ISIM Newsletter 11 ISIM,

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9 2 2 2 7 3 3 Isa Blumi Aki Nawaz Lara Deeb Joel Beinin Indoctrinating Albanians: Fun Da Mental: Radical Music, Women's Islamic Community Neo-Conservatives Threaten Dynamics of Islamic Aid Political Protest Service in Beirut Academic Freedom

The visibility of converts to Islam in the media has re- cently undergone an exponential increase – mainly in the United States. There was the case of Jonny Walker, labelled 'Jonny the Taliban', born into the wasp upper class, who was apprehended as m u j a h i d Converts and the in Afghanistan. Then there was José Padilla, the would-be terrorist who was seized in an airport loaded with explosives. Finally, John Allen Williams came on the scene. Of Jamaican ancestry, born in Louisiana, this former American soldier in the Gulf Making of War became the serial killer that terrorized Washing- ton in October 2002 by killing 13 people in cold b l o o d . These three tales have nothing in common, apart from the fact that all three protagonists are converts to Islam. E u r o p e a n I s l a m

ertheless, literature on the matter remains have influenced certain conversions are ment in at least three fields. They offer legit- STEFANO ALLIEVI rather scarce, especially when compared to those of traditionalist authors such as René imation in the eyes of society: a function ful- that of the so-called 'new religious move- Guénon, Fritjof Schuon, and Titus Burck- filled especially by the intellectuals who ments', some of which have a smaller mem- hardt, all of whom became Muslims. have converted. They are present also in the bership compared to converts to Islam. Sufism is, however, a specific way to enter academic milieu, for instance among the The highest number of conversions to Islam, or rather a special facet of it, and orientalists, and they contribute to produc- Islam is brought about by a cause that has leads to embracing Islam through the role ing the image of Islam and its contents. The little to do with the search for spirituality, of the t u r u q, not often connected to the converts also provide confirmation for the namely marriage (following the Islamic 'Islam of the mosques'. benefit of the migrant community, especial- rules, a non-Muslim male cannot marry a For many converts the background of ly those with a weaker sense of identity: Muslim woman without converting). Such a conversion is political, both (even extreme) their s h a h a d a, when enunciated in an Islam- reason for conversion may contradict the right and left: Islam, the religion of praxis ic centre, or in publications, are a 'proof' of principle of freedom of religion and of con- that does not distinguish by principle be- the superiority of Islam and a confirmation science as it developed in the West, but is tween the 'city of men' and the 'city of God' of the rightness of their faith for those immi- normally lived without special problems by but rather willingly superimposes them, grants who are often less integrated and people who, often, are hardly religious, and seems to constitute an ideal way to 'spiritu- less well-educated. Finally, they comprise are consequently little disturbed by this alize' a militant commitment that previously an element of g u a r a n t e e: a convert is a citi- c h o i c e . These conversions have generally was only social or political. It is not merely zen – and a militant or an Islamic leader as a no great impact on the lives of the individu- by chance that we find these converts in the citizen can not be expelled, or surrendered, als and of the couples, and often not even leadership and in the intermediate centres to this or that native Islamic country. on that of their offspring. As a matter of fact, of the Islamic associations in Europe, in the If that is the present situation in several conversion under these circumstances is a mosques, and in promoting political initia- European countries, in spite of s i g n i f i c a n t means to reach another aim (marriage), not tives such as requests to be recognized by variations of weight and importance be- an end in itself. the state. In short, they are closely in touch tween the one and the other (which ought However, other trajectories to conversion, with the Islam of the immigrants. to be analysed individually), the potential which, like the previous ones, can be called situation, the possible evolution of the func- 'relational', even if far less numerous, are the F u n c t i o n s tion of the converts, is not the same. Indeed, ones that have the greatest impact: on the A distinction can be made between the some of the present functions served by the lives of the individuals, but also on that of actual and potential functions of converts – converts are transitory: for instance, they fill the Islamic communities in Europe. In the with the aim of trying to understand the dy- a gap in terms of leadership and cultural list can be included the 'discovery' of Islam namic and evolutionary aspect of the elaboration because of the lack of immi- through meeting Muslim believers, while as process. One can speak of a function of cul- grants capable of doing so. However, they a tourist or on a business trip to Muslim tural mediation, of linguistic translation, could be substituted by a new leadership, countries, or through meeting an immigrant and of interpretation, in a broad cognitive which may come from abroad but will more in Europe and eventually falling in love with sense. In practice, the following acquire likely be produced within the second and Former British These three tales of converts to Islam also him or her (it is the case of several mixed great importance: the contribution in terms third generations of immigrants, something pop star Cat have in common that they all deeply affect- couples, even when the conversion is not of social know-how; the pooling of a net- that is currently happening in several Euro- Stevens, now ed the American imagery and brought compulsory, as in the case of a non-Muslim work of relationships (including the politi- pean countries. Yusuf Islam. about a reawakening, or even the discovery woman marrying a Muslim man). cal, institutional, and religious ones), which Nevertheless, the lasting importance of of an interest in the Islam of converts, which A different model of conversion is that of already exist and which can be developed the converts must be emphasized, mainly in until recently – with few exceptions – was the 'rational' conversions. Here we can refer further; the peculiar intellectual function the institutional interface and in the ' p o w e r mainly considered to be a phenomenon to the intellectual conversions, 'cold' so to that is shown through the capacity to medi- games', which are linked to the national or limited to the black Muslims movement of speak, which are due to the reading, even ate and to produce culture both within the regional representation of Islam, particular- Elijah Muhammad and nowadays of Louis by chance, of the Qur'an, for all sorts of rea- community (books and reviews, but also ly with respect to the host society and its in- Farrakhan (of whom John Allen had been a sons and in the most diverse situations: ei- testimonies and sermons) and, chiefly, out- stitutions: a role that the passage of genera- follower), and consequently almost thought ther received as a gift, as happened to one side of it through the contribution made to tion among the Muslim communities will of as an 'ethnic' oddity. of the most well-known European converts, the formation of the image of Islam (confer- not be able to cancel in the short term, even In Europe, attention paid to conversion to former pop singer Cat Stevens, who became ences, public relations, and on a larger scale though one might hypothesize that the Islam has begun to gather momentum in Yusuf Islam, or because it was found in the the simple explanation of personal behav- overestimation of their role in cultural and the last years and has opened up to research prison library. Others became acquainted iours like wearing the h i j a b: as one of our in- organizational leadership that is now attrib- into the role of some Sufi groups, trajecto- with Islam through books of Islamic mysti- terviewees stated, 'I am a walking symbol'). uted to the converts – very visible in some ries of the feminine conversions, and the cism, notably Sufism, which have attracted a In a more general sense, the converts con- countries, namely those where immigration role of converts in Muslim associations. N e v- wide Western readership. Other books that stitute (and are perceived as) a crucial ele- Continued on page 26 2 ISIM I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2

Gamal Abdel Nasser meets Malcom X in Antwerp. In response to the ment of migrant youth by the police. High-ranking politicians in the ongoing debate on the flaws of multiculturalism and the alleged Netherlands, including some ministers, joined the parade and deficiencies of Islam, preventing Muslims from embracing Western vowed that they would do their utmost to prohibit the League from modernity, some migrant activists have started a counter-cam- spreading to their country. In the meantime, lack of proof com- paign in Western Europe. The most outspoken representative of a pelled the Belgian authorities to release the culprit after a few days: young generation of activists is Dyab Abou Jahjah, who left a migrant hero was born. However, many – also among the migrant Lebanon for Belgium in 1990 to study political science. In 2000 he communities – argue that Abou Jahjah is detrimental to the cause founded the Arab European League, a movement that claims to of these communities and that he represents no-one but himself. have over 400 members and many more sympathizers in Belgium. But in the ‘soap opera’ that migrant and identity politics in Western Today, the movement is gaining popularity in neighbouring coun- Europe has become, Abou Jahjah needs little effort to find his ISIM Newsletter 11 tries, too, and the Netherlands’ branch of the niche. His good looks, flamboyant style, and fluen- December 2002 League will be formally opened soon. Unlike most cy in Dutch are well received among Moroccan 40 pages migrant activists and representatives, forced into E d i t o r i a l youth and make him an attractive media personal- ISSN 1 388-9788 a defensive position, in particular after 9/11, Abou ity. Some of his language comes close to that of Editorial Office Jahjah calls for the restoration of Arab and Muslim DICK DOUWES E d i t o r hip hop and other modern music cultures (see Visiting Address Rapenburg 71, Leiden dignity and pride among the migrant communi- Khedimallah, pp. 20–1, and Nawaz, p. 22). Postal Address ISIM, P.O. Box 11089 ties. Countering apologies, self-critique, and gestures of goodwill In his political thinking Abou Jahjah combines Abdel Nasser’s call 2301 EB Leiden, The Netherlands T e l e p h o n e by most migrant representatives, Abou Jahjah has taken up the for an Arab renaissance with Malcom X’s demand for respect and +31(0)71 527 79 05 T e l e f a x cause of migrant culture and faith demanding the acknowledge- justice for oppressed minorities, embracing the latter’s appeal to +31(0)71 527 79 06 E - m a i l ment and reproduction of cultural diversity. He equates integration seize these rights and not to wait patiently until they are granted i s i m n e w s @ i s i m . n l H o m e p a g e with assimilation and therefore rejects it. He is severely opposed to ( w w w . a r a b e u r o p e a n . o r g ) . w w w . i s i m . n l the Belgian political establishment, accusing it of curbing Muslim Abou Jahjah’s shift from Nasserite Arab activism to migrant E d i t o r Dick Douwes inhabitants’ civil rights and portraying Islam as a criminal belief. spokesmanship points to the emancipation of youth of Muslim Copy and language editor Gabrielle Constant Antwerp’s white right-wing Flemish Bloc party, being part of that background who are, unlike their parents, well versed in European Desk editor Noël Lambert establishment, constitutes his main antagonist. But given that languages and cultures, but who react against growing pressures D e s i g n mainstream political parties in Europe increasingly adopt right- to distance themselves from their heritage. Interestingly, they con- De Kreeft, Amsterdam P r i n t i n g wing issues and that the media are eager to cover any signal of strue Islam as a cultural rather than religious and societal system, Dijkman Offset, Diemen Muslim maladjustment, the non-conformist Abou Jahjah is now albeit that some Islamic notions are used to appropriate and au- Coming issues ISIM Newsletter 12 empowered to provoke angry responses from among the nation’s thenticate notions such as democracy. Deadline: 1 February 2003 Published: May 2003 élite and that of its neighbours. Ostensibly in contrast is the Somalian-born Ayaan Hirsi Ali, who ISIM Newsletter 13 Deadline: 1 June 2003 Abou Jahjah’s fame is of very recent date. He first became known came into the spotlight by publicly declaring that she no longer Published: September 2003 ISIM Newsletter 14 when the League was among the initiators of a complaint filed considers herself a Muslim, principally because of the inferior sta- Deadline: 1 October 2003 Published: December 2003 against Ariel Sharon and others for their responsibility in the mas- tus of Muslim women who are, in her view, lowered to son-bearing The ISIM solicits your response to the ISIM Newsletter. sacres of Sabra and Shatila in 1976. The complaint was lodged with machinery. Her step was no doubt a brave one, but the way in If you wish to contribute to the ISIM Newsletter, s t y l e sheets may be obtained upon request from the ISIM the Belgian Public Prosecutor’s Office in June 2001 following the which she was readily adopted by the main conservative party in Secretariat or on the ISIM website. In order to offer updated information on activities concerning the study recognition of the principle of the exercise of universal jurisdiction the Netherlands and offered a seat in parliament, indicates that her of Islam and Muslim societies, along with news on vacancies, grants, and fellowships, the ISIM relies on its by a Belgian court in a case against four Rwandan nationals for war situation is not totally different from that Abou Jahjah: their indi- readers. The information will be made available on the ISIM website. crimes earlier in the same month. The case was dismissed last June, vidual careers largely depend on the agitated state of public de- The ISIM Newsletter is published by the International Institute for the Study of Islam in the but by then Abou Jahjah had proven his talent for holding the lime- bate and rapidly changing political moods. The processes of inclu- Modern World (ISIM). Responsibility for the facts and opinions expressed in this publication rests solely with light; in a series of incidents and interviews within one year’s time sion and exclusion dominate the political field and various notions the authors. Their views do not necessarily reflect those of the Institute or its supporters. The ISIM Newsletter i s he evolved from a pro-Palestinian activist to a spokesperson of a of being Muslim or being Western, or both, compete. In the 1990s free of charge. disgruntled Muslim youth. In November he was arrested after riots the position of Muslims living as minorities in the West and else- in an Antwerp suburb following the murder of a Belgian citizen of where came under discussion among s h a r ica-oriented thinkers (see Staff ISIM Moroccan origin by a next-door (white) neighbour. Antwerp police Masud, p. 17). This discussion poses daunting challenges to Islamic • Muhammad Khalid Masud Academic Director accused Abou Jahjah of having incited Moroccan youth to rampage legal reasoning, which is founded on the assumption that Muslims • Peter van der Veer C o - D i r e c t o r the neighbourhood and the Belgian Prime Minister branded the are (or will or should be) a majority population. Minorities and ma- • Dick Douwes Academic Affairs League as a criminal organization, also because it had taken up pa- jorities, dominating cultures and minor cultures – new vocabularies • Mary Bakker Administrative Affairs trolling the streets of Antwerp in order to tape possible ill-treat- and frames of reference are in the making. • Mariette van Beek Administrative Affairs • Nathal Dessing LETTER TO THE EDITOR E d u c a t i o n • Noël Lambert Newsletter & Website • Marina de Regt Professor Henry Munson has made some thought- Mujeeb R. Khan, was with Kramer at the University that forestall the possibility of gradual and pluralis- Domestic Labour Project • Bouchra El Idrissi ful and important contributions to the study of pol- of Chicago during Operation Desert Storm. While tic reform. Esposito's path-breaking work is now Administrative Assistant • Ada Seffelaar itics in the Islamic world. Unfortunately, his latest Khan explicitly warned in lectures (and subsequent more important than ever. If we are to forestall Management Assistant contribution descends into a facile and false di- articles) that massive US-led destruction in the Is- murderous and unwinnable 'clashes of civilization' • Elger van der Avoird Database Assistant chotomy between Daniel Pipes and John Esposito. lamic world would inevitably lead to radicalization involving billions of people around the globe, it is Rights at Home Project Daniel Pipes, Martin Kramer, et al have become no- and devastating attacks upon America, Kramer, vital that mainstream reformist and democratically • Laila al-Zwaini torious for espousing the most militant and ex- both at the time and subsequently, discounted the inclined Muslim thinkers and movements – which Programme Coordinator • Prof. Abdullahi an-Nacim treme views of Jabotinskyite ultra-nationalism. In danger for the US of following a neo-conservative have always existed and to which Munson seems Primary Consultant • Prof. Nasr Abu Zaid the case of Pipes, this has led to blatantly racist dia- agenda of destructive interventionism in the Islam- suddenly oblivious – in Indonesia, Malaysia, Pak- Resource Person tribes in publications like the National Review, ic world. John Esposito has also long warned that istan, Uzbekistan, Turkey, Egypt, Tunisia, and Mo- B o a r d where he complained of a Muslim 'invasion' of the the failure of the United States to support democ- rocco be engaged by Western scholars and institu- • Drs L.E.H. Vredevoogd (Chair) President of Leiden University West. In his latest book, he accuses American Mus- ratization and equitable socio-economic develop- tions. This sort of scholarly engagement was pio- • Dr S.J. Noorda President of University of Amsterdam lims of a nefarious plot to take over the US govern- ment in the Islamic world would also lead to ex- neered by John Esposito and it offers humanity the • Dr J.R.T.M. Peters ment and national institutions in order to establish treme radicalization and nihilistic violence as repre- only course for escaping horrific cycles of violence Vice President of University of Nijmegen • Drs J.G.F. Veldhuis an 'Islamic state' in the US. Esposito has never in- sented by al-Q aci d a, Gamaat Islamiya, and the AIG along racial, religious, ethnic, or ideological divi- President of Utrecht University dulged in such sweeping and inane bigotry against of Algeria. It is instructive that most scholars of s i o n s . Academic Committee any group and it is frankly insulting to counterpose Egypt, Afghanistan, and Algeria note how brutal re- • Prof. Léon Buskens (Chair) Utrecht University him with someone like Pipes. pression of efforts at democratic reform directly led M. HAKAN YAVUZ • Prof. Mamadou Diouf University of Michigan, Ann Arbor It is disturbing to see that Munson has partially to the spawning of such extremist groups and the • Prof. Dale Eickelman M. Hakan Yavuz is assistant professor of Political Science Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire incorporated some of the ideologically driven marginalization of moderate voices. It is also in- • Prof. Gudrun Krämer claims of Likudniks like Pipes and Kramer. This is a structive that both Pipes and Kramer in their jour- a tt h e University of Utah, USA. Free University Berlin • Prof. Remke Kruk broader transparently orchestrated campaign to nal Middle East Quarterly have repeatedly warned E-mail: [email protected] Leiden University • Prof. Jean-François Leguil-Bayart discredit academics who might stand in the way of against promoting democracy and human rights in CERI, Paris the current hate campaign against Muslims being the Muslim world because insufficiently pliant • Prof. Harald Motzki University of Nijmegen conducted in the neo-conservative-evangelical regimes would be elected. R E T R A C T I O N • Prof. Ruud Peters University of Amsterdam mass media owned by the likes of Rupert Murdoch Finally, I remain disturbed that Munson failed in • Prof. Frits Staal University of California at Berkeley and Conrad Black. This has included attempts by his scholarly duty to carefully read Esposito's oeu- An error was made in ISIM Newsletter 10, which we • Sami Zubaida Kramer, a scholar based in a right-wing Israeli think- vre, which is considered by a great many scholars of would like to hereby rectify. On page 19, in Dr Farian Birkbeck College, University of London tank, to testify before Congress that American Muslim politics to be at the forefront in its pre- Sabahi's article 'The Literacy Corps in Pahlavi Iran ISIM Chairs • Prof. Muhammad Khalid Masud scholars who do not share a foreign Likudnik agen- science and analysis. Esposito in his earlier work (1963–1979)', the author was referred to as 'He', but ISIM Chair, Leiden University da should have their funding cut. It is ironic that and latest book Unholy Wars has repeatedly point- should have been 'She' in the following: 'She is au- • Prof. Martin van Bruinessen ISIM Chair, Utrecht University Kramer in his latest monograph claims that the field ed to the danger of intolerant and extremist radi- thor of TheLiteracy Corps in Pahlavi Iran (1963–1979): • Prof. Annelies Moors ISIM Chair, University of Amsterdam of Middle Eastern Studies has failed because it did cals. More importantly, he has pointed out that Political, Social and Literary Implications'. We apolo- • Prof. Abdulkader Tayob not predict the 9/11 attacks. A colleague of mine, such militancy is a direct result of brutal tyrannies gize for this oversight. ISIM Chair, University of Nijmegen I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2 ISIM 3

Workshop Report ANNELIES MOORS Scholarship and

From 5 to 7 July 2002 a workshop on 'Scholarship and Activism in Islamic Family Law' was held at the Freie U n i v e r s i t ä t Berlin, organized jointly by the In- terdisciplinary Centre 'Social and Cultural History of Activism the Middle East' at the Freie U n i v e r s i t ä t Berlin (Katja Niethammer, Anna W ü r t h), the AKMI (Arbeitskreis Moderne und Islam at the Wissenschaftkolleg Berlin, Georges Khalil), CIMEL (Centre of Islamic and Middle Eastern Law at SOAS, London, Lynn Welchman) and in Islamic Family Law ISIM (Annelies Moors).

This meeting was the third in a series. The and the nation-state; and activism, civil soci- es these need to be linked to the formation of not only to be paid to the agendas of activists first workshop, convened by Anna W ü r t h ety, and the public sphere. nation-states. More detailed investigations of and the ways in which they interact with their and Jamila Bargach and held in Berlin (June Discussing the production of knowledge processes of codification point to the diversi- publics (or not), but also to their frames of ref- 2000), set out to create a network of schol- about Islamic family law brought to the fore ty in positions held by religious functionaries erence, such as local traditions and customs, ars employing social science perspectives the urgency of developing a reflexive stance and state institutions, and argue against see- international human rights law, Islamic legal and methodologies in the study of family on the power/knowledge nexus in different ing either the state or religious authorities as traditions, and insights from the social sci- law. The second workshop, organized by local and historical settings. Tracing the histo- a monolithic bloc. Researching the local ences. Finally, all three topics require paying Abdullahi an-N acim and Laila al-Zwaini ries of scholarship in the field of Islamic family specificities of processes of codification and attention to transnational forms of coopera- (ISIM, 'Rights-at-Home') at the annual Euro- law asks for investigating the ways in which the participants involved brings to the fore tion and influencing that have become in- pean Institute Meeting in Florence (March research dealing with Islamic family law has the relations and tensions between increased creasingly important both in the production 2001), discussed concepts of family, state, been organized and institutionalized. It raises state control, a potentially flexible legal sys- of knowledge, in processes of codification, and civil society in Muslim societies. Legal questions about the politics involved, be it in tem and issues of accountability, in particular and amongst activists. and sociological perspectives were em- terms of colonial powers controlling their regarding their effects on the more vulnera- Presentations were given by Gamal Abd an- ployed in order to discuss such issues as de- colonial subjects or present-day states trying ble members of society. Nasser, Jamila Bargach, Nathalie Bernard- bates on family law reform in the 1990s and to get a grip on minorities defined as Muslim. Both the production of knowledge about Maugiron, Léon Buskens, Bettina Dennerlein, relations between family law and human This also includes the programmes set up in family law and processes of codification inter- Ivesa Lübben, Annelies Moors, Tazeen Mur- rights issues. This third workshop focused Western academia for Muslim students deal- sect with the third main issue of debate, that shid, Dorothea Schulz, Lynn Welchman, Inken on 'Scholarship and Activism' within the ing with such topics as family law. is the various forms of activism related to fam- Wiese, and Anna Würth. framework of a comparative and historical Processes of codification are central to an ily law, and the ways in which these relate to approach. Three main issues were highlight- understanding of contemporary debates on associational forms that are part of civil soci- ed: the production of knowledge about Is- Islamic family law. In order to investigate the ety and the more informal networks operat- A co-authored publication by the network outlining lamic family law; processes of codification various historical trajectories of such process- ing in the public sphere. Particular attention is the discussions and major themes is planned for 2003.

ANNUAL LECTURE A N N O U N C E M E N T S A Naqshbandi V a c a n c y ISIM Academic T é l é m a q u e D i r e c t o r

The ISIM invites applications for the position the Executive Director, who is also in charge of Academic Director, who is also simultane- of the publications and outreach. ously the holder of the ISIM Chair of Islamic Candidates should possess an established Studies in the modern period at Leiden Uni- international reputation in the study of versity. The Academic Director is responsible modern Islam and Muslim societies, wide- Review of applications will begin for the overall guidance and planning of the ranging academic contacts, expertise in the on 15 January 2003. Institute's research programmes, the Ph.D. field of academic management, and excel- Applicants should send a full CV, degree and post-doctoral programmes, and lent communicative skills. including a list of publications to: international cooperation, including ex- This Directorship/Professorship is a full- ISIM Search Committee change programmes and academic meet- time position, preferably commencing in P.O. Box 11089 ings, all conducted in association with the September 2003. The salary will be com- 2301 EB Leiden ISIM Chairs at the other ISIM participating mensurate to the candidate's background The Netherlands universities. As holder of the ISIM Chair at and qualifications. Female candidates are Leiden University the candidate will be ex- especially encouraged to apply. For further inquiries, please contact: pected to teach and supervise undergradu- Applicants may wish to consult the ISIM Prof. Dr Peter van der Veer, ate and graduate students. In administrative website (www.isim.nl) as well as that of Lei- Chair of the Search Committee affairs the Academic Director is assisted by den University (www.leiden.edu). E-mail: [email protected]

S¸ e r i f M a r d i n On 13 November 2002 Professor S¸e r i f delivering his Mardin (Sabanci University, Istanbul) de- l e c t u r e . livered the fourth ISIM Annual Lecture at S u m m e r Islam in Public Life the University of Nijmegen. His lecture fo- cused on the impact of Les aventures de Télémaque, fils d'Ulysse by the 18t h- c e n t u r y A c a d e m y in Pluralist Societies French author Fénélon on 19t h-century Ot- toman intellectuals, in particular in Khali- di-Naqshbandi circles in Istanbul. In cooperation with the University of Cape standing the transformation of social and new media in religion provides new possi- S¸erif Mardin is the author of path-break- Town the ISIM is organizing a Summer political practices based on Islam. L a w i s bilities and transformations for Islam in ing studies on Turkish intellectual and so- Academy in Cape Town in Autumn 2003 pervasive in Muslim societies as a personal public life in both local and global con- cial history, including The Genesis of Young on ‘Islam in Public Life in Pluralist Soci- code to judicial practice. It is the one com- texts. Finally, c o n s u m p t i o n defines an often Ottoman Thought (1962) and Religion and eties’. The Academy will invite experts and mon medium to comprehend the precon- neglected dimension of contemporary Social Change in Turkey (1989). His lecture students (Ph.D. and post-doctoral) to ex- ceptions and expectations of Muslims. Al- public life. Consumption patterns in Mus- will be published in the ISIM Papers Series. amine the ways in which Muslims engage though the s t a t e seems to sometimes dis- lim contexts may indicate much more than in the public sphere through five sub- appear in the new form of globalization, it philosophical and political treaties about themes: secularization, law, state, media, continues to have far-reaching power and Islam. and consumption. S e c u l a r i z a t i o n will be significance. Islam and public life is not re- sub-theme through which the general stricted to state systems, but the modern changes in Muslim societies can be exam- nation-state cannot be ignored. The m e d i a More information the Summer Academy and how ined. A comparative examination of Mus- in all forms plays an important role in mod- to apply will be made available in on the ISIM lim societies will provide a key to under- ern global societies. The employment of website in the second half of January 2003. 4 ISIM I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2

R e p o r t LAILA AL-ZWAINI Rights at Home

The ISIM programme 'Rights at Home: An Approach to the Internalization of Human Rights in Family Re- lations in Islamic Communities' held its second series of Sounding Board Meetings in Tanzania from 19 Tanzania Sounding until 23 June 2002. The venue was in Dar es Salaam from 19 to 20 June, and on the island of Zanzibar from 22 to 23 June. The meetings were organized to- gether with the NGO Sahiba Sisters Foundation in Dar es Salaam, a Muslim women's network to pro- Boards mote a positive role of Muslim women in Tanzanian society.

