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Home , Basin Groups, Bushveld Igneous Complex, Gunflint chert, Huronian glaciation, Logarithmic timeline, Paraceratherium

of natural history

Main articles: History of the and Geological his- chondrules,[1] are a key signature of a supernova ex- tory of Earth plosion. See also: and Timeline of - ary history of • 4,567±3 Ma: Rapid collapse of hydrogen molecular For earlier events, see Timeline of the formation of the cloud, forming a third-generation Population I star, Universe. the Sun, in a region of the Galactic Habitable Zone This timeline of natural history summarizes signifi- (GHZ), about 25,000 light from the center of the Milky Way Galaxy.[2]

• 4,566±2 Ma: A protoplanetary disc (from which Earth eventually forms) emerges around the young Sun, which is in its T Tauri stage.

• 4,560–4,550 Ma: Proto-Earth forms at the outer (cooler) edge of the habitable zone of the Solar Sys- tem. At this stage the solar constant of the Sun was only about 73% of its current value, but liquid wa- ter may have existed on the surface of the Proto- Earth, probably due to the greenhouse warming of high levels of methane and carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere. Early bombardment phase begins: because the solar neighbourhood is rife with large planetoids and debris, Earth experiences a number of giant impacts that help to increase its overall size.

Visual representation of the on Earth as a spiral 2 Eon cant geological and biological events from the formation of the Earth to the rise of modern humans. Times are listed in millions of years, or megaanni (Ma). Main article: Hadean

• 4,533 Ma: Hadean Eon, Supereon 1 The earliest Solar System and unofficial era start as the Earth–Moon system forms, possibly as a result of a glancing Main articles: Formation and evolution of the Solar collision between proto–Earth and the hypotheti- System and Nebular hypothesis cal protoplanet Theia. (The Earth was consider- ably smaller than now, before this impact.) This impact vaporized a large amount of the , and In the earliest solar system history, the Sun, the sent material into orbit around Earth, which lin- planetesimals and the jovian planets were formed. The gered as rings, similar to those of Saturn, for a inner solar system aggregated more slowly than the outer, few million years, until they coalesced to become so the terrestrial planets were not yet formed, including the Moon. The Moon pre- pe- Earth and Moon. riod starts. Earth was covered by a magmatic ocean 200 kilometres (120 mi) deep resulting from the im- • c. 4,570 Ma: A supernova explosion (known as the pact energy from this and other planetesimals during primal supernova) seeds our galactic neighborhood the early bombardment phase, and energy released with heavy elements that will be incorporated into by the planetary core forming. Outgassing from the Earth, and results in a shock wave in a dense crustal rocks gives Earth a reducing atmosphere of region of the Milky Way galaxy. The Ca-Al-rich methane, nitrogen, hydrogen, ammonia, and water inclusions, which formed 2 million years before the vapour, with lesser amounts of hydrogen sulfide,

1 2 3 EON

carbon monoxide, then carbon dioxide. With fur- 3.1 Era ther full outgassing over 1000–1500 K, nitrogen and ammonia become lesser constituents, and compara- Main article: Eoarchean ble amounts of methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, water vapour, and hydrogen are released. • 4,000 Ma: Archean Eon and Eoarchean Era start. • 4,500 Ma: Sun enters main sequence: a solar Possible first appearance of plate tectonic activity in wind sweeps the Earth-Moon system clear of debris the Earth’s crust as plate structures may have begun (mainly dust and gas). End of the Early Bombard- appearing. Possible beginning of Napier Mountains ment Phase. Basin Groups Era begins on Earth. Orogeny forces of faulting and folding create first metamorphic rocks. Origins of life. • 4,450 Ma: 100 million years after the Moon formed, • the first lunar crust, formed of lunar , dif- 3,930 Ma: Possible stabilization of Canadian Shield ferentiates from lower magmas. The earliest Earth begins crust probably forms similarly out of similar mate- • rial. On Earth the pluvial period starts, in which the 3,920–3,850 Ma: Final phase of Late Heavy Bom- Earth’s crust cools enough to let oceans form. bardment • 3,850 Ma: Greenland apatite shows evidence of 12C • 4,404 Ma: First known mineral, found at Jack Hills enrichment, characteristic of the presence of photo- in Western Australia. Detrital zircons show presence synthetic life.[7] of a solid crust and liquid water. Latest possible date for a secondary atmosphere to form, produced by • 3,850 Ma: Evidence of life: Akilia Island the Earth’s crust outgassing, reinforced by water and graphite off Western Greenland contains evidence possibly organic molecules delivered by comet im- of kerogen, of a type consistent with . pacts and carbonaceous chondrites (including type CI shown to be high in a number of amino acids and • 3,800 Ma: Oldest banded formations found.. polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)). First complete continental masses or cratons, formed of blocks, appear on Earth. Occur- • 4,300 Ma: Nectarian Era begins on Earth. rence of initial igneous activity on eastern edge of Antarctic craton as first great continental mass • 4,250 Ma: Earliest evidence for life, based on un- begins to coalesce. East European Craton begins usually high amounts of light isotopes of carbon, a to form - first rocks of the Ukrainian Shield and common sign of life, found in Earth’s oldest mineral Voronezh Massif are laid down deposits located in the Jack Hills of Western Aus- • tralia.[3] 3,750 Ma: Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt forms • 3,700 Ma: Graphite found to be biogenic in 3.7 • 4,100 Ma: Early Era begins on Earth. Late billion--old metasedimentary rocks discovered heavy bombardment of the Moon (and probably of in Western Greenland[8] Stabilization of Kaapval the Earth as well) by bolides and asteroids, produced craton begins: old tonaltic gneisses laid down possibly by the planetary migration of Neptune into the Kuiper belt as a result of orbital resonances be- [4] tween Jupiter and Saturn. “Remains of biotic life" 3.2 Era were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western [5][6] Australia. According to one of the researchers, • 3,600 Ma: Paleoarchean Era starts. Possible assem- “If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it [5] bly of the supercontinent; oldest cratons on could be common in the universe.” Earth (such as the Canadian Shield, East European Craton and Kaapval) begin growing as a result of • 4,030 Ma: Acasta Gneiss of Northwest Territories, crustal disturbances along continents coalescing into Canada, first known oldest rock, or aggregate of Vaalbara - Pilbara Craton stabilizes. Formation of minerals. Barberton greenstone belt: uplifts on the eastern edge of Kaapval craton, old- est mountains in Africa - area called the “genesis of life” for exceptional preservation of . Narryer 3 Archean Eon Gneiss Terrane stabilizes: these gniesses become the “bedrock” for the formation of the Yilgarn Craton Main article: Archean in Australia - noted for the survival of the Jack Hills where the oldest mineral, a zircon was uncovered. 3.4 Era 3

