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ENCYCLOPEDIA of CHINESE LANGUAGE and LINGUISTICS Volume 4 Shā–Z Encyclopedia of Chinese Language and Linguistics Volume 4 Shā–Z For use by the Author only | © 2017 Koninklijke Brill NV General Editor Rint Sybesma (Leiden University) Associate Editors Wolfgang Behr (University of Zurich) Yueguo Gu (Chinese Academy of Social Sciences) Zev Handel (University of Washington) C.-T. James Huang (Harvard University) James Myers (National Chung Cheng University) For use by the Author only | © 2017 Koninklijke Brill NV ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CHINESE LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS Volume 4 Shā–Z General Editor Rint Sybesma Associate Editors Wolfgang Behr Yueguo Gu Zev Handel C.-T. James Huang James Myers LEIDEN • BOSTON 2017 For use by the Author only | © 2017 Koninklijke Brill NV Typeface for the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic scripts: “Brill”. See and download: brill.com/brill-typeface.. ISBN 978-90-04-18643-9 (hardback, set) ISBN 978-90-04-26227-0 (hardback, vol. 1) ISBN 978-90-04-26223-2 (hardback, vol. 2) ISBN 978-90-04-26224-9 (hardback, vol. 3) ISBN 978-90-04-26225-6 (hardback, vol. 4) ISBN 978-90-04-26226-3 (hardback, vol. 5) Copyright 2017 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Nijhofff, Global Oriental and Hotei Publishing. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. This book is printed on acid-free paper and produced in a sustainable manner. For use by the Author only | © 2017 Koninklijke Brill NV 115 sinoform writing Starostin, Sergei, Sino-Caucasian: Phonology and Glos- some variety of Chinese or possibly on readings sary, Ms., http://starling.rinet.ru/, 2005. of Chinese characters imported from the Korean Starostin, George, “Dene-Yeniseian and Dene- Caucasian: Pronouns and Other Thoughts”, Work- peninsula, but others deriving from Japanese ing Papers in Athabaskan Languages 2009. Berkeley, translational equivalents are observed as well California, July 10-12, 2009. Alaska Native Language (e.g., nǚ 女 ‘woman’ used to represent /mye/, via Center: Working Papers 8, 2010, 107–117. Old Japanese mye ‘woman’; → Sino-Xenic Read- Trombetti, Alfredo, “Delle relazioni delle lingue Cau- ings). This became the forerunner of the two syl- casiche con le lingue Camitosemitiche e con altri gruppi linguistici” [On the relations of Caucasian labaries hiragana and katakana, with hiragana’s languages with Hamito-Semitic languages and syllabograms being based on cǎoshū 草書 or fur- other language groups], Giornale della Società Asi- ther cursivized forms of sinographs (e.g., め /me/ atica Italiana 15, 1902, 177–201. < Old Japanese /mye/ from the character 女) and Vajda, Edward J., “Yeniseian, Na-Dene, and Historical Linguistics”, in: James Kari and Ben A. Potter, eds., katakana’s syllabograms resulting from simpli- The Dene-Yeniseian Connection (Anthropological fijication through a combination of the deletion Papers of the University of Alaska, Vol. V), Fairbanks: of strokes and cursivization where necessary to University of Alaska, 2010, 100–118. meet the needs of interlinear glossing of Chinese Vovin, Alexander, “Did the Xiong-nu Speak a Yeni- seian Language?”, Central Asiatic Journal 44/1, 2000, texts (e.g., イ /i/ from yī 伊 or ス /su/ from the 87–104. cursivized right half of xū 須, via Early Middle Chinese *ʔji and *suə̆ [here and passim quoted George Starostin from Pulleyblank 1991]). Thus although syllabaries were formed through the graphical reduction of sinographs, Sinoform Writing it also happened throughout history that ‘national characters’—that is, sinographs made The term Sinoform writing is used here with ref- in Japan—were created, called kokuji 国字 in erence to scripts used in reducing non-Chinese Japanese (or also wasei kanji 和製漢字 ‘Japan- languages to writing, but developed on the basis created Chinese graphs’). In the absence of of the Chinese script and predominantly mak- any need to create new phonograms, the great ing use of graphical elements pre-existing in the majority of these are phonosemantic (xíngshēng same. While not the only examples of their kind 形聲) or syssemantic (huìyì 會意) morphograms (for an overview including further cases not dis- (→ Liù Shū 六書 [Six Scripts]). Rare exceptions cussed here, such as Sino-Miáo 苗 and Sino-Sui, to this are the following bigraphic ligatures with or Shuǐshū 水書, see, e.g., Zhōu 1989 or Nishida the structure for use in proper names, which 2001b), the four cases surveyed in the following simply combine two phonograms: maro 麿 < 麻 in alphabetical order appear reasonably repre- 呂 /ma-ro/, kume 粂 < 久米 /ku-me/. sentative. Typologically the fijirst two—Japanese Of the ‘national-character’ morphograms, a and