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Interrogating Irrigation Inequalities

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Interrogating Irrigation Inequalities Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit Case Study Series Interrogating Irrigation Inequalities Canal Irrigation Systems in Injil District, Herat Srinivas Chokkakula Funding for this research was provided by the European Commission. April 2009 Editor: Srinivas Chokkakula Layout: Qasim Rasouli for AREU © 2009 Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the publisher, the Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit. Permission can be obtained by emailing [email protected] or by calling (+93)(0)799 608 548. About the Author Srinivas Chokkakula is a human geographer with degrees in civil engineering and environmental planning. He has 15 years of work experience in projects related to natural resource management, local knowledge systems, regional planning and local governance. He has worked with the Indian Institute of Management and the Environmental Planning Collaborative, both in Ahmedabad, India. He is currently undertaking doctoral research on interstate water disputes in India at the Department of Geography, University of Washington, Seattle, USA. About the Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit The Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit (AREU) is an independent research organisation based in Kabul. AREU’s mission is to conduct high-quality research that informs and influences policy and practice. AREU also actively promotes a culture of research and learning by strengthening analytical capacity in Afghanistan and facilitating reflection and debate. Fundamental to AREU’s vision is that its work should improve Afghan lives. AREU was established in 2002 by the assistance community working in Afghanistan. Its board of directors includes representatives from donors, the UN and other multilateral agencies, and NGOs. AREU has recently received funding from: the European Commission; the governments of Denmark (DANIDA), the United Kingdom (DFID), Switzerland (SDC), Norway and Sweden (SIDA); the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR); the Government of Afghanistan’s Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock; the World Bank; UNICEF; the Aga Khan Foundation; and the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM). AREU Discussion Paper Acknowledgements Catholic Relief Services (CRS) in Herat hosted the researcher during fieldwork in Injil District. I express my deep gratitude to staff members at the CRS Herat office, including: Mr. Matt McGarry, Country Representative, and Dr Kamal Bhattacharya, Regional Technical Advisor, for facilitating the fieldwork; and Dr Hazrat Karimi, Health and Security Advisor, for coordinating safety and security. Special thanks are due to Mr. Amanullah Afzali and Ms Sima Rezai of CRS and Mr. Abdul Zahir of the Department of Water for accompanying me in the field and helping to translate conversations. Mr. Humayoon Ebrahimi and Amanullah extended warm hospitality during my entire stay and I am deeply indebted to them. At AREU, Dr Lenard Milich was a great supporter and provided valuable guidance throughout the project. Colin Deschamps provided efficient support with logistics and hospitality during my stay in Kabul. Royce Wiles was extremely helpful in finding many relevant publications. I am also thankful to the researchers at AREU, in particular those on the Natural Resource Management team, for their comments during the seminar at which preliminary findings were presented. Srinivas Chokkakula April 2009 Interrogating Irrigation Inequalities: Canal Irrigation Systems in Injil District, Herat Table of Contents Acknowledgements ..........................................................................i Acronyms .....................................................................................ii Glossary ..................................................................................... iii 1. Introduction ............................................................................ 1 1.1 Study methods ...................................................................... 1 1.2 Context .............................................................................. 3 1.3 What are irrigation inequities? .................................................. 5 2. A Tale of Two Canal Systems in Injil District..................................... .. 8 2.1 History, extent and characteristics of the canal systems .................... 8 2.2 Interrogating irrigation inequities in Injil District .......................... 12 2.3 Background to irrigation distribution in Injil District ....................... 13 3. Production of Inequities ............................................................ 16 3.1 Spatial and physical factors .................................................... 16 3.2 Socioeconomic differences and ethnic relations ............................ 19 3.3 “Kinks” and “weak links” in institutions ..................................... 21 3.4 Cultural factors: gender inequities ........................................... 22 3.5 Structural factors ................................................................ 24 4. Ways of Mitigating Inequities ...................................................... 26 4.1 Indigenous technological solutions ............................................ 26 4.2 The institutional spaces of mirabs and wakils .............................. 28 4.3 Institutional interlinkages for the management of inequity .............. 29 4.4 “Affirmative action” at work: empowering the disempowered .......... 30 4.5 Hashar ab: coping with contingencies ........................................ 31 4.6 Coping through cooperation and collective action ......................... 32 4.7 Organising equity in obligations of maintenance ........................... 33 5. Conclusions ........................................................................... 35 5.1 Indigenous technologies and institutions ..................................... 38 5.2 Community organisation and confronting inequities ....................... 39 5.3 Impose, transfer or build upon local community management systems? .... 40 5.4 Linking formal and informal institutions ..................................... 40 5.5 Inequities and the spaces of “statelessness” ................................ 41 Bibliography ............................................................................... 42 Recent Publications from AREU ......................................................... 45 Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit Acronyms AIMS Afghanistan Information Management Systems AREU Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit CRS Catholic Relief Services CSO Central Statistics Office, Afghanistan UNFPA United Nations Population Fund UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees IDP internally displaced person MEW Ministry of Energy and Water SMEC Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation NSP National Solidarity Programme WUAs water user associations ii Interrogating Irrigation Inequalities: Canal Irrigation Systems in Injil District, Herat Glossary arbab an elder person elected as leader of the village arhat dug well bola buluk upstream section chakbashi water manager at the community level in Baghlan Province, equivalent to wakil in Herat Province cumecs cubic meters per second — a unit for discharge hashar ab a community institution to address contingency situations whereby on the demand of a lower-section mirab, the wakil sets out a schedule to close secondary canals on upstream sections to let water flow to downstream sections jerib unit of land measurement: 1 jerib equals roughly one fifth of a hectare karez a traditional groundwater harvesting structure (also known as qanat in Iran) khaluse land distributed free of cost to farmers by government kulb circular outlet mein buluk middle section mirab water master, manages and maintains secondary canal natre square weir naubat rotational schedule and order in which water is allowed into farm poen buluk downstream section rayati land independently owned or acquired by farmers saat allocated time interval of water flow allowed in proportion to landholding of farmer Sharia religious law of Islam sharsham rapeseed for oil shura village governance committee Taximot Hakobe Ab the treatise of Maulana Abdul Rehman Jami (1414–1492), a manual that guides irrigation distribution in Herat Province (translates literally as “distribution of water”) wakil water master, manages and maintains primary canal iii Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit iv Interrogating Irrigation Inequalities: Canal Irrigation Systems in Injil District, Herat 1. Introduction This report presents the findings of a case study looking at irrigation system in Injil District, Herat Province, Afghanistan. The purpose of the study was to understand inequities and inequalities in irrigation distribution in a typical canal irrigation system. Two canals of the Hari Rud river system flowing in Injil District, Herat Province, were selected as the focus of the study. The report describes the range of means by which communities organise equitable irrigation distribution by drawing on indigenous technological solutions and institutional arrangements. It identifies the drivers of inequity and the ways used to mitigate this within the Afghan context. These drivers include: power relations associated with socioeconomic differences; ethnic and cultural relations; and structural and geographic
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