• 3,500 Ma: Lifetime of the Last universal ancestor: • 3 Ma: Humboldt Orogeny in : possible split between bacteria and archaea occurs as “tree of formation of Humboldt Mountains in Queen Maud life” begins branching out - varieties of Eubacteria Land. Photosynthesizing evolve; they begin to radiate out globally. Fossils resembling use water as a reducing agent, thereby producing cyanobacteria, found at Warrawoona, Western Aus- oxygen as a waste product. The oxygen initially ox- tralia. idizes dissolved iron in the oceans, creating iron - over time oxygen concentration in the atmosphere • 3,480 Ma: Fossils of found in 3.48 slowly rises, acting as a poison for many bacteria. billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western As Moon is still very close to Earth and causes tides Australia.[9][10] First appearance of stromatolitic or- 1,000 feet (305 m) high, the Earth is continually ganisms that grow at interfaces between different wracked by hurricane-force winds - these extreme types of material, mostly on submerged or moist sur- mixing influences are thought to stimulate evolu- faces. tionary processes. Rise of : microbial mats become successful forming the first reef build- • 3,460 Ma: Fossils of bacteria in . Zimbabwe ing communities on Earth in shallow warm tidal pool Craton stabilizes from the suture of two smaller zones (to 1.5 Gyr). Tanzania Craton forms crustal blocks, the Tokwe Segment to the south and the Rhodesdale Segment or Rhodesdale gneiss to the • 2.940 Ma: Yilgarn Craton of western Australia north. forms by the accretion of a multitude of formerly present blocks or terranes of existing continental • 3.400 Ma: Eleven taxa of prokaryotes are pre- crust served in the Apex Chert of the Pilbara craton in • Australia. Because chert is fine-grained silica-rich 2,900 Ma: Assembly of the supercon- microcrystalline, cryptocrystalline or microfibrious tinent, based upon the core of the Baltic shield, material, it preserves small fossils quite well. Stabi- formed at 3100 Ma. Narryer Gniess Terrane (in- lization of Baltic Shield begins. cluding Jack Hills) of Western Australia undergoes extensive • 3.340 Ma: Johannesburg Dome forms in : located in the central part of and consists of trondhjemitic and tonalitic 3.4 Neoarchean Era granitic rocks intruded into mafic-ultramafic green- • 2,800 Ma: Neoarchean Era starts. Breakup of the stone - the oldest granitoid phase recognised so far. Vaalbara: Breakup of supercontinent Ur as it be- • 3,300 Ma: Onset of compressional tectonics.[11] In- comes a part of the major supercontinent Kenor- trusion of granitic plutons on the Kaapvaal Craton. land. Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe cratons join together • 2,770 Ma: Formation of Hamersley Basin on the • 3,260 Ma: One of the largest recorded impact events southern margin of Pilbara Craton - last stable occurs near the Barberton Greenstone Belt, when a submarine-fluviatile environment between the Yil- 58 km (36 mi) asteroid leaves a hole almost 480 km garn and Pilbara prior to rifting, contraction and as- (300 mi) across – two and a half times larger in di- sembly of the intracratonic Gascoyne Complex ameter than the Chicxulub crater.[12] • 2,750 Ma: Renosterkoppies Greenstone Belt forms on the northern edge of the Kaapvaal Craton 3.3 Era • 2,736 Ma: Formation of the Temagami Greenstone • 3,200 Ma: Mesoarchean Era starts. Onverwacht se- Belt in Temagami, Ontario, Canada ries in South Africa form - contain some of the old- • 2,707 Ma: Blake River Megacaldera Complex be- est mostly spheroidal and carbonaceous gins to form in present-day Ontario and Quebec - alga-like bodies first known Precambrian supervolcano - first phase results in creation of 8km long, 40km wide, east- • 3,200–2600 Ma: Assembly of the Ur supercontinent west striking Misema Caldera - coalescence of at to cover between 12–16% of the current continental least two large mafic shield volcanoes crust. Formation of Limpopo Belt • 2,705 Ma: Major komatiite eruption, possibly • 3.1 Ma: : second round of fos- global[11] - possible mantle overturn event silizations including Archaeosphaeroides barberto- nensis and Eobacterium. Gneiss and greenstone • 2.704 Ma: Blake River Megacaldera Complex: sec- belts in the Baltic Shield are laid down in Kola ond phase results in creation of 30 km long, 15 Peninsula, Karelia and northeastern Finland km wide northwest-southeast trending New Senator 4 4 EON