Sahiba Sisters was represented at the Sound- gions, gender, and professional and person- i n g Board Meetings by its executive direc- al backgrounds, such as human rights ac- tor, Salma Maoulidi, and several young staff tivists, scholars, ulama, social welfare offi- members. The two permanent members of cers, teachers, lawyers, childrens' rights ad- the project team of Rights at Home, Abdul- vocates, and others in order to discuss lahi An-N aci m (Emory University, Atlanta, themes related to 'Rights at Home' from dif- and Visiting Professor ISIM) and Laila al- ferent perspectives, and jointly explore Zwaini (Programme Coordinator), were this strategies and activities to promote autono- time accompanied by Farish Noor, a young my for women and socialization of children. Malaysian scholar and fervent human rights Each session started with a short presen- activist, at the time also an ISIM Visiting Fel- tation by one of the local participants, fol- Pupils at low. The Zanzibar meetings were co-orga- lowed by a general discussion in which the Madrasat al-Nour, nized by Saleh Mreh Salim from Mreh Tours group focused on identifying priority issues, Z a n z i b a r . and Safaris. Involving an organization of this strategies, and actors. Presentations were particular kind draws attention to the lack of held on women's emotional and reproduc- connections between the women's organi- tive health, family law legislation and de- and the creation and operation of Islamic specifically with the issue of domestic vio- zations on the mainland and on Zanzibar, bates, the application of Islamic principles schools), as well as the lack of, but strong lence and has developed a model for coop- which in its turn is dictated by the still cur- in court, Islamic and cultural practices, and desire for, an adequate programme for Is- eration with street leaders, community offi- rent political distance between the two for- street children. Also, participants addressed lamic education in its broadest sense. cers, and Islamic authorities to find redress merly separate territories, an issue that was some concrete domestic violations, and ex- In addition to the meetings, the project in cases of domestic abuse. Its experience to come up repeatedly during the discus- amined attempted strategies for relief. team visited several NGOs and other grass- shows that the Muslim community and the s i o n s . The often frank discussions eventually roots organizations in Mwanza, a large city Islamic authorities in Mwanza (as in other lo- The concept of the meetings, similar to narrowed down to two main concerns: the on the southern shore of Lake Victoria, to calities) often do not react and even turn the first Sounding Board Meetings in Yemen difficulties that the Muslim community in gain more realistic insight into their activi- their backs on female victims of domestic vi- (see ISIM Newsletter 10, p. 4), was to bring to- Tanzania faces as a minority group (e.g. in ties and difficulties. The non-religious NGO olence. The woman then faces the dilemma gether representatives from different re- acquiring emission time in the public media Kivulini ('In the Shade'), for instance, deals of standing up against her husband at the cost of being expelled from her own com- munity, or suffering the abuses in silence. DEBATE SERIES C O N F E R E N C E Another (Islamic) NGO in Mwanza, Tawfiq Islamic Women Organisation, aims at the cre- ation and support of Islamic institutions, such as schools, hospitals, and orphanages. Their I s l a m , ISIM at WOCMES work is mostly voluntary, and their main con- cern is the lack of support from the Tanzanian The First World Congress for Middle East- In cooperation with Amr Hamzawy (Free government. Their present teaching material Authority, and ern Studies (WOCMES) took place in University of Berlin) and Roel Meier (Inter- and methods are mainly inspired and provid- Mainz (Germany) from 8 to 13 September national Institute of Social History, IISH), ed by Wahhabi organizations. Historically, 2002. The conference was held jointly by Dick Douwes (ISIM) organized the panel Tanzanian Muslims predominantly belong to L e a d e r s h i p the European Association for Middle East- 'Taking Islamist Debates and Discourses the Shafici madhhab, with also flocks of ern Studies (EURAMES), the Association Seriously: New Avenues in Research and Hanafis, Ismailis, Ibadis, and Bohras. An exam- Four meetings, following the first, have taken place within the Française pour l'Etude du Monde Arabe et Collection'. This panel aimed to broaden ple of a madrasa that is exercising its own ISIM and Felix Meritis lecture and debate series 'Islam, Authority, Musulman (AFEMAM), the British Society the scope of critical discussion on con- best efforts to compile a school curriculum and Leadership' in recent months. The venue was Felix Meritis, for Middle East Studies (BRISMES), the temporary discursive and programmatic with a specific view to the local Muslim cul- European Centre for Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam. The themes German Middle East Studies Association changes in the Islamist spectrum. It also ture, is the very lively Madrasat al-Nour on and speakers of these meetings were the following: (DAVO), and the Italian S o c i e t à por gli introduced a new joint initiative of Egypt- Zanzibar, which offers education up to the in- – 'Would the Muslim Intellectual Please Stand Up!', 20 June Studi sul Medio Oriente (SeSaMO). ian and European research centres aimed termediate level. Interestingly, this school 2 0 0 2 The ISIM co-organized two panels at at collecting and analysing contemporary was created in 1967 by a Yemeni from the Speakers: Nathal Dessing (ISIM), Haci Karacaer (Director, Milli WOCMES. Annelies Moors (ISIM) and Blan- publications (including pamphlets, grey Hadramawt, underscoring the existing con- G ö rü¸s, the Netherlands), Saoud Khadje (Dar al-Ilm, Institute dine Destremeau (CNRS/IEDES – Universi- literature, tapes, and websites) of Islamist nections between Muslim communities for Islam Studies), and Fouad Laroui (researcher and writer). ty Paris I) organized a session on 'Migrant movements with respect to controversies around the Indian Ocean. Moderator: Ab Cherribi. Domestic Workers to/in/from the Middle on: democracy and civil society, imple- In its next phase, 'Rights at Home' will es- – 'A Lonely Planet Guide for Muslims', 19 September 2002 East'. This panel presented the ISIM re- mentation of the s h a r ica, issues of social tablish closer cooperation with several local Speakers: Tariq Ramadan (College of Geneva and Fribourg search project 'Cultural Politics of Migrant welfare, and authenticity and cultural partners to jointly engage in developing University, Switzerland) and Abdulkader Tayob (ISIM Chair, Domestic Labour' to an audience working identity. Amr Hamzawy introduced the and implementing activities as proposed University of Nijmegen). on the Middle East, and engaged in dis- initiative. The panel included papers by during our visit, such as pre-marriage edu- Moderator: Peter van der Veer (ISIM Co-Director). cussion with researchers recently working Gamal Sultan (al-Manar al-Jadeed), 'Cri- cation for youths; an education programme – 'Your Constitution is Not Mine!', 10 October 2002 on migrant domestic labour. Apart from tique and Self-Critique in Egypt's Islamist for women on their basic human rights in Speakers: Famile Arslan (lawyer), Sadik Harchaoui (public an outline of the project by Moors, De- Movements'; Dina al-Khawaga (Cairo Uni- Islam and within their society; the drafting prosecutor), and Marc Hertogh (Associate Professor of socio- stremeau discussed the emergence of a versity), 'New Spaces, New Languages: and effectuation of a model marriage con- legal studies, University of Tilburg). domestic labour market in Yemen; Amira The Islamist Discourse on the TV-Channel tract that specifies rights and obligations for Moderator: Steve Austen (cultural entrepreneur, publicist, Ahmed (American University, Cairo) pre- Iqra'; and Roel Meijer (IISH), 'The Role of both spouses (e.g. an HIV/AIDS test, mainte- and consultant). sented her research on domestic work as IISH in Collecting and Preserving the Her- nance); sensitization meetings for area lead- See also Sadik Harchaoui's article in this N e w s l e t t e r, p. 12. a survival strategy amongst refugee itage of Islamist Movements'. ers, sheikhs (Islamic scholars), and q a d is (Is- – 'The Rib of the Man', 7 November 2002 women in Cairo; and Joy Borkholder (The Karin van Nieuwkerk (ISIM post-doctoral lamic judges); and the establishment of a Speakers: Gijs von der Fuhr (Amsterdam Centre for Protection Project, Johns Hopkins Univer- fellow) presented a paper on 'Female network of Muslim groups to promote Foreigners), Seyma Halici (Women's group, Milli G ö rü¸s), and sity) together with Mohamed Matar spoke Converts to Islam: A Comparison of Online human rights. Fenna Ulichki (Moroccan Women's Association in the on domestic service as a form of traffick- and Offline Conversion Narratives' in the Netherlands). ing of persons in the Middle East. The ses- panel 'Women and Modernity'. Moderator: Steve Austen (cultural entrepreneur, publicist, sion launched a network on migrant do- The third series of 'Rights at Home' Sounding Board and consultant). mestic labour in the Middle East. Those in- Meetings will be held from 15 to 17 January 2003 terested in joining this network under i n Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, and will bring together The concluding meeting of the series will be held on Monday, 27 January 2003. construction may contact Annelies Moors participants from several countries of the Southeast A report of these five meetings will be published in ISIM Newsletter 12. ( m o o r s @ p s c w . u v a . n l ) . Asian region. I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2 Features 5

T u r k e y MARTIN RIEXINGER The Islamic

For some time Islamic publishing in the West has been associated with pamphlets in awkward English printed on pulp. Strolling through Islamic book- shops in Britain one immediately realizes how things Creationism have changed: beautifully edited books are offered for considerable prices. A notable part of these pub- lications is dedicated to the defence of Islam against the challenges of Christianity and materialism. Out- standing examples for this new tendency are the of Harun Yahya writings of the prolific Turkish author Harun Yahya (pseudonym of Adnan Oktar), whose list of Turkish publications includes about 180 titles, most of them and John Morris claim that their 'scientific spondence enable Harun Yahya to hold him Spanish, Russian, Serbo-Croat, Urdu, Malay, dedicated to the refutation of Darwinism. creationism' is not only based on scriptural responsible for the assassination of Turkish and German. In September/October 2001 but also on scientific evidence. Harun immigrants by German neo-nazis in the three lecturing tours abroad were sched- The bulk of the publications by Harun Yahya Yahya's far from original refutation of the 1990s (Yahya 1999a:40ff., 68ff.). The impor- uled, to the US, Indonesia, and to the British just reiterates – adorned with beautiful illus- theory of evolution is based on the latters' tance Marxists attach to Darwinism as a fel- Isles. The conferences are generally hosted trations – the basic claims proposed in his main assertions: low materialist ideology lets Harun Yahya by Muslim student associations. His articles most popular work Evrim teorisinin ç ö k ü¸s ü – Chance cannot explain the formation of draw a direct line between Darwin and the appear on many Islamic homepages kept by (The Evolution Deceit) with detailed refer- proteins let alone the complex composition separatist Kurdish Workers Party, PKK (Yahya organizations or individuals. His interna- ence to certain phenomena. The religious of cells whereas a conscious creator can. 1999a:76ff.). As alternative to the materialist tional reputation is due to the extensive use response to the theory of evolution – as well – The perfect adaptation of all living crea- ideologies he proposes an extremist variant of the internet. He may thus be considered as modern science in general – has been se- tures shows that they are products of 'intel- of idealism that denies the existence of the the first Islamic intellectual who has based riously neglected by Islamic studies. The few ligent design'. material world altogether. The only thing his career on the use of this most up-to-date research works that deal with the topic con- – Evolutionists have not been not able to pre- that exists is the soul in which God creates technology. His writings show that Islamism cern the acceptance of the concept of evo- sent 'missing links' between species let sense perceptions. This immaterial soul can- has a religious aspect that many studies fo- lution by secular-minded intellectuals like alone higher taxa. The examples proposed not be explained with reference to atoms cusing on political strategies neglect. In this I s m aci l M a z h a r ,1 whereas his opposition in up to now were forgeries. and molecules. Harun Yahya bolsters his respect this ideology is more closely related Islamist circles has almost passed unno- This connection with Christian 'scientific claim not only with reference to famous to its Protestant fundamentalist counterpart t i c e d ,2 although from early on Islamist creationism' notwithstanding, Harun Yahya Sufis but also by invoking Berkeley and than has been generally acknowledged thinkers like Mawdudi stressed the contra- kept certain subjects, which expose the lat- Wittgenstein (Yahya 1999b:174ff.). Although h i t h e r t o . diction between random selection and the ter to ridicule in scientific circles, out of his Harun Yahya's primary motivation is political design of nature by God; and they de- works. Unlike those who promote 'Flood ge- and obviously anti-secularist, he refrains nounced the harmful effects of the theory of ology' or struggle to find evidence for the from openly challenging Kemalism. He pub- evolution on society. existence of pterosaurs in historical times, lished pamphlets that portray A t a t ü r k as a Harun Yahya never questions that the earth devout believer who must be defended Scientific creationism is hundreds of million years old and that a against the claim of the materialists that he However, it was not before the 1980s that wide range of animals and plants have be- was one of them (Yahya 2002). the refutation of evolutionism became a come extinct. In his popular book K a v i m- Harun Yahya's worldview is conspirative. major issue in the Islamic world. This hap- ler'in h e la–k ı, which claims to present archae- For the success of Darwinism he holds re- N o t e s pened in the most Westernized and secular- ological evidence for the reports on the sponsible a mafia that controls scientific in- 1 . Najm A. Bezirgan, 'The Islamic World', in Thomas F. ized country of the Islamic world: Turkey. prophets in the Qur'an, he describes the stitutions and journals as well as popular Glick (ed.), The Comparative Reception of Darwinism Under military and later Motherland Party Flood as an event that did not affect the magazines like National Geographic and T h e (Austin, 1974), 375–87; Adel A. Ziadat, W e s t e r n (ANAP) rule evolution was not only con- whole globe but only Mesopotamia. Finding Scientific American. In the writings consid- Science in the Arab World: The Impact of Darwinism, demned in 'religion and ethics' lessons but archaeological evidence for the prophetical ered here he does not, however, suggest a 1 8 6 0 – 1 9 3 0 (Houndsmills, 1986). was even deleted from the biology curricu- stories in the Qur'an is another popular sub- connection between his attacks against 2 . Among the few authors dealing with this subject lum. This occurred when a quietist version ject in Islamist circles. This is most probably Darwinism and his second most important are: Pervez, Islam and Science: Religious Orthodoxy of Islam was supposed to legitimize military due to the influence of Mawdudi, whose issue, Freemason and Templar conspiracies and the Battle for Rationality (London, 1991); Klaus- rule and deligitimize 'leftist materialism' by Tafhim ul-Qur'an is referred to by Harun (Yahya 2000b). Unlike other recent Islamist Peter Ohly, 'Evolution und Islam – Islamisierung promoting 'spiritual values'. In this period Y a h y a .3 Other main sources are popular conspirators he does not vilify Jews in gen- der Wissenschaften', in Eve-Marie Engels, et al the writings of a new generation of Ameri- magazines and Werner Keller's Und die Bibel eral. He describes Zionism as a result of a (eds), Ethik der Biowissenschaften: Geschichte und can Protestant fundamentalists were trans- hat doch recht. complot by the Freemasons. Nevertheless T h e o r i e (Beiträge zur 6, Jahrestagung der DGGTB lated into Turkish. Authors like Duane Gish In view of the deep impact of Protestant Harun Yahya propagates the theses of Holo- i n Tübingen 1997, Berlin 1998), 353–9; Aykut creationism it is not surprising that the caust deniers such as the German neo-nazi Kence and Ümit Sayın, 'Islamic Scientific same flaws characterize the writings of Leuchter, which casts doubt of the serious- Creationism: A New Challenge in Turkey', N C S E Harun Yahya. He takes arguments of biolo- ness of his attacks on nazism in his anti-evo- R e p o r t s (1999) 19:6; Taner Edis, 'Cloning gists over the details of evolution out of lutionist writings (Yahya n.d.:77ff.). Creationism in Turkey', NCSE Reports (1999) 19:6. their context and presents them as refuta- 3 . Sayyid Abu l-Acl a Mawdudi, 'Darwin ka nazariya-i tions of evolution as such. He also puts forth Institutionalization at home, irtiqa', in T a f h i m a t, vol. ii, 19t h ed., (Lahore, 1998), unfounded claims like the one that australo- reputation abroad 2 7 7 – 8 4 . pitheci had prehensile feet like chimps and Harun Yahya has institutionalized his cam- 4 . I am grateful to Klaus-Peter Ohly, University of not feet like men, enabling them to walk up- paign in the Bilim A ra¸stırma Vakfı ( S c i e n c e Bielefeld, for giving me access to a list he has r i g h t .4 Research Endowment), which in 1998 began compiled for a forthcoming publication. to hold major conferences in Turkish cities 5 .h t t p : / / w w w . h a r u n y a h y a . o r g / y a z a r _ h a k k i n d a . h t m The dangers of materialism to which leading 'scientific creationists' 6 .h t t p : / / w w w . g e o c i t i e s . c o m / e v r i m k u r a m i / Although Harun Yahya takes great efforts from America were invited. Secular-minded kampanya.html; also Edis (1999) and Kence and to endow his writings with a scientific ve- scientists, who for some time did not take S a y ı n (1999), see note 2 for full references. neer, he frankly states that biology is not his the creationist challenge seriously, reacted 7 . H ü r r i y e t, 29 April 2001. real concern. His commitment to refute the with the formation of the T ü r k Evrim Kurulu 8 .h t t p : / / w w w . g e o c i t i e s . c o m / e v r i m k u r a m i / b a s i n / theory of evolution was fostered when he, as (Turkish Evolution Association) that advo- g e r k a r a r . h t m l a student at the Mimar Sinan Ü n i v e r s i t e s i' s cates the teaching of evolution in schools arts faculty, saw that many of his class fel- and organizes counter-campaigns.6 N e v e r- lows succumbed to materialist philosophies theless Harun Yahya's theses made inroads R e f e r e n c e s and abandoned Islam.5 He concluded that into the political mainstream. In 2001 an – Y a h y a , Harun. n.d. Soykırım yalanı. Istanbul. Darwinism was 'the underpinning of a dis- ANAP deputy demanded censorship of for- —— —. 1999a. D a r w i n ' i nT ü r kd üs¸ m a nlıgˇı. E v r i m honest philosophy, … materialism', and eign television stations that propagated the t e o r i s i n ' i nı r k ç ı yüzü. I s t a n b u l . hence the base for all ideologies and politi- theory of evolution.7 The Bilim A ra¸s t ı r m a —— —. 1999b. The Evolution Deceit. The S c i e n t i f i c cal movements threatening Turkey (Yahya V a k f ı attracted the suspicion of state au- C o l l a p s e of Darwinism. L o n d o n . 1999b:1). According to him differentiating thorities in late 1999, but the allegations, in- —— —. 2000a. K a v i m l e r i nh el¯akı. 5t h ed. Istanbul. between the theory of evolution and social cluding sexual abuse, proved to be invalid. —— —. 2000b. Yeni Masonik Düzen. 3r d ed. Istanbul. Darwinism is futile. Darwin's actual denunci- However, Harun Yahya's slander campaign —— —. 2002. Atatürk'ü iyi anlamak. I s t a n b u l . ation of slavery notwithstanding, Harun against secular-minded professors of sci- Yahya alleges that his only intention was to ence in 1999 led to a lawsuit that resulted in Dr Martin Riexinger is currently conducting research legitimize colonialism and slavery. The hefty fines.8 on the religious response to modern science in Islam praise for Darwin by fascists and peripheral Harun Yahya's works have been translated at the University of Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany. anti-Turkish remarks in his private corre- into several languages including Arabic, E-mail: [email protected] 6 Current Issues I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2

East Africa ARY E OD ED Islam and Politics

Since independence there is widespread grievance among Kenyan Muslims who feel that the mainly Christian regime treats them as second-class citizens and discriminates against them economically and po- in Kenya litically. The government, for its part, has fears that the influence of some foreign and local radical Mus- lims could disrupt peace and security in Kenya. The tions, there were 30 Muslim MPs out of 210 the IPK on the grounds that it was a reli- the regime. The government shut down 1992–1994 Muslim disturbances along the coast, the MPs (14.2 per cent). gious political party and thus violated the several Muslim NGOs and deported some twin bombings of the US embassies in Nairobi and There have been other concessions that principle of the separation of church and non-indigenous workers who were suspect- Dar-es-Salaam in 1998, and the recent bombing of a the government has made since indepen- state. At this stage, the IPK's demand for ed of links with radical Middle Eastern orga- tourist hotel in Mombasa for which al-Q aci d a h a s dence to gain Muslim support, especially in recognition won wide support from Mus- nizations, on the grounds that they posed a claimed responsibility intensify these fears. Never- periods of municipal, parliamentary, and lims, both from the coastal strip and from threat to security. The Muslim community theless the vast majority of Kenyan Muslims are mod- presidential elections, when the political other parts of the country. In Mombasa, es- was enraged by the crackdown on the NGOs erate, reject violent extremism, and work to achieve importance of the Muslims is especially no- pecially, IPK supporters became the main and leaders of all persuasions condemned equal rights by peaceful means. ticeable. Among these concessions were: political force and the government's refusal the government action. They claimed that, making the Muslim festival of Id al-Fitr a na- to recognize the party caused violent distur- by shutting down only Muslim NGOs imme- Kenya's six million Muslims form a signifi- tional public holiday in Kenya; enshrining bances there in May 1992. This was the first diately after the bombing, the government cant minority, representing 20 per cent of the position of chief q a d i in the constitution of a series of clashes between IPK activists had put the onus of responsibility on the the population. Their large number, com- (the chief q a d i is the highest Muslim reli- and government forces that continued spo- Muslim community. President Moi met with bined with the fact that most of them are gious official in Kenya and he serves as the radically for nearly two years. SUPKEM leaders and made some conciliato- concentrated in economically and strategi- government's adviser in all matters pertain- The outbreak of violence reflected Muslim ry gestures to the Muslims, but radical Mus- cally important areas, gives the Muslims, at ing to Muslims); deciding on issues connect- grievances and deep feelings of discrimina- lims continued to criticize the government least potentially, considerable political ed to inheritance, marriage, divorce, and tion. During the colonial era and since inde- and attacked the West in general and the US weight. On the coastal strip and in the w a q f (endowment set aside for religious pendence, Muslims have repeatedly com- in particular. This division between moder- towns there, such as Mombasa, Malindi, and purposes) in the s h a r ica courts by q a d is ap- plained that the mainly Christian regime ates and radical, as well as ethnic, religious, Lamu, Muslims account for more than 50 pointed by the chief q a d i; and taking into discriminates against them and treats them political, and personal rivalries within the per cent of the population. On this strip live account Muslim values and practices in as second-class citizens. For example, they Muslim community, weaken them in their the Swahilis (all of whom are Muslims), areas such as animal slaughter, autopsies, are normally under-represented in public confrontation with the regime. Arabs, and people from various African eth- dress, and identity cards. institutions. Before colonialism they were It is likely that Islam as a religion will fur- nic groups that have adopted Islam. Anoth- the most culturally advanced group and ther expand and gain strength in Kenya. In er important group of Muslims in Kenya are Mutual suspicions were the rulers of Kenya's coastal region, its non-extremist form, it may well assume a the Somalis, who live in the Northeastern Muslim aspirations were not, however, whereas today Muslims are less advanced greater political role in the light of the polit- Province. Their number is estimated at fully satisfied, nor were their many com- than the Christians and lag behind in educa- ical progress Muslims are making in the field about 600,000. There are also considerable plaints about discrimination silenced. Mus- tion. They have been denied land owner- of education and the increasing numbers of numbers of Muslims in the large towns, in- lim discontent was particularly evident on ship, while Christians from the interior have Muslim intellectuals, journalists, and politi- cluding Nairobi. Among Kenya's Muslims the eve of the first multiparty elections in been given land on the coastal strip and cians. The prolonged struggle against gov- there are various groups and denomina- 1992. At the same time, government suspi- control the main sources of income there, ernment policies has fostered Muslim soli- tions. Due to the fact that Islamic penetra- cions of Muslim aspirations, rooted in both especially tourism. darity and self-consciousness, even among tion into the area came primarily from historical and recent events, also intensified. Against this background of Muslim dissat- non-observant Muslims. The majority of Hadramaut, to the south of the Arabian The government's suspicions were first isfaction, a young shaikh, Khalid Balala, ap- Muslims are moderate, tolerant, and prag- Peninsula, and was spread by Sunni S h a f ici aroused by political developments on the peared on the scene and became the main matic and know that the government will shaikhs, the great majority of Kenya's Mus- eve of Kenyan independence when Muslims exponent of Islamic extremism in Kenya dur- never tolerate secession. The Kenyan gov- lims are Sunni of the S h a f ici s c h o o l . on the coast set up an organization called the ing the violent disturbances of 1992–1994. ernment, for its part, needs to be more un- The Kenyan government, like the govern- Mwambao United Front (MUF) (Mwambao Balala demanded the legalization of the IPK, derstanding and responsive to justified ments of Uganda, Tanzania, and most means 'coast' in Kiswahili). The MUF claimed stressing that in Islam there is no separation Muslim grievances, to provide Muslims with African countries, prohibits the formation of that the Muslim inhabitants of the coast were of religion and state and that politics is part equal opportunities, and make greater ef- political parties based on religion. There- a 'distinct social group' and should be grant- of religion. Initially he enjoyed wide Muslim forts to integrate them into government fore, religious leaders – Muslim and Christ- ed autonomy or the option of seceding from support and became the uncrowned head and public life. ian alike – set up 'religious' or 'social' organi- Kenya to establish a separate state or 'rejoin' and spokesman of the IPK, which became zations through which they can express Zanzibar. In 1963, when Kenya became inde- much more radical under his leadership. His their views. Since independence, many such pendent, the coastal population's hopes for supporters, especially the youth, and some Muslim organizations have come and gone. separation or autonomy vanished, although extremist elements began to clash with the Some of them were regional or sectional, they have re-emerged from time to time in security forces. Balala publicly demanded others nationwide. They are supposed to different forms and have aroused displeasure that President Moi's regime be overthrown, deal with educational, religious, and social and fear in the government. Likewise, the So- and accused him of despotism and corrup- matters. Nevertheless, these organizations mali Muslims in the Northeastern Province tion. He also called on Muslims to be strict in have frequently become involved in politi- desired to join Somalia with which they had observing Islamic practices, especially daily cal concerns. The authorities in Kenya, like ethnic, linguistic, social, and religious affini- prayers. He demanded that the s h a r ica l a w those in Uganda and Tanzania, have them- ties. After the British decided to include this be applied in all spheres of Muslim life. Bal- selves established Muslim umbrella organi- area in independent Kenya, the Somalis boy- ala advocated violence to achieve these zations and worked through them to obtain cotted the 1963 general elections that set the aims. Muslim support and to influence and super- stage for independence. Thereafter, for sev- The wave of violence in Mombasa sur- vise their activities. Many of the key posi- eral years there was unrest, and violent clash- prised and concerned the authorities and tions in these organizations are occupied by es occurred between Somali guerrillas, reawakened the deep suspicions dating Muslims who support the government, known as Shifta, and the Kenyan security from the attempts by the Muslim coastal among them assistant ministers and senior f o r c e s . strip to break away from Kenya at indepen- government or ruling-party officials. The Since then, the authorities in general dence. There was also apprehension lest the main Muslim umbrella organization is the closely monitor Muslim political activities unrest spread from Mombasa to other Mus- Supreme Council of Kenya Muslims (SUP- and take harsh measures when these activi- lim centres, as indeed happened in Lamu K E M ) . ties seem to threaten the government. The and Malindi. Eventually the government Since independence, the authorities have Islamic activities of foreigners in Kenya are succeeded in crushing Balala and the mili- seen to it that Muslims are represented in watched especially closely. Nevertheless, tant Muslims, using the carrot-and-stick and the government – in the ruling party and in until the emergence of the Islamic Party of divide-and-rule tactics. Extremists were ar- public institutions. Muslims have generally Kenya (IPK), the mutual suspicion between rested and brutal force was used against been represented in government by two or the government and the coastal Muslims them. On the other hand, the regime began three assistant ministers who are loyal to seldom led to violent confrontations. to look more favourably on the demands of the regime, out of a total of forty to fifty moderate Muslims. In addition, the United ministers and assistant ministers. The Mus- The Islamic Party of Kenya Muslims of Africa (UMA) was established by lim assistant ministers generally come from In January 1992, immediately after the government supporters as an opposition to a very small circle. When President Moi government acceptance of a multiparty sys- the IPK. Arye Oded is a senior lecturer at the Institute of came to power in 1978, Muslims were gen- tem for the forthcoming presidential and The 1998 bombing of the US embassies in African and Asian Studies of the Hebrew University, erally better represented and, for the first parliamentary elections, several Muslim ac- Nairobi and Dar-es-Salaam by foreign Mus- Jerusalem. He is the author of several books on Islam time, two Muslim ministers were appointed. tivists in Mombasa established the IPK. Until lim extremists assisted, it is suspected, by in East Africa, among them Islam and Politics in Furthermore, in 1982, a Somali Muslim Chief that time, Kenya had had a one-party sys- some locals highlighted again the problem- Kenya (Boulder and London, 2000). of Staff was appointed. After the 1997 elec- tem. The government refused to recognize atic relationship between the Muslims and E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2 Current Issues 7

Southeast Asia MARTIN VAN BRUINESSEN The Violent Fringes

The 12 October bombing in Bali that killed more than 180 people seemed to vindicate the claims of those who had been accusing the Indonesian authorities of deliberately ignoring the presence on Indonesian of Indonesia's Islam soil of Islamic terrorists connected with al-Q aci d a network. More sober voices commented that domes- tic power struggles, rather than international terror- For fourteen years, Sungkar and B aca s y i r ism, might be responsible for this outrage. It was the remained in Malaysia, living in a village with largest, but by no means the first major bomb explo- a circle of their closest disciples and travel- sion in Indonesia. ling around delivering religious sermons. They were visited by radicals from Indonesia Indonesia has seen many bomb explosions and other regions of Southeast Asia. After since the fall of Suharto in May 1998, and in Suharto's fall, they returned to Indonesia. many cases military personnel appear to be Sungkar died in Jakarta during his first re- involved. There are also, however, a number turn visit; B aca s y i r settled again in his p e- of small but conspicuously violent radical Is- s a n t r e n at Ngruki near Solo. The establish- lamic movements that engage in jihad in ment of the Majelis Mujahidin in August such places as the Moluccas and Central Su- 2000 gave him a very public profile. lawesi or act as vigilante squads raiding nightclubs, discotheques, and other dens of Other groups i n e q u i t y .1 Surprisingly perhaps, several of There are a number of other, loosely con- these militias maintain close relations with nected and to some extent competing un- factions in the military or political élite. derground networks that continue the struggle for an Islamic state in Indonesia. Laskar Jihad They go by the old name of Darul Islam or al- The largest and best organized of the vari- ternatively NII/TII, abbreviations for Islamic Abu Bakar ous Muslim militias – until it was suddenly State of Indonesia/Islamic Army of Indone- B aca s y i r holding a disbanded in early October, only days before sia. They are not known to have been in- news conference the Bali bombing – was the Laskar Jihad, volved in major violent incidents recently. in Solo. which was established in response to the The Front Pembela Islam (FPI, Front of De- onset of civil war between Christians and fenders of Islam), with its members dressed Muslims in the Moluccas, in 2000.2 I d e o l o g i- been described by some experts as the rilla techniques and sent them to fight a in white flowing robes and white turbans, cally this movement is very close to the Saudi Southeast Asian branch of al-Q aci d a. Four al- jihad in the Moluccas. At least dozens, possi- has been conspicuous in numerous demon- religious establishment. Its leader, J acf a r leged members of this network are often bly a few hundred, of its members gained strations in Jakarta. They carried out numer- Umar Thalib, had studied with strict Salafi mentioned as its chief terrorists: Hambali, combat experience in Afghanistan in the ous raids on bars, brothels, and nightclubs ulama in Saudi Arabia and Yemen and taken alias Ridwan Isamuddin, a West Javanese ac- 1980s; many more are likely to have fought in Jakarta and the nearby hill districts, caus- part in jihad in Afghanistan in the 1980s. cused of masterminding the bombing of in the southern Philippines. ing great material damage but few casual- After his return to Indonesia, he became one churches in 10 Indonesian cities at Christ- The term J e m a a hI s l a m i y a h has been used ties. Their leader, Habib (Sayyid) Rizieq Shi- of the leading lights of the Indonesian Salafi mas in 2000, and of taking part in a series of repeatedly during the past twenty years by hab, also studied in Saudi Arabia and is a movement, which promoted, Wahhabi style, bombings in Manila in 2000 (still at large); police authorities as the name for a loose firm proponent of the application of the an apolitical Islam based on a strictly literal Abdur Rahman al-Ghozi, an East Javanese, network of radicals in which B aca s y i r, be- s h a r ica in public life. He appears to have ex- reading of the Qur'an and h a d i t h. Most mem- arrested in the Philippines in January 2002, sides another preacher of Arab descent, Ab- cellent relations with members of the mili- bers appeared to be students or university who reportedly confessed to having taken dullah Sungkar, played a central role. They tary and political élite. The Front is definite- graduates and dropouts. Religious leader- part in the same bombings in Manila in 2000 jointly led an Islamic boarding school near ly the least ideologically motivated of the ship is provided by young men, mostly of and in preparations for attacks on US assets the town of Solo since the early 1970s, and militant groups listed here, and it is believed Arab descent like J acf a r himself, who have in Singapore; Muhammad Iqbal bin Abdur- they joined the underground Darul Islam that its successes in bringing demonstrators also studied with Arabian Salafi ulama. rahman, alias Abu Jibril, of Lombok, author movement opposing the Suharto regime to the streets are primarily due to financial Laskar Jihad had the visible support of ele- of a book on the obligation for every Muslim and striving for an Islamic state. incentives. Not long after 12 October, Rizieq ments in the police and armed forces. It to carry out jihad, and a recruiter for jihad in They contributed to this movement ideas Shihab was arrested (for reasons apparently moved thousands of fighters to Ambon and the Moluccas, has been detained in Malaysia that they borrowed from the Egyptian Mus- unrelated to the Bali bombing) and the later to other conflict areas in Central Sulawe- since January 2002 and accused of acting as lim Brothers (al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun). The Front was ordered to disband, which the si, West Papua, and Acheh. In all these areas, a financial conduit for al-Q aci d a; and Agus struggle for an Islamic state, according to members did without any sign of protest. a close cooperation with the Indonesian mili- Dwikarna, who was arrested at Manila Air- these ideas, was a step-by-step process in The ease with which FPI and Laskar Jihad tary, notably the Special Forces (Kopassus) port in March 2002 when the authorities al- which the activist had first to engage in could be disbanded once the military au- developed. legedly found a large amount of explosives moral self-improvement, then to be part of thorities really demanded so not only indi- Following 11 September, Laskar Jihad im- in his luggage. Dwikarna is the commander a 'family' (u s r a h) of like-minded people who cates the degree to which both have come mediately took pains to distance itself from of a Muslim militia, Jundullah, in his native guide, help, and control one another. These under military influence but also reflects the Usama bin Laden. J acf a r Umar Thalib de- province of South Sulawesi. are steps towards the building of an Islamic fact that they accept the (secular) govern- clared that he had met Usama back in the Abu Bakar B aca s y i r is alleged to be the community (j a m aca h i s l a m i y a h), which in ment of Indonesia as legitimate in principle 1980s when he fought in Afghanistan but did spiritual leader of this network, although he turn is a precondition for the establishment – unlike the Majelis Mujahidin, which wishes not consider him as a good Muslim. The cannot be directly linked to any of the inci- of an Islamic state. From their Islamic school to transform it into an Islamic state and has Laskar Jihad website reproduced a fatwa by dents. All four men named above have an near Solo, B aca s y i r and Sungkar set up a net- not been known to court military or civilian the late grand mufti of Saudi Arabia, Abdu- undeniable direct connection with him, work of committed young Muslims, some of élite factions. laziz bin Baz, in which Usama bin Laden was however: al-Ghozi studied at his school, Abu them quietist, some of them militants, all of declared an erring sectarian and rebel, whose Jibril paid a recent visit to the school and them opposed to the Suharto regime, orga- example no pious Muslim should follow. took part in the founding conference of a nized in 'families' that together were to con- In April 2002, the Laskar Jihad challenged militant organization that chose B acasyir a s stitute a true community of committed a peace agreement between Ambonese its leader, and Dwikarna is a committee Muslims, a j a m aca hi s l a m i y a h. Christians and Muslims that had been bro- member of that same organization. Hambali Facing arrest in the mid-1980s, B aca s y i r kered by cabinet ministers. A Christian vil- is reported to have lived near B aca s y i r d u r- and Sungkar escaped to Malaysia. Accord- lage was raided and part of its population ing part of the period the latter spent in ing to sources close to the Usrah movement, massacred. Eyewitnesses claim that Laskar M a l a y s i a . a Saudi recruiting officer visited Indonesia Jihad fighters carried out this raid jointly It is not entirely clear to what extent this in 1984 or 1985 and identified Sungkar's with a Kopassus unit. This time, J acf a r w a s Jemaah Islamiyah actually is a real organiza- and another Darul Islam-related group as detained and put on trial. While his trial was tion with a well-defined membership and the only firm and disciplined Islamic com- N o t e s continuing, J acf a r announced in early Octo- structure of authority. Abu Bakar B aca s y i r munities (j a m aca h) capable of jihad. Both 1 . Martin van Bruinessen, 'Genealogies of Islamic ber 2002 the disbanding of the Laskar Jihad has not been afraid of openly proclaiming were offered financial support to send 50 Radicalism in Indonesia', South East Asia Research and ordered his followers to return to their his admiration for Usama bin Laden, but he fighters to Afghanistan. Sungkar found only 10, no. 2 (2002): 117–54. homes. These instructions were in most denies any direct contact with him. B aca s y i r four men willing to go, the other group 2 . Noorhaidi Hasan, 'Faith and Politics: The Rise of places obeyed with a surprising meekness. is the a m i r or commander of a public associ- eight men. The following year, slightly larg- the Laskar Jihad in the Era of Transition in ation of radical Muslims, the Council of er groups of volunteers were sent, and so it Indonesia', I n d o n e s i a 73 (2002): 145–69. J e m a a h Islamiyah Jihad Fighters (Majelis Mujahidin), that was went on until 1989, when the Russians with- The organization most often mentioned established in August 2002. This organiza- drew from Afghanistan. Henceforth, they Martin van Bruinessen is ISIM Chair at Utrecht as a likely perpetrator of the Bali bomb mas- tion has a paramilitary wing, the Laskar Mu- sent their militants to the southern Philip- University, the Netherlands. sacre is the Jemaah Islamiyah, which has jahidin, which has trained followers in guer- p i n e s . E-mail: [email protected] 8 Current Issues I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2

