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University of Oklahoma Graduate College A UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA GRADUATE COLLEGE A DESCRIPTIVE CASE STUDY OF THE IMPACT OF 9/11 ON INTERNATIONAL STUDENT VISA POLICY IN THE 20 MONTHS FOLLOWING THE ATTACKS A Dissertation SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy By MARY HELEN REEVES Norman, Oklahoma 2005 UMI Number: 3187222 Copyright 2005 by Reeves, Mary Helen All rights reserved. UMI Microform 3187222 Copyright 2005 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346 © Copyright by MARY HELEN REEVES 2005 All Rights Reserved. Acknowledgements I could not have completed this study, not to mention the program it culminates, without the support of many people. For his guidance through my program and belief in my ability to accomplish this dissertation, I first thank Dr. Tom Owens, my doctoral advisor and commit tee co- chair , and friend. His insights into the process and encouragement throughout eased many difficulties. I also thank Dean Joan Smith, my other committee co -chair, who assisted me in understanding the nature of qualitative, descriptive study, and who provided valuable suggestions at critical junctures. I would also like to thank the other members of my doctoral committee for their insights, support and time in working with me and reviewing my study: Dr. Gregg Garn, Dr. Rosa Cintrón, and Dr. Robert Cox. As I conducted this study, I found that the interviews with international student administrators were especially compelling for me personally, and the insights into the international education policy domain during the difficult period following 9/11 these administrators provided emphasized the human aspects of policy actions and proved that the work of international educators is important and meaningful. The administrators must remain anonymous, but for their time and willingness to talk frankly, I thank them. Without the unstinting support of my family and friends, I could not have completed my doctoral program or this study. I give my deepest thanks to my husband, Don Meeks, who believed in me and supporte d me every step of this journey. I owe much to my parents, Helen and Lewis, and my sister and brother -in - law, Martha and Edward, who patiently listened over the years and helped me keep everything in perspective. I have developed a group of friends at the University of iv Oklahoma while completing my progr am, and through their collegiality I have learned how academic communities can support thought and thoughtful interaction. In particular, I wish to thank Dr. Tammy Boyd for her gracious hospitality, intellectual insights, and straight-on friendship through out. v Table of Contents Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................iv Table of Contents .....................................................................................................vi Abstract ....................................................................................................................ix Chapter 1................................................................................................................... 1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2................................................................................................................. 15 Background to the Case and the Study ............................................................... 15 Introduction..................................................................................................... 15 Historical Overview of International Students in the U.S. ............................. 16 and Links to Public Policy .............................................................................. 16 Educational Value of International Education and Related Policy ............. 19 Economic/Commercial Value and Related Policy ...................................... 22 Public Diplomacy Value a nd International Education in the National Interest ......................................................................................................... 23 The International Education Practitioner and Advocacy Community ............ 27 Studen t Visa Policy prior to 9/11.................................................................... 32 The Student Visa Process at the Time of 9/11............................................ 35 Security Checks in Place at the Time of 9/11............................................. 36 International Student Visa Policy and the 1993 World Trade Center Bombing...................................................................................................... 38 Policies related to IIRIRA and CIPRIS ...................................................... 39 Focusing Events and the Policy Process ......................................................... 45 Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................... 46 Research Questions......................................................................................... 49 The Method of the Study ................................................................................ 50 Timeframe ................................................................................................... 50 Definition of Policy ..................................................................................... 50 Definitions of Other Terms ......................................................................... 51 Background of the Researcher ........................................................................ 54 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 56 Chapter 3................................................................................................................. 58 Changes in Public Policy following 9/11............................................................ 58 Introduction..................................................................................................... 58 Student Visa Policy after 9/11 ........................................................................ 58 Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate To ols Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism (USA PATRIOT) Act of 2001, Pub. L. 107-56 (H.R. 3162), October 25, 2001. ............................... 64 Enhanced Border Security and Visa Entry Reform Act, Pub. L. 107-173, (H.R. 3523, H.R. 1885), May 14, 2002. ..................................................... 65 Homeland Security Act, Pub. L. 107-296, (H.R. 5005, H.R. 5710), November 25, 2002.....................................................................................66 SEVIS ......................................................................................................... 67 ISEAS ......................................................................................................... 69 IPASS .......................................................................................................... 71 NSEERS ...................................................................................................... 72 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 74 vi Chapter 4................................................................................................................. 76 Impact on Advocacy Organizations and Their Reactions................................... 76 Introduction..................................................................................................... 76 The Organizations........................................................................................... 77 Initial Impact of 9/11 before Pass age of the USA PATRIOT Act .................. 81 International Students and the National Security Argument .......................... 83 Shift in the Policy Image of Internat ional Students ........................................ 91 Issue Advocacy Work of the Organizations ................................................... 96 Practice Support to Serve Constituents as the Policy Cascade Inten sified ..... 99 Practice advice, support, and resources .................................................... 100 Data collection and generation.................................................................. 103 Sector-specific issues ................................................................................ 104 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 108 Chapter 5............................................................................................................... 110 Administrators' Reactions and Experiences ...................................................... 110 Introduction................................................................................................... 110 The Administrator Profile ............................................................................. 112 Administrators' Near -term Experiences and Actions.................................... 116 Five Topics Emerging in All Interviews ....................................................... 120 1. Changed Work and Role
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