Caldera - thick massive mafic sequences which has and saturate ocean floor deposits - without an oxy- been inferred to be a subaqueous lava lake gen sink, Earth’s atmosphere becomes highly oxy- genic. Great Oxygenation Event led by cyanobac- • 2,700 Ma: Biomarkers of cyanobacteria discov- teria’s oxygenic photosynthesis - various forms of ered, together with steranes (sterols of cholesterol), Archaea and anoxic bacteria become extinct in first associated with films of , in shales lo- great on Earth. Algoman Orogeny cated beneath beds, or Kenoran: assembly of Arctica out of the Cana- [13] in Hamersley Range, Western Australia Skewed dian Laurentian Shield and Siberian craton - forma- sulfur isotope ratios found in shows a small tion of Angaran Shield and Slave Province rise in oxygen concentration in the atmosphere[14] Sturgeon Lake Caldera, forms in Wabigoon green- • 2,440 Ma: Formation of Gawler Craton in Australia stone belt: contains well perserved homoclinal chain • 2,400 Ma: Huronian glaciation starts, probably from of greenschist facies, metamorphosed intrusive, vol- oxidation of earlier methane pro- canic and sedimentary layers - Mattabi pyroclas- duced by burial of organic sediments of photo- tic flow considered third most voluminous eruptive synthesizers. First cyanobacteria. Formation of event. Stromatolites of Bulawayo series in Zim- Dharwar Craton in southern India babwe form: first verified reef community on Earth. Skewed sulfur isotope ratios found in pyrites shows a • 2,400 Ma: Suavjarvi impact structure forms. This small rise in oxygen concentration in the atmosphere is the oldest known impact crater whose remnants are still recognizable. Dharwar Craton in southern • 2,696 Ma: Blake River Megacaldera Complex: India stabilizes third phase of activity constructs classic east- northeast striking Noranda Caldera which contains a 7-to-9-km-thick succession of mafic and felsic rocks 4.1.2 Period erupted during five major series of activity. Abitibi greenstone belt in present-day Ontario and Quebec • 2,300 Ma: Rhyacian period starts. begins to form: considered world’s largest series of • Archean greenstone belts, appears to represent a se- 2,250 Ma: Igneous Complex forms: ries of thrusted subterranes world’s largest reserves of -group metals (platinum, , , , • 2,690 Ma: Formation of high pressure granulites in and ) as well as vast quantities of iron, the Limpopo Central Region and appear - forma- tion of Transvaal Basin begins • 2,650 Ma: Insell Orogeny: occurrence of a very- high grade discrete tectonothermal event (a UHT • 2,200–1800 Ma: Continental Red Beds found, pro- metamorphic event) duced by iron in weathered sandstone being exposed to oxygen. Eburnean Orogeny, series of tectonic, • 2,600 Ma: Oldest known giant carbonate metamorphic and plutonic events establish Eglab platform.[11] Saturation of oxygen in ocean Shield to north of West African Craton and Man sediments is reached as oxygen now begins to Shield to its south - Birimian of West Africa dramatically appear in Earth’s atmosphere established and structured • 2,200 Ma: Iron content of ancient soils shows an oxygen built up to 5–18% of current 4 Proterozoic Eon levels[15] End of Kenoran Orogeny: invasion of Su- perior and Slave Provinces by basaltic dikes and Main article: Proterozoic sills - Wyoming and Montana arm of Superior Province experiences intrusion of 5 km thick sheet of -bearing gabbroic rock as Stillwater Complex forms 4.1 Era • 2,100 Ma: Huronian glaciation ends. Earliest Main article: Paleoproterozoic known fossils found. Earliest multicellu- lar organisms collectively referred to as the “Gabo- nionta” (Francevillian Group Fossil), Wopmay orogeny along western margin of Canadian Shield 4.1.1 Period • 2,090 Ma: Eburnean Orogeny: Eglab Shield experi- • 2,500 Ma: Proterozoic Eon, Paleoproterozoic Era, ences syntectonic trondhjemitic pluton intrusion of and Siderian Period start. Oxygen saturation in the its Chegga series - most of the intrusion is in the oceans is reached: Banded iron formations form form of a called oligoclase 4.2 Era 5

• 2.070 Ma: Eburnean Orogeny: asthenospheric up- • 1,765 Ma As Kimban Orogeny in Australian conti- welling releases large volume of post-orogenic mag- nent slows, Yapungku Orogeny (1.765 Gyr) begins mas - magma events repeatedly reactivated from the effecting Yilgarn craton in Western Australia - pos- to the sible formation of Darling Fault, one of longest and most significant in Australia