A r g e n t i n a PEDRO BRIEGER Latin Islam since

The attack on New York's Twin Towers on 11 Septem- ber 2001 had negative repercussions all over the globe, including in Argentina. Since then, leaders of the Muslim community in Argentina have been invit- 1 1 S e p t e m b e r ed by the mass media to explain the causes of the at- tacks, as if Muslims all over the world were in some way linked to the terrorists and their ideas. Although against cemeteries are always the work of Personal experiences gave a great deal of publicity to his situa- they were approached with respect on many radio the police, who in this way attempt to settle When consulted on the subject of discrim- tion, and although he never received an of- and television programmes, there were clear expres- internal political issues of the country. 'We ination, most of the members of the Muslim ficial answer from the university, in October sions of discrimination and ridicule of Muslims and are already familiar with this story', writes community tend to say that there is no dis- 2001 he was informed that the subject their beliefs. Kollman, '[e]very time there is a moment of crimination in Argentina. Imam Mahmud would be reinstated to the architecture fac- convulsion in the Buenos Aires police corps, Husain, ex-president of the Association for ulty. Noufouri, who was a cultural aide at the At dawn on Sunday, 14 July 2002, the main a spectacular desecration of graves takes the Spreading of Islam in Latin America and Islamic Centre of the Argentine Republic cemetery of the Muslim community of Ar- place…. Just like with the Jewish cemeter- director of the Centre of Higher Islamic (CIRA), affirms that despite his problem he is gentina was the object of an attack. Just a ies, the attacks were now against Muslim Studies in Argentina, has tried on more than not discriminated against for being a Mus- few miles from the centre of Buenos Aires, graves. The idea is to create an international one occasion to organize the Islamic com- lim, although 'there is always some kind of taking advantage of the fact that the ceme- impact and to put Minister Cafiero (chief of munity politically, but his attempts have differential consideration when they find tery does not have special security, uniden- security of the province of Buenos Aires) on failed. Husain compares the experience of out I am a Muslim.' tified persons entered and desecrated the spot.'3 Kollman is convinced that the at- the Muslims with that of Jews, who organize One of the most symbolic cases of an about 150 graves. Although the graves were tack on the Islamic cemetery is a discrimina- themselves easily because 'they have a his- openly anti-Islamic attitude took place on not completely destroyed and the buried tory act, given the fact that 'there is no his- toric experience of persecution, they are in a television. In September 2001, after the at- bodies remained untouched, it was clear tory of desecration of Catholic cemeteries, hostile environment. The Christian environ- tacks on the Twin Towers, the journalist that the intention was to cause as much and here the Muslims are clearly a scape- ment is hostile to Jews, and as a minority Guillermo Cherasny, known for his public damage as possible to the maximum num- goat, as Jews are in other cases.' Beyond the they need to always be represented politi- statements in favour of the military taking ber of graves. The Islamic Cemetery of internal Argentinean political motivations cally. This has not been the case with Mus- armed action against the democratic sys- Buenos Aires was inaugurated in 1961, and that the facts may be based on, and even lims. We could say that Judaism as a minori- tem, said in a broadcast of his television pro- ty always acts with a minority awareness, gramme B r o k e r s that 'Arabs and Muslims are whereas Islam as a minority acts with a ma- damn nazis'. These words gave cause to a jority awareness. Tradition itself has led public legal complaint of CIRA against the Islam to do so, because it sees itself as all journalist – which is not over yet.8 peoples, all persons, all races, and all cul- It is still very difficult to determine if the tures. It does not see itself as a minority.' desecration of graves at the Islamic Ceme- Nonetheless, until the reform of the Con- tery was an anti-Islamic action. The ambigu- stitution in 1994, advanced by ex-president ous relationship between misunderstand- Carlos S a ú l Menem, Muslims were discrimi- ing, ignorance, and discriminatory attitudes nated against at some of the most important against minorities, and the particularities of government levels, such as access to the Argentinean politics, which always contains presidency, which was off limits. As admitted elements of violence, do not allow us to ar- by his ex-wife, Zulema Yoma, Menem aban- rive at a clear-cut conclusion. In any event, doned Islam and converted to Christianity in regardless of the intention of those who 1966 because his main ambition was to be- desecrated the graves, for the Islamic com- come president of the country and the 1853 munity of Argentina this was yet another Constitution prevented non-Catholics from link in a campaign against Islam that was holding that position. According to that only enhanced after 11 September. Concur- Constitution, when taking office the presi- ring with the journalist Simon Birinder of dent and vice-president had to swear by say- the Buenos Aires Herald, one could also say ing 'I, [name], pledge by God our Lord and that, more than discrimination, 'it is unfortu- these Holy Gospels, to perform with loyalty nate but true, that few Argentines really un- and patriotism the function of president.'4 derstand what Islam is about.'9 Once in the presidency, Menem promoted the reform of the Constitution, and since N o t e s 1994 the only requirement to become presi- 1 . This information and the citations in this article, dent is to have been born in Argentinean unless stated otherwise, are based on a number of territory or be the child of a native citizen.5 interviews with those directly concerned The reform also altered the pledge, and conducted by the author in 2001 and 2002. when taking office the president and vice- 2 . C l a r í n, 16 July 2002. president now vow to 'perform loyally and 3 . R a ú l Kollman, 'Profanadores y p o l i c í a s', P á g i n a/ 1 2, with patriotism the function of president (or 16 July 2002. Islamic Centre there is little movement because – as Zule- though the desecration of the graves may vice-president) of the Nation and observe 4 . Roberto Pedro Lopresti, C o n s t i t u c i ó nA r g e n t i n a, i n the heart of ma Hamze, secretary of the cemetery since not have been targeted towards Muslims, the Constitution of the Argentinean Nation, edited by Unilat (Buenos Aires, 1998). (Article 93 of Buenos Aires. 1984, notes – there are only about 4 to 5 fu- the Islamic community did experience it as a respecting its religious beliefs.'6 the Constitution, pp. 62–3). nerals per month.1 The media did put the discriminatory act. It is only when one delves into the person- 5 . Article 89 of the reformed Constitution. See cemetery in the spotlight on the occasion of Adalberto Assad, president of the ceme- al experiences of Muslims in Argentina that Constitution o p . c i t. p. 61. the funeral of ex-president Carlos Menem's tery and the Argentinean Arab Islamic Asso- discrimination comes out into the open, 6 . '[ D ] e s e m p e ñ a r con lealtad y patriotismo el cargo son, Carlos Facundo Menem, who died in an ciation, believes that 'this is another attack going beyond the typical association of de presidente (o vicepresidente) de la Nación y accident under unclear circumstances in against our community by people who want 'Turkish' (which equals Muslim or Arab), observar y hacer observar fielmente la March 1995. to spread chaos in society. It also goes which Muslims have already come to accept Constitución de la N a c i ó n Argentina respetando The motives of the assailants were un- against the entire social fabric.' For Sheikh as part of the country's folklore. The archi- sus creencias religiosas.' Art. 93 of the reformed known, since no pamphlets were found ex- Abdul Karim Paz of the S h ici t e mosque at- tect Hamurabi Noufouri, son of Syrian par- Constitution, see note 4. plaining their actions and no anti-Islamic Tauhid of the Flores neighbourhood, 'it is ents, is professor of Islamic and Mudejar Art 7 . Quoted in the letter of Hamurabi Noufouri to the slogans were painted. On Tuesday, 16 July, the first time that the community goes since 1998 in the departments of Architec- architect Bernardo Dujovne, Dean of the Faculty of the newspaper C l a r í n, with the largest circu- through something like this; it is a very bit- ture, Industrial Design, Dress Design, and Architecture, Design, and Urbanism of the lation in Argentina, dedicated its editorial to ter moment. The message is terrible and de- Textile Design at Buenos Aires University. In University of Buenos Aires, 6 December 2000. the desecration of the cemetery. Displaying c e i t f u l . ' December 2000 he was informed that his 8 . Noticias judiciales, no. 817, year IV, 25 September the usual confusion between Arabs and The desecration of the graves, however, is position at the Faculty of Architecture 2001 (www.habogados.com.ar/). Muslims, C l a r í n ran a headline that read 'The not the first violent act against the Islamic would be revoked, although he would con- 9 . Simon Birinder, 'Argentines and the Real Face of Desecration of the Islamic Cemetery' and community in Argentina, since two of the tinue in the other departments. He was ver- Islam', Buenos Aires Herald, 10 February 2002. proceeded to explain that 'aggression of three mosques in the country have been bally told that his subject, 'although cultur- this nature does not just attack one commu- the target of attacks in the past. In January ally interesting, is not pertinent to the offi- nity in particular, in this case the Arabic one, 2001, strangers threw a bomb against the cial programme',7 which Noufouri consid- Pedro Brieger, sociologist, is chairperson of the but all of society.'2 In contrast, for the jour- façade of at-Tauhid mosque, and in June ered to be an act of discrimination. He Middle East Department (DEMO) at the Institute of nalist R a ú l Kollman, who has investigated 1986, a few days before the inauguration of promptly complained in a formal letter to International Relations of La Plata University, and the repeated attacks against Jewish ceme- the mosque on Alberti Street, an explosive several academic institutions and to the Na- researcher on the Islamic community in Argentina at teries and is the author of the book S o m b r a s device blew up the windows facing the tional Institute against Discrimination, Buenos Aires University. de Hitler (Shadows of Hitler), acts of violence s t r e e t . Xenophobia, and Racism (INADI). Noufouri E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2 Current Issues 9

The Balkans ISA BL UMI I n d o c t r i n a t i n g

'Albanians have been Muslims for more than 500 years and they do not need outsiders [Arabs] to tell them what is the proper way to practise Islam.' Mufti of Kosova, Rexhep Boja's recent retort to the efforts A l b a n i a n s of Arab NGOs to impose their Salafi practices on Kosovar Albanians reflects a largely unappreciated phenomenon in the post-communist Balkans. The following exposes the questionable manner in which Western powers have compartmentalized their pri- Dynamics of Islamic Aid orities in the region and how Saudi-based humani- tarian agencies have filled in the vacuum. At issue is how Western policies of 'conflict resolution' have left focus on young male education based on more than ever the rural/urban divide that States. Such a sense of increasing isolation, 'ethno-religious' communities at the mercy of inter- the memorization of the Qur'an, and little if has historically divided the Kosova popula- as European, US, and non-denominational national, 'faith-based' organizations that, in turn, ex- any emphasis on what many would deem tion (Blumi 2001). In reaction, many among organizations continue to ignore the spiri- ploit the poverty and fragmented social conditions essential survival skills have attracted the those who have become reliant on SJCRKC tual, educational, and cultural needs of local of – in our case here – Albanians. suspicion of Kosova's indigenous Muslim assistance feel persecuted, a condition that populations, breeds the right kind of resent- and secular leaders. is politicized by some. Political Islam as it ment needed to produce a new generation As a consequence, open hostility towards has emerged in other parts of the world, of supporters of anti-Western causes. With Saudi efforts to control the content of the therefore, while still at its infancy in Kosova more than 98 primary and secondary spiritual lives of Albanians, the destruction is transforming to fit local dynamics. One schools built throughout rural Kosova, the of many historical sites deemed to encour- can follow in the Islamic Community of creation of a new generation of Albanian age 'idolatry', and other confrontations be- Kosova's (Bashkesia Islame e Kosovës (BIK)) Muslims is underway. As the outside world tween indigenous forms of religious prac- journal T a k v i m i, the occasional debate over has given free reign to Saudi-based organi- tice and what many see as 'Arab cultural im- the merits of an Islamic party in dealing with zations to set up orphanages, mosques, and perialism' have become manifest. While the political and social issues plaguing schools, the results in the isolated regions of small numbers of Albanians from the former Kosova today. Indeed, advocates for the cre- Kosova are already evident. Yugoslavia did go to study Islamic theology ation of an Islamic party in general reveal a While many continue to resist the sectari- in the Arabic-speaking world (many trav- growing sense of political power in rural an implications of these activities, others elled to study under the now deceased Al- Kosovar society, one that is becoming more concede that the arrival of these proselytiz- banian-born scholar, Nasir al Din al-Albani), interventionist when it comes to influenc- ing organizations are creating internal con- the vast majority of Albanians had no previ- ing cultural mores and articulating a distinc- flicts as people are drawn by promises of ous cultural contact with the larger Islamic tive voice for rural Kosova. money, jobs, education, and indeed a new world. The recent influences from the out- identity. Unless immediate attention is paid side, with their substantial aid packages, A l b a n i a to providing an alternative for rural commu- have clearly changed this. The nature of this Interestingly, Albanians are not destined nities in Kosova, the spectacle of outside change is creating an environment that pits to take the 'Taliban' route. Indeed, Muslims powers manipulating internal sectarian dif- local organizations trying to maintain local in Albania have successfully thwarted the ferences, as in Lebanon in the 1970s and Islamic traditions, as personified by Rexhep penetration of Wahhabi extremism in their 1980s, is a distinct possibility. It would be Boja and the Albanian grand mufti, Hafiz communities. Unlike rural Kosova, parents yet another tragic demonstration of West- Koçi, against those influenced by imported in Albania always had a number of options ern short-sightedness that its failure to pro- p r a c t i c e s . for educating their children. This proves key. vide a few million dollars to rebuild the lives Despite their efforts, with little or no fi- In Albania, not only are there dozens of of hundreds of thousands of human beings nancial resources of their own and the ne- schools that have been erected since 1990 would result in decades of conflict and in- glect of interest among the members of by foreign Christian organizations that try stability. The economic stinginess and the Kosova's internationally imposed adminis- to woo the population away from their 50 cultural chauvinism that produces this ne- trators, Kosova's leaders are incapable of years of communist indoctrination, but a glect may come back to haunt Europe, end- providing an alternative to the Salafi educa- Turkish faith-based organization inspired by ing any illusion that things have been made Albanian refugees As a result of policies that have basically de- tional practices that are being propagated the liberal Fetullah G ü l e n has also opened a right in the Balkans over the last three years. from Kosovo at ferred addressing rural Kosova's social and in many parts of rural Kosova. The SJCRKC number of well-attended d e r s h a n es in Alba- a United Arab economic needs to organizations whose reported in late 2001 to have invested four nia (Agai 2002; Balci 2002). Armed with doc- Emirates refugee basic modus operandi is the religious indoc- million Saudi riyals in Kosova. Nearly half of trinal and sectarian alternatives, local Mus- camp in Kukes, trination of the population, much of Koso- that (about USD 500,000) had been spent to lims in the Albanian-speaking regions of the A l b a n i a . va's rural society is being isolated from their sponsor 388 religious 'propagators' (i.e. mis- Balkans prove, when given a choice, effec- fellow countrymen and the world at large. A sionaries) in the immediate post-war period. tive in staving off the indoctrinating efforts result of such isolation is the increasing vul- What these propagators – whom I would of outside interests. In Albania, as noted in nerability of Kosova's Muslims to hostility call experts in post-conflict assessment – interviews with the grand mufti of Albania emanating from those very Western gov- did was identify the communities most suit- and others, Arab Salafi organizations, while ernments that neglected to address their able to their agenda. While there are no offi- targeting Albania as a potential area of in- initial needs. It is therefore ironic that as cial numbers published, at least 98 mosque fluence in the early 1990s, have all but aban- N o t e s self-proclaimed Western societies cower be- complexes with and without accompanying doned the country, choosing to focus their 1 . According to the latest data produced by fore the 'the rise of Islamic fundamentalism', schools have been built in rural Kosova as a resources on Kosova's rural population. Why t h e international community, Kosova's rural their discriminatory policies towards Koso- result of their work.2 One can draw compar- this happened is significant in that Albani- population is the poorest in Europe, after Moldova va's rural 'Muslim' population may prove to isons to Afghan communities in the 1980s ans in Albania clearly made a choice to not and Tajikistan. Unemployment throughout the be directly responsible for the production of when large numbers of orphaned and sin- go down the Wahhabi route. Salafi organi- country is around 80 per cent, and upwards of Europe's own 'Taliban', which in the future gle-mother families were also dependent zations, eager to proselytize as other evan- 2 0 per cent of the population lives in abject may indeed prove hostile to 'Western values on Saudi 'charity' in the border refugee gelical groups coming from the United poverty. See ICG, 'A Kosovo Road Map: Final and interests'. camps of Pakistan. As with Afghans, rural States or their Greek Orthodox rivals south Status' (www.crisisweb.org). Kosovars, dependant on the 'generosity' of of the border, learned that Albanian Mus- 2 . Consult the Official Saudi information website for Future t a l i bs ? others, have become vulnerable to 'foreign' lims, when armed with a choice between news on activities of various Saudi 'charities' in The central problem is not doctrinal but doctrines and practices. their brand of intolerant and rigid spirituali- Kosova (www.saudinf.com). socio-economic. After decades of discrimi- In many ways local resistance to SJCRKC ty and others, preferred the milder track. nation and two years of war resulting in the has taken on the tone of general hostility to- This lesson could again be taught in Kosova R e f e r e n c e s murder of much of the adult male popula- wards Arabs that is being beamed across if communities were given similar resources. – Agai, Bekim. 2002. Fethullah G ü l e n and His tion in rural areas, Kosova's peasants are liv- the 24-hour news programmes watched Among Albanian-speaking Muslims, the Movement's Islamic Ethic of Education. C r i t i q u e : ing in abject poverty.1 Many rural communi- with great interest in Kosova. There is a issues discussed here are particularly impor- Critical Middle Eastern Studies 11/1 (Spring): 27–47. ties in Kosova have, as a result, become growing sense among Kosova's urban pop- tant as their self-perceived place in the – Balci, Bayram. 2002. Fethullah G ü l e n'in neo-nurcu more or less dependent on outside NGOs. ulation, for instance, that by being associat- world is now dominated by anti-Muslim okullari. Toplum ve Bilim (Summer): 93, 251–83. The most active in rural Kosova has been the ed to the same faith as Usama bin Laden sentiments. The sense of being unwelcome – Blumi, Isa. 2001. Kosova: From the Brink – and Back Saudi Joint Committee for the Relief of (there is no differentiation made between by Europe, of being persecuted and indeed Again. Current History (November): 15–20. Kosova and Chechnya (SJCRKC), which has Salafi practitioners in Kosova – locals call blamed for events taking place in other provided for the basic daily needs of over a them m u h a j a d d i n – today and Bin Laden), parts of the globe by Americans is a com- Isa Blumi is a Ph.D. candidate at the Joint History and hundred communities. While food, housing, that Kosovars' long-term desires for inde- mon theme among self-identified Muslims Middle Eastern Studies Program at NYU and and clothing are provided by the SJCRKC, its pendence are being in some way jeopar- today. This sense of exclusion is being used academic editor for the Kosova-based think-tank, primary task has been education. The forced dized. As a result, new political lines are in some quarters to shift community loyal- KIPRED. segregation of the sexes in schools, the being drawn in Kosovar society, reflecting ties away from Europe and the United E-mail: [email protected] 1 0 Activism I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2

South Africa SINDRE BANGSTAD Revisiting PAGAD

Two years after the first free elections in the history of South Africa, which brought the liberation move- ment to political power, a new twist was added to the seemingly ever-present violence of the gang-lands Machoism or Islamism? of Cape Town. A vigilante movement dominated by Cape Muslims, People Against Gangsterism and Drugs (PAGAD), launched a series of assassinations members that appeared in the media. On the the Muslim community vis-à-vis the post- globalized, Hollywood-style representa- of local drug lords and vowed to free the post- other hand, the white-dominated media was apartheid authorities.3 tions of machoism that have been appropri- apartheid townships of the scourge of crime and lambasted as 'Islamophobic' by PAGAD on ated and localized by both the gangs and drugs. Since autumn of the year 2000, PAGAD's mili- various occasions. The internal conflicts the vigilantes. Jeppie suggests that PAGAD tant actions have ceased to pose a security threat in The assassination of Rashaad Staggie in reflects a crisis of leadership among South Cape Town. Most of the militants of the movement The Muslims of Cape Town 1996 exposed the conflictive interests and African Muslims, and that it serves as an av- are behind bars. But even long after the movement The coloured Muslims of Cape Town are opinions of Cape Muslims. The state appara- enue for the reinsertion of former drug ad- reached its zenith and decline, academics have failed the descendants of slaves and political ex- tus, represented by the senior ANC minister dicts and petty gangsters into society. to reach a consensus over what the peculiar phenom- iles brought to the 'Mother City' in the peri- Mohammed 'Dullah' Omar, had initially Hence, to both Pillay and Jeppie the reli- enon of PAGAD actually represented. od between 1658 and 1808, and of misce- sought to bring PAGAD into alignment with gious imagery invoked by PAGAD appears the government through talks with the lead- to be mere strategic posturing for the Mus- ers of the movement, but through the assas- lim township public. Even though one sination of Staggie, PAGAD had in effect should not necessarily take the assertions of made this impossible. PAGAD was labelled a PAGAD members at face value, such analy- vigilante movement by the government, ses risk treating the outward expressions of and the minority of Cape Muslims support- PAGAD as mere epiphenomena in relation ive of the ANC government turned their to the social causes of the phenomenon. For backs towards PAGAD's actions, which they instance, there seems to be little doubt that regarded as counter-productive. The path Qibla, a militant organization heavily influ- towards an increasing anti-state rhetoric o f enced by Islamism, gained control over PAGAD leaders in the following years, and PAGAD after the assassination of Staggie in the process of government labelling of 1996. My experience with PAGAD members PAGAD members as 'urban terrorists' that during fieldwork suggests that Islamism ensued, lay open. But PAGAD could count may be of greater significance than what on massive support from the Cape Muslim has been assumed so far. All but one of the community. In a survey published in No- alleged PAGAD members in 'Mekaar' had at vember 1996 it was found that 62 per cent some point pursued religious careers. One of Muslim respondents were supportive of of them was a long-standing member of PAGAD. In comparison, a mere 17 per cent Qibla, whose formative political experiences of Christian respondents were supportive of had been the Iranian revolution of 1979 and the movement.4 The support of the Muslim the anti-apartheid struggle of the 1980s. middle class and lower-middle class in This is certainly at some remove from the coloured residential areas appeared to be impressions of the 'gun-ho' machoism that particularly strong. In sum, PAGAD had pop- was so central to the local media's represen- ular but not intellectual support. Many Cape tation of PAGAD. As a political and social Muslim intellectuals paid a heavy price for phenomenon, PAGAD was intimately distancing themselves from PAGAD's ac- bound up with the hybrid social formations P A G A D PAGAD grew out of a network of civic move- genation between the various ethnic tions: in 1998, a pipe-bomb was thrown at from which it originated, and was therefore demonstration ments and neighbourhood watches on the groups present in South Africa through and the house of the senior scholar in Religious multi-faceted. The question of whether in Pretoria's so-called Cape Flats, and was established by since the colonial era. The Indian Muslims of Studies, Dr Ebrahim Moosa. A prominent PAGAD is an expression of machoism or Is- Laudium suburb. a group of predominantly Muslim teachers Cape Town are the descendants of free Mus- imam, Sa'dullah Khan (imam at al-Quds lamism is an awkward one, since it appears and social workers in 1996. Cape Flats refers lim tradesmen and some indentured labour- Masjid in Gatesville, one of the largest to have expressed both. to the residential areas to which Cape ers that both arrived in South Africa in the mosques in Cape Town), received death Town's coloured population was forcibly re- late 19t h century. Whereas a mere 1.4 per threats and opted to leave the country; moved when strict residential segregation cent of South Africans are Muslim, approxi- whereas the senior ANC politician, Ebrahim N o t e s was imposed by the apartheid authorities in mately 10.4 per cent of Cape Townians are Rasool, lived under constant police surveil- 1 . According to the population census of 1996. the 1960s and 1970s. The living conditions M u s l i m .1 Historically, the cultural and reli- lance for long periods. 2 . Call of Islam, established in 1983, was supportive in the townships of the Cape Flats vary, but gious practices of the Cape Muslims have But the toll exacted on ordinary township of the UDF and the ANC. Qibla, established in the general pattern is one of overcrowding, been heavily influenced by Sufism. The residents was – as usual – higher. As the as- 1980, had an agenda of implementing the s h a r ica. lack of public facilities, and increasing un- Islam of the Cape Muslims can generally be sassination attempts on gangsters on the 3 . See also S. Jeppie, 'Commemorations and employment. For the coloured gangs in- considered as tolerant, which is indicated by Cape Flats degenerated into regular warfare Identities: The 1994 Tercentenary of Islam in South volved in crime and trafficking in drugs, the a high frequency of intermarrying and so- between PAGAD and the gangs, civilians Africa', in T. Sonn (ed.), Islam and the Question of Cape Flats had proven to be fertile ground cializing with non-Muslims, especially were caught in the crossfire. In the commu- M i n o r i t i e s (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1996), 73–91. for recruitment ever since the forced re- among the poorer sections of the communi- nity of 'Mekaar' (the name of which has been 4 . Africa et al, Crime and Community Action: PAGAD movals. Among ordinary township resi- ty. altered), where I was to undertake fieldwork and the Cape Flats 1996–1997 (Cape Town: IDASA dents, there was at the time of PAGAD's Throughout the years of apartheid, most two years later, stray bullets killed a six-year- Public Opinion Service, 1998). emergence a perception to the effect that Cape Muslims remained politically compla- old girl in November 1998, as was the case 5 . See for instance A. Tayob, 'Jihad Against Drugs in the level of crime had spiralled out of con- cent. Individual Muslims, such as the Pan- with two other minors the same year. Two Cape Town: A Discourse-Centred Analysis', S o c i a l trol since the abolishment of apartheid, and Africanist Congress-oriented imam Abdul- suspected PAGAD members, both practising D y n a m i c s 22/2 (1996): 23–29; F. Esack, 'PAGAD and that the post-apartheid authorities were un- lah Haron (who died in police detention in Muslims, were later convicted for her murder Islamic Radicalism: Taking on the State?', I n d i c a t o r able and unwilling to curtail the activities of 1969) made great sacrifices in the struggle on the grounds of 'common purpose'. S . A . 13/4 (1997): 7–11; S. Pillay, 'There's a township gangs. against apartheid. The Pan-Africanist Con- Fundamentalist on My Stoep: Problematizing From the outset, PAGAD was a media phe- gress was a splinter group from the ANC Academic representation Representations of PAGAD', Unpublished seminar nomenon. The movement burst into the Youth League, established in 1959 under o f P A G A D paper (Bellville: University of the Western Cape, media headlines when a renowned gangster the leadership of Robert Mangaliso Sobuk- The academic literature on the PAGAD 1998); S. Jeppie, 'Islam, Narcotics and Defiance in from the Cape Flats, Rashaad Staggie, was we. Young Muslim anti-apartheid activists phenomenon is limited. No systematic in- the Western Cape, South Africa', in K. King (ed.), assassinated in camera by a mob of PAGAD took part in the struggle of the streets in Call vestigation of the movement has been un- Development in Africa – Africa in Development, supporters outside his home in the suburb of Islam and Qibla, as well as in the umbrella dertaken. There are however, a number of (Edinburgh: Centre for African Studies, 2000), of Salt River on 4 August 1996. South African anti-apartheid movement United Democra- theses, articles, and reports, the most signif- 217–233; and B. Dixon and L. M. Johns, G a n g s , vigilantism has traditions dating back to the tic Front2 in the 1980s, but they were in mi- icant of which have been produced by acad- PAGAD and the State: Vigilantism and Revenge late 19t h century. What was new in the case nority in their communities. In the post- emics affiliated to the University of Cape Violence in the Western Cape (Braamfontein: Centre of PAGAD was that this time it was perpe- apartheid context, however, one has seen a Town and the University of the Western for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation, trated by a movement drawing heavily on selective process of remembering among Cape in Bellville.5 These authors' analyses of 2 0 0 1 ) . the religious imagery of Islam. PAGAD's Cape Muslims in which the Muslim contri- PAGAD diverge on one point in particular. stance towards the local media was ambigu- bution to the fight against apartheid, rather Tayob and Esack point to the links between Sindre Bangstad graduated with a cand. polit. ous: on the one hand, PAGAD leaders knew than the complacency of most Muslims in Islamist rhetoric and PAGAD's actions, degree in social anthropology from the University of very well that township youngsters in Cape that era, has been highlighted. It seems rea- whereas Jeppie and Pillay are sceptical Bergen, Norway (2002), and is affiliated with the Chr. Town were attracted by the visual images of sonable to regard this as the outcome of the about attaching importance to such links. Michelsen Institute in Bergen, Norway. the seemingly omnipotent, scarf-clad PAGAD attempts of Cape Muslim leaders to position Pillay perceives PAGAD as an expression of E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2 Activism 11

