it will be sequence to change • junk DNA: non-coding neutral or even provide a DNA; DNA that does benefit. If these neutral or In this activity, you will build a not encode proteins, beneficial mutations occur in the wildtype bumblebee from pipe and whose function, if it gametes, they will be passed on cleaners based on the wildtype has one, is not well to the next generation, and DNA. You will then build three understood eventually spread through the more bumblebees with a • substitution: the action population. mutation in their DNA. You will of replacing nucleobase then determine which of the or section of genetic Remember that speciation three mutations is beneficial, code with another happens over a vast amount of which is neutral, and which is nucleobase or section time. Review the first issue of fatal. of genetic code this series, 53.Paleontology 1— Introduction, Big Numbers This is a model of codons using activity on page 2 https:// three-letter words: tra.extension.colostate.edu/stem • Wildtype -k12/stem-resources/. The red dog ran Complete the: • Substitution ○ wildtype bumblebee Sickle cell anemia is a The rod dog ran ○ substitution substitution mutation. The • Insertion bumblebee seventh codon in the section we The reg ddo gra n ○ insertion bumblebee have been using was changed • Deletion ○ deletion bumblebee from GAG to GTG. That The rdd ogr an • Then, determine which substitution in the second mutation could be: Directions: ○ neutral • The next six pages contain ○ detrimental the instructions to build your ○ beneficial pipe cleaner bumblebees. • Describe what happened.

MATERIALS • 4 black pipe cleaners • 5 brown or orange pipe cleaners • 3 yellow pipe cleaners • 1 red pipe cleaner This activity is • pencil adapted from • white tissue paper Genome British • school glue Columbia • 8 google eyes Geneskool Lost • scissors in Translation • print pages 46-49 (optional)

DNA MUTATIONS — Bumblebee Mutations 44

Pictorial Directions for Wildtype Bumblebees: Twist the black and yellow pipe cleaners Use a pencil. Hold the twisted end against at one end—just a bit so they don’t fall apart. pencil and wrap the pipe cleaners around it.

Wrap the pipe cleaners to the end. Push the coils together from both ends.

At the end that wasn’t twisted, pull the black On the other end, stick the twisted end into end out to make a stinger. the bee’s body.

DNA MUTATIONS — Bumblebee Mutations 45

Pictorial Directions for Wildtype Bumblebees (continued): Fold the brown pipe cleaner in half, and then Take a small piece of tissue paper, and twist in half one more time. Cut at each bend for 4 in the center for the wings. small pieces. Bend each of the 4 pieces into a “V” shape. Attach 3 of the pipe cleaners about 1/3 from the head for legs

Attach the wings at the same section as the Use the remaining two brown pipe cleaners legs. to make antenna. Attach them in front of the wings and legs.

Add the google eyes.

This is the wildtype bumblebee. Each mutation will modify the results of this bee.

DNA MUTATIONS — Bumblebee Mutations 46

Codon Wildtype Bumblebee Instructions

ATG Gather these supplies: 1 black pipe cleaner, 1 brown pipe cleaner, 1 start yellow pipe cleaner, tissue paper, pencil, goggle eyes, school glue Twist the black and yellow pipe cleaners at one end—just a bit so they GTG don’t fall apart.

Use a pencil. Hold the twisted end against pencil and wrap the pipe CAC cleaners around it.

Continue to wrap the pipe cleaners to the end. CTG

Push the coils together from both ends and remove from the pencil. ACT

At the end that wasn’t twisted, pull the black end out to make a stinger. CCT

On the other end, stick the twisted end into the bee’s body to make the GAG face.

Cut the brown pipe cleaner into 4 equal pieces. Bend each of the 4 GAG pieces into a “V” shape.

Attach 3 of the pipe cleaners about 1/3 from the head for legs. AAG

Take a small piece of tissue paper (~4” x 2”), and twist in the center for the TCT wings.

Attach the wings at the same section as the legs. GCC

Use the remaining brown pipe cleaner piece to make antennae. Attach it CTT in front of the wings and legs.