4.1.3 Period • 1,760 Ma Yavapai Orogeny (1.76 - 1.7 Gyr) impacts mid to south western United States • 2,050 Ma: Orosirian Period starts. Significant • 1.750 Ma Gothian Orogeny (1.75 - 1.5 Gyr): for- orogeny in most continents. mation of tonalitic-granodioritic plutonic rocks and calc-alkaline volcanites in the East European Craton • 2,023 Ma: Vredefort impact structure forms. • 1,700 Ma Stabilization of second major continental • 2,005 Ma: Glenburgh Orogeny (2,005–1,920 Ma) mass, the Guiana Shield in South America begins: Glenburgh Terrane in western Australia be- gins to stabilize during period of substantial granite • 1,680 Ma Mangaroon Orogeny (1.68 - 1.62 Gyr), magmatism and deformation; Halfway Gneiss and on the Gascoyne Complex in Western Australia: Moogie Metamorphics result. Dalgaringa Super- Durlacher Supersuite, granite intrusion featuring a suite (2,005–1,985 Ma), comprising sheets, dykes northern (Minnie Creek) and southern belt - heavily and viens of mesocratic and leucocratic tonalite, sta- sheared orthoclase porphyroclastic bilizes. • 1.650 Ma Kararan Orogeny (1.65 Gyr) uplifts great • 2,000 Ma: The lesser supercontinent Atlantica mountains on the Gawler Craton in Southern Aus- forms. The Oklo natural nuclear reactor of Gabon tralia - formation of Gawler Range including pic- produced by uranium-precipitant bacteria.[16] First turesque Conical Hill Track and “Organ Pipes” wa- acritarchs. terfall

• 1,900 - 1,880 Ma: Gunflint chert biota forms flourishes including prokaryotes like Kakabekia, 4.2 Mesoproterozoic Era Gunflintia, Animikiea and Eoastrion Main article: Mesoproterozoic • 1,850 Ma: Sudbury impact structure. Penokean orogeny. First eukaryotes. Bacterial viruses (bacteriophage) emerge before, or soon after, 4.2.1 Period the divergence of the prokaryotic and eukaryotic [17] lineages. • 1,600 Ma: Mesoproterozoic Era and Calymmian Period start. Platform covers expand. Major oro- • 1,830 Ma: Capricorn Orogeny (1.83 - 1.78 Gyr) genic event in Australia: Isan Orogeny (1,600 Ma) stabilizes central and northern Gascoyne Complex: influences Mount Isa Block of Queensland - ma- formation of pelitic and psammitic schists known as jor deposits of lead, silver, copper and zinc are laid Morrissey Metamorphics and depositing Pooranoo down. Mazatzal Orogeny (1,600 Ma - 1,300 Ma) Metamophics an amphibolite facies influences mid to south western United States: Pre- rocks of the Grand Canyon, Vishnu Schist 4.1.4 Period and Grand Canyon Series, are formed establishing basement of Canyon with metamorphosed gniesses that are invaded by granites • 1,800 Ma: Statherian Period starts. Supercontinent Columbia forms, one of whose fragments being • 1,500 Ma: Supercontinent Columbia collapses: [11] Nena. Oldest ergs develop on several cratons associated with continental rifting along west- Barramundi Orogeny (ca. 1.8 Gyr) influences ern margin of Laurentia, eastern India, southern MacArthur Basin in Northern Australia. Baltica, southeastern Siberia, northwestern South Africa and North China Block - formation of • 1,780 Ma Colorado Orogeny (1.78 - 1.65 Gyr) in- Ghats Province in India First structurally complex fluences southern margin of Wyoming craton - col- eukaryotes (Hododyskia, colonial formamiferian). lision of Colorado orogen and Trans-Hudson orogen with stabilized Archean craton structure 4.2.2 Period • 1,770 Ma Big Sky Orogeny (1.77 Gyr) influences southwest Montana: collision between Hearne and • 1,400 Ma: Ectasian Period starts. Platform cov- Wyoming cratons ers expand. Major increase in diversity 6 4 PROTEROZOIC EON