E u r o p e ARMINA OMERIKA Bosnian Young

The Bosnian Young Muslims, a reformist Islamic movement that emerged in Sarajevo in 1939 and – officially – ceased to exist ten years later, is even today subject to many controversies. The attempts Muslims 19 39–1991 to characterize this movement include a whole range of contradictory designations, ranging from hostile approaches in which the members of the movement are depicted as pan-Islamist terrorists whose activi- ties aimed at the overthrow of the Yugoslavian state A Survey and establishing of an Islamic order, to sympathetic views in which it is presented as a basically democra- tic movement established on Islamic humanitarian gence of a secular Bosnian intellectual élite of traditional Islamic subjects rather than in In August 1983, in a second wave of perse- principles that tried to resist the dictatorial commu- along with the parallel decline of the tradi- the avant-garde discourse on Islam they cution, some activists of the network were nist regime of post-war Yugoslavia. tional religious Muslim élites; and, finally, had originally tried to establish. During this tried for 'separatism' and 'Islamic funda- the challenge of communist and fascistic period, i.e. between 1943 and 1945, the mentalism' and sent to prison with sen- The history of the Young Muslim organiza- ideologies, both of which were opposed to number of members significantly increased tences of up to nine years. Among those tion and its impact on the (self-)conceptions the Young Muslims' conceptions of Islam. and the organization expanded into the were the former Young Muslims Alija of Islam in Bosnia can be examined through major Bosnian, and even some other Yu- I z e t b e g o v ic´, Omer Behmen, Salih Behmen, different stages of development (1939–1943, Early developments goslavian cities. Eˇs r ef Cˇ a m p a r a, and Ismet K a s u m a g ic´, as 1943–1946, 1946–1949, and 1970s–1991). The Young Muslim movement developed well as the younger intellectuals Dˇz e m a l u- These stages can be defined in terms of sev- around a group of students (Husref B asˇ a g i c, Underground and abroad d i n L a t ic´, Edhem Biˇc akˇc ic´, Hasan Cˇ e n g ic´, Hu- eral interdependent factors, of which the or- Emin Granov, Esad K a r a d j o z o v ic´, and Tarik In 1945, el-Hidaje was officially dissolved, sein Zˇ i v a l j, and Mustafa S p a h ic´. I z e t b e g o v ic´ ganizational forms of the movement and its M u f t ic´), who initiated a common forum for and the Young Muslim organization went was accused of having organized a 'group' ideological aims can be regarded as the discussions and debates on Islamic subjects. underground. They established an illegal whose aims were to conduct 'contra-revolu- most important ones. The first Young Muslims were mainly stu- network that influenced both young urban tionary' actions in Yugoslavia and to estab- The Young Muslim organization emerged dents from universities and high schools intellectuals and much of the young rural lish an Islamic state in Yugoslavia.2 The in- in Sarajevo in 1939. The time of foundation, aged between 16 and 26 years. Their activi- population. Initially tolerated by the new dictment, however, was more an ideologi- the name, and even some ideological postu- ties during the years 1939 and 1941 were es- regime, they went for open confrontation cally coloured determent of regime critics lates suggest that its foundation was related tablished on the basis of private contacts with the communists as early as 1946, espe- rather than an accusation based upon real to the more or less simultaneous emer- and informal meetings. During the latter, cially when they protested against the mili- proof. gence of similar pan-Islamist movements in some of the activists presented papers on tant secularization policy of the new Yu- The two lines that now constituted the the Islamic world, particularly in Egypt and specific subjects connected to Islam, where- goslavian government. In 1946, several network – the 'old' Young Muslims and the Indonesia. There are, however, no indica- upon the group had to discuss the argu- members were arrested and sent to prison. members of the younger generation – be- tions of a direct influence of such move- ments of the presenters. The final crushing of the organization took came the core of the Stranka Demokratske ments on the Young Muslims, especially Despite the lack of hierarchical or organi- place during the Sarajevo trial in August Akcije (SDA), a political party founded in bearing in mind their education and age zational structures, this period was decisive 1949. Four leading members were con- 1991 and since regarded as the only 'true' (basically pupils and students between 16 for the later development of the Young demned to death; many others were arrest- political representative of Muslim popula- and 26 years of age), the lack of any travel- Muslim organization: it was during this time ed and sentenced to long imprisonments. A tion in Bosnia – a presumptuous self-de- ling experience, their non-acquaintance that their network, which was to spread precise number of arrested, persecuted, scription, though repeatedly confirmed dur- with Oriental languages, the difficult access across all major Bosnian and even some and/or executed members, though, cannot ing the political elections in Bosnia. to the works of contemporary Arabic writers other Yugoslavian cities during the years to be definitely specified. The ideas that had been developed at the in the Bosnian language, and finally, their follow, was initiated. Furthermore, their After their release from prison, some of early stages of the Young Muslim move- non-alignment to the Bosnian ulama, a t main ideological and programmatic guide- the Young Muslims emigrated to West Euro- ment continued – to a certain extent modi- least at the early stage of their develop- lines were formulated. Islamic decadence, pean countries. Those who remained in fied – to exist until the last decade of the ment, which could have compensated for the relationship between Islam and science Bosnia and confined themselves to private 2 0t h century, despite the official prohibition the above-mentioned limitations. as well as that between Islam and other reli- contacts with each other officially retreated of the movement in 1946, its being crushed The time of the movement's foundation, gions and ideologies, the status of Islam and from further engagements in the Young 1949, and the subsequent imprisonment of the late 1930s and the early 1940s, was Muslims in Europe and particularly in Yu- Muslim 'cause'. Nonetheless, it was this kind the organization's members. The ideologi- marked by several factors of particular im- goslavia, the necessity of a social renais- of private contact that enabled them to cal continuity was guaranteed through the portance for the Yugoslavian Muslims: a cri- sance of Muslim peoples and the decisive keep in touch under the vigilant eyes of the 'individual factor', i.e. through the network sis of national identity; the decreasing im- role of Islamic education in it: all these top- Yugoslavian Secret Service, and to take ac- of informal and private contacts of some ex- portance of Muslims within the Yugoslavian ics were already present in the early Young tive part in the Islamic revival in Bosnia that Young Muslims amongst each other and political landscape; the reinforcement of na- Muslim agenda and were to run through the was made possible due to the liberalization with the younger generation of Muslim in- Alija I z e t b e g o vi ´c tionalism in Serbia and Croatia; the emer- members' writings and the group's activities of policy with respect to religion in 1970s tellectuals in Bosnia, especially in the course until the 1990s, in more or less elaborated Yugoslavia. However, they not only had of the general liberalization of policy on reli- ways. been participants in this awakening of reli- gion in Yugoslavia during the 1970s. The foundation as an organization took gion among Yugoslavian, and especially place in Sarajevo in March 1941. However, Bosnian Muslims; to a considerable extent, the outbreak of the Second World War obvi- they also gave this movement their fresh ated an official entry into the Yugoslavian impetus by launching newspapers and register of associations. In order to avoid magazines on Islamic subjects and by pub- complete dissolution, the Young Muslims lishing their writings under pseudonyms, ei- were compelled to join the ulama associa- ther in the official organs of the Islamska tion el-Hidaje, despite their critical attitude Vjerska Zajednica (Islamic Religious Com- towards the Bosnian religious officials and munity) or as separate, autonomous works. the protests of some activists like Alija Finally, by initializing discussion and edu- I z e t b e g o v ic´and N edˇz i bSac´ˇ i r b e g o v ic´ a g a i n s t cation circles, the former Young Muslim the linkage to the much-criticized clergy. In members succeeded in creating a new net- 1943, after almost two years of organiza- work, which consisted of some former tional abeyance, the Young Muslims were Young Muslims and a number of Bosnian officially proclaimed the youth section of Muslim intellectuals of the younger genera- the ulama a s s o c i a t i o n. This status had sig- tion. The latter, both secular intellectuals N o t e s nificant impact on both their organizational and young ulama from the Faculty of Islam- 1 . Alija I z e t b e g o v ic´, Islam izmedu Istoka i Zapada structures and ideology. Informal networks ic Theology, actively took part in the discus- (Sarajevo, 1984) and Islamska deklaracija became substituted by officially stipulated sion circles. The ideas that circulated among ( S a r a j e v o ,1 9 9 0 ). association structures. El-Hidaje officials, them followed the pattern established by 2 . Abid Prguda, Sarajevski proces. Sudenje especially the association's president the Young Muslims, though in a modified muslimanskim intelektualcma 1983 ( S a r a j e v o , Mehmed H a ndˇz ic´ and his vice-president way. The new works, like Alija I z e t b e g o v ic´' s 1990), 37–51. Kasim D o b raˇc a, helped to 'domesticate' the Islamic Declaration and Islam between the radical, to a certain extent politically deter- East and West,1 to name but these two as the Armina Omerika, M.A., is a Ph.D. candidate in mined demands, such as those postulated best known ones, reflected the new age t h e Junior Research Group (VW Foundation) by the founding members Esad K a r a d j o- structure, but also the acquaintance of their o n 'Islamic Networks of Education in Local and z o v ic´ and Tarik M u f t ic´. Now, the religious- authors with various contemporary ideolog- Transnational Contexts, 18t h– 2 0t h C e n t u r i e s ' , ethical dimension of Islam was emphasized; ical thoughts, and the influences that result- R u h r-University Bochum, Germany. this new direction fitted more in the frame ed thereof. E-mail: [email protected] 1 2 Migrants I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2

The Netherlands SADIK HARCHAOUI Church and State

There seems to be an irreconcilable gap between the Dutch state and its Muslim inhabitants. This impres- sion is transforming into an increasingly popular standpoint, not only in politics and the media but in Multicultural Society also among legal philosophers, historians, and ju- rists. As t h e mantra that supports the apparent gap, what tends to be singled out is the principle of the Separation and the Muslim alleged conflict with what a woman's 'call- their children deserve the chance to make a separation of church and state. This separation is al- p r e s e n c e ing' is. In September 2001, the UN Commit- free choice in becoming citizens of the legedly alien to Islam, and therefore Islam is irrecon- After 11 September 2001, the presence of tee on the Elimination of Discrimination Dutch democratic state, and the chance is cilable with the idea of a constitutional state. The about 860,000 Muslims in the Netherlands against Women called for legal measures theirs for the taking. mantra appears to be a common-knowledge fact, for has been increasingly perceived as a prob- against this discrimination. Still, the govern- The real question concerns what the foun- which reason any substantiation and explanations lem. People do not talk these days about ment persists since 1991 in its view that dis- dations should be of a Dutch citizenship are casually dropped out, but wrongfully so. 'Muslims', they talk about 'Islam' – as if it crimination against women should be with an Islamic identity. The philosopher of were a national organization. The image of weighed against other rights pertaining to law Marlies Galenkamp points in this con- The state under the rule of law and the prin- church and state does not fit the mosque, as the foundations of the Dutch legal system – text to the harm principle of the philoso- ciple of the separation of church and state religious variation is large and there is a di- freedom to gather, religious freedom, and pher J.S. Mill. The government can only in- are not unambiguous concepts. The rele- versity of interpretations and views. free speech. A prohibition can only be set terfere with the freedom of the (Islamic) cit- vance and scope of the principle is unclear; When is the principle of the separation of when there is a 'systematic, very severe dis- izen if s/he causes damage to other citizens. moreover, a fair question can be raised as to church and state relevant today? In the first turbance of the democratic process'. On the basis of this principle, Muslims can whether this liberal principle is even prob- place, when the government singles out cer- This is somewhat surprising in light of the maintain their own religious views unless lematic at all in relation to Muslims in the tain religions (whereas Islam as an ideologi- prohibition declaration by the highest Turk- they cause damage to others, including N e t h e r l a n d s . cal concept is not presently singled out by ish judge of the Turkish Welfare Party, those within their own community. A Mus- The foundations of the state under the the Dutch government). Moreover, there are whose judgment is maintained by the Euro- lim may therefore not discriminate, because rule of law are the principles of legality, sep- no Islamic parties at a national or local level pean Court of Human Rights. The focus of that hurts others. A Muslim can step out of aration of powers, civil rights, and judicial with political power to favour 'Islam' over the activities of the Welfare Party is sup- the community if he disagrees with certain control. Individual freedom is most impor- other ideologies. The situation in which only posed to be the elimination of the separa- views, such as female circumcision or forced tant. The individual determines his or her associations with a Christian orientation are tion of church and state.2 marriages. This comes closer to the perspec- own human vision and there is no dominant eligible for subsidies, as was occasionally the If the Dutch criterion of a 'very serious dis- tive of individual freedom supported by the reality. Given that the government can case in municipalities controlled by Dutch turbance of the democratic process' does foundations of the democratic state. Collec- never prescribe what 'real' freedom is, it Reformed parties in the 1980s, has no Islam- not work for the SGP, for which Islamic orga- tive thinking is relegated in order to guaran- should keep its distance. ic equivalent. On the contrary, and in conflict nization could it possibly work? The link in tee the freedom of all citizens. public debates between wearing head- The essence of such a state is not to 'drill' scarves or the nonsensical remarks of some people, but to protect them against the om- imams (e.g. on homosexuality) and the sep- nipotence of the government. From this aration of church and state lacks credibility principled choice for individual freedom, and is inconsequent. Muslims must also be actively protected None of this means that Islamic religious against undesired interference by foreign diversity resulting from the arrival of immi- powers. Protective notions also call for alert- grants, refugees, and converts does not pre- ness when signing agreements with coun- sent the government with problems. The tries in which Islam is the state religion. One discussion over issues like wearing head- should keep in mind that, under certain cir- scarves in school, at work, or even in court is cumstances, foreign laws can also be ap- not primarily about the separation of plied to Muslim citizens in the Netherlands church and state but about basic civil rights. on the basis of private international law. In these considerations, meanings for Mus- A consequence of alienation is that, in image not available online lims and non-Muslims are often diametrical- their isolation, Muslims try to solve their ly opposed. For instance, non-Muslims can- own problems outside the law of the state. not seem to accept that progressive views Transparency is needed to guarantee the can very well be combined with a strong de- freedom of Muslim citizens. For example, a gree of religiosity, or that for some girls the non-registered imam marriage can have headscarf is a means to emancipation and negative consequences, such as an increase p a r t i c i p a t i o n .3 A forced secularization of in polygamy. Muslims have to be protected Muslims does, on the contrary, conflict with against alienation, because the state under the separation of church and state. After all, the rule of law is a guarantee and not a giving preference to secularism equals threat. The state belongs to everyone. favouring ideological truths.

Foundations of citizenship The real problem lies in the fact that the Hearing on the Historically, individual conscience be- with the law, the mantra of the separation of Netherlands has no consequent policy re- court clerks' right came recognized as absolute freedom to church and state is in fact used as legitima- garding philosophies of life. All kinds of ar- to wear head- put an end to the claims of absolutistic tion to prevent subsidizing Islamic prayer fa- guments are thrown into the pile. The policy scarves in the theocratic monarchs. As a result, religious cilities and schools.1 Second, the liberal prin- or the approach is often a question of taste, c o u r t r o o m . freedom became a fact. By eliminating the ciple becomes relevant when 'Islam' can of understanding. The essence of a state privileged position of the ruling church(es), exert political influence. This does not seem under the rule of law, particularly the pro- church and state were in fact separated. This to be the case either. Again, there is no uni- tection of individual freedom, plays too was enhanced by all the subjects' simulta- fied national Islamic organization, while the marginal a role. Behind every Muslim is an neous claim to fundamental civil rights. In differences between and within Muslim individual: child or adult, man or woman, N o t e s the Netherlands, the actual separation of (sub)groups is considerable. Muslims have traditional or progressive, ailing or healthy, 1 . J.D.J. Waardenburg, 'Institutionele vormgevingen church and state was completed in the organized themselves along diverse cultural, lonely, enthusiastic, expressive – you name van de Islam in Nederland gezien in Europees process starting in 1917, which led to the religious, and ethnic lines, and these seldom it. Giving space to the reality and truth of perspectief', W R R Werkdocument W 118 (The pillar system in which pluralistic (religious) comprise political aspirations. that individual is important, and experience Hague, May 2001), 30. views found a place for themselves. The To illustrate the relevance of the principle has taught us that repressed identities are 2 . Case of Refah Partisi (Welfare Party) and others v. state has known no religious ideology ever of the separation of church and state in rela- more likely to develop into extremist vari- Turkey, Applications, nos. 41340/89, 41343/98, since; its worldview became neutral. But are tion to different ideological trends, we ants. The uninvited construing of or empha- 41342/98, 41344/98 of 31 July 2001. the prayer in this year's queen's address, the should take a look at the Protestant SGP sis on 'the' Islamic identity of Muslims in a 3 . B. Parekh, 'A Varied Moral World', in S.M. Okin, I s edge inscription of the euro reading that (State Reformed Party). This party aims hostile (or friendly) environment is what Multiculturalism Bad for Women? ( P r i n c e t o n : God is with us, and the reference to the specifically at a Dutch government based leads to a distancing from Dutch society. Princeton University Press, 1999). Almighty at the beginning of our laws mere entirely 'on the divine order revealed in the This Islamic identity is confirmed as a reac- 4 . F. Dasseto, 'The New European Islam', in S. Ferrari subtleties? The fact that the Netherlands Holy Scriptures'. This standpoint produces tion to alienation and social exclusion.4 It is and A. Bradney (eds), Islam and European Legal works within the European Union with in fact a theocratic party with official status this alienation that is threatening in the S y s t e m s (Dartmouth: Ashgate, 2000). countries that give different content to this within Dutch polity that elevates not the long term. Many individuals – not only Mus- important principle (England, Norway, principle of popular sovereignty but a 'gov- lims – no longer feel at home in the Dutch Sadik Harchaoui is affiliated with the Willem Pompe Greece) is often conveniently 'forgotten' in ernment by God'. It excludes women from state, and feel unprotected against an indis- Institute for Criminal Law and Criminology and is a domestic political discourse. having certain voting rights because of an criminate government. Dutch Muslims and deputy public prosecutor, the Netherlands. I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2 Migrants 13

F r a n c e AGATHE PETIT Dying a Senegalese

The occurrence of death in an immigrant situation is a little-explored albeit essential subject considering, for example, the presence in France of a substantial immigrant population, now largely settled, of people Muslim in Migration working and living – but also dying – in France. To study funerary practices in such circumstances is to consider the entirety of social behaviours that are years), submitted to constraining legisla- the costly operation (more than 4000 Euro) lected during the offering of condolences, caused by a migrant's death in migration. The ques- tion, and is not always possible in the Mus- of posthumous repatriation and which func- and oversees the proper carrying out of the tion of death is approached here from a dual per- lim sections. This precariousness of the tions as a repatriation insurance. But the de- rituals. When he returns, he recounts the spective: that of the choice of place for the grave grave is a major obstacle and constitutes a velopments are also due to a return to 'the ceremonies undertaken by the village com- (France or in the country of origin), and that of the fu- fundamental divergence from the practices religious' in the early 1980s, coupled with munity. He is the 'relay-person' between the nerary practices (what migrants actually do when a carried out in the regions of origin. the change in inscription of migrants in actors here and there, serving as a bridge death occurs in France). It is situated at a crossing of The death of an emigrant is experienced French space that followed the modification between the different space-times of the fu- two issues, that of the migration process and that of as a dramatic rupture by the family in the of policies and migratory discourses. Finally, neral. death, its representations, and related practices. country of origin because it symbolizes the there was the familiarization of certain mi- The funerary devices in migration bring grants with the functioning of procedures in together an imperative of continuity and af- the host country. filiation to the revisions and reconstructions The migrants from the Senegal River re- that can be interpreted simultaneously as gion refer to their religious adherence and alterations of the rite (less funerary sociabil- to their return to the native land to justify ity due to lack of place or to the rules and their preference for post-mortem repatria- norms of the host society), resistance to the tion. The choice in favour of this reveals professionalization of death (preparation of reservations about French burial methods, the corpse), the re-arrangement of roles which are considered as an infringement of (the most elderly are called upon, eventual- the Islamic prescriptions, and thus of their ly outside of the family group), and even in- Muslim identity, but also an imagining that novations (generalized practice of 'delega- associates death in migration with negative tions', new role of women and non-custom- representations and especially with a failure ary social and friendship networks, and the of the migratory project – centred on the re- splitting up of ritual sequences). turn to the village – and a negation of one's Finally, it is appropriate to re-examine the origins. tie often established between funerary In fact, there exist different levels of justi- practices and integration of immigrants in fication and a plurality of causes that are ar- F r a n c e .2 By analysing the practices through ticulated in a complex fashion and explain the prism of integration, the approach is the divergences in position both between centred on a dichotomized opposition be- the groups of migrants and among these tween here and there, between identity and groups. Religious adherence, financial ca- alterity. However, it seems necessary to en- pacity, the ties with the country of origin, visage the issue of the migratory process in and the individual, familial, and migratory other terms. By posthumous repatriation situation are all motives that influence the the funerary practices in migration largely choice of burial place in migration. Thus, a exceed this opposition. They are situated growing number of Maghrebi immigrants both here and there, between here and Muslim section of Currently the mortality rate among the pop- loss of often substantial revenue, threatens today wish to be buried in France, close to there, and invest the entire migratory field. the St. Pierre ulation of immigrants in France from the the familial equilibrium, and necessitates a their children, and they demand the cre- It is not a question of alternative and rup- c e m e t e r y , Senegal River region is still low due to the social and economic reorganization, espe- ation of burial places in which the Islamic ture but rather of contact, continuity, and M a r s e i l l e . relatively recent character of this migratory cially in the Senegal River region where im- principles can be respected. It is rare for na- complimentarity. Funerary practices of mi- w a v e ,1 its demographic structure, and the migration is aimed at reproducing the fami- tives of the Senegal River region to follow grants are situated in an 'in-between', which re-emigration of certain migrants. Nonethe- ly unit. this path. But it can be expected that characterizes these migrations. They wit- less, the question of death in France is pre- Migrating to France, where the places of changes will occur with respect to this posi- ness the establishing of a system of material sent in the minds of the migrants. death, the rites, and emotional, symbolic, tion in the years to come. and symbolic exchanges between the mi- The migrants feel a real fear with respect material, and financial management take on grants and their village and family of origin. to the idea of passing away in France, far new forms, severely brings into question Transnationalization of The funerary practices celebrate a trans- from their own people, in a place where the the serenity with which Muslims relate to t h e r i t u a l s national culture and integrate themselves in beliefs and practices related to death are death. For Muslim migrants, dying in France The migratory context and the repatria- a culture of mobility and 'in-between-ness', profoundly different. Death in migration is represents a transgression. These negative tion of corpses are both constraints that af- which very well expresses continuity in the particularly troublesome for those who representations have a direct impact on de- fect the ritual practices of migrants living in rupture. The issue of dying far away is thus maintain the idea of returning to their coun- termining the place of burial. France. They hinder any identical reproduc- an excellent means to analysing in a dynam- tries of origin. There is a sentiment of shame tion of rituals carried out in the regions of ic way the migratory process, its challenges, and guilt at the idea of dying in a situation Choosing a place of burial origin and profoundly disturb the sequen- and the construction of cultural and ritual that does not conform to the initial migrato- When a migrant dies in France, there are tial unfolding of funerals. These rituals are practices in migration. ry plan or to orthodoxy. two principle possibilities for the place of played out on a particular register that con- To be buried in a far away land is to risk burial: in France, according to the current fronts several models, several cultures, sev- being forgotten, not being eternalized. legislation, or in the country of origin, after eral 'space-times' (here and there, before Death in France is thus also synonymous the body is repatriated. Surveys carried out and after the transfer), and several groups. with social death for the deceased, who is have clearly revealed the preference of mi- They imply the defining of new practices, not assured of the perpetuation of his mem- grants from the Senegal River region for new symbols adapted to a new situation: ory amongst the community of the living. posthumous repatriation. Apart from excep- life in France. For Muslims, the will to pass away among tions, those who die in France are buried in The original practices are never totally one's own people, in one's land of origin, the country of origin. However, this practice abandoned. The inspiration of funerary rites land of Islam, is coupled by the awareness of is relatively recent, the first repatriation of of Malekite Muslims remain and the practice not being able to respect Islamic prescrip- this sort dating to 1984. Before then, the de- of the ritual gifts (in money) continues to be tions in the case of being buried in France. ceased were buried in France. In some twen- a central element in the ceremonial activity. In effect, the creation of burial places re- ty years, the practices and representations However, the funerals are in part recom- N o t e s served for Muslims is contradictory to the have thus considerably evolved. posed, or reconstructed. For example, the 1 . The majority of them arrived in France between principles of laicity and neutrality of ceme- These developments are the result of the rite is sectioned: in France, the ritual is limit- the 1950s and the early 1970s. teries, stipulated in the code of districts. conjunction of several factors: on the one ed to prayer and the cleansing and prepar- 2 . See the work of Y. Chaïb (1992, 2000) and Two circulars (1975 and 1991) offer, howev- hand, the awareness of the burial methods, ing of the body, followed by the repatriation M . Tribalat (1995). er, to the mayors and cemetery administra- of the precariousness of burial in France, of the corpse; the second part of the rite, the tors the possibility of providing for specific and of the procedure of rotation of tombs in burial and commemorative ceremonies, confessional spaces. Nonetheless, the legal the Muslim spaces, which is expressed takes place in the village or region of origin. Agathe Petit, social anthropologist and ethnologist, burial conditions do not respect the entirety through a 'conspiracy myth' that was rapid- In this context, the person accompanying received her Ph.D. at the EHESS with a dissertation of prescriptions, such as being buried di- ly propagated throughout the group; and the coffin becomes central. Spokesman for entitled 'La mort au loin. Les pratiques funéraires rectly in the ground in a shroud. In addition, on the other hand, the establishment of a the immigrant community, this close family d e s migrants africains en France' (Death Far Away: long-term burial in France is a paid act (bur- 'fund for the dead', an association of people member takes the opposite journey of the Funerary Practices of African Migrants in France). ial plots being leased for a fixed number of from the Senegal River region who finance one he is accompanying, carries money col- E-mail: [email protected] 1 4 Migrants I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2

North America MINIYA CHATTERJI The S h ica I m a m i

For almost thirty years, the S h ica Imami I s m aci l i c o m- munity in Canada has been remarkably active and di- c verse in terms of countries of origin, ethnicities, and languages. However, at issue is the backdrop of the I s ma i l i Canadian policy of multiculturalism, which has incit- ed assimilatory threats to the I s m aci l i collective iden- tity, despite its role of establishing the community in its pluralism. The following deals with this paradoxi- cal positioning of the minority I s m aci l i community in Community in Canada the construction of multicultural Canada.