Korean—may resemble each other to some great many pertain to the realms of flora and extent, yet they are of a quite diffferent order fauna, as in the examples below. The graphs in than the last two—Vietnamese and Zhuàng 壯. (1) in Table 1 are both syssemantic and paral- lel in structure: For sakaki, the sacred tree of 1. Japanese Shintō, and shikimi, branches of which serve as offferings in Buddhism, the determiner木 ‘tree’ Since the 7th century at the latest, Chinese char- is added to graphs metonymically representing acters, or sinographs, were employed on a larger the respective religion. The examples in (2)–(4) scale both as morphograms and phonograms are all phonosemantic graphs, with the semantic (i.e., to render morphemes and sounds—here: element usually being chosen from the standard syllables—respectively) to reduce Japanese to set of determiners in the Chinese script. The writing, the latter yielding the system known as cases difffer in so far as the phonetic element man’yōgana 万葉仮名. Here, the sound values variously derives from translational equivalents of phonograms were most commonly based on (2) or Sino-Japanese readings (3), or is expressed For use by the Author only | © 2017 Koninklijke Brill NV sinoform writing 116 Table 1. Examples of kokuji morphograms graph used to write graph used to write 1. 榊 sakaki ‘Cleyera japonica’ 神 kami ‘Shintō deity’ 梻 shikimi ‘Illicium anisatum’ 佛 hotoke ‘Buddha’ 2. 褄 tsuma ‘skirt, hem’ 妻 tsuma ‘wife’ 鯐 subashiri ‘young Mugil cephalus’ 走 -bashiri < hashir- ‘to run’ 3. 鳰 nio (< nipo) ‘grebe’ 入 Sino-Japanese nyū < nipu 鯏 asari ‘Ruditapes philippinarum’ 利 Sino-Japanese ri 4. 杤 (栃) tochi ‘Aesculus turbinata’ 万 ‘10,000’ = to (tō) chi ‘1,000’ indirectly, here by an arithmetic pun (4). Note just as zero-initial syllables are (安, 以, 宇, 江, that partial phonetics (as in subashiri, asari) and 遠 for /a, i, u, (y)e, (w)o/). Reduced forms of commonly occur besides full ones. As Japanese the latter four (人, 于, 工, and 袁) are then used words are often disyllabic or longer, the absence much like vowel diacritics to derive combina- of satisfactory candidates for phonetic elements tions representing the remaining syllable types, arguably fostered the creation of syssemantic each squeezed into a single block, e.g., 蔕 /ki/, 蕋 graphs. /ku/, 薛 /se/, 藏 /so/, and so on. As with some Korean characters incorporating hankul as non-Chinese elements (on which see 2. Korean below), there are also hybrid characters combin- ing sinographs and katakana, although these are Before the creation of the Korean alphabet han- of course ultimately Chinese in origin. While kul in the mid-15th century, the only method such cases were rare in actual usage apart from employed to reduce Korean to writing was to use the formerly widespread ligature 决 (from ト / sinography. A number of overlapping systems to/, here rendering quotative =to, and yū 云 ‘to are usually distinguished, all making use of mor- say’), the idea was sometimes taken to extremes phographical and phonographical strategies to in the script reform movements during the Meiji render Korean. Such use of the Chinese script to period. A case in point is the ‘newly invented Jap- render so-called hyangka 鄕歌 ‘local songs’, i.e., anese script’ of Tanaka Shūsui 田中秀穂 (1899), early Korean language poetry, is referred to as which consists of phonosemantic graphs formed hyangchal 鄕札 ‘local letters’. Here, the charac- from a set of determiners that are only in part ters are graphically unchanged, with a high per- already present in Chinese paired with a slightly centage being used morphographically, while altered katakana syllabary. Three of Tanaka’s (in phonograms are chiefly used to render deriva- the end unsuccessful) characters are given in tional and inflectional sufffijixes or particles. The Table 2. Note his use of 士 and 夂 instead of the extant corpus of only little more than a score usual シ /si/ and タ /ta/ respectively, and also of poems still contains not a few uncertainties that only a single stroke rather than the usual two despite numerous attempts at decipherment. ( ゛) is added to mark voiced obstruents. Uncontroversial however are phonograms to On a side-note one might refer to inventions render coda consonants such as 隱 (EMC *ʔɨn’) such as the Sinoform abugida (in the terminol- /-n/, 音 (*ʔim) /-m/, 乙 (*ʔit) /-l/, etc., which ogy of Daniels 1990) of Keichū 契沖 (1640–1701), we will return to below. The heavily sinicized as presented in his Waji shōran-shō 和字正濫鈔 prose of administrative and other documents (1695; I/13v–14r). Here, syllables ending in a (or, is reduced to writing in a mode of inscription consonants with inherent following vowel /a/) known as itwu 吏讀 ‘clerk readings’.
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