with widespread blue- colonies and reefs • 1.076 Ma: Musgrave Orogeny: Warakurna large ig- dominating tidal zones of oceans and seas neous province develops - intrusion of Giles Com- plex and Winburn Suite of granites and deposition • 1,300 Ma: Break-up of Columbia Supercontinent of Bentley Supergroup (including Tollu and Smoke completed: widespread anorogenic magmatic ac- Hill Volcanics) tivity, forming anorthosite-mangerite-charnockite- granite suites in , Baltica, Amazo- nia and North China - stabilization of Amazonian 4.3 Neoproterozoic Era Craton in South America Grenville orogeny(1,300 - 1,000 Ma) in North America: globally associ- Main article: Neoproterozoic ated with assembly of Supercontinent es- tablishes Grenville Province in Eastern North Amer- ica - folded mountains from Newfoundland to North Carolina as Old Rag Mountain forms 4.3.1 Period • 1,270 Ma Emplacement of Mackenzie granite mafic • dike swarm - one of three dozen dike swarms, forms 1,000 Ma: Neoproterozoic Era and Tonian Period into Mackenzie - formation start. Grenville orogeny ends. First radiation of di- of Copper Creek deposits noflagellates and spiny acritarchs - increase in defen- sive systems indicate that acritarchs are responding • 1,250 Ma Sveconorwegian Orogeny (1,250 Ma - to carnivorous habits of dinoflagellates - decline in 900 Ma) begins: essentially a reworking of previ- stromatolite reef populations begins. Rodinia starts ously formed crust on the Baltic Shield to break up. First vaucherian algae. Rayner Orogeny as proto-India and Antarctica collide (to 900 Ma.) • 1,240 Ma Second major dike swarm, Sudbury dikes Trace fossils of colonial Hododyskia (1500 Ma - 900 form in Northeastern Ontario around the area of the Ma): possible divergence between and kingdoms begins. Stabilization of Satpura Province in Northern India. Rayner Orogeny (1 Gyr - 900 4.2.3 Period Myr) as India and Antarctica collide • • 1,200 Ma: Stenian Period starts. Red alga 920 Ma: Edmundian Orogeny (ca. 920 - 850 Myr) Bangiomorpha pubescens, earliest fossil evidence redefines Gascoyne Complex: consists of reactiva- for sexually reproducing organism.[18] Meiosis and tion of earlier formed faults in the Gascoyne - fold- sexual reproduction are present in single-celled eu- ing and faulting of overlying Edmund and Collier karyotes, and possibly in the common ancestor of all basins eukaryotes.[19] Supercontinent of Rodinia(1.2 Gyr • 920 Ma: Adelaide Geosyncline laid down in cen- - 750 Myr) completed: consisting of North Amer- tral Australia - essentially a rift complex, consists of ican, East European, Amazonian, West African, thick layer of sedimentary rock and minor volcanics Eastern Antarctica, Australia and China blocks, deposited on easter margin - limestones, shales and largest global system yet formed - surrounded by su- sandstones predominate perocean Mirovia • • 1,100 Ma: First dinoflagellate evolve: photosyn- 900 Ma: Bitter Springs Formation of Australia: thetic some develop mixotrophic habits ingesting in addition to prokaryote assemblage of fossils, prey - with their appearance, prey-predator relation- include eukaryotes with ghostly internal ship is established for first time forcing acritarchs structures similar to green algae - first appearance to defensive strategies and leading to open “arms” of Glenobotrydion (900 - 720 Myr), among earliest race. Late Ruker (1.1 - 1 Gyr) and Nimrod Oro- on Earth genies (1.1 Gyr) in Antarctica possibly begins: for- mation of Gamburtsev mountain range and Vostok Subglacial Highlands. Keweenawan Rift buckles in 4.3.2 Period the south-central part of the North American plate - • leaves behind thick layers of rock that are exposed in 850 Ma: Cryogenian Period starts, during which Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa and Nebraska and cre- Earth freezes over ( or Slushball ates rift valley where future develops. Earth) at least 3 times. Rift develops on Rodinia between continental masses of Australia, eastern • 1.080 Ma: Musgrave Orogeny (ca. 1.080 Gyr) Antarctica, India, Congo and Kalahari on one side forms Musgrave Block, an east-west trending belt of and Laurentia, Baltica, Amazonia, West African granulite-gneiss basement rocks - voluminous Kul- and Rio de la Plata cratons on other - formation of gera Suite of granite and Birksgate Complex solidify Adamastor Ocean. 7

• 800 Ma: With free oxygen levels much higher, car- 4.3.3 Period bon cycle is disrupted and once again glaciation becomes severe - beginning of second “snowball • 635 Ma: Ediacaran period begins. End of Marinoan Earth” event Glaciation: last major “snowball Earth” event as fu- ture ice ages will feature less overall ice coverage of • 750 Ma: First Proterozoa appears: as creaturs like the planet Paramecium, and Melanocyrillium evolve, • 633 Ma: Beardmore Orogeny (633 - 620 Ma) in first animal-like cells become distinctive from plants Antarctica: reflection of final break-up of Rodinia - rise of herbivores (plant feeders) in the food as pieces of the supercontinent begin moving to- chain. First Sponge-like animal: similar to early gether again to form colonial foraminiferan Horodyskia, earliest ances- tors of Sponges were colonial cells that circulated • 620 Ma: Timanide Orogeny (620 - 550 Ma) af- food sources using flagella to their gullet to be di- fects northern Baltic Shield: gneiss province divided gested. glaciation (ca. 750 Ma): first major into several north-south trending segments experi- glaciation of Earth - almost entire planet is covered ences numerous metasedimentary and metavolcanic with ice sheets up to more than a kilometer thick deposits - last major orogenic event of Precambrian and identified from units in Namibia and the South China Block • 600 Ma: Pan-African Orogeny (600 Ma) begins: Arabian-Nubian Shield formed between plates sep- arating supercontinent fragments Gondwana and • 720 Ma: continues process begun Pannotia - Supercontinent Pannotia (600 - 500 Ma) during Kaigas - great ice sheets cover most of the completed, bordered by Iapetus and planet stunting evolutionary development of animal oceans. Accumulation of atmospheric oxygen al- and plant life - survival based on small pockets of lows for the formation of ozone layer: prior to this, heat under the ice land-based life would probably have required other chemicals to attenuate ultraviolet radiation enough • 700 Ma: Fossils of testate Amoeba first appear: first to permit colonization of the land complex metazoans leave unconfirmed biomarkers - they introduce new complex body plan architec- • 575 Ma: First Ediacaran-type fossils. ture which allows for development of complex inter- • nal and external structures. Worm trail impressions 560 Ma: Trace fossils, e.g., worm burrows, and in China: because putative “burrows” under stro- small bilaterally symmetrical . Earliest matolite mounds are of uneven width and tapering arthropods. Earliest fungi. makes biological origin difficult to defend - struc- • 555 Ma: The first possible mollusk Kimberella ap- tures imply simple feeding behaviours. Rifting of pears. Rodinia is completed: formation of new superocean of Panthalassa as previous Mirovia ocean bed closes • 550 Ma: First possible comb-jellies, sponges, - Mozambique mobile belt develops as a suture be- corals, and anemones. tween plates on Congo-Tanzania craton • 544 Ma: The small shelly fauna first appears. • 660 Ma As Sturtian glaciers retreat, Cadomian orogeny (660 - 540 Myr) begins on north coast of Armorica: involving one or more collisions of is- 5 Eon land arcs on margin of future Gondwana, terranes of Avalonia, Armorica and Ibera are laid down Main article: Phanerozoic