The Canadian policy of multiculturalism, cording to the Council Member and Chair of within the j a m aca t. Also, for Muslims, reli- In response to these critics, it could be ar- first promulgated in 1971, means that 'al- the Resettlement Portfolio, the agreement gious ideology can provide a common vi- gued that the Canadian Muslims, including though there are two official languages, stipulated that the I s m aci l i c o m m u n i t y sion that allows its followers to look beyond those of the S h ica Imami I s m aci l ic o m m u n i t y , there is no official culture, nor does any eth- would take full responsibility for the new their individual cultures. In other words, it is are losing the language(s) of their home nic group take precedence over any other'. immigrants for a full year, which includes fi- the religious faith, and not culture, which countries. However, it would be a mistake to In other words, the federal government nancial responsibility for language training, becomes the primary mode of identifica- conclude that by changing their language(s), does not see multiculturalism as a threat to housing, employment, education, and so- tion. For example, the author Rani Murji, the communities are losing their identity. As national identity but rather believes that cial and religious needs of the immigrants. who was born in East Africa and traces her noted earlier, it is faith, and not language, cultural pluralism is the very essence of Since then, further agreements and proto- origins to India, voices her identification that is the central collective identity-marker Canadian identity. This protection is set cols have been signed by FOCUS Canada thus: 'I used to identify myself as an "East (characterized by its multiplicity) for these within the provisions of the Citizenship Act and the I s m aci l i Council for Canada with the African Indian I s m aci l i Muslim". However, c o m m u n i t i e s . (1947), which provides that all Canadians, governments of Québec and Canada. As a today I identify myself simply as a "Canadian Multicultural Canada does appear to ask whether by birth or by choice, enjoy equal result of these agreements, approximately I s m aci l i Muslim", and when pushed, as a its citizens to identify with the community status, are entitled to the same rights, pow- 2,500 Afghanis have entered Canada. Al- "Canadian East Indian I s m aci l i".' at large. There is a need to be Canadian, for ers, and privileges, and are subject to the most half of them have settled in Québec, Within an ensemble of multiple identifica- pluralism, integration, and citizenship re- same obligations, duties, and liabilities. the remainder throughout the rest of the tions, religious identity remains constant as quire very careful balancing if there is to Moreover, the Canadian Charter of Rights country: Ontario, British Columbia, and Al- it holds a central defining value, collectively exist harmony and solidarity in a society and Freedoms (1982) provides that every in- berta, notably in Calgary and Edmonton. and individually, whereas the geographical, where members are free and equal. But dividual should have the equal opportunity ethno-cultural, political, and linguistic affili- given the significance of human rights, mul- to create the life that he/she is able and Paradoxical forces ations are subject to change and adapt to ticulturalism, and the role of Islamic com- wishes to have, consistent with the duties The diversity of origins of S h ica Imami I s- new contexts. munity leadership, especially in the case of and obligations of that individual as a mem- m aci l i s in Canada is obvious. Two paradoxi- Multiculturalism plays a critical role in the I s m aci l i s in Canada, it is vital to emphasize ber of society. To what extent this policy cal forces clearly emerge: the community's establishment of the S h ica Imami Muslims. the preservation of essential defining ele- holds true in practice is a highly debatable affiliation with religion, and a (forced?) Initially framing the possibilities for the ex- ments of personal and collective identities question. Yet, it is perhaps this Canadian obligation to adopt the multicultural soci- ternal definition of the group, the Canadian such as: language, gender, ethnicity, reli- policy of multiculturalism that has played a ety of Canada. policy of multiculturalism permitted the ne- gion, and race; protection of the nature of critical role in both the establishment of and When considering the I s m aci l i p o p u l a t i o n gotiation of the frontiers between the com- communities without unduly burdening the threat to the assimilation of the I s m aci l i in the face of plural cultures, several ques- munity and the host society. Continuing to them; and allowing for differential identifi- community in Canada with its many trans- tions arise. Does adapting to a plurality of do so internally as part of the process of in- cations and permeable, movable bound- national linkages. cultures mean integration into the largely tegration of recent diversity, the policy al- aries, while supporting collectivities and dominant British culture in Canada? Does lows for the negotiation of the inner fabric emphasizing collective identities. I s m aci l i s in Canada this integration into Canada's multicultural- of the community. As we have seen, the Since the first influx of I s m aci l i i m m i g r a n t s ism imply eroding one's religion? For Mus- construction of collectivized identities and to Canada, the community has established lims in general, especially for the Canadian their recognition were both complementary its own community centres, j a m acat k h a n as , S h ica Imami I s m aci l i s, religion is what distin- and contradictory. Constructing itself with throughout Canada, and has also main- guishes them from 'the rest', the majority. and against the dominant host society tained institutional contacts with other I s- Hence, does 'adapting' to the majority and meant differentiating the community from m aci l i s a n d I s m acili institutions around the 'adopting' multiculturalism mean forsaking the majority, while affirming its right of affil- world as a transnational community. The I s- their distinctive characteristic of religion? iation and sense of belonging. And yet, in- m aci l i community in Canada itself is remark- versely, it also meant weaving itself from ably diverse. Multiple identifications within, affirming its own cultural, political, Two broad groups, categorized according A juxtaposition of religion and the situa- and symbolic content, without allowing it- to origin, constitute the community. In the tional reality appears. This questions the self to simply be an undistinguishable Other first group are those I s m aci l i s who first made collectivized identities of minority commu- for the majority. Thus, Canadian policy of Canada their home in the 1970s. This group nities like that of the I s m aci l i s in multicultur- multiculturalism has in a way strengthened traces its origins to either India, Pakistan, or al societies. Some adaptation and perhaps cultural bonds. East Africa. Those coming from East Africa redefinition of cultures seem to be demand- As the community has resettled in its new are second- or third-generation migrants ed. Yet according to some, 'integration' homeland, the threats posed by multicultur- from either India or Pakistan. Consequently, needs to be warded off because Canada is a alism and its 'assimilatory' implications have the members of this group, often referred to multicultural society with a dominant cul- led to the re-establishment of many of the as Khojas, are conversant in various lan- ture ruling the roost. The concept of 'cul- institutions that were a dynamic part of the guages such as Swahili, Gujarati, Hindi, ture' is then problematic: earlier theoretical community in the countries of origin. As a Urdu, and Kutchi. More importantly, the constructions of 'culture' were critiqued as result, the community has organized local Khojas share many of the same practices homogenized, and 'identity' as fixed and al- and national councils composed of volun- and traditions. legedly anchored in discrete cultures. teer professionals in charge of many portfo- The second group is comprised of I s m aci l i s Today, in the face of massive social changes lios such as youth, resettlement, arbitration, who have immigrated to Canada in more re- on global-local bases, perhaps it is no longer social welfare, and women's development. cent years. Arriving mainly from Tajikhistan possible to continue to define oneself in dis- In consultation with the imam, these institu- and Afghanistan in Central Asia, with a small crete, definite, and bounded ways. Instead, tions address many of the issues facing re- number from Iran and Syria, this group multiple attachments encompassing plural settlement within the community. brings with it traditions and languages that and fluid cultural identities are desired. How However, some critics do question the na- differ significantly from those of the Khoja then does the I s m aci l i community situate it- ture of this facet of S h ica Imami I s m aci l ip r a c- community. It was as a result of the recent self in this pluralistic multicultural society tice in Canada. This criticism highlights the war in Afghanistan and Tajikhistan that the and how well does the society accommo- fact that assimilation is perhaps a Canadian community endeavoured to negotiate an date it? reality: critics question whether it is the con- agreement with the federal government to It has been observed that in the English- scientization of identity recomposition that allow the community to sponsor a certain dominated multicultural Canada, faith and allows for the creation of new hybrid identi- number of Afghan and Tajik refugees for leadership have emerged to bring the I s m a- ties in the Canadian context, with an integra- entry into the country. Consequently, in ci l i s together. It is the Imam Karim Shah, bet- tive passage to English as the eventual lan- 1992, the I s m aci l i community successfully ter known as the Aga Khan (III) of the com- guage of prayer and of daily interactions negotiated an agreement between the gov- munity, who has a firm policy on matters of both within and outside the community, and Miniya Chatterji is currently a research fellow at ernment of Canada, the I s m aci l i Council for diversity within the j a m aca t. His firmans with sustained symbolic links to languages t h e Fondation Nationale de Sciences Politiques, Canada, and the I s m aci l i Council for Québec stress strength in diversity and urge the of origin, of their restricted use, rather than Paris, France. to sponsor I s m aci l i Afghani refugees. Ac- members to learn from the diverse practices practical daily usage in all rites and rituals. E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2 Migrants 15

E u r o p e GYORGY LEDERER Islam in

In the official Hungarian census of 2001, some 4000 of the country's legal residents, mostly immigrants, declared themselves as Muslims – conversion of Hun- garian-born citizens to Islam still being a rare occur- P o s t-S o c i a l i s t rence. Over the last decade, nonetheless, noticeable public and official interest in Islam has been pro- voked inevitably by the wars in the neighbouring former Yugoslavia and, of course, 11 September. Islam in Hungary demonstrates a unique path of de- H u n g a r y velopment and specific responses to local and global circumstances throughout its history. North Africa in 1984. He attended an un- they are permitted on Fridays to pray in the joined newly established religious commu- publicized August 1987 Budapest meeting Yakovali Hassan Pasha Djami, an Ottoman nities and sects. Most view Islam as an alien between a delegation of the Muslim World monument still in relatively good condition. body despite, or perhaps because of, the League, led by then Secretary-General Ab- The country's biggest working 'mosque' historical precedents. Non-assimilating for- dullah Omar Nasseef, and the Chairman of and proselytizing centre is in Budapest's eigners and minorities have never been the Hungarian Office for Church Affairs as 1 1t h district: 300m2 premises, with an inside highly regarded in this still very patriotic well as other greedy Communist officials upper floor, known as 'Dar us-Salam'. It is country. It is in the interest of the Muslims to longing for Saudi generosity. M i h á l f f y r e- run by 'The Church3 of the Muslims of Hun- emphasize their belonging to the nation, ceived the authorities' approval. He elabo- gary', which was registered in 1999 in terms something they usually do in a variety of rated a statutory document and formed, in of Act 4 of 1990 on religion, separate from ways. August 1988, the Hungarian Islamic Com- the Hungarian Islamic Community. At the Until recently the Muslims of Hungary had munity of a few Hungarian citizens, mostly time of writing, Mohamed Abdulgalil Dubai seemed to stand closer to Christian conser- young females. When 'Sheikh-Chairman' M i- and Mustafa Anwar, both naturalized Hun- vatism than to the Left, which won the May h á l f f y claimed to be the sole Hungarian garian citizens of Arab origin, as well as the 2002 parliamentary elections. A few days Muslim – as he often did in the 1980s – he latter's Hungarian-born son-in-law Z o l t á n later Bolek was re-elected Chairman of the was hardly exaggerating. (Sultan) Sulok lead 'The Church'. It was cre- Hungarian Community after he had been Although the Community's membership ated by resident Arabs, mainly students and ousted from that post three years earlier. He allegedly grew to several hundred in the young intellectuals, partly as a continuation preaches tolerance, moderation, and West- Unrealized plans Despite the 150-year Turkish rule over Hun- early 1990s (non-citizen Arabs still did not of the Arrahma Foundation. Dubai edits a ern commitment, which are rather topical in for an Islamic gary in the 16t hand 17t hcenturies, later Hun- count) it remained under the Sheikh-Chair- Hungarian-language Islamic periodical enti- the post-11 September context. His rela- Centre at the garian public opinion was not antagonistic man's tight control. Due to then Prime Min- tled G o n d o l a t (Thought) publishing many tions became strained with 'The Church of T ü r b e of G ü l towards Islam.1 In sharp contrast to the Or- ister J ó z s e f Antall's personal interest in translations from A l - E u r o p i y a, the journal of the Muslims' since the latter is not really Baba. thodox Christian Balkan nations, many Hun- Islam and relations with Muslim countries, the Federation of the Islamic Organisations pro-Western. Its review G o n d o l a t is critical garians expressed sympathy towards the Mihálffy worked for a while in the Ministry of in Europe, and other articles articulating his of libertarianism, sexual freedom, women's Ottoman Empire at the time of the Foreign Affairs. He then organized Arab- and his colleagues' views on Islam and the rights in a Western sense, and Israel. It refers 1877–1878 Russian-Turkish war and then sponsored humanitarian relief and other society in which they live. to strict Middle Eastern ideals, while Bolek's with the Muslim Bosnians whom certain shipments to Bosnian refugee camps during The number of the two (Sunni) communi- Community of Hungarian converts, includ- Hungarian entrepreneurs wished to colo- the war. In April 1996, following disputes ties' active members is not likely to exceed a ing one S h ici council member, remains far nize. The reason for the Hungarian parlia- within the Community, he was replaced as few hundred each, while that of the immi- from that uncompromising spirit. The dire ment's enthusiastic vote for 'Act 17' in 1916 Head by Z o l t á n (Sultan) Bolek, a young con- grants of Muslim descent in general may need both have for foreign Islamic funding – recognizing Islam – was the war alliance vert with a college diploma in state adminis- reach several thousand if families are in- may be their main, if not only, common fea- with Turkey and the integration project of t r a t i o n . cluded. Public interest in Islam is limited de- ture. Internal dissent, competition, and al- Bosnia-Herzegovina. In 1918 the Kingdom At that time, the number of Arab and spite the Balkan events of the last decade. tercation have always characterized both al- of Hungary lost the latter dream along with other Orientals of Muslim tradition residing Most Bosnian refugees had already left the though things seem to have improved in two-thirds of its territory in which, except in the country was probably close to five country, while the Oriental Muslim asylum Bolek's Community since his re-election. for the Ottoman occupiers, the number of thousand. The proselytizing activities of a seekers (Iraqis, Pakistanis, Bangladeshis, As in other Central and East European Muslims had never been significant. The few small part of them were supported and co- etc.) living in camps expect to somehow get cities, concerns have been raised recently as hundred Bosnian refugees and Turkish im- ordinated from abroad, mainly the Arabian to the West. Hungary, after all, is hardly the to whether Budapest's immigrant Muslim migrants living in Hungary in the interwar Peninsula. The Vienna-based East European place refugees dream of. The authorities community could serve as a hiding place or period were ignored by the nationalistic au- office of the World Assembly of Muslim have provided religious services in some of logistical base for 'sleepers' or other agents thorities. The long-standing idea of building Youth (WAMY) was perhaps the main re- the facilities where refugees are kept. Their of radical international Islamist organiza- a mosque in Budapest was also ignored. gional source of inspiration, printed propa- changing number is not included in the tions, which might recruit from among its 'Act 33' of 1947 cancelled the discrimina- ganda material in local languages, and above estimate. members. If so, they probably take lower tory distinction between 'recognized' (such funds. WAMY's Vienna representative, who Islamic studies comprises the Islam-relat- risks in Hungary than they currently do in as Islam) and 'accepted' denominations (as had his network of Arab co-workers in Bu- ed field in which Hungary undoubtedly ex- Western Europe, where they have come Catholicism and the 'Israelite' faith), which dapest as elsewhere in the post-socialist re- celled. Since Ignac Goldziher, numerous under professional intelligence scrutiny. had few practical consequences at that gion, happened to be then Bosnian Presi- outstanding Hungarian Islamicists have Hungary's few Muslims obviously feel at time. The socialist era was not, to say the dent Alija Izetbegovic's Sudanese friend, contributed to this scholarly discipline, not home. They tend to condemn terrorism, least, conducive to religious activities. Prac- Elfatih Ali Hassanein. He was also Director of least the late Julius (Abdul-Karim) Ger- some of them, however, with qualifications. tising Muslims, old Bosnians and Turks, hav- the famous Third World Relief Agency manus, well known for his conversion to ing passed away – some having left in 1956 (TWRA) providing the Bosnian army with Islam and his numerous popular books on it. – coupled with the fact that their children Saudi-bought weapons in 1992–1993.2 T h e Besides Alexander Fodor's Department of did not follow their fathers' faith, meant that breaking of the controversial UN arms em- Arabic Studies at Eötvös Lóránd U n i v e r s i t y , virtually no Muslims survived. bargo and the East European (re-)Islamiza- R ó b e r t Simon, Head of the Department of tion project were thus, for a while, inter-re- Oriental Studies of the Hungarian Academy The Middle Eastern lated. WAMY and TWRA helped the Muslim of Sciences and Letters must be mentioned. c o n n e c t i o n organizations of Hungary, the country's res- The Hungarian translation and interpreta- N o t e s From the late 1970s onward, thousands of ident Arabs, more than the Hungarian Com- tion of the Qur'an is one of his most famous 1 . Gyorgy Lederer, 'Islam in Hungary', Central Asian Arab students resided in the country. They munity. These Arabs created several associ- w o r k s .4 No other Hungarian version of the S u r v e y (1992): 1–23. were allowed to pray in their university ations and foundations in Budapest and the Holy Script has reached its level of accuracy 2 . Gyorgy Lederer, 'Islam in East Europe', C e n t r a l dorms if they desired. Most did not. Open- countryside (Arrahma, Alouakf, and K i b aca and erudition. It was nevertheless not in- Asian Survey (2001): 12–13. ing a house of worship for them was not were the most important ones), also to justi- tended for ritual or d acw a (Muslim propa- 3 . The Hungarian term for church, e g y h á z , p r o b a b l y given serious consideration, not really be- fy the various grants they expected or actu- ganda) use. refers to the text of that Hungarian law. cause of the atheistic regime but because ally got from the Arab world. The d acw a material printed in Hungarian 4 . K o r a n, Hungarian translation by Róbert Simon they were not seen as sufficiently important. is of varying quality. Increasing the local (Budapest: Helikon Publishing, 1987). Socialist Hungary had excellent commercial Two communities Muslims' awareness and providing spiritual and other relations with certain 'anti-impe- In 1996, the Hungarian Community of and community services for them (as ritual Dr Gyorgy Lederer is a research associate at the rialist' Arab countries. The project of an 'Is- Bolek received from the Municipality of Bu- slaughter for instance) are difficult tasks in Centre for Russian and East European Studies of the lamic centre', including a mosque, at the dapest a modest 150m2 property (a former an un-Islamic environment. The majority of University of Toronoto currently residing in Budapest, T ü r b e of G ü l Baba or elsewhere in Budapest, pharmacy) for ritual use in the 13t h d i s t r i c t . today's Hungarians are secular. Two-thirds where he runs the ALICE Lederer Foundation, which was cautiously raised several times from the They renovated it with foreign Muslim fi- are said to be of the Catholic tradition; less focuses on dialogue with, and research on Muslims mid-1980s, but to no avail. nancial assistance. In other Hungarian cities, than one-third of the Protestant tradition. In i n Eastern Europe Agrarian engineer Balázs (Abdul Rahman) such as Szeged, Miskolc, and Debrecen, Budapest many are of Jewish origin. A con- ( h t t p : / / a l i c e l e d e r e r . t r i p o d . c o m / i s l a m . h t m ) . M i h á l f f y became a Muslim while working in Muslims pray in private apartments. In Pécs, siderable number of Hungarians have E-mail: [email protected] 1 6 Law and Society I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2

N i g e r i a ALAINE S. HUTSON Gender, Mobility,

In present-day Nigeria there are twelve states that have adopted or implemented s h a r ica law. These c laws have spawned death sentences for two women accused of adultery. The cases have received interna- and S h a r i a tional attention, including the boycott of the Miss World contest in Nigeria by pageant contestants upset by the sentences, and the November riots and Zamfara State first implemented s h a r ica l a w , fluenced Nigerians to practise sex segrega- forcement of s h a r ica may be breaking down killings surrounding the pageant's controversy. The it offered prostitutes USD 250 to abandon tion in very strict and extralegal ways. along urban-rural lines. The nation's capital Nigerian Federal Government has already inter- their profession and take up small-scale city, Abuja, may have the final say in these vened to help free the first woman on appeal and to businesses; twenty-seven women accepted E d u c a t i o n matters as the justice minister has already promise to protect the second, and has denied that this deal (Phillips 2000b). The present state governments have ex- declared that 'punishment under the [s h a r i- the pageant was to blame for the riots. However, States' s h a r ica laws have made distinc- pressed support for the education of girls ca] system was discriminatory and therefore thousands more northern Nigerian women are af- tions between married and single women. and women. The first lady of Zamfara State, unconstitutional', partially based on sex fected by s h a r ica laws, which attempt to limit forms In the case of transportation, while the men Hajiya Karimah Sani, has encouraged women (Vanguard 2002). The wide scale of the Miss of transportation for women and control when and bike operators were beaten, the s h a r ica p o- to continue with their education, with the World riots in northern Nigeria shows that how they will marry. lice did not beat the married women pas- goal of becoming teachers, doctors, and many Muslims there will not give in to the sengers. There were reports that unmarried nurses (Ikyur 2001). But with the laws govern- Federal Government's notions on gender Mobility is required for women to learn, women would be punished. The variance in ing transportation and the fuel crisis, and religion. teach, or work. International audiences are treatment of women may indicate that the women's ability to travel and work is con- not addressing these seemingly mundane states have relinquished jurisdiction over strained; therefore becoming teachers, doc- issues and the Nigerian government is not married women to husbands; husbands' tors, and nurses – and getting to those jobs – giving relief from such laws even though prerogatives override those of the state. It is more tenuous. they affect the overwhelming majority of also seems to assume that husbands are the State governments have also showed a northern Nigerian women. only ones entitled and trusted to punish preference for married women in their edu- S h a r ica law has only been in effect for their wives appropriately, and women are cational policies. During prize day at an three years in Zamfara, the first Nigerian not to be trusted at all. This discrepancy in adult women's school, the deputy governor state to adopt s h a r ica, but historically Niger- treatment also begs the question of of Zamfara noted that 'about 30 divorcee ian laws based on the s h a r ica in the 20t h c e n- whether Muslim husbands are under in- students of the school were now married tury have attempted to closely govern creased social pressure to limit their wives' and were comfortably pursuing their stud- women's mobility and marital status.* S h a r i- movements outside the home. ies' (Ikyur 2001). When women's transporta- ca laws promulgated since 1999 have at- Some s h a r ica policies have made states tion woes are coupled with the retreat of tempted to bring moral leadership to north- into agents in the marriage process. Zam- women, especially divorcees and widows, ern Nigeria by limiting women's mobility. fara State was 'prepared to offer financial as- into marriage as a refuge from some of the The first governor to institute s h a r ica l a w , sistance to women who want to get married more harsh punishments of the s h a r ica, Ahmad Sani of Zamfara, has described the but cannot afford the cost of the wedding there could be reversals for girls' and laws regarding women as essential 'in his ceremony' (Phillips 2000b). And other state women's education. For example, scholars drive to create … a decent society' (Phillips governments have attempted to legislate of northern Nigeria have long noted that 2000b). Most of the restrictions on women's minimum amounts for dowries, lowering early marriage is the reason most girls leave mobility have concentrated on sex-segre- them from USD 500–1,000 to USD 10 school in their early to mid-teens. However, N o t e gated transportation. States have mandated (Dosara 2000). Women 'vehemently refused recently many girls have finished secondary * During Emir Sanusi's reign (1953–63) in the that taxis and buses be designated specifi- to comply' with laws lowering dowries. No school and put off marriage until 18 or 20 Nigerian state of Kano, s h a r ica-based laws cally for men or women; women's taxis doubt these women were attempting to (Werthmann 1999). S h a r ica law and its pref- attempted to limit women's movements outside being differentiated by pictures of veiled maintain mechanisms for asserting their so- erence for marriage may stifle this ongoing the home, particularly at traditional celebrations, women on the side. It has even been sug- cial worth (Cooper 1995). transformation in northern Nigeria. in order to stop the 'deterioration in moral gested that though men now drive the However, there is some popular support Paradoxically, then, the adoption of Islam- standards', which the mixing of the sexes in public women's taxis, women may replace them in for the notion that women should be mar- ic law though ostensibly designed to 'pro- caused. These efforts were short lived but the future (Phillips 2000a, 2000b). Women ried. More than 1000 women marched in a tect' women's rights and educate women stringently observed for a few years. have also been prohibited from hiring mo- demonstration to urge the traditional lead- may effectively impede women's ability to torcycle taxis (BBC 2000). Motorcycle taxis ers in the North to enjoin men to marry study and teach the scriptural basis of those are a popular form of transportation be- more than one wife so that divorced and rights if women cannot get to school. These R e f e r e n c e s cause they are often faster than waiting for widowed women could find husbands. Oth- laws and Nigerian perceptions of them will – BBC News Online. 2000. Sharia Beating for Motor- a bus and less expensive than a regular taxi. erwise the women warned that the shortage no doubt have consequences on all Muslim cyclists, 10 August. The fact that hundreds of motorcycle taxi of husbands would 'force them to commit Nigerian women's personal autonomy. – Cooper, Barbara. 1995. Women's Worth and drivers had been arrested for carrying crimes against Sharia law' (Dosara 2000). It is Gains for women may also be possible by Wedding Gift Exchange in Maradi, Niger, 1907–1989. women passengers and awaited trial in unlikely that these women were predicting making new professions in a sex-segregated Journal of African History 3 6 : 1 2 1 – 4 0 . 2001 under these restrictions attests to the famous death sentences for Safiya Has- economy, such as taxi driver, available to – Cunliffe-Jones, Peter. 1999. Daily Mail and Guardian, women's need for this type of transporta- seini, the 35-year old divorced woman who women and by making capital for small 15 December. t i o n . was the first woman given the death sen- businesses more widely available. But the – Dosara, Ibrahim. 2000. Nigerian Women Appeal for These prohibitions come at a time of a tence for adultery and then acquitted on ap- opposite is a more realistic possibility. These Husbands. BBC News Online, 7 November. Gaudio, petrol and transportation crisis in Nigeria. peal through pressure by the Nigerian fed- laws may just serve to decrease women's Rudi. 2002. Personal communication. Since the early 1990s, the availability of eral government, and Amina Lawal, another personal autonomy by preferring marriage – Ikyur, Nathaniel. 2001. Zamfara Govt Expresses petrol in stations has been frequently inter- divorced woman with a pending death sen- and consequently subverting women's Concern over State's Educational Backwardness. rupted because of corruption and lack of re- tence for the same charge. However, it rights as citizens to men's rights as hus- Vanguard Newspaper Online, 10 July. sources. The nation's petrol drivers divert seems clear that women and men in Nigeria b a n d s . – Ndiribe, Okey. 2002. Fuel Price Hike Latest. NLC tanks of fuel to neighbouring countries or il- believe that marriage protects women from At the beginning, northern Nigerian versus FG: Eyeball to Eyeball. Vanguard Newspaper legal roadside stations where they get in- certain allegations and punishments from women and men showed support for strict O n l i n e, 16 January. flated prices for their loads. Also the nation's the state, if not husbands' punishments. implementation of these laws, but historical- – Phillips, Barnaby. 2000a. Islamic Law Raises Tension four refineries are in need of repairs and are Popular reactions to s h a r ica law have ly strict adherence to s h a r ica has not lasted in Nigeria. BBC News Online, 20 January. frequently inoperative. Recently the gov- again shown that northern Nigerians per- for long. Even today the dowry example —— —. 2000b. Sharia State Pays Prostitutes to Quit. ernment has increased the official price of ceive the current laws as critical of single shows that women can quash government BBC News Online, 7 February. fuel, which will be reflected in higher trans- adult women and act in ways more strict initiatives that trod on their sense of dignity —— —. 2000c. Nigerians Held for Talking in Public. port fares (Ndiribe 2002). In the mid-1990s than the letter of the laws. There were ru- and worth. A colleague recently back from BBC News Online, 23 December. higher fuel costs put some buses and taxis mours in Zamfara that all single women Nigeria reports that urban areas like Kano – Vanguard Newspaper Online. Sharia is out of business, which also jeapordized working for the government should marry are no longer enforcing these laws. Public Unconstitutional – AGABI, JUSTICE MINISTER, women's access to transportation. Trans- or would lose their jobs; the governor de- transportation in Kano has reverted to ac- 2 1M a r c h . portation is especially a concern for single, nied this (Cunliffe-Jones 1999). S h a r ica p o- cepting both men and women passengers – Werthmann, Katja. 1999. 'Seek for Knowledge, Even If divorced, and widowed women who sup- lice in Kano, the lowest levels of whom are with some effort to seat women together. It Is in China!': Muslim Women and Secular Education port themselves through working outside young violent men vigilantes, have gone as And when asked about women-only taxis or in Northern Nigeria. Paper presented at Africa, Islam the home or who go to school with aspira- far as detaining hundreds of people of the the enforcement of other s h a r ica laws some and Development Conference, 26–27 May, Centre for tions for earning an income. opposite sex who were talking to one an- Kano residents reply, 'that was during the African Studies, University of Edinburgh, Scotland. other on the street. 'The detainees have time of s h a r ica', implying that the time has Marital status been taken to police stations over the past passed in that city (Gaudio 2002). The sensa- Alaine S. Hutson is visiting associate professor of The current s h a r ica law movement has few days and questioned about whether tional cases of Amina and Safiya were adju- history at Michigan State University, East Lansing, also tackled and coupled the issues of they are involved in adultery or prostitution' dicated in small-town and rural areas. These U S A . women's marital status and work. When (Phillips 2000c). Popular perception has in- examples indicate that the continued en- E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2 Law and Society 17