Add the google eyes with the white school glue. ACT

TGA Your completed wildtype bumblebee. stop

DNA MUTATIONS — Bumblebee Mutations 47

Codon Substitution Bumblebee Instructions

ATG Gather these supplies: 1 black pipe cleaner, 1 brown pipe cleaner, 1 red start pipe cleaner, tissue paper, pencil, goggle eyes, school glue Twist the black and red pipe cleaners at one end—just a bit so they don’t CTG fall apart.

Use a pencil. Hold the twisted end against pencil and wrap the pipe CAC cleaners around it.

Continue to wrap the pipe cleaners to the end. CTG

Push the coils together from both ends and remove from the pencil. ACT

At the end that wasn’t twisted, pull the black end out to make a stinger. GCT

On the other end, stick the twisted end into the bee’s body to make the GAG face.

Cut the brown pipe cleaner into 4 equal pieces. Bend each of the 4 GAG pieces into a “V” shape.

Attach 3 of the pipe cleaners about 1/3 from the head for legs AAG

Take a small piece of tissue paper (~4” x 2”), and twist in the center for the TCT wings.

Attach the wings at the same section as the legs. GCC

Use the remaining brown pipe cleaner piece to make antennae. Attach it CTT in front of the wings and legs.

Add the google eyes. ACT

TGA Your completed substitution bumblebee. stop

DNA MUTATIONS — Bumblebee Mutations 48

Codon Insertion Bumblebee Instructions

ATG Gather these supplies: 1 black pipe cleaner, 2 brown pipe cleaner, 1 start yellow pipe cleaner, tissue paper, pencil, goggle eyes, school glue Twist the black and yellow pipe cleaners at one end—just a bit so they GTG don’t fall apart.

Use a pencil. Hold the twisted end against pencil and wrap the pipe CAC cleaners around it.

Continue to wrap the pipe cleaners to the end. CTG

Push the coils together from both ends and remove from the pencil. ACT

At the end that wasn’t twisted, pull the black end out to make a stinger. CCT

On the other end, stick the twisted end into the bee’s body to make the GAG face.

Cut both the brown pipe cleaner into 4 equal pieces (for a total of 8 GAG pieces). Bend 5 of the pieces into a “V” shape.

Attach 3 of the pipe cleaners about 1/3 from the head for legs. AAG

Take a small piece of tissue paper (~4” x 2”), and twist in the center for the TCT wings.

Attach the wings at the same section as the legs. GCC

CTT Use the remaining two brown pipe cleaner pieces. Attach two of the pipe CTT cleaners in front of the wings and legs. (Your bee has 4 antennae.) Add the google eyes. ACT

TGA Your completed Insertion bumblebee. stop

DNA MUTATIONS — Bumblebee Mutations 49

Codon Deletion Bumblebee Instructions

ATG Gather these supplies: 1 black pipe cleaner, 1 brown pipe cleaner, 1 start yellow pipe cleaner, tissue paper, pencil, goggle eyes, school glue Twist the black and yellow pipe cleaners at one end—just a bit so they GTG don’t fall apart.

Use a pencil. Hold the twisted end against pencil and wrap the pipe CAC cleaners around it.

Continue to wrap the pipe cleaners to the end. CTG

Push the coils together from both ends and remove from the pencil. ACT

At the end that wasn’t twisted, pull the black end out to make a stinger. CCT

On the other end, stick the twisted end into the bee’s body to make the GAG face.

Cut the brown pipe cleaner into 4 equal pieces. Bend each of the 4 GAG pieces into a “V” shape.

Attach 3 of the pipe cleaners about 1/3 from the head for legs AAG

Take a small piece of tissue paper (~4” x 2”), and twist in the center for the TCT wings.

Since this codon was deleted, your bumblebee is wingless (NO WINGS) - - -

Use the remaining brown pipe cleaner piece to make antennae. Attach it CTT in front of the wings and legs.