• 650 Ma First Demosponges appear: form first skeletons of spicules made from protein spongin and silica - brightly coloured these colonial creatures fil- 5.1 Era ter feed since they lack nervous, digestive or circula- tory systems and reproduce both sexually and asex- Main article: Paleozoic ually

• 650 Ma: Final period of worldwide glaciation, 5.1.1 Cambrian Period Marinoan (650 - 635 Myr) begins: most significant “snowball Earth” event, global in scope and longer • 541 ± 0.3 Ma: beginning of the Cambrian Period, - evidence from Diamictite deposits in South Aus- the Paleozoic Era and the Phanerozoic (current) tralia laid down on Adelaide Geosyncline Eon. End of the Ediacaran Period, the Proterozoic 8 5 PHANEROZOIC EON

Eon and the Precambrian Supereon. Time since 5.1.6 Period the the emergence of most forms of complex life, including vertebrates (fish), • 298.9 ± 0.8 Ma: End of and begin- arthropods, echinoderms and molluscs. Pannotia ning of Permian Period. By this time, all conti- breaks up into several smaller continents: Laurentia, nents have fused into the supercontinent of Pangaea. Baltica and Gondwana. Beetles evolve. Seed plants and conifers diversify along with temnospondyls and pelycosaurs. • 540 Ma: Supercontinent of Pannotia breaks up. • 275 Ma: First therapsids evolve. • 530 Ma: First fish. • 251.4 Ma: Permian mass extinction. End of • 521 Ma: First trilobites Permian Period and of the Palaeozoic Era. Begin- ning of Period, the Mesozoic era and of the • 525 Ma: First graptolites. age of the . • 505 Ma: Deposition of the Burgess Shale. 5.2 Mesozoic Era 5.1.2 Period Main article: Mesozoic • 485.4 ± 1.7 Ma: Beginning of the Ordovician and the end of the Cambrian Period. • 485 Ma: First jawless fish. 5.2.1 Triassic Period • 450 Ma: Plants and arthropods colonize the land. • 252.17 ± 0.4 Ma: Mesozoic era and Triassic Period Sharks evolve. begin. Mesozoic Marine Revolution begins. • 245 Ma: First ichthyosaurs. 5.1.3 Period • 240 Ma: Cynodonts and rhynchosaurs diversify. • 443.8 ± 1.5 Ma: Beginning of the Silurian and the • 225 Ma: First dinosaurs and teleosti evolve. end of the Ordovician Period. • 220 Ma: First crocodilians and flies. • 420 Ma: First creature took a breath of air. First • 215 Ma: First turtles. Long-necked sauropod di- ray-finned fish and land scorpions. nosaurs and , one of the earliest theropod • 410 Ma: First toothed fish and nautiloids. dinosaurs, evolve. First .

5.2.2 Period 5.1.4 Period • 201.3 ± 0.6 Ma: Triassic–Jurassic extinction event • 419.2 ± 2.8 Ma: Beginning of the Devonian and end marks the end of Triassic and beginning of Jurassic of the Silurian Period. First insects. Period. The largest dinosaurs, such as Diplodocus • 395 Ma: First of many modern groups, including and Brachiosaurus evolve during this time, as do tetrapods. the carnosaurs; large, bipedal predatory dinosaurs such as Allosaurus. First specialized pterosaurs and • 360 Ma: First crabs and ferns. sauropods. Ornithischians diversify. • 350 Ma: First large sharks, ratfish and hagfish. • 190 Ma: Pliosaurs evolve, along with many groups of primitive sea invertebrates. 5.1.5 Carboniferous Period • 180 Ma: Pangaea splits into two major continents: Laurasia in the north and Gondwana in the south. • 358.9 ± 2.5 Ma: Beginning of the Carboniferous • 176 Ma: First stegosaurs. and the end of Devonian Period. Amphibians di- versify. • 170 Ma: First salamanders and newts evolve. Cynodonts go extinct. • 330 Ma: First amniotes evolve. • 165 Ma: First stingrays. • 320 Ma: First synapsids evolve. • 161 Ma: First ceratopsians. • 315 Ma: The evolution of the first reptiles. • 155 Ma: First birds and triconodonts. Stegosaurs • 305 Ma: First diapsids evolve. and theropods diversify. 5.3 Era 9

5.2.3 Period • 40 Ma: Age of the Catarrhini parvorder; first canines evolve. Lepidopteran insects become rec- • 145 ± 4 Ma: End of Jurassic and beginning of ognizable. Gastornis goes extinct. Basilosaurus Cretaceous Period. evolves.

• 130 Ma: Laurasia and Gondwana begin to split apart • 37 Ma: First Nimravids. as the Atlantic Ocean forms. First flowering plants. • 33.9 ± 0.1 Ma: End of , start of • 115 Ma: First monotremes. epoch.