Fiqh al-Aqalliyat MUHAMMAD KHALID MASUD Islamic Law and

Presently, more than one third of the world's Mus- lims are living as minorities in non-Muslim countries, a fact which has posed challenges not only for the host countries but also for the Muslims themselves. Muslim Minorities Most Muslims perceive Muslim minorities as an inte- gral part of the larger Muslim community, u m m a. Many insist that Muslims must be governed by Islam- Modern Muslim jurists disregard this of a calamity contrary to our hopes. We are tic connotation of civil rights. It implies 'help ic law, often that of the country of origin. Home coun- methodological compulsion and treat the warned of thawing of the Islamic existence and special treatment for a community left tries are expected to offer human, political, and fi- situation of Muslim minorities as exception- in the current of the deviating Western civi- behind'. Instead of absolute equality, it calls nancial resources in order for the minorities to live Is- al cases that require special considerations. lization and this type of jurisprudence guar- for differential equality and protection. This lamically. This perception is quite problematic: on They approach the whole range of ques- antees this calamity.'5 idea has been challenged in the US courts the one hand, it implies that while the Muslims have tions relating to laws about food, dress, Responding to this criticism, Taha Jabir Al- since 1989 and is losing sympathy with ju- been living in these countries for three generations, marriage, divorce, co-education, and rela- wani explains that fiqh al-aqalliyat c o n s t i- rists. In the wake of the rising Islamophobia, their presence is seen as transitory – it cannot con- tions with non-Muslims, etc. in terms of ex- tutes an autonomous jurisprudence, based discrimination and harassment of Muslims, ceive of Muslims living permanently under non-Mus- pediency. Consequently, a whole set of new on the principle of the relevance of the rule and media prejudice, especially after the lim rule; while on the other hand, this perception interpretations, often divergent, appeared. of s h a r ica to the conditions and circum- events of 11 September, there seems to be tends to imagine Muslim minorities as colonies of the Some other jurists stressed the need for stances peculiar to a particular community no sympathy for another civil rights move- Muslim world. Apart from the question of whether new, especially formal sources. Various rules and its place of residence. It requires infor- ment. If the Muslims were forced to take this Muslim countries are in a position to play the role de- of Islamic jurisprudence, e.g. common mation about local culture and expertise in path, fiqh al-aqalliyat would not be there to scribed above, other serious questions are raised for good, objectives or spirit of law, conve- social sciences, e.g. sociology, economics, help them because it has been so far con- the future of the Muslim minorities. nience, common practice, necessity, and political science, and international relations. cerned only with solving problems of (and prevention of harm, which were invoked It is not part of the existing f i q h, which is a within) Islamic law. It has still to work out Notwithstanding the ambiguity of this posi- sparingly, gained significance as basic prin- jurisprudence developed as case law. F i q h problems with the local laws. There is per- tion, some Muslim jurists continue to treat ciples of Islamic legal theory. These opinions a l - a q a l l i y a t is not a jurisprudence of expedi- haps a need for Muslim jurisprudence of cit- Muslim minorities today as did the medieval were published in the form of fatwas and ency that looks for concessions. Alwani ar- izenship in the framework of pluralism, in jurists, who regarded them as those left be- did not constitute part of regular Islamic law gues that the categories of dar al-Islam a n d order to respond to the current political and hind after the non-Muslim occupation of t e x t s .1 It is only recently that treatises have dar al-harb are no longer relevant today. legal challenges. Muslim lands. They presume that eventually begun to appear on the subject. The Muslim presence, no matter where, these Muslims would have to re-migrate should be considered permanent and dy- back to Muslim countries. In the meantime, Jurisprudence of minorities namic. The term fiqh al-aqalliyat gained cur- they must protect their religious and cultur- Despite the growing volume of the litera- rency in the Muslim countries as well. Khalid al identity by isolating themselves from ture on Muslim minorities, many Muslims in Abd al-Qadir was probably the first to col- their host societies. An example of this per- the West, especially in the United States, lect the special laws applicable to Muslims ception is Muslim Minorities, Fatawa Regard- feel that the existing legal debates have living as minorities in his book Fi Fiqh al- ing Muslims Living as Minorities ( L o n d o n : failed to address their problems adequately. aqalliyat al-Muslimah (Tarabulus, Lubnan: Message of Islam, 1998) by the late Shaykh In 1994, the North American Fiqh Council Dar al-Iman, 1998). Yusuf al-Qaradawi, who Ibn Baz and Shaykh Uthaymeen, two influ- announced a project to 'develop f i q h f o r has written extensively on the subject, also ential Saudi muftis. The book explains that Muslims living in non-Muslim societies'. chose this title for his works much later: F i q h preservation of faith and strict obedience to Yusuf Talal DeLorenzo, Secretary of the al-aqalliyat al-Muslimin, hayat al-muslimin the laws of Islam are the foremost duties of Council, explained that Islamic law for mi- wast al-m u j t a m aca t a l - u k h r a (Cairo: Dar al- all Muslims, including those living as minori- norities needed an approach different from Shuruq, 2001) and Fiqh of Muslim Minorities ties. Muslim Minorities shows awareness of the traditional rules of expediency. He illus- (two volumes, 2002–3).2 This latest book is the difficulties of Muslims living as minori- trates this approach with several examples. also announced as a 'progressive f i q h', prob- ties and advises them to be patient. Howev- For instance, instead of traditional unilateral ably with reference to the current debates er, 'if it is not possible to gain a livelihood divorce by the husband, the new f i q h on the subject and the growing anxiety of except by what Allah has forbidden, namely favours termination of marriage only Muslims about their minority status in Is- through the mixing of men and women, through the court system.3 Taha Jabir al-Al- lamic law. then this livelihood must be abandoned' (p. wani, Chairman of the Council, was perhaps 75). It discourages Muslims from marrying the first to use the term fiqh al-aqalliyat Another civil rights non-Muslim women (29f.), forbids them to (1994) in his fatwa about Muslim participa- m o v e m e n t ? greet Christians at Christmas or other reli- tion in American secular politics. Some Mus- Obviously, advocates of fiqh al-aqalliyat gious festivals (83), and allows them to go to lims in America hesitated to participate in have yet to answer some very complex non-Muslim courts (for registration of di- American politics because it meant alliance questions. First, the term m i n o r i t y is quite vorce) only if it is done according to Islamic with non-Muslims, division of the Muslim problematic. Its semantic vagueness con- law (74). Muslim Minorities generally does community, and submission to a non-Islam- jures up the concept of a sub-nation in a na- not allow a departure from the old laws. In ic system of secular politics as well as giving tion-state framework. Religious minority is some circumstances, where some conces- up the hope of the US becoming part of d a r even weaker than sub-nation or national mi- sions are suggested, they are only transitory a l - I s l a m. They asked the Council for a fatwa. nority because it is further divided into and subject to general provisions of Islamic Alwani in his fatwa dismissed these objec- other aspects like language and culture. law, for example, transmission of pictures tions and argued that the American secular Second, the question of minority is very and service in non-Muslim armies. system was faith neutral, not irreligious. He closely connected with other minority situa- Obedience to Islamic law in this sense distinguished conditions in countries that tions, e.g. non-Muslim and Muslim minori- necessarily requires community organiza- have Muslim majorities from those where ties in Muslim countries. Most often they are tion in a particular manner and the services Muslims are in minority. The two contexts not perceived in the same fashion. Third, of legal experts for that purpose. This is are quite different and entail different oblig- the situation of Muslim minorities in the often not possible without the help of the ations: 'While Muslims in Muslim countries Western countries also differs from the Mus- N o t e s majority Muslim countries. The book, there- are obliged to uphold the Islamic law of lim minorities in non-Western countries, e.g. 1 . See for an analysis of the early phase of this fore, repeatedly appeals to scholars and their state, Muslim minorities in the United India. It appears that minorities in these dif- debate, W.A.R. Shadid and P.S. van Koningsveld, preachers to visit Muslim minorities, even States are not required either by Islamic law ferent situations have to develop different Political Participation and Identities of Muslims in though, in the words of one inquirer, '[v]isit- or rationality to uphold Islamic symbols of sets of jurisprudence, to the extent that the non-Muslim States (Kampen, 1996). ing countries of disbelief is prohibited.' Ibn faith in a secular state, except to the extent term m i n o r i t y, in final analysis, becomes ir- 2 .w w w . a w a k e n i n g u s a . c o m / p u b l i c _ h t m l . b o o k s / Baz advises the Muslim rulers and the permissible within that state.'4 r e l e v a n t . s19.htm wealthy 'to do what they can to save the This fatwa stirred a controversy among The problems addressed by fiqh al-aqalliy- 3 . John L. Esposito (ed.), Muslims on the Muslim minorities with both money and Muslim scholars. For instance, the Syrian a t are not the questions related to Muslim Americanization Path ( 1 9 9 8 ) . words. This is their duty.' The two muftis are Shaykh Saeed Ramadan al-Buti dismissed minorities only. They concern questions for 4 . Fatwa concerning the 'Participation of Muslims quite obviously restrained by the methodol- Alwani's call for the jurisprudence of minori- the whole Muslim world. Some of these i n the American Political Process' ogy as well as the worldview of the old laws ties as a 'plot to divide Islam'. Amongst questions are certainly more intense and ur- ( w w w . a m c o n l i n e . o r g / n e w a m c / i m a m / f a t w a . h t m l ) . to the extent that they still use the term other comments he stated: 'We were so gent for Muslims in the West, but ultimately See also his Muqaddima fi Fiqh al-aqalliya t 'enemy countries' (e.g. p. 39) for the abode pleased with the growing numbers of Mus- the whole Muslim world has to respond to (Introduction to Minorities) (1994). of Muslim minorities. Certainly Ibn Baz was lims in the West, that we hoped that their them. The West is no longer a territorial con- 5 .w w w . b o u t i . c o m / u l a m a a / b o u t i / not using the term in the literal sense. It is adherence to Islam and their obedience to cept; it is a global and cultural notion that is bouti_monthly15.htm (June 2001). the compulsion of analogical reasoning to its codes will thaw the cold resistance of the very much present in the non-Western measure the modern situation in terms of deviating Western civilization in the current world also. Muhammad Khalid Masud is ISIM Academic Director the old categories of 'House of Islam' and of the Islamic civilization. But today the call The jurisprudence of minorities, especial- and ISIM Chair at Leiden University. 'House of War'. to the Jurisprudence of Minorities warns us ly, in the United States has a further seman- E-mail: [email protected] 1 8 Law and Society I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2

M o r o c c o JAMILA BARGACH Orphans of Islam

The question of adoption has been largely over- looked in studies of the Muslim world given that Islam officially prohibits it on potent religious alibis. Considering such a practice from an ethnographic Family, Abandonment, perspective, and not exclusively a legalistic one, opens up new dimensions in the study of family and kinship in the Muslim world. Yet, such a practice is predicated on the existence of children to be adopt- ed as 'raw material' in the first place. And while his- and Secret Adoption torically there have been, and still continue to be, various intra-family exchanges of children outside legal frames and the practice of Islamic tutelage, nominal claim to) religious rules and as safe- simply because neither the sociological nor problems relating to k a f a l a and secret k a f a l a, the Muslim world, as elsewhere, is experienc- guarding the authenticity of the culture in the demographic conditions of the time adoption. It becomes evident that it would ing the problem of abandoned children as a by-prod- question. While those other Muslims who made it a possible likelihood to be consid- have been ideal to translate that ethical and uct of deep social permutations. argue for a radically different family code ered as such. all-inclusive stand of Islamic f i q h in the gen- construct their quest as one that leads to a eral m uca m a l a t (deeds, behavior) towards more egalitarian social system, as one that is The case of Morocco out-of-wedlock children, but contemporary able to accommodate the social and eco- The radical economic and sociological social mechanisms yield almost an antago- nomic changes (especially those of women) changes that have shaken the Muslim world nistic result. Abandoned children in Moroc- in the contemporary liberal system and cap- for the last two centuries have generated, co, as is the case in many other parts of the italist economies, and finally one that fos- indeed, entire regiments of issues and ques- world, embody shame and are often made ters an emancipatory role of religion in gen- tions to be dealt with innovatively and seri- to pay the price of this shame by being ex- eral but does not dismiss it, as is often be- ously. Research on the issue shows, thus, cluded in a heavily stratified social order. lieved to be the case. that a purely legalistic and discursive ap- The normative paradigms upheld and dis- proach to the question of abandoned chil- seminated through the social institutions of Legal code dren, k a f a l a, and secret adoption cannot which the state is the w a l i (guardian) fail to The two entrenched readings of the role possibly be the panacea for dealing with address in tangible terms the problem of of a legal code sketched above (whether to this problem as it might have once been his- the children and those cycles of ignorance, structure or to accommodate Muslim social torically (and even this assertion remains poverty, violence, and abuse that have reality), constitutes the intellectual and ab- questionable). Certain conservative voices given birth to them (pun intended). While stract aspect of the debate in much of the argue that Islamic family code offers the so- upholding the Muslim-humanist claim that Muslim world today. And while this posi- lution, but in tangible terms such a reading these children are not to be ill treated be- tioning is essential for a deep understand- is simply dismissing the complex reality cause of their condition, the reality is that ing of the implications and interplay be- component and hiding behind lofty ideas they certainly are, just because – to point to tween Muslim legal norms and Muslim so- and ideals. On the other hand, considering a sociological truism – religion is not the cial reality, tackling a 'tangible' problem as only the reality factor without the sedi- only component in the engendering of a that of children out-of-wedlock in a Muslim ments of the Muslim legacy that shaped this collective identity and its cultural traditions. context reveals a bewildering paradox. Re- reality is being not only too utilitarian and The children are victimized because the search that explores the legal-religious positivist but also inattentive to the fine nu- physical environments (shelters, orphan- component in addition to the other dimen- ances in which a culture reproduces itself. ages) in which they are lack social recogni- sions of the social problem of abandoned Morocco is the case in point here. The issue tion and often basic necessities; because children in a Muslim context, in the field of abandoned children continues to be stig- the legal norms and the procedural rules in that is, shows the extent to which this is an matized and taboo because of a myriad of place make their 'integration' extremely dif- issue made of many and various intercon- reasons, among which should be men- ficult if not impossible in some cases (diffi- nected layers of complexity. Much has been tioned the issues of 'unregulated' sexuality, culty to obtain a name for instance); be- written about the particularly ethical orien- the shame associated with it, and the anxi- cause the culture generally construes them Cover image of There is a strong ethical quandary regarding tation of a number of Islamic religious/legal ety concerning the 'chaos and loss of moral- to be harbingers of evil and mistrusts them Orphans of Islam: out-of-wedlock children and the practice of rules, and one of its many examples has ity' – f i t n a – that the very being of the chil- because of their supposedly profaned blood untitled painting secret adoption because the contemporary been the fact that Islam protects orphans in dren engenders. The children themselves (evident through semantic analysis of the by Moroccan codified Muslim family laws generally pro- an unparalleled way. In all classical texts of are believed to carry a sense of disorder and language and court cases); and because p a i n t e r scribe the latter and recognize the former f i q h children born out-of-wedlock (l a q i t, sg. dislocation and are made to represent pro- they are not tied to a legitimate kinship or M o h a m m e d within very limited legal clauses. l u q a t a ', pl.), although not strictly speaking fanity; such is evident through the analysis web of relations that recognizes them as Nabili. Muslim family law continues to be one of orphans, are considered to be free clients, of a number of cultural beliefs and practices. trustworthy actors of and in a given system. the most controversial and hotly debated is- m a w a l i, and are entitled to all the rights and To underline just one point here is the fact sues in the Muslim world today, and despite duties of a Muslim since the notion of t a q w a that they are called the children of the for- decades of debate concerning its use and (piety, among many other meanings) is bidden, ulad l'hram. Religiously inclined adaptability (or lack thereof) to the changes what characterizes a Muslim and not his/her people as well as secularists generally hold of the modern world, no consensus has lineage (n a s a b) or wealth (h a s a b). These f i q h such a viewpoint to varying degrees. The been arrived at so far. Such seems to be the texts equally comment on the prohibition of legal provisions in place for the integration normal outcome when these discussions plain adoption in the Qur'an (what is known of the children either through existing care are ideologically framed and interpret the as the 'Zaid incident', Sura 33:4–5) as one institutions or the kafala – tutelage or the laws as a depository and/or a vehicle of an aiming to foster, generally speaking, a social legally accepted norm of adoption in Islam – 'authentic' Muslim identity. The situation order built on truth. Truth implies here the as is to be practised today through the Mo- seems to have even worsened in the post- prohibition of fictive kinship ties that may roccan family law, Mudawana, remains 9/11 world as those holding and promoting not only alienate those legally entitled heirs equally a very limited option as it dismisses a conservative Muslim agenda have become but that could also lead to future incestuous important issues regarding a child's equilib- part of a legitimate contestation politics relations deemed to be potentially destruc- rium and other family-related matters. Thus, against the largely negative image of Mus- tive of communal cohesion because they if and when the issue of abandoned chil- lims in the Western world. Family law has could possibly lead to a f i t n a ( d i s o r d e r , dren is tackled in public space (notably been one of those elements constituting chaos). The Zaid incident carries another de- through media) or in specialized literature, this passionate engagement because it cisive politico-historical meaning not often the discourse most often, though not exclu- goes beyond legal definitions, norms, and dwelt upon by traditional religious scholars, sively, falls either into an apologetic or a procedures, and taps into the heart of Mus- which is the issue of the Prophet's succes- moralizing tone while leaving important lim identity, culture, social cohesion, conti- sion given that pre-Islamic traditions made questions unexamined. Of these, the most nuity, and values. It is, in a sense, an under- of an adopted son a fully legal heir. The Zaid revealing is the understanding of those ob- standable move especially in the face of incident was an important historical rupture jective processes at play (legal, economic, what some construe to be the continuing with the existing social order and the usher- social, and imaginary) that create and de- external onslaught of Western hegemony ing of new norms that were part and parcel fine exclusion and marginality, and an and imperialism, and the internal accultura- of the new faith of Islam. Outside of the spe- analysis of the foundations of those very as- Dr Jamila Bargach is currently a fellow in the Human tion and alienation of the Muslim popula- cific elements of this incident, which in fact sumptions that legitimize these exclusions. Rights and Islam Program at the Emory School of tion. Those Muslims living in the largely has structured the sense of family, inheri- The research carried out on this issue Law (Atlanta, Georgia). She is author of Orphans of post-colonial nation-states today who call tance, and continuity, the question of what gives thorough details and performs an Islam: Family, Abandonment and Secret Adoption for the adoption of a Muslim family code are to do with a fairly substantial number of analysis of the legal, institutional, and cul- in Morocco (Boulder, New York, Oxford: Rowman also those who interpret such a move as abandoned newborns and children could tural mechanisms of exclusion and victim- and Littlefield Inc., 2002). abiding by strict (or at least laying some not be an issue in the classical framework ization of abandoned children as well as the E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2 Public Sphere 19

Middle East SAMI ZUBAIDA Religious Authority

The image of the Middle East projected in current public discourses is one imbued with religion. Media consumers would be forgiven for assuming that the region consists of angry bearded men prostrating and Public Life themselves in prayer when not shaking their fists and burning American flags, and shadowy women with headscarves or chadors. The region is 'the Islam- Northern Nigeria), flaunted as Islamic. The ic world', religion stamped on every aspect of its life irony is that these acts are described by many and function. The 'clash of civilizations' idea, much as 'medieval' barbarism, when in fact me- criticized, remains a potent notion both in the West dieval jurists and judges imposed many and and in Muslim circles. A mythical totalized 'Muslim restrictive conditions on these punishments, world' is opposed to an equally mythical unified and the high standards of evidence demand- 'West', with religion as the essence of the former and ed by the sharica were hard to satisfy. It is the main key to its politics and society. modern dictators who relish their application, both as demonstration of their religious de- We are talking about complex and differen- votion and justice and as intimidation and tiated societies. They comprise political and threat to political opposition. cultural fields with diverse forces and many Similarly, the veiling of women and the pro- contests. Many of the cities in the Middle hibition of interest (which means disguising East have been, and often remain, the loca- it) and of alcohol become easy hallmarks of Is- tions of cosmopolitan cultures with features lamicity, when all the institutions of state and of originality. The cosmopolitan Alexandria society and most spheres of culture have of past decades may be seen as the creation clearly nothing to do with religion, but are of foreigners, now long gone, leaving a few products of technical and cultural modernity. architectural traces in a ramshackle poor One episode illustrates the hollowness of this An Egyptian city bursting with overpopulated slums. But quest for authenticity. A classic book of medi- couple strolls past this image hides the native participation in cine by the medieval doctor and philosopher a cinema. ideas and movements in that city and the al-Razi3 includes a chapter on wine and its genuine mixture of peoples and cultures medical qualities, finding its moderate con- that prevailed. The foreigners were not just merit I visit him twice a day'), which situates ture from religion. When religious chal- sumption to be largely beneficial. The manu- a rich stratum separated from the natives, his love in the sacred geography of Cairo. lenges to these spheres emerged the script of this book was printed in the 19th cen- but comprised proletarian and petty bour- sources were more likely to be the Islamic tury, then issued in many successive editions. geois sectors, such as Italian dock workers Modernity and secularization militants than the establishment ulama. It was only in a Beirut edition in 1985 that the and Greek shop-keepers, intimately inter- 'Secularization' is not necessarily 'secular- The modern sphere, however, did not chapter on wine was censored, the editor ex- mingled with the native Egyptian urbanites. ism'. It is not an ideological commitment leave Islam to the ulama, but from the time plaining in a preface that such discourse was Cairo was the location of many secular and against religion, but a socio-cultural process of Abduh (d. 1905) had attempted to incor- inappropriate in a classic book of 'Islamic' cosmopolitan cultural spheres. In the 1930s by which religion becomes differentiated porate it into its modern discourses. Ahmad medicine. The modern Islamic editor, then, Cairo hosted the Arab music congress in and separated from other social and cultural Amin, Abbas Mahmud al-cA q q a d, and Taha imposed authenticity on the medieval her- which its musical luminaries, such as Mu- spheres, which it previously dominated. In Hussein, among others, were Egyptian writ- itage of the region. hammad Abdul-Wahab, argued about the Europe, the Renaissance, the Reformation, ers with European education and knowl- Conservative Islamic attempts at imposing musical renaissance not only with fellow then the Enlightenment, and the scientific edge of languages. In the 1930s they all authority and morality come up against sec- Arabs but also with Bella Bartok. Edward revolution all contributed to this process, wrote books on Islam and its history, claim- tors of society now accustomed to personal Evans Pritchard was delivering his seminal but it was the revolutionary dynamic of cap- ing the 'real' and pure Islam of the Prophet autonomy, as well as the forces of desire, lib- lectures on primitive religion at the Egypt- italism above all that broke up the communi- for modernity, against the obscurantism of erated by the processes of modernity, which ian, now Cairo University. Are all these élite ties and institutions that enshrined religious al-Azhar and its ulama. In effect, these writ- broke up the patriarchal community. To Iran- activities that left the bulk of the population domination. In the Middle East, the dynamic ers and many that followed them appropri- ian youth Western pop and football stars are in traditional and religious milieus? Wrong: of capitalist incorporation was part of West- ated Islam for modernity and removed it much more meaningful than velayet-e faqih. the flourishing film industry captivated the ern domination, and was telescoped into a from its traditional contexts of jurisprudence Egyptian students resort to an odd concept of fancy and imagination of the populace, not relatively short historical span. A crucial pe- and authority. This is an essentially seculariz- Islamic law, that of curfi or customary mar- just in Egypt but throughout the Arab culiarity of capitalist domination is that it en- ing step. riage, to co-habit with lovers without their world, where the current songs were on ters into the very economy of desire of bod- parents' knowledge or consent, to the out- every lip, and where a faithful audience of ies and psyches, offering an ever-expanding I s l a m i s m rage of the moral censors and the press. urbanites from taxi drivers to porters mem- range of gratifications. These are not only Islamism also appropriated Islam for Egyptian authorities, religious and secular, orized the dialogue of popular films and 'material' but often 'spiritual' and intellectu- modernity, but in a radically different direc- pursue imagined satanic cults, pornographic gave a running commentary to new view- al: it engenders new and diverse forms of tion. A central element in modern Islamism is displays, erotic chewing gum (supposedly ers. Now this fascination with film is further knowledge and imagination, an ever-de- the attempt to impose religious authority on distributed by Israeli agents to corrupt Mus- reinforced by television screens in many manding curiosity.1 It demolishes the narrow culture and society. Central quests in this re- lim girls), homosexual conspiracies, and er- homes and cafés, broadcasting soaps, horizons of community, of kinship, and hier- spect are the moralization of public space, the rant authors – all in their tireless efforts to sports, and musical entertainment along- archical authority by providing means of imposition of ritual observance, and the cen- eradicate deviant and inauthentic cultures, side the religious programmes and moral critical knowledge of the workings of social sorship of cultural and entertainment prod- products of Western corruption. This para- homilies so characteristic of pious Egypt. and political organization. The new middle ucts. Whether in government or opposition noid vigilance fits in well with the aims of au- Where was religion prior to its political classes in the urban centres of the 19t h a n d (and it straddles both) this strand of Islamism thoritarian rule and a sensationalist press. But resurgence in the 1970s? Of course it was 2 0t h centuries were and remain thirsty for the reinforces social control and authoritarian does it signal a losing battle? there, but in many forms and guises, mixed new forms of knowledge as much as for the rule and is much favoured by the regimes in in with other elements of culture and poli- material commodities feeding new lifestyles. the region. This quest coincides with a wider tics. Of course there were the bearded men The consequence of these developments cultural nationalism, seeking the restoration of al-Azhar, and different bearded men of of modernity was the progressive loss and of authenticity, which, as always, is construct- N o t e s the Muslim Brotherhood. The religion of the fragmentation of religious authority. Law ed. The history of modernity, it is argued, is 1 . Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities ( V e r s o : people, however, was much more relaxed was separated from its religious locations in one of the imposition and invasion of West- London, 1991). and syncretistic, including music, song, the ulama and their institutions, and as- ern culture and institutions on a colonized 2 . See my forthcoming book, Law and Power in the dance, and even exotic substances often signed to government ministries and courts Muslim society, and it is now time to reverse Islamic World (I.B. Tauris: London, 2003). frowned upon by the orthodox. Popular rit- with personnel trained in secular law this invasion by reviving authentic culture. 3 . Kitab manafi' al-aghdhiyah wa daf' madarriha ( 1s t uals and celebration, such as those of the schools. Codified state law was largely de- The demand for the application of the sharica printed edition, Cairo, 1888; censored edition Prophet's birthday and the commemoration rived from European models, but even the is central to this quest. Given that the histori- under discussion, Beirut: Dar Ihya' al-cU l u m, 1985). of the saints draw vast crowds to the pre- portion on family law derived from the s h a r- cal sharica and its institutions are problematic See David Waines, 'Al-Balkhi on the Nature of sent day. Popular religiosity also mixed hap- ica in most countries became state law under and often irrelevant in a modern state and so- Forbidden Drink', in Manuela Marin and David pily with other elements of celebratory cul- secular legal institutions. Religious authori- ciety, as the Iranian Republic was to discover,2 Waines (eds), La Alimentacion en las Culturas ture. It is exemplified in the popular song ties attempted to intervene in and control the elements of it which are most clearly at I s l a m i c a s (Agencia Espanola de Cooperacion sung by Abdul-Muttalib: sakin fi hayy al- the new cultural spheres of media, publish- variance with modern sensibilities (dubbed Internacional: Madrid, 1994), 111–26. sayyida wa-habibi sakin fil-husayn, w a - ' a l a ing, and entertainment, but with only spo- 'Western', but in fact common to many sec- shan anul kull al-rida yomat aruhlu marratain radic success largely confined to instances in tors of people all over the world) are high- ('I live in the quarter of al-Sayyida [Zaynab] which items in these spheres directly chal- lighted. Thus so-called Qur'anic punishments Dr Sami Zubaida is a reader in politics, Department (a shrine district of central Cairo) and my lenged orthodox truths. The ulama, howev- of amputations, executions, and stoning are of Politics and Sociology, Birkbeck College, University beloved lives in al-Hussayn (another shrine er, largely acquiesced in the separation of adopted by dictators and authoritarian chiefs of London, UK. district), and in order to attain maximum the various spheres of politics, law, and cul- (Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Sudan, the Taliban, E-mail: [email protected] 2 0 Public Sphere I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2