Add the google eyes. ACT

TGA Your completed deletion bumblebee. stop

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND CITATIONS 50

AUTHORS • Dr. Barbara J. Shaw, Colorado State University Extension Western Region Youth Development 4-H STEM K/12 Specialist • Tom Lindsay, retired Portland State University instructor (geology and paleontology); HS science teacher (AP and IB Chemistry, Physics, Biology, and Calculus) • Brandon Creamer, Colorado State University Extension Montrose County 4-H Agent

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS • Funding for this project provided by Colorado State University System Venture Capital Fund • CJ Mucklow, Colorado State University Extension Western Regional Director • Dr. Joe Cannon and Marketing Strategies students Berlyn Anderson, Jenna Balsley, Rachel Kassirer, Rachel Richman, Colorado State University, College of Business, for marketing strategies and ST[EMpower] graphics • Doug Garcia, Colorado State University Creative Services Communication Coordinator/ Designer

CITATIONS Information: • Cenozoic: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/prehistoric-world/paleogene/; megafauna public domain https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Large_Mammals_Africa_Australia_NAmerica_Madagascar.svg; Geologic Timeline U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Names Committee, 2007, Divisions of geologic time—Major chronostratigraphic and geochronologic units: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2007-3015, 2 p. captured on 7/31/2020 https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2007/3015/ • Horse Speciation: From McFadden, Bruce. 2005. “Fossil Horses – Evidence of Evolution.” Science Vol. 307. no. 5716, pp. 1728 – 1730 • Sickle Cell Anemia: https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/genetic-mutation-441/ • DNA / mRNA / tRNA / protein synthesis: https://oerpub.github.io/epubjs-demo-book/content/m46032.xhtml • Lethal Gene: http://www.angus.org/pub/nh/nhfactsheet.pdf; Dixon, C. (2012) Maaaaastering Genetics. Colorado State University Extension. • Mutations: Lost in Translation—Bees. Genome British Columbia Geneskool retrieved 4/20/2020 from website https:// knowgenetics.org/dna-mutations-2/; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FbZBH3-mF90:

Images: • Maps: Last Ice Age—http://scotese.com/lastice.htm; Latitude / Longitude USA map— https://www.fgdc.gov/usng/educational- resources/USNGInstruct_No1v4_No2_r.pdf • Terror Birds: Barbara J. Shaw specimen articulated in American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY; Barbara J. Shaw specimen articulated in Museo de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina; https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6381194 • Cenozoic dioramas: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_boundary • Making dioramas: https://www.dummies.com/crafts/holiday-crafts/christmas-crafts-for-kids-shoebox-diorama-with-peephole/; https://lifestyle.howstuffworks.com/crafts/nature-crafts/nature-craft-projects-for-kids7.htmK-Pg Boundary: https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_boundary • Ground sloth diorama: Macbride Hall University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA captured 7/24/2020 from https://now.uiowa.edu/2013/04/ get-knowrusty-giant-sloth • Finish the Timeline: Barbara J. Shaw images from AMNH and Museo de La Plata; Paraceratherium transouralicum painting https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Paraceratherium_transouralicum.jpg; Horse Speciation From McFadden, Bruce. 2005. “Fossil Horses – Evidence of Evolution.” Science Vol. 307. no. 5716, pp. 1728 – 1730. • RNA / Amino Acid Chart: https://students.ga.desire2learn.com/d2l/lor/viewer/viewFile.d2lfile/1798/12708/dna-rna13.html • Sickle Cell mutation: Laurentino, M.R., Parente Filho, S.L.A., Parente, L.L.C. et al. Non-invasive urinary biomarkers of renal function in sickle cell disease: an overview. Ann Hematol 98, 2653–2660 (2019). • Winky Face: https://www.energylivenews.com/2014/06/30/smiley-face-emoticons-save-people-energy/ • Blow up a paper bag: https://vk.am/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/21533060-39114060-3-0-1522418468-1522418489-1500-1- 1522418489-650-6f9081b3ae-1522945909.jpg • Bumblebees: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FbZBH3-mF90 ; https://klaraluna.wordpress.com/tag/pipe-cleaner-bee/