• 110 Ma: First hesperornithes. • 35 Ma: Grasslands first appear. Glyptodonts, ground sloths, peccaries, dogs, eagles, and hawks • 106 Ma: Spinosaurus evolves. evolve. • 100 Ma: First bees. • 33 Ma: First thylacinid marsupials evolve. • 90 Ma: the Indian subcontinent splits from • 30 Ma: Brontotheres go extinct. Pigs evolve. South Gondwana, becoming an island continent. America separates from Antarctica, becoming an is- Ichthyosaurs go extinct. Snakes and ticks evolve. land continent. • 80 Ma: Australia splits from Antarctica. First ants. • 28 Ma: Paraceratherium evolves. • 70 Ma: Multituberculates diversify. • 26 Ma: Emergence of the first true .

• 68 Ma: Tyrannosaurus rex evolves. • 25 Ma: First deer. Cats evolve. • 66 ± 0.3 Ma: Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous Period marks 5.3.2 Neogene Period the end of the Mesozoic era and the age of the dinosaurs; start of the Paleogene Period and the cur- • 23.03 ± 0.05 Ma: Neogene Period and rent Cenozoic era. epoch begin

• 20 Ma: Giraffes and giant anteaters evolve. 5.3 Cenozoic Era • 18-12 Ma: estimated age of the Main article: Cenozoic Hominidae/Hylobatidae (great apes vs. gibbons) split.

• 15 Ma: First mastodons, bovids, and kangaroos. 5.3.1 Paleogene Period Australian diversify. • 10 Ma: Insects diversify. First large horses. • 63 Ma: First creodonts. • 6.5 Ma: First members of the Hominini tribe. • 60 Ma: Evolution of the first primates and miacids. Flightless birds diversify. • 6 Ma: Australopithecines diversify.

• 56 Ma: Gastornis evolves. • 5.96 Ma - 5.33 Ma: Messinian Salinity Crisis: the precursor of the current Strait of Gibraltar closes re- • 55 Ma: the island of the Indian subcontinent col- peatedly, leading to a partial desiccation and strong lides with Asia, thrusting up the Himalayas and the increase in salinity of the Mediterranean Sea. Tibetan Plateau. Many modern bird groups appear. First whale ancestors. First rodents, lagomorphs, • 5.4-6.3 Ma: Estimated age of the Homo/Pan (hu- armadillos, sirenians, proboscideans, perissodactyls, man vs. chimpanzee) split. artiodactyls, and mako sharks. Angiosperms diver- • sify. 5.5 Ma: Appearance of the Ardipithecus • • 52 Ma: First bats. 5.33 Ma: Zanclean flood: the Strait of Gibraltar opens for the last (and current) time and water from • 50 Ma: Africa collides with , closing the the Atlantic Sea fills again the Mediterranean Sea Tethys Sea. Divergence of cat and dog ancestors. basin. Primates diversify. Brontotheres, , rhinos, and • camels evolve. 5.333 ± 0.005 Ma: epoch begins. First tree sloths and hippopotami. First large vultures. • 49 Ma: Whales return to the water. Nimravids go extinct. 10 7 REFERENCES

• 4.8 Ma: The mammoth appears. [2] According to isotopicAges, the Ca-Al-I’s (= Ca-Al-rich inclusions) here formed in a proplyd (= protoplanetary • 4.5 Ma: appearance of the genus Australopithecus disk]).

• 3 Ma: Isthmus of Panama joins North and South [3] Courtland, Rachel (July 2, 2008). “Did newborn Earth America. Great American Interchange. harbour life?". New Scientist. Retrieved April 13, 2014.

• 2.7 Ma: Paranthropus evolve. [4] Taylor, G. Jeffrey (2006), “Wandering Gas Giants and Lu- nar Bombardment: Outward migration of Saturn might • 2.6 Ma: current begins have triggered a dramatic increase in the bombardment rate on the Moon 3.9 billion years ago, an idea testable with lunar samples” 5.3.3 Period [5] Borenstein, Seth (19 October 2015). “Hints of life • 2.58 ± 0.005 Ma: start of the epoch, on what was thought to be desolate ”. the Stone Age and the current Quaternary Period; Excite (Yonkers, NY: Mindspark Interactive Network). Associated Press. Retrieved 2015-10-20. emergence of the genus Homo. Smilodon, the best known of the sabre-toothed cats, appears. [6] Bell, Elizabeth A.; Boehnike, Patrick; Harrison, T. Mark; et al. (19 October 2015). “Potentially biogenic carbon • 1.9 Ma: Oldest known fossils. This preserved in a 4.1 billion-year-old zircon” (PDF). Proc. species might be evolved some time before, up to 2 Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. (Washington, D.C.: National Ma ago. Academy of Sciences). doi:10.1073/pnas.1517557112. ISSN 1091-6490. Retrieved 2015-10-20. Early edition, • 1.7 Ma: Australopithecines go extinct. published online before print.

• 1.5 Ma: earliest possible evidence of the controlled [7] Mojzis, S, et al. (1996), Evidence for Life on Earth before use of fire by Homo erectus 3800 million years ago”, (, 384)

• 1.2 Ma: Homo antecessor evolves. Paranthropus [8] Yoko Ohtomo, Takeshi Kakegawa, Akizumi Ishida, dies out. Toshiro Nagase, Minik T. Rosing (8 December 2013). “Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean • 0.79 Ma: earliest demonstrable evidence of the con- Isua metasedimentary rocks”. Nature Geoscience. trolled use of fire by Homo erectus doi:10.1038/ngeo2025. Retrieved 9 Dec 2013.