F r a n c e MOUSSA KHEDIMELLAH

Their long beards often contrast their young faces; they wear traditional Pakistani garb (k h a m i s s) or Aesthetics and more generally white tunics (d j e l l a b a or g a n d o u r a) that flow to their ankles, a skull-cap (t a g u i l l a), and perhaps a pair of Nikes or Reeboks. Rain or shine, they untiringly cross mountains and valleys through- out France and the entire world in small groups of of Apostolic Islam three or five, rarely more, to propagate the message of Allah. For the most part they are French, mainly of Moroccan origin or more broadly of Maghrebi or African origin, and are called Mohamed, Rachid, Surviving by identity tates into which they were born. However, to fortunately space does not allow for elabora- Amadou, or Moustafa, but also Eric, Thomas, Patrick, m i g r a t i o n 3 the question 'what would you do if you be- tion on the subject of analysis between rap or Didier. They are male, but are increasingly accom- To understand the adherence to the Tab- came very rich?', they answer without hesita- and religion in France and the USA, but we panied by young women proudly wearing head- ligh movement, it is necessary to look at the tion: 'I would buy the neighbourhood, the can note that rap has often been the highly scarves and participating in the effort of propagat- self-image that often prevails among youths housing estate, and I would redo everything present crypto-identity of the youth before ing their faith. They are mostly between 18 and 35 that live in rough neighbourhoods, since with sports fields and all'. being dethroned by that of the militant years of age and live essentially in the French sub- they are joining this movement of predica- In short, it is in the hip hop culture that a preacher of the Tabligh. There again the par- u r b s ,1 where the cumulated difficulties of unemploy- tion in increasing numbers notably in the certain number of these youths find their allels between 'the preaching of the rapper ment, exclusion, and racism are predominant. They French suburbs. The social and economic points of reference in this unjust, dangerous, and the rap of the preacher', as philosopher are the new converts or 'reconverts' (voluntary re- misery as well as the segregation and dis- and racist society. It is a response to the of the arts Christian Béthune put it, are turn to the religion of their parents) to Islam, the crimination at the workplace, based on their emptiness that submerges them: 'Rap is the telling. The sources of American rap are knights of conversion and of pietism, according to physical features and their housing situa- last way to escape the emptiness; we all probably found in the same meanders as the the expression of the Moroccan sociologist Mo- tion, are just some examples of the violence know that a good part of the brothers of the preachers and other gospels or forgotten hamed Tozy.2 These new 'flag bearers' of an apostolic inflicted upon them by a consumer society neighbourhood will never make it to univer- s p i r i t u a l s .8 These sources in any case were and ostentatious Islam are all religious militants of that places them at the periphery of every- sity', sighs Method Man, one of the members the media supports for an uncertain identity the Tabligh movement in France. thing: consumerism, citizenship, education, of the Wu Tang Clan.7 In this identity-void of taken on by the youths that we followed and etc. This sentiment of racism is strongly felt the youths of the suburbs, the hip hop cul- little by little direct themselves towards the In France, the J a m aca Tabligh exists officially by these youths, who already have substan- ture plays a role of 're-positivation' of reality: religious as a fundamental authority to man- under the form of a non-profit association tial identity problems. Often in majority from trust exists between the local representa- age their wandering subjectivity. This mo- called Faith and Practice (Foi et Pratique), African, Turkish, or Asian immigrant families, tives who recognize each other and hold ment of passage from the profane (deviant, registered in April 1972 in the Seine-Saint- these youths had incredible difficulties in sit- each other in esteem, contrary to the gener- nihilist, or musical) to the sacred religious Denis prefecture. Since 1960, the first uating themselves symbolically in the host al suspicion in the neighbourhoods. The self- thus marks the end of this identity migration groups of preachers coming from Pakistan country in as much as the persistent ideas of image is made more noble and thus more thanks to the religion of Islam, which be- began to travel throughout France creating a mythical return to their homelands lived acceptable. The appeal of hip hop and no- comes the ultimate goal, and predication ac- adepts amongst the first Maghrebi immi- on. This is true most notably for youths of tably American rap music (with the west cording to Tabligh, the modus operandi. grants, and demanding places of worship, Maghrebi immigration: 'I am neither from coast – Los Angeles – seen as libertine and which aided them in their aims, before here nor there', as a youth from the suburbs the east coast – New York – as more spiritu- Career in the Tabligh pushing their activism further. Since the end north of Marseille told us. The result is misery al), which is, in our opinion, the most impor- The JHETs9 often have known or have of the 1980s, the Tabligh movement has in terms of identity and an absence of stable tant aspect, next to graffiti and dance, gone through the identity migration de- come to include mainly the second, even points of reference4 for these youths, who should be researched in terms of not only scribed above before finally investing fur- the third generation of children of Maghrebi thus develop substitute micro-identities.5 the appeal of America as the El Dorado of ther in predication within the Tabligh. A It is essentially in the hip hop6 culture that freedom, but also and especially the African- number of militants interviewed were they invest themselves, but also in delin- American music and identity references. In adepts of rap music; some were even DJs or quency, so as to access the consumerism effect, the history of African-Americans has MCs in local discotheques or groups. Aban- from which they feel excluded by either de- many similarities with the stories of the sub- doning rap and music in general (listening, viant over-consumerism, engaging in sports urban youths: forced immigration, racism, writing, or playing it) is more or less irre- (namely individual combat sports), and less political or cultural resistance, demanding of versible upon entry into the Tabligh. commonly by studying. These micro-identi- civil rights, and African origins. The prestige Through the process of 'religious profession- ties can coexist and even be in competition. still enjoyed by the Black Panthers, Martin alization', the transformation is carried out However, the strata of these parcelled iden- Luther King, or Malcom X is the flagrant more or less cleanly. We can in effect speak i m a g e tities reveal an overall negative self-repre- proof of this. These confluences between of a 'religious career' within the Faith and sentation. It is often by opposition to a soci- histories perhaps leads to reinvesting the re- Practice association. The militants of the ety of rich people ('suit-and-tie-ers'), that ligious through the figures of African-Ameri- Tabligh are initially recognizable by their their self-perception is constructed ('cap- can culture oscillating between music and sort of 'workers of God' uniform. It is a specif- not available and-trainers'). The society that stigmatized religion: Grand Master Flash, Mc Hammer, ic physical-vestiary aspect: beard, prayer them by signs (often linked to their national Public Enemy (Nation of Islam), Big Daddy beads, s i w a k stick, g a n d o u r a for the men, origins) and by signals (fashion, vernacular Cane, and De La Soul for rap notably on the and headscarf for the women. It is a new way o n l i n e language in the housing estates, regroup- eastern coast; Ahmad Jamal for jazz; Mo- to present oneself physically, spiritually, and ing, way of being) also attributed labels to hamed Ali or Mike Tyson for sports; and Mal- verbally, which is constructed in a society them, taken up as well at times by the media: com X for politics. that, according to them, never accepted and sly-guys, squatters, zoners, wild-child(ren). In France the figures of Islam in rap also recognized them. It is thus interesting to These negative labels are born from physical play a role in what has been called the phe- note that one can follow relatively precisely criteria (facial features), geographic criteria, nomenon of re-Islamization of the suburbs. this 'militant career of preachers' by an origi- or spatial criteria (coming from a violent Here we can cite the rappers who proclaim nal physical indicator: the length of the neighbourhood, deemed 'sensitive' – unem- Islam such as the group Ideal J (Rohff and beard. The length of the latter allows for a ployment, social welfare). Little by little, Kerry James, singers) or the singer Akhen- rather precise traceability of the career in these negative labels are interiorized and aton, a convert to Islam of Italian origin from terms of engagement of the JHET in the Tab- French rapper immigrants. The Tabligh is currently very or- even proclaimed. An inversion of the self- the group IAM, Abdelmalik of the group NAP ligh. The greater the degree of engagement, Kery James, ganized and has developed local, regional, presentation is thus obligatory. The youths (Nouveaux Poètes de la Rue/New Street the more the indicator of beard length (seen a convert to national, and extra-national ties. This fact is present themselves voluntarily in conformi- Poets), Disiz La Peste, Sat (of the group as highly recommended religiously) increas- I s l a m . especially remarkable in its ramifications ty with the deformed image of themselves Fonky Family), or the rap singer Wallen. es, and vice versa. There are four discernible throughout such suburbs as Mantes La Jolie, that society confers them: they present Music often plays the dual role of media in phases of engagement in the Tabligh reli- the Quatre Mille housing estates in themselves as dangerous individuals, or dif- the reconstruction of the self for the youths gious career: first, there is a disorderly and Courneuve, or Neuhof or Mulhouse in Al- ficult to access; they wander around in in these territories in which misery and de- disorganized life, often far from God in ter- sace, but also in large cities such as Mar- groups, speak loudly, and behave violently viance predominate: a role of horizontal rains of exclusion, without resources and seille, Lyon, Lille, etc. In Lorraine, the region among themselves, with provocative ges- media, on the one hand, between the cul- without a future. The subjectivity is often that we know the best, Faith and Practice tures in public transport, or by exhibiting the tures of either side of the Atlantic, but also fragmented and lacking in points of refer- covers a zone of influence from the city of signals that incite mistrust or defiance (pitt- vertical media between young rappers and ence. Second, there is a religious progressiv- Forbach (Moselle), which is its epicentre, bulls, shaved heads). But ambivalence in the the sacred. It is naturally towards a transcen- ity that coincides often with a cohabitation spreading from Nancy to Bar-le-Duc, pass- discourse and the practices of the youths is dence to which the youths often turn after of several identities, at times antagonistic: ing through Verdun and Longwy, reaching striking: they hate the well-off, who are at having had a taste of rap and its multiple im- that of the dealer or the delinquent with yet other regions: Mulhouse in Alsace, Dijon the source of all their problems, yet they brications with religion. Despite its success, apostolic Islam was the most remarkable – in Bourgogne. This transnational Islamic want to appropriate all of the emblems the group NAP, unique in its genre, is the selling drugs to subsist yet frequenting si- network, the largest in the world, counts an (name-brand clothing, fine cars, pretty girls), only one, along with IAM, to ostensibly pro- multaneously, and increasingly, the mosque increasing number of adepts. and they hate their 'ghetto', the housing es- mote a verbalized culture of Islamic rap. Un- and the Tabligh. I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2 Public Sphere 21 Poetics in France image not available online The third phase comprises an unconditional engagement where the militant is in a peri- od of 'religious forcing'. He speaks only of Allah, of His qualities, of paradise and hell; his investment in the predication of the Tab- ligh is at its maximum. He undertakes mis- sions that lead him at times very far from home, even as far as New Delhi, India (where the Tabligh founder's tomb is located), to Pakistan (Lahore and Peshawar), and even At a bookstall further away to, for example, China, the USA, at the congress or South Africa. The worried and regular op- of the Jeunes position of families to reduce his missionary Musulmans de engagement are to no avail. This period of France (JMF). unconditional engagement in Faith and Practice ends with what Donegani calls 'in- transigentism' of the convert; this initial zeal the Qur'an (2:143). They thus return, after a lamization of subjectivity within the Tabligh is taxed voluntarily by global society as 'fun- phase of physical-vestiary hyper-visibility, to group. Engaging in 'this voluntary grouping damentalism', notably due to the physical- the most common social invisibility by tak- of religious intensity'1 3 allows subjectivity to vestiary aspect of the JHET, the beard caus- ing up studies, jobs – albeit precarious –, as- reconstruct itself around federating ideas ing confusion between them and the tele- sociative activities, sports, or even citizens' such as 'prophetic imitation' or the 'hunting N o t e s vised images of radical Islamists from all four activities. Their engagement in the 'congre- down of evil and exhorting good'. It is thera- 1 . The term 'suburbs' here refers to the French term corners of the world. At this stage there is gation' of the Tabligh can then become cool, py by a rigorous religiosity within an ascetic b a n l i e u e . metamorphosis: the young militant cuts even critical, or non-existent. structure that inspires security in the face of 2 . M. Tozy, Monarchie et islam politique au Maroc himself off from the world. Often he no The Tabligh movement, however, remains temptations of the self, dangers of the sub- (Paris: Presses de Sciences Po, 1999). longer watches television, no longer listens an associative religious movement under urbs in particular and the world in general. 3 . The term 'identity migration' is an English to music, selects his friends, avoids sexual high surveillance by the General Intelligence This structure preserves the torn identity, al- rendering of the French transhumance identitaire, promiscuity with women, goes out little, and agency and the Direction of the Territory lowing it to completely re-socialize and to a concept on which I have published and which I prays a lot. He begins thus, like a hermit, to Surveillance notably since the Khaled Khel- arm itself against the social evils (exclusion, personally defend. fast regularly, to consecrate himself to medi- kal affair1 0 in 1995, at the time of the wave of drugs, delinquency). It seems thus to con- 4 . Cf. Farhad Khosrokhavar, l'Islam des jeunes ( P a r i s : tation, prayer, and study. He uses to his ben- attacks in Paris, but especially since the at- firm that the passage into and engagement Flammarion, 1997). efit the time allotted him often by his status tack perpetrated by two young Frenchmen in Faith and Practice in France is a moment 5 . Cf. Moussa Khedimellah, 'R ô l e de la culture as being on unemployment or as occasional in Marrakech in 1994.1 1 The General Intelli- of transition for the socio-religious identity, islamique dans l'histoire algérienne. Ses effets sur worker, to improve his faith and his practice. gence agency is especially interested in the an intermediary structure of re-socialization, la perception de soi et l'altérité sur les enfants de It is a politics of ascetism and chastity, which most zealous religious preachers, who have which has as its role to reconstruct the self. It migrants en France', Revue Euro-Orient, no. 4 is demanded and applied to and against the gone for four months to Pakistan and India is the experience of an identity migration (February–May 1999). ostentation of consumer society. Concern- with the supposed eventuality of having (hard life, delinquency, hip hop) towards a 6 . Cf. Hugues Bazin, La culture Hip Hop ( P a r i s : ing the religious criteria, non-consumerism joined training camps in Afghanistan. While transcendence that pulls these militant Desclée de Brouwer, 1995). becomes in this sense increasingly a means Jean-Pierre Chevènement attempted to youths out of their negative and monotone 7 . Cf. interview with Method Man (Wu Tang Clan) and an end, a veritable Islamic leitmotiv to launch the bases of a French Islam represen- day-to-day existence, thus bringing them to with Olivier Cachin, l ' A f f i c h e, Special Issue no. 2. accept the unacceptable of the life of exclu- t a t i o n ,1 2 the Tabligh remains under suspi- a moral obligation. According to our analy- 8 . Cf. Denis-Constant Martin, Le Gospel afro- sion that they once knew. The hyper-visibili- cion of instigating, in the secrecy of 'cellar ses, Tabligh allows these missionaries to cre- américain, des spirituals au rap religieux ty is expressed by the body or the discourse mosques', potential Islamists – which re- ate bases and support for the solid subjecti- (Paris/Arles: Cités de La Musique/Actes Sud, during this crucial period of engagement. mains unproven. Concerning the possible vation in 'the spaces of authenticity where 1 9 9 8 ) . Finally, in the fourth phase, the Tabligh 'fundamentalism' within the Tabligh, our ap- unauthenticity is banned'. Locally, the for- 9 . JHET is an abbreviation for Jeunes Hommes militant often passes through a period in proach to the Tabligh field in France did not mer Tabligh militants, due to their symbolic Engagés dans le Tabligh (Young Men Engaged in which he reinvests in society having found allow for finding conclusive evidence in that religious prestige, often become privileged the Tabligh). the capacity to go beyond the cleavages and sense or demonstrating any deviation of in certain municipalities since they know the 1 0 .Article in Le Monde entitled 'Moi, Khaled Kelkal', to inverse the stigmas of which he was the that type, until the present in any case. problems of violence in the area – and this 7 October 1995. object. It is the 'Muslim is beautiful' period. evolution has been confirmed. These young 1 1 .Incriminating two former young militants of Faith He finds the marks and points of reference C o n c l u s i o n Muslims who have reconstructed a new sub- and Practice from Courneuve, Redouane that help him to have full awareness of him- This new diasporic Islamic youth, social- jectivity through the religious, are the new Hammadi and Stephane Aït Iddir, sentenced to self and of others. He reconstructs a sense ized in France, is impassioned with spirituali- emerging actors in the suburbs and in the death in Morocco on 26 January 1995 and who for himself by using a citizen discourse. For ty in a Western universe that lacks sense. In city by demanding a French and Muslim are still waiting for their sentences to be carried example, in the racist neighbour he now this way the JHET believe they offer some- identity. Yet by means of the sacred, these out. only sees an inoffensive creature of God, thing positive to this globalizing society. The youths have chosen to invest in this move- 1 2 .The initiative was pursued under the ministry of stray and ignorant, for whom one must have concern for respecting certain religious ment of predication and seem to have thus M. Vaillant. In this attempt, the Tabligh was compassion, patience, and kindness. Also, taboos and that for ecological aspirations found their lost dignity of an identity that consulted as one of the main Muslim authorities, social failure is seen as a simple ordeal that (such as the quality of air, the sanitary quali- had been erring somewhere between the among which figure the Union of Islamic one has to overcome; poverty is seen as a ty of food, or kindness to animals) also exist two shores of the Mediterranean. To con- Organizations of France, the Paris Mosque, the good that prevents one from being tempted among the militants; in that sense it is an in- clude, we partially rejoin Oliver Roy,1 4 w h o National Federation of French Muslims, and the by over-consumerism. At this moment of teresting convergence of the religious and thinks that these young Muslims are not the Larbi Kechat Mosque. rupture, to prove that they have finally the modern. In addition, the Tablighis re- enemies of modernity – as Western societies 1 3 .J. Séguy, 'Groupements volontaires d'intensité found the median behaviour between reli- main faithful to the principal of being apolit- often judge them to be – but rather its prod- religieuse dans le christianisme et l'islam', gious zealotry and the life devoid of sense in ical, also very modern, advocated very early ucts and, even more so, its effective produc- Archives de Sciences Sociales des Religions, no. 100 the suburbs without money, dignity, and a on by Muhammad Ilyas, the founder. This ers and actors. (October–December 1997): 47–60. future, the appearance owing to the 'impas- characteristic that separates the religious 1 4 .O. Roy, 'Quel a r c h a ï s m e?', A u t r e m e n t ( s p e c i a l sioned faith' often transforms into a 'social from the political may explain the long sur- issue, 'Islam, le grand malentendu', Mutations transparency' in which the preachers no vival of this network, which following the ex- series), no. 95 (1987): 207–13. longer wear the traditional garb and shorten ample of the Internet – on which it is ex- their beards – the proof is that they have tremely present – has also managed to This article is based on part of the author's post- Moussa Khedimellah completed his Ph.D. at the succeeded in finding this difficult compro- weave its web throughout the world. Our in- graduate (D.E.A.) thesis: M. Khedimellah, 'Des EHESS, Paris, on the Tabligh movement in France. mise between their own faith and the laws of terviews also show that Islam is lived by the ténèbres de la foi à la lumière, la J a m aca Tabligh en He is currently affiliated with the CADIS and the the Republic. They voluntarily call this phase youths as a globalizing cultural system, or- Lorraine' (Paris: Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences EPHE-GSRL laboratories, France. 'the middle path', a formula extracted from ganizing the sense of their practices by an Is- Sociales, September 1999). E-mail: [email protected] 2 2 Public Sphere I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2

Performing Arts AK I N AW AZ Fun Da Mental

The conflict over Islam and the West began many years ago and the ignorant viewpoints on Islam are historical ones. Since 11 September panic has set in, and from the rampant fear emerges the question of Radical Music, how such a 'civilized' part of the world could be so blind. Information is everywhere, from academia to the media: becoming properly informed demands no great effort. But ironically it does not matter how much you have in terms of luxury or financial securi- Po l i t i c a l P r o t e s t ty, as these do not equate to common sense. Such a void is not the monopoly of the West; it is alive and well in every society. What is wrong with Islam? What Indeed, we have baptized ourselves. The is its problem with the West? Why cannot Islam just be current events and our opinions show that peaceful like all the other religions? The questions go we do not fear confrontation and are open on and the answers are seemingly in 'recycle' mode. to debate on an equal basis. Let me say that Fun Da Mental is not entirely a Muslim band. We, Fun Da Mental, as a political music band, Our members come from many different refuse to react submissively to the current backgrounds. Nation Records works with crisis: not only is that patronizing, it is also a people who, like us, have many colours, cul- very colonialist, imperialistic expectation. tures, and religions – or no religion. Please do not see this as an obstacle but as a The music industry in general has failed to stance that just might equate to honesty engage with artists in an honest way and and a perspective that can enlighten you on provide musicians the platform to represent the complex issues. Fun Da Mental has never their music and politics. At Nation Records been about compromise. the integrity of the music is paramount, From its inception the idea was to express whereas politics is an option for the musi- our views. The group was founded more cians. They know they have a label that will along the lines of Malcolm X than of Ghandi. not restrict them in airing their opinions. On We wanted to challenge: politically but also the contrary, Nation Records encourages musically. There was this great artistic her- this. Asian Dub Foundation, Transglobal Un- itage that was neither acknowledged nor derground, Natasha Atlas, Joi, Loop Guru, encouraged. As a band we decided that the and all the others have something to say music had to be radically different to, say, about the situation in which we live, all of Public Enemy and the hip hop ethos, but them taking different stances. This attitude should connect those interested in such from the label has also made enemies and music and attract them to our form and has forced it to operate in a very under- take. Inspired by great traditional Indian ground way. Shops have restricted our music, we also found ourselves gob- products and radio/television stations have Aki Nawaz (top) smacked by the integrity and experimenta- been inactive. and Dave Watts tion from that continent. No wonder our (bottom) of Fun parents had no interest in 'Rock-n-Roll' or Acts of injustice Da Mental. the current contemporary music scene – There is a grave paranoia in the West, and their ears were far more delicate and de- what it does not understand it wants to de- manding. They had been brought up on stroy; any attempts to take a stance against cannot not sustain its acts of injustice with- religion represents. A religion cannot be music that connected to the soul, their lives, its domination will now officially be at- out some sort of reaction from the local vic- judged by its followers but a follower can be culture, religion, and environment. Sikhs, tacked. History documents the domination tims. All empires must fall. judged by his religion. Islam cannot be Hindus, and Muslims all united under a po- and it continues on. If a culture cannot be questioned, only understood: this is the be- litical angst, which Fun Da Mental took to subservient or a sellable commodity, it is a Surviving the rounds lief of Muslims. It is divine word, no discus- the stage and frightened the hell out of threat to the Western lifestyle. Travelling with the band has offered a sion and no debate, only a questioning of everyone… yes, even our own people. This In the current climate, we see a demoniz- first-hand account of local people in many how to understand it and act according to it. was not what they envisaged as it would ing of over a billion people around the countries. We, as a band, go to absorb and Islam covers not only the spiritual element cause conflict. The English people suddenly globe – something not new to humankind. learn – not to impose. of life, it touches every aspect, from science saw in us the Asian version of the Sex Pistols But what is it about this religion, this 'Islam', We who live and reside in the West but are to nature, from capitalism to materialism, and they also ran for cover. The press en- that causes so much conflict for the self- not 'of' it feel the injustice. We cannot sit and most of all justice based on absolute joyed us as we made for good reading, but elected 'civilized' world? here benefiting from the economic security equality. they were totally opposed to our politics. Islamic thought engages with society on a of the West without wishing the same for But how can one who has rebelled to the Anything radical is not acceptable in the daily level and it would not be right for me those who do not have the same opportuni- maximum, and continues to do so, have no present, but when it is finally buried and to separate the two as that would not be ties. I often have wondered whether, be- problem with religion? The Qur'an, once gone, it becomes trendy. agreeable to Islam. Islam gives each individ- sides the financial benefits, there is any- looked into, can reveal some very anarchic Through it all we remained stubborn and ual and every community the right to chal- thing here in terms of attraction or spiritual- views and non-conformities. The problem in focused. Those interested witnessed us en- lenge injustice, whether it is in a Muslim ity for those who value culture, religion, and the West with religion is that it uses its own gaging not only musically but also in debates country or not. Islam is a peaceful religion tradition. Would Western people travel to guilt complex and failings of Christianity and workshops, and at universities. Suddenly but only in the context of a peaceful and the Caribbean if there were money and se- (people have let the religion fall) to judge we were travelling to many countries, and 'just' society. It embraces all, encourages to curity? Of course they would, just as they other faiths. Does this mean we have to the excited, alternative Asian youth was re- work for 'all' for the common good. Howev- travelled to Africa, Australia, the Americas, have a perfect society? This is not possible, lieved that here was a band that made as er, if there are injustices then it gives you and Asia. as the Word reveals. Islam is a test, not a much noise and chaos as Rage Against the the right to confront. All my life in the UK I have witnessed Mus- dominating ideology. 'There is no compul- Machine and Motorhead. The non-Asian Allow me to commit a sin for the purpose lim minorities never being embraced and sion in religion', as the Qur'an clearly states. youth was attracted to the anarchist rhetoric of explaining my observation of the unjust even to this day we are reminded what sta- So where does our music stand with respect and supported us even if they did not fully and ill-informed propaganda against Islam: tus the system expects us to adhere to. Some to Islam? The best way to explain it is to understand. We visited Bosnia a few months let us separate politics and religion. Politi- do, and some refuse to entertain an ounce of highlight our own observations of mindless, after the war, where young people had been cally the Muslim world is in turmoil because it. The blindness of the injustice is unbeliev- manufactured, and manipulated contempo- playing FDM amidst the fighting and we of many factors aside from domestic politi- able and this needs to be confronted. Day in, rary music – the epitome of which is MTV sympathized with them as they did with us. cal issues. The international stage is domi- day out engagement in any meaningful dia- culture. In a simple explanation, Islam for- South Africa a month after the election of nated by the West either in legal, economic, logue is suppressed. We are allowed but sec- bids this (and other sorts of) exploitation. Mandela saw FDM terrifying the Boers with or military terms. How can one part of the onds on the media channels to suddenly say the '10 bullets per settler' statement and was world that is almost devoid of the most everything we wanted to for the last 20 or 40 accused of being racist towards the whites. needed natural resources be in control of a years. We are invited into the boxing ring for Aki Nawaz is the frontman of Fun Da Mental and Even white people involved in the band were part of the world that basically has it all? 12 rounds, both hands tied; in the 12t h r o u n d Nation Records. Influenced by the Punk movement, amazed at the audacity of the Boers. Despite There are many answers and all of them are one hand is freed, nonetheless we survive he is credited with being one of the main founders all this, and after five albums, we feel we have relevant. But what about the local people? the 12 rounds. o f the Asian Underground and the Global Fusion not achieved anything in terms of political They have now had enough of the domina- The debates that generally take place are Scene. His uncompromising politics are a recurring enlightenment, but we have managed to tion of the West and its unrelenting imposi- with people who have absolutely no knowl- theme in his work, from Islam to racism and shed our submissiveness to allow for more tion of its preferred leadership upon them. edge of Islam. They pick up on the weakness everything in between. force and directness. This has gone on for far too long. The West and failures of Muslims as if that is what the E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2 Medical Ethics 23

E g y p t MARCIA C. INHORN Gender, Religion,

Since the birth of Louise Brown, the world's first 'test- tube baby' in 1978, the new reproductive technolo- gies (NRTs) have spread around the globe, reaching countries far from the technology-producing nations and In Vitro of the West. Perhaps nowhere is this globalization process more evident than in the nearly twenty na- tions of the Muslim Middle East, where in vitro fertil- ization (IVF) centres have opened in nations ranging from small, oil-rich Bahrain and Qatar to larger but F e r t i l i z a t i o n less prosperous Morocco and Egypt. Egypt provides a particularly fascinating locus for investigation of this global transfer of NRTs because of its ironic posi- Indeed, given the daunting series of obstacles tion as one of the poor, 'overpopulated' Arab na- confronted by Egyptian IVF patients, it is re- tions. markable that Egyptian atfal l-anabib, or liter- ally 'babies of the tubes', are being born on an Egypt was the first Middle Eastern Muslim almost daily basis in some of the major IVF country to establish a national population re- centres in the country. duction programme through family planning in the 1960s. However, as in the vast majority Egyptian IVF landscape of the world's societies, infertility was not in- In 1996, I conducted medical anthropologi- cluded in this programme as either a popula- cal fieldwork in two of the major IVF centres in tion problem, a more general public health Cairo. In-depth, semi-structured interviews concern, or an issue of human suffering for were conducted with 66 middle- to upper- Egyptian citizens, especially women. None- class, highly educated, professional women theless, a recent World Health Organization- and their husbands, the vast majority of Dr Mohamed sponsored study placed the total infertility whom were seeking IVF services. This Egypt- Yehia, clinical prevalence rate among married Egyptian ian IVF research followed an earlier project on director of an IVF couples at 12 per cent (Egyptian Fertility Care infertility undertaken with poor infertile centre, holds an Society 1995). Given the size of this infertile Egyptian women in 1988–1989 (Inhorn 1994). IVF newborn. population and the strong desire for two or In that study, in-depth, semi-structured inter- more children expressed by virtually all views were conducted with 100 infertile Egyptian men and women, it is not surprising women and a comparison group of 90 fertile not found in most other regions of the world by this study, these local cultural implications that Egypt provides a ready market for the ones, the vast majority of whom were poor, (e.g. Kahn 2000; Nicholson and Nicholson must be studied by Middle Eastern scholars, NRTs. Indeed, Egypt has been at the forefront uneducated, illiterate housewives (Inhorn 1994). in order to document both the benefits and of NRT development in the region, now host- 1996). These poor women were seeking treat- However, from a gender perspective, this pitfalls of the new reproductive technologies ing nearly 40 IVF centres, more than neigh- ment at the University of Alexandria's public religiously condoned privileging of biological that are spreading so rapidly around the bouring Israel (Kahn 2000). ob/gyn teaching hospital, which had widely parenthood has not necessarily been advan- globe. publicized its opening of a supposedly 'free' tageous for Egyptian women, who are unable NRTs and culture government-sponsored IVF programme. to solve their childlessness through either New reproductive technologies are not Thus, my work on this subject incorporates Western-style adoption, which is expressly N o t e transferred into cultural voids when they both a longitudinal perspective and a class- prohibited in the Islamic scriptures (Sonbol * The supreme jurisprudent of S h icite Islam in Iran reach places like Egypt. Local considerations, based comparison of infertile women seeking 1995), surrogacy, or donor-egg technologies. has allowed the use of donor egg technology. be they cultural, social, economic, or political, IVF treatment in the two largest cities of Indeed, the saddest new twist in marital poli- Donor sperm technology is also allowed, although shape and sometimes curtail the way these Egypt. It reveals how the treatment experi- tics in Egypt has occurred as a result of the rel- the offspring are not allowed to inherit from the Western-generated technologies are both of- ences of poor and élite infertile women differ atively recent advent in Egypt of intracyto- social father. fered to and received by non-Western sub- dramatically by virtue of education, economic plasmic sperm injection (ICSI) –a variant of IVF jects. In other words, the assumption on the resources, and subsequent access to IVF, and that allows men with very poor sperm quality R e f e r e n c e s part of global producer-nations that repro- how a time-span of a decade has dramatically to procreate. As long as a single viable sper- – Egyptian Fertility Care Society. 1995. C o m m u n i t y - ductive technologies are 'immune to culture' altered the IVF treatment landscape in the matozoon can be retrieved from a man's based Study of the Prevalence of Infertility and its and can thus be 'appropriately' transferred country. body, including through painful testicular Etiological Factors in Egypt: (1) The P o p u l a t i o n - and implemented anywhere and everywhere In the world of Egyptian IVF, considerable biopsies, this spermatozoon can be injected based Study. Cairo: The Egyptian Fertility Care is subject to challenge once local formula- attention must be paid to issues of religion directly into the ovum, thereby 'forcing' fertil- S o c i e t y . tions, perceptions, and consumption of these and gender. In Egypt, the official Islamic po- ization to take place. Thus, ICSI heralds a revo- – Freeman, Carla. 1999. High Tech and High Heels technologies are taken into consideration. In- sition on NRTs – manifested through a series lution in overcoming male infertility, and its i n the Global Economy: Women, Work, and P i n k - stead, it is useful to ask how third world recip- of f a t w as issued from al-Azhar University arrival in Egypt in 1994 has led to the flooding Collar Identities in the Caribbean. Durham, NC: ients of global technologies resist their appli- since 1980 and subsequently upheld by the of IVF clinics with couples whose marriages Duke University Press. cation, or at least reconfigure the ways they minority Coptic Christian patriarchate in the have been affected by long-term male infer- – Inhorn, Marcia C. 1994. Quest for Conception: are to be adopted in local cultural contexts. In country – has supported IVF and related tility. Gender, Infertility, and Egyptian Medical other words, globalization is not enacted in a technologies as means to overcome marital Unfortunately, many of the wives of these T r a d i t i o n s . Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania uniform manner around the world, nor is it infertility. However, in Sunni (as opposed to Egyptian men, who have 'stood by' their infer- P r e s s . simply homogenizing in its effects. The global S h ica) Islam,* all forms of so-called 'third tile husbands for years, even decades in some —— —. 1996. Infertility and Patriarchy: The is always imbued with local meaning, and party donation' – of sperm, eggs, embryos, cases, have grown too old to produce viable C u l t u r a l Politics of Gender and Family Life in Egypt. local actors mould the very form that global or wombs (as in surrogacy) – are strictly for- ova for the ICSI procedure. Because the al- Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. processes take, doing so in ways that high- bidden, for reasons having to do with the Azhar fatwa forbids the use of ova donation – Kahn, Susan Martha. 2000. Reproducing Jews: light the dialectics of gender and class, pro- privileging of marriage, 'pure lineage', and or surrogacy, couples with a 'reproductively A Cultural Account of Assisted Conception in duction and consumption, and local and the 'natural' biological ties between parents elderly' wife face four difficult options: (1) to Israel. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. global cultures (Freeman 1999). and their offspring. Viewing the al-Azhar remain together permanently without chil- – Nicholson, Roberto F., and Roberto E. Nicholson. In the case of Egypt in particular, infertile f a t w a as authoritative, Egyptian IVF patients dren; (2) to legally foster an orphan child, 1994. Assisted Reproduction in Latin America. women and men willing to consider the use explain that sperm, egg, or embryo donation which is rarely viewed as an acceptable op- Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics of NRTs are confronted with eight major 'are- leads to a 'mixture of relations'. Such mixing tion, particularly among élites who want heirs 1 1 : 4 3 8 – 4 4 . nas of constraint', or various structural, ideo- severs blood ties between parents and their to their fortunes; (3) to remain together in a – Sonbol, Amira el Azhary. 1995. Adoption in Islamic logical, social-relational, and practical obsta- offspring; confuses issues of paternity, de- polygynous marriage, which is rarely viewed Society: A Historical Survey. In Elizabeth Warnock cles and apprehensions. Some of these con- scent, and inheritance; and leads to poten- as a tenable option by women themselves; or Fernea (ed.), Children in the Muslim Middle East. straints – such as class-based barriers to IVF tially incestuous marriages of the children of (4) to divorce so that the husband can remar- Austin: University of Texas Press. access, the physical risks, and low success unknown egg or sperm donors. Thus, for ry a younger, more fertile woman. Unfortu- rates associated with IVF – are similar to those Egyptian women with infertile husbands, nately, more and more highly educated, Marcia C. Inhorn is associate professor at the faced by Western consumers of these tech- the thought of using donor sperm from a upper-class Egyptian men are choosing the Department of Health Behavior and Health nologies. However, many of the dilemmas ex- 'bank' is simply reprehensible and is tanta- final option of divorce – believing that their Education and the Department of Anthropology, perienced by Egyptian IVF patients are deeply mount in their minds to committing z i n a, or own reproductive destinies may lie with a s well as associate director of the Center for Middle embedded in local cultural understandings adultery. Egyptian IVF patients, as well as younger, 'replacement' wives, who are al- Eastern and North African Studies, University of and practices. These constraints range from their IVF doctors, attempt to scrupulously lowed to them under Islam's personal status Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA. She is author of L o c a l gender dynamics within marriage to local ver- uphold these religious injunctions forbid- laws. Babies, Global Science: Gender, Religion, and In sions of Islam, which legislate upon the ap- ding third-party donation practices, thereby Thus, the use of IVF, ICSI, and other NRTs Vitro Fertilization in Egypt (New York: Routledge, propriate use of these technologies and thus revealing a level of conjunction between has myriad local implications in Egypt and in 2 0 0 3 ) . restrict how test-tube babies are to be made. moral discourse and medical practice that is other parts of the Muslim world. As suggested E-mail: [email protected] 2 4 Philosophy I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2

T e x t s NADER HASHEMI Alexis de

Following the tragic events of 11 September 2001, the relationship between religion and democracy has emerged as one of the most important and vex- ing questions of our age, particularly as it relates to Tocqueville Muslim societies. Most of the theoretical debate sur- rounding this relationship involves a discussion of Arab and Islamic political culture, secularism, and the problems of separating mosque and state in Mus- lim political theory. A critical prerequisite for democ- and Democracy in ratic development is the transformation of religion. This conclusion is implicit in the writings of one of the early theoreticians of democracy, Alexis de Toc- queville. What lessons can democratic activists in the Muslim world learn from his observations of the Muslim Societies early American republic?