• 0.7 Ma: last reversal of the earth’s magnetic field [9] Borenstein, Seth (13 November 2013). “Oldest fossil found: Meet your microbial mom”. AP News. Retrieved • 0.64 Ma: Yellowstone caldera erupts 15 November 2013.

• 0.6 Ma: Homo heidelbergensis evolves. [10] Noffke, Nora; Christian, Daniel; Wacey, David; Hazen, Robert M. (8 November 2013). “Microbially Induced • 0.5 Ma: colonisation of Eurasia by Homo erectus. Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient in the ca. 3.48 Billion-Year-Old Dresser Formation, Pil- • 0.3 Ma: Approximate age of Canis lupus. Middle bara, Western Australia”. Astrobiology (journal) 13 (12): Stone Age begins in Africa. 1103–24. doi:10.1089/ast.2013.1030. PMC 3870916. PMID 24205812. Retrieved 15 November 2013. • 0.25 Ma: evolve. [11] Eriksson, P.G.; Catuneanu, Octavian; Nelson, D.R.; • 0.2 Ma: Middle begins. Appearance of Mueller, W.U.; Altermann, Wladyslaw (2004), “Towards Homo sapiens in Africa a Synthesis (Chapter 5)", in Eriksson, P.G.; Altermann, Wladyslaw; Nelson, D.R.; Mueller, W.U.; Catuneanu, Octavian, The Precambrian Earth: Tempos and Events, For later events, see Timeline of human prehistory. Developments in Precambrian Geology 12, Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier, pp. 739–769, ISBN 978-0- 444-51506-3

[12] “Scientists reconstruct ancient impact that dwarfs 6 Etymology of period names -extinction blast”. AGU. 9 April 2014. Retrieved 10 April 2014. 7 References [13] Brocks et al. (1999), “Archaean molecular fossils and the early rise of eukaryotes”, (Science 285)

[1] Amelin,Yuri, Alexander N. Krot, Ian D. Hutcheon, & [14] Canfield, D (1999), “A Breath of Fresh Air” (Nature 400) Alexander A. Ulyanov (Sept 2002), “Lead Isotopic Ages of Chondrules and Calcium-Aluminum-Rich Inclusions” [15] Rye, E. and Holland, H. (1998), “Paleosols and the evolu- (Science, 6 September 2002: Vol. 297. no. 5587, pp. tion of atmospheric oxygen”, (Amer. Journ. of Science, 1678 - 1683) 289) 11

[16] Cowan, G (1976), A natural fission reactor (Scientific American, 235)

[17] Bernstein H, Bernstein C (May 1989). “Bacteriophage T4 genetic homologies with bacteria and eucaryotes”. J. Bac- teriol. 171 (5): 2265–70. PMC 209897. PMID 2651395.

[18] Butterfield, NJ. (2000). “Bangiomorpha pubescens n. gen., n. sp.: implications for the evolu- tion of sex, multicellularity and the Mesoprotero- zoic/Neoproterozoic radiation of eukaryotes”. Pa- leobiology 26 (3): 386–404. doi:10.1666/0094- 8373(2000)026<0386:BPNGNS>2.0.CO;2.

[19] Bernstein H, Bernstein C, Michod RE (2012). DNA repair as the primary adaptive function of sex in bac- teria and eukaryotes. Chapter 1: pp.1-49 in: DNA Repair: New Research, Sakura Kimura and Sora Shimizu editors. Nova Sci. Publ., Hauppauge, N.Y. ISBN 978-1-62100-808-8 https://www.novapublishers. com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=31918

8 See also

• Detailed logarithmic timeline

• Terasecond and longer • Timeline of the far future 12 9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1 Text

• Timeline of natural history Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_natural_history?oldid=688850132 Contributors: Jacko- fOz, Graeme Bartlett, Mike Rosoft, Vsmith, Florian Blaschke, Bender235, Anthony Appleyard, Stefan.haustein, Woohookitty, Drbog- dan, Rjwilmsi, Quiddity, Wjfox2005, Serendipodous, Yamaguchi, Paul H., J 1982, Smith609, Myasuda, JamesLucas, Headbomb, OrenBochman, Seaphoto, Volcanoguy, Artemis-Arethusa, Mathglot, Rominandreu, Evangelos Giakoumatos, Denisarona, Ratemonth, Niceguyedc, Arjayay, Addbot, Bernstein0275, Lightbot, Ben Ben, Yobot, AnomieBOT, A.amitkumar, BrideOfKripkenstein, Pinethicket, 0xab, Igel 14, Kenvandellen, Staindfan10, RockMagnetist, Teaktl17, ClueBot NG, Lincoln Josh, Zerbu, Cadiomals, Harizotoh9, Iyotake, Mogism, The Ocean, Tipszics, 156lckeeling12, Dodi 8238, Fafnir1, Monkbot, Hrichardlee, Rashisir, Davros69999 and Anonymous: 37

9.2 Images

• File:Geological_time_spiral.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Geological_time_spiral.png License: Public domain Contributors: Graham, Joseph, Newman, William, and Stacy, John, 2008, The geologic time spiral—A path to the past (ver. 1.1): U.S. Geological Survey General Information Product 58, poster, 1 sheet. Available online at http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/2008/58/ Original artist: United States Geological Survey • File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist: Tkgd2007

9.3 Content license

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