At first glance the relationship between reli- make them conceive the one without the cution in Europe. The many Protestant ability, and (gender) equality are rarely if gion and democracy seems inherently con- other' (306). Churches that Tocqueville encountered in ever expounded. tradictory and conflictual. Both concepts Tocqueville, it should be recalled, was not his travels were largely anti-élitist, commu- Finally, the doyen of American democratic speak to different aspects of the human writing for an American audience but rather nity-run organizations. Many of these insti- theorists Robert Dahl, in responding to the condition. Religion is a system of beliefs and for the educated classes in Europe where tutions had undergone a significant democ- question of how a democratic culture can rituals related to the 'divine' and the 'sa- the normative relationship between reli- ratic transformation during the early years be created in a non-democratic society, ob- cred'. In this sense it is decidedly metaphys- gion and politics was still unresolved, or as of the American republic. According to served that 'few would seriously contest ical and otherworldly in its orientation and he put it: 'the establishment of democracy Nathan Hatch's seminal work The Democra- [that] an important factor in the prospects telos. While religion may differ in its various in Christendom is the great political prob- tization of American Christianity, a n t i - c l e r i- for a stable democracy in a country is the manifestations, most religions share these lem of our times' (325). The core problem as calism, religious pluralism, egalitarianism, strength of the diffuse support for democra- features. It is precisely the dogmatic claim – he saw it was that in Europe the 'spirit of re- and the supremacy of the individual were tic ideas, values, and practices embedded in for which religions are infamous – that they ligion and spirit of freedom [were almost al- core characteristics of American religion by the country's culture and transmitted, in alone are in possession of the absolute ways] marching in opposite directions. But the 1830s. large part, from one generation to the next' Truth and the concomitant shunning of in America … they were intimately united Secondly, democratic ideas and debates (Dahl 1999:2). In the Muslim world today, scepticism in matters of belief that makes and … they reigned in common over the that flowed from the American Revolution who is promoting, propagating, and trans- religion a source of conflict. Furthermore, same country' (308). Tocqueville concludes and constitutional debates indelibly affect- mitting democratic values, ideas, and prac- religions tend to set insurmountable bound- his reflections on religion and democracy by ed the practice of both religion and democ- tices? The ulama (clergy)? the education sys- aries between believers and non-believers. stating that while the Americans have not racy in America. In other words, the en- tem? the media? the intellectual class? the Entry into the community of religion de- completely 'resolved this problem … they veloping context was democracy friendly family? (I am deliberately leaving out the mands an internalizing of its sacred and ab- furnish useful data to those who undertake and democracy enhancing. In most Muslim state for obvious reasons.) The point is a solute Truth. to resolve it' (325). societies, by contrast, a different situation self-evident one. To quote Ghassan Salamé, Democracy, on the other hand, is decided- One of the confident assertions that Toc- exists. The historic Muslim encounter with you cannot have 'democracy without de- ly this worldly, secular, and egalitarian. Re- queville makes about the peaceful coexis- modern democracy has been a bitter experi- mocrats'. Tocqueville realized this over 170 gardless of religious belief, race, or creed, tence of religion and democracy in the Unit- ence. The late Eqbal Ahmad, a prominent years ago as he surveyed the political cul- democracy (especially its liberal variant) im- ed States is its decidedly secular character. democracy activist and dissident Muslim in- ture of early American society. Unlike Eu- plies an equality of rights and treatment be- All with whom he spoke on this matter – in- tellectual captures the point: rope in the 19t h century and large parts of fore the law for all citizens without discrimi- cluding the clergy – were in unanimous the Muslim world today, in the United nation. Its telos is geared towards the non- agreement 'that they all attributed the Our first encounter with democracy was States, by contrast, the 'spirit of religion and violent management of human affairs in peaceful dominion of religion in their coun- oppressive. Democracy came to us as spirit of freedom … were intimately united order to create the good life on this earth, try mainly to the separation of church and oppressors, as colonizers, as violators. As and … they reigned in common over the not in the hereafter. Critically, unlike reli- state' (308). Tocqueville invokes the ab- violators, they spoke in the language of same country' (Tocqueville 1999:308). In his gious commandments, the rules of democ- sence of this separation in the case of Islam the Enlightenment and engaged in the writings on religion and democracy, Toc- racy can be changed, adjusted, and amend- to explain its democratic deficit. activities of barbarians…. Secondly, after queville provides considerable food for ed. It is precisely the inclusive and relativis- Mohammed professed to derive from decolonization our experience was again thought for Muslim democrats to read and tic nature of democracy that separates it Heaven, and has inserted in the Qur'an not with the democratic power centers, reflect upon as they grapple with the prob- from religion and theologically based politi- only religious doctrines but also political United States, France, [and] Britain. Our lems of political development that afflict cal systems. maxims, civil and criminal laws, and theories experience even in [the] second stage of their own societies. One of the leading early writers on the re- of science. The Gospel, on the contrary, our post-colonial history, was one of lationship between democracy and religion speaks only of the general relations of men these big Western powers calling was the 19t h-century French aristocrat, Alex- to God and to each other, beyond which it themselves the 'Free World' and … is de Tocqueville. In Democracy in America inculcates and imposes no point of faith. actively promoting neo-fascism and neo- he wrote: 'On my arrival in the United States This alone, besides a thousand other rea- fascist governments in one Muslim the religious aspect of the country was the sons, would suffice to prove that the former country and Third World country after first thing that struck my attention' (Toc- of these religions will never long predomi- another. Historically the United States queville 1999:308).* In the context of demo- nate in a cultivated and democratic age, has spoken of democracy and has cratic theory, Tocqueville is usually remem- while the latter is destined to retain its sway supported Samozas, Trujillos, Mobutu bered for his warnings on the problem of at these as at all other periods (II, 23). Sese Seko, Suharto of Indonesia, the Shah N o t e the 'tyranny of the majority' and his obser- Tocqueville was simply repeating the of Iran, Zia ul Haq of Pakistan…. * I am indebted to Hillel Fradkin's essay 'Does vation about the 'equality of conditions' in standard view of what is now a sacred and Therefore, our first experience with Democracy Need Religion?', Journal of Democracy early America. It is generally forgotten, how- unexamined equation: 'no secularism democracy was one of outright 11 (January 2000): 87–94, for stimulating my ever, that he also wrote extensively about equals no democracy'. While there is no oppression and our second experience thinking on this topic, as well as the writings of the connection between religion and demo- denying that secularism has been an inher- with democracy was one which [the Saad Edeen Ibrahim on Islam and democracy. cracy. His ruminations on this theme are not ent part of the development of democracy West] promoted fascism, global fascism only explored in several chapters of D e m o c- in the West, when applied to Muslim soci- in some cases. (Ahmad 1996) R e f e r e n c e s racy and America but are peppered through- eties it encounters several theoretical and – Ahmad, Eqbal. 1996. The Obstacles to Democracy out this work. What lessons can Muslim de- historical problems. Leaving aside the emo- Not only has the historic Muslim experi- i n the Muslim World. Lecture at Carleton University, mocrats today learn from Tocqueville on the tionally charged and exaggerated debate ence with democracy been different, but Ottawa, Canada (5 April). relationship between religion and democra- about Islam and secularism, what are the also a strong argument can be made that – Dahl, Robert. 1999. Political Culture and Economic c y ? lessons here for the struggle for democracy existing mosques and religious schools in Development. In Fredrik Engelstad and Ragnvald Tocqueville describes religion in the Unit- in the Muslim world? the Muslim world – unlike their early Ameri- Kalleberg (eds), Social Time and Social Change: ed States 'as the first of their political institu- can counterparts – actually foster values P e r s p e c t i v e s on Sociology and History. O s l o : tions; for if it does not impart a taste for free- First encounters that are antithetical to democracy and liber- Scandinavian University Press. dom, it facilitates the use of it' (305). The first observation is that Tocqueville is alism. A content analysis of the j u mca k h u t a b – Tocqueville, Alexis de. 1990. Democracy in A m e r i c a . He sees religion as a moderating force in not talking about religion generally but re- (Friday sermons) in the major mosques of Translated by Henry Reeve. New York: Vintage Books. the United States that exists in natural har- ally about a particular type of religion – in Cairo, Mecca, Beirut, Damascus, Tehran, and mony with its democratic character. 'The this case various strands of Protestant Chris- Karachi (not to mention most North Ameri- Nader Hashemi is a Ph.D. candidate at Americans combine the notions of Chris- tianity, three hundred years after Martin can mosques and Islamic schools) would be t h e Department of Political Science, University tianity and of liberty so intimately in their Luther, which had been transplanted into profoundly revealing in this regard. Themes o f Toronto, Canada. minds', he observes, 'that it is impossible to the New World because of religious perse- of popular sovereignty, political account- E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2 Philosophy 25

T e x t s ASMA AFSARUDDIN 'Civil' and

Among the political theorists of classical Islam in- voked by scholars today, particularly in the context of discussions on 'democracy within Islam' and/or 'civil society in Islam', the name of cA m r b. Bahr al- 'Democratic' Polity Jahiz (d. 255/869) is, to the best of my knowledge, never mentioned. Yet, his political treatises or epis- tles have much to tell us moderns about the concep- t h tualization of the ideal Muslim polity and its leader- ship by the turn of the 3r d century of the Islamic era. A 9 -Century Treatise One of his epistles in particular, 'Risalat al- cU t h- m a n i y y a' (The Epistle of the cU t h m a n i y y a), deserves closer study due to its possible implications for legit- ingly establishes that the Qur'anically de- Individual moral traits of sources from after the 9t h century, like a l - imizing modernist discourse on the extrapolation of rived principles of s a b i q a ('precedence' in t h e l e a d e r Ahkam al-Sultaniyya of al-Mawardi and a l - democratic principles from the Islamic tradition. Islam) and f a d l/f a d i l a ('virtue' or 'moral ex- On the subject of personal traits, as men- Siyasa al-s h a rci y y a of Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328). cellence') guided the d i w a n's organization, tioned before, al-Jahiz particularly highlights Ibn Taymiyya, for example on the topic of Al-Jahiz (literally 'the bug-eyed', referring to and that kinship, ethnicity, or tribal affilia- generosity, exceptional knowledge, courage, governance, is of the opinion that Muslims his protruding eyes) is regarded until today tion had little to do with its overall function and truthfulness. With regard to generosity, must discharge their duties to the ruler (a l - as the best litterateur ever produced within (al-Jahiz 1955:211ff.). he adduces as proof-texts specific h a d i t h t h a t s u l t a n) to the fullest, 'even though he may the Arabo-Islamic civilization. It seems al- testify to Abu Bakr's reputation for generosi- be a tyrant' (Ibn Taymiyya 1951:28). Al- most certain that he composed the 'Risalat Election and public ty. He quotes, for instance, the following h a- Mawardi refers to the Qur'anic verse 'O ye a l -cU t h m a n i y y a' during the reign of the Ab- accountability of the leader d i t h in which the Prophet says '[t]he most who believe! Obey God, and obey the Apos- basid caliph al-Ma'mun (d. 218/833) and If the relevance of kinship is thereby thor- gracious of people toward me with regard to tle, and those charged with authority (ulu 'l- that it was among a series of treatises pre- oughly discounted, then it is the piety of the his wealth and his companionship is Abu a m r) among you' (Surat al-Nisa' 4:59) and sented to the caliph on political governance caliphal candidate, as evidenced by his Bakr' (Muslim 1995:7:108). explicates it as mandating virtually unques- by the courtier al-Yazidi (d. 202/817–18). demonstrated moral righteousness and a He further points out that only Abu Bakr, tioning obedience on the part of Muslims to This dating would make the epistle one of track record of early and distinguished ser- in recognition of his truthful nature, was their appointed leaders (al-a'imma al-mu- the earliest Islamic political tracts we have vice to Islam, that makes him acceptable to regularly called al-Siddiq (the Veracious) in t a ' a m m a r u n) (al-Mawardi 1996:13). In the from the medieval period composed before the public as their leader. the h a d i t h and historical and biographical cU t h m a n i y y a, al-Jahiz indicates, however, the classical work on political theory by al- Al-Jahiz relates that Abu Bakr stressed literature. Examples of his courage in ad- the range of possible interpretations of this Mawardi (d. 450/1058). The cU t h m a n i y y a i s piety in his inaugural address before the verse circumstances, for example, during verse: some Qur'an exegetes have under- consequently the repository of much earlier Muhajirun (emigrants from Mecca) and the the three nights he spent in a cave with stood the phrase ulu 'l-amr to have a re- layers of political and religious thinking. Ansar (their helpers in Medina) and dis- Muhammad on their way to Medina while stricted application and to apply only to According to the cU t h m a n i y y a, legitimate specific agents (cu m m a l) of the Prophet, or leadership of the Muslim polity is primarily to specific commanders of his armies such predicated on the individual's precedence as Abu Musa al-A shca r i. Others have under- in piety, on his election by popular consent stood it to refer to political rulers (s a l a t i n; and accountability to the populace. As far as u m a r a '). Yet others have interpreted this the individual leader is concerned, he must phrase to refer more broadly to the Com- be acknowledged as the most morally excel- panions of the Prophet as a group, and/or to lent of his time, possessing and demonstrat- Muslims in general (al-Jahiz 1955:115ff.). ing in abundance traits such as generosity, The last interpretation would invest the en- superior knowledge of worldly and religious tire Muslim community (or, at the very least, matters, courage, and truthfulness. Accord- its righteous members) with moral and po- ing to al-Jahiz, invocation of these criteria litical authority. establishes that Abu Bakr was the best-qual- This discussion was intended to show that Al -cU t h m a n i y y a ified candidate to assume the caliphate recourse to the panoply of early literature at after the death of the Prophet. His argu- our disposal – historical records, exegetical ments are briefly delineated below. counted the pre-Islamic notion of h a s a b being pursued by hostile Meccans, are simi- works, and treatises such as al-Jahiz's al- ('[collective] merit inherited from one's fore- larly stressed by al-Jahiz. Superior knowl- cU t h m a n i y y a in addition to the Qur'an and Precedence in piety fathers') as having any bearing on legiti- edge of genealogical relationships and of h a d i t h – opens up the parameters of the dis- The Qur'anic principle of granting prece- mate leadership. He is quoted as coun- the religious law that allowed Abu Bakr to course on legitimate leadership and organi- dence to believers solely on the basis of selling the people gathered before him: speedily end the r i d d a wars and restore po- zation of the Muslim polity. This admits of a piety (for example, Qur'an 49:13) is central litical unity are extolled in the cU t h m a n i y y a much more creative engagement with the to al-Jahiz's discourse on just and legitimate You must be Godfearing, for piety is the as pointing to his greater qualifications for early history of Islam and also, one should leadership. In the cU t h m a n i y y a, he inveighs most intelligent practice and immorality the office of the caliph (al-Jahiz 1955:122ff.). add, allows for a more realistic retrieval of against the classic S h ici position that legiti- is the most foolish. Indeed I am a the political consciousness of early Muslims. mates leadership based on blood-kinship to follower, not an innovator; if I perform Implications for modern This consciousness appears remarkably hos- the Prophet, a position that lends itself to well, then help me, and if I should deviate, discourses pitable to certain concepts associated with the assumption of the genealogical superi- correct me. O gathering of the Ansar, if It is clear from this exposition that al- the modern civil and democratic polity: con- ority of certain individuals over others, the caliphate is deserved on account of Jahiz's political thought has potentially sultative government, public accountability which militates against this basic Qur'anic hasab and attained on account of kinship great relevance for Muslim modernist and of political leaders, and citizenship of the in- principle. He points out that God had as- (bi-'l-qaraba), then Quraysh is more noble reformist thinkers who wish to tap into the dividual. The Islamic medieval discourse on sured Abraham: than you on account of hasab and more classical period for broad directives on the politics of piety, reconstructed from closely related than you [to the Prophet]. sound political governance. Al-Jahiz's expo- these diverse sources, may indeed be recast 'I will make of you a leader (imam) over However, since it is deserved on account sition is firmly grounded in Qur'anic princi- today in the idiom of civil society and made the people.' Abraham asked, whether of of moral excellence (bi-'l-fadl) in religion, ples and relevant h a d i t h, understood by him relevant once again. a desire to know or as a request, 'And of then those who are foremost in (and like-minded others) to point to a piety- my progeny?' He said, 'My promise does precedence (al-sabiqun al-awwalun) based Muslim polity that selects its leader not extend to those who do wrong.' from among the Muhajirun are placed on the basis of his superior individual attrib- (Qur'an, 2:124) ahead of you in the entire Qur'an as being utes and record of service to the community R e f e r e n c e s more worthy of it compared to you. (al- rather than out of considerations of kinship – Al-Hajjaj, Muslim b. 1995. A l - S a h i h . B e i r u t . Thus, al-Jahiz affirms, Abraham learned Jahiz 1955:202) and worldly status. In addition to the Qur'an – Al-Jahiz, cA m r b. Bahr. 1955. Risalat al-cU t h m a n i y y a. that 'the covenant of his leadership and and h a d i t h, al-Jahiz's arguments also appeal Edited by cA b d al-Salam Harun. Cairo. vicegerency' did not extend to the wrong- to the praxis of the Companions of the – Al-Mawardi, cA l i b. Muhammad. 1996. Al-Ahkam doer, even though he may be from the best In this speech, Abu Bakr foregrounds per- Prophet as recorded in historical and bio- a l-S u l t a n i y y a wa-'l-wilayat al-diniyya. B e i r u t . stock of God's creation. In this is proof that sonal moral excellence of the leader as es- graphical works. He therefore mines the – Ibn Taymiyya, Taqi al-Din. 1951. A l - S i y a s a leadership (a l - r i y a s a) is concerned with reli- tablishing his claim to leadership and clear- gamut of religious, historical, and biograph- a l-s h a rci y y a fi islah al-r aci w a - ' l -r aci y y a. Cairo. giosity (d i n) and does not extend beyond re- ly indicates his accountability to the people ical sources available to present a cogent ligiosity (al-Jahiz 1955:210). who are vested with the right to correct him and holistic account of the political con- Al-Jahiz then proceeds to demonstrate should he lapse into error. The assembly of sciousness of the earliest Muslims. Asma Afsaruddin is assistant professor of Arabic and how the Qur'an's uncompromising stance people, according to al-Jahiz, was swayed It is no wonder that some contemporary Islamic Studies, University of Notre Dame, Indiana, on individual moral accountability is reflect- by the cogency of Abu Bakr's arguments Muslims often repeat the same sterile dis- USA, and author of Excellence and Precedence: ed in the operational principles of the d i w a n and proceeded to give their allegiance to course on 'Islamic government' and its sup- Medieval Islamic Discourse on Legitimate or the register of pensions established by him in recognition of his superior qualifica- posedly authoritarian nature because they Leadership (Leiden, 2002). the second caliph cU m a r. Al-Jahiz painstak- tions for the caliphate. restrict themselves to a few, standard E-mail: [email protected] 2 6 Religious Practice I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2

I n d i a DOMINIQUE-SILA KHAN The Tale of

Histories tell us how, threatened by state power and by various pressure groups, resisting communities have chosen to go underground, surviving clandes- tinely as a whole or partly concealing their activities. t h e Hidden Pir This phenomenon testifies to the permanence of dy- namic, antinomian trends in societies. A particular type is expressed by the tales of religious dissimula- The precautionary concealment of Islamic Guru of the Pranami faith (Khan 2002); the that, seen from outside, once looked exactly tion – practised by Jews, Christians, and Muslims – re- traditions in predominantly Hindu commu- underground tomb is now entirely hidden the same – rough, square white-washed ferred to in the Islamic idiom as t a q i y y a. nities has become more urgent in the face by a structure consisting of a platform on structures – started to display saffron and of growing Hindu right-wing fundamental- the top of which the Qulzam Sharif, the green flags, while the walls of Muslim d a r- South Asian history shows that, in the past, ism. From the Arya Samaj to the Sanatan Pranami Holy book, is installed. There is also g a hs were often painted green. However, the huge diversity of beliefs and practices Dharm movement, the RSS and the VHP a world of difference between the openly the re-Hinduized, 'liminal' – I would rather ensured not only a certain amount of toler- Hindu leaders posing as reformists and 're- disclosed ideas and the 'clandestine' doc- say crypto-Islamic – shrines had to face an- ance but a great deal of interactions, ex- vivalists' made all possible efforts to con- trine of the Pranamis. For instance, while the other problem: if the leaders of the sects changes, and even the existence of overlap- vince various Hindu – generally low-caste, modern literature portrays the sect as a ba- wished to pose as genuine Hindus, at the ping identities. This is still the case in con- tribal or 'liminal' groups – to discontinue sically Hindu tradition, the Qulzam Sharif i s same time they were reluctant to discard al- temporary India, although shared space and Muslim traditions and customs, which they described by the founders themselves as together what had been for centuries their times in religious life tend to diminish, regarded as 'impure' or non-Hindu. The re- the 'Sahebi' or 'Imam Qur'an', and their reli- sacred heritage. This is why they resorted to mainly owing to the increasing Hindu-Mus- sponse to these pressures is far from having gion is constantly referred to as 'Islam' and one of the 'clever strategies' to which I have lim divide that started to emerge about one always been positive: apart from those who 'Din-e Islam Haqiqi' – one of the traces of its been alluding: the ornate draperies (c h a d a r) century ago. fully accepted these dictates or started Ismaili origin. covering the holy graves of their founders open resistance, a number of communities In this respect, the underground Sufi saint and spiritual masters, which were usually opted for concealment. Interestingly, dis- of Diggy, like the invisible Mahdi of Panna, green, were not removed but hidden by simulation, ceasing to be a unique feature could also be compared to one of the hid- other c h a d a rs of saffron hue placed on the of some S h ica communities, became a more den (living) pirs of the present i m a m s h a h is t o p . general practice that extended to much of Gujarat – an offshoot of the Nizari sect If colours symbolize and signify, so do wider spheres of society. An interesting il- (Khan and Moir 2000). Along with some of words. Nothing is simpler than avoiding the lustration of this phenomenon is the tell- his followers, the Sayyid who claims to be accusation that a supposedly Hindu place of Continued from front page: tale story of the Diggy Kalyanji temple locat- the direct descendant of Imam Shah practis- worship looks like a Muslim shrine: in many Converts and the Making of European Islam ed to the south of Jaipur, Rajasthan. es t a q i y y a to protect his community from cases changing its name is enough. D a r g a h by Stefano Allievi the Hindu fundamentalist wave: in doing so will become s a m a d h i, the pir a guru, the Invisible pirs he reproduced the typical behaviour of the m u r i ds b e c o m e s h i s h y as, the term m u k a m is a most recent phenomenon – might be The pilgrims or tourists who visited the earlier South Asian Nizaris during Sunni rule. can be explained as a corrupted form of proportionally devalorized in the future. shrine 15 or 20 years ago still remember that There are other, even more original ways m u k t i d h a m (place of salvation), and the ety- However, starting from the second gener- it was a simple underground chamber to conceal a pir, not necessarily connected mology of Pirana, the main centre of the ation, we witness a sort of 'normalization' of where the devotees – Hindus and Muslims – with a conscious or unconscious S h ici i m a m s h a h is, is rendered as Prerna (Divine the relationships and of the social separa- came to bow in front of the grave of a mys- t a q i y y a. As spies have always known, there i n s p i r a t i o n ) . tion of functions between converts and im- terious Sufi saint, that had been erected side is no better hiding place than one's own But to what conclusion does all this lead? migrants. It is not without reason that sec- by side with an icon of a Hindu folk deity. body. Is that why, even in modern India, so There is no denying that resistance increas- ond-generation intellectuals compete with Local priests, posing as Hindus, were doing many Hindus are allegedly possessed by a es along with reaction. Besides, dissimula- converts, but it is especially noteworthy that the usual service of the m a z a r (grave). After pir? Far from being simple cases of 'primi- tion has its limits – as is also well known in they also cooperate and mutually support a Hindu trust took over the management of tive' spirit possession, these stories often history. If it is a fact that Islamic markers in- each other in the battles over cultural hege- the structure it was decided to lock this un- have interesting consequences: while be- creasingly go underground in contempo- mony fought against the first-generation derground and to build a brand-new temple coming the s a v a r i of a Muslim saint or mar- rary communities who wish to be accepted leaders, or those coming from the Muslim above, in front of an old, dilapidated tower tyr, the Hindu devotee temporarily adopts a as full-fledged Hindus, it is equally true that c o u n t r i e s . where one can still admire classical sculp- new religious identity, revealing at times a tradition is stronger than caution. This is re- The converts, in their 'dual position', ap- tures representing various Hindu deities. surprising knowledge of Islamic, Qur'anic vealed by simply peeping into a locked un- pear to be able not only to serve a function Brahmins were entrusted with the regular terminology of which he claims to be other- derground or 'lifting the veil': the Islamic in the relationship between Islam and the worship. It did not take long before new wise utterly ignorant. colour – dear to the hearts of those sincere public space, but also in the transition be- generations of ignorant pilgrims started to These phenomena should not be miscon- devotees – still shows through the appar- tween the Islam of the fathers and that of regard this place as a 'pure' Hindu, Brah- strued hastily as mere superstitions or idola- ently self-asserting but in reality infinitely the sons, in unison with the second genera- manical temple, not even being aware of try. Apart from being genuine traces of an light veneer of 'Hinduness'. tion. In a way, the converts foreshadow a the existence of a 'hidden treasure'. Howev- older, half-forgotten Sunni Sufi or Ismaili tendency of the second-generation Muslims er, as soon as the tomb had been aban- heritage, these practices are, in popular mi- towards an Islam that is no longer an inher- doned various disasters took place in the lieus, powerful and natural means of ensur- ited tradition, brought from the native small town of Diggy. This was immediately ing mutual tolerance and maintaining com- country, but a conscious choice. interpreted by the local pandits as the munal harmony, unless… To sum up, the converts are in the ideal 'wrath of the pir'. To prevent further prob- True, if we look at the case of that upper- position to perform a function in the pas- lems, they took the following decision: the caste trader who has joined the ranks of sage from Islam in Europe to Islam o f E u- Brahmin priests would secretly visit the un- Hindu right-wing organizations: far from his rope, and then in the creation of a E u r o p e a n derground twice a day and perform, as earli- residence he behaves like an uncompromis- Islam. They are, after all, nothing more than er, the ritual washing of the grave and the ing, fierce ideologist of 'Hindutva', but when Europeans of Islamic adherence, who can- usual offerings. Besides, on the top, at the he returns home he never forgets to make not be qualified as immigrants or as bearers temple level, a rectangular enclosure was offerings to the 'invisible pir' symbolized by of a foreign culture. Consequently, they are erected around the symbol of Shiva, to pre- an oil lamp (c h i r a g) installed inside a recess also producers of an Islamic culture with a vent the devotees from unwittingly 'tread- of his room. This pir is not a simple house- European inclination. They are in fact at the ing on the pir' of whose existence they were hold spirit but a real Sufi saint whose spiritu- same time the product and the mediators of not aware, but whose b a r a k a t had been al teaching had once been accepted by the the meeting between Islam and Europe. A fully recognized by the 'pure' Hindu priests. trader's ancestors without formally convert- Europe that is also, without knowing it, the If all my elder informants knew about the ing to Islam. European part of the Islamic umma. To con- existence of the sacred grave, it is a young clude, they globally perform a function that Muslim living in the nearby city of Malpura The colour of t a q i y y a promises to have important consequences who told us the story: recently he had seen, The underground motive – strongly remi- R e f e r e n c e s for the very self-definition of the European with his own eyes, the m a z a r located in the niscent of the symbol of the Christian cata- – Khan, Dominique-Sila, and Zawahir Moir. 1999. Islam, and perhaps also of the Islam 'of ori- secret underground chamber; entrusted combs often wrongly imagined as places of Coexistence and Communalism – The Shrine of g i n ' . with the renovation of the dilapidated walls concealment – has its parallel in other Pirana in Gujarat. South Asia, vol. XXII: 133–54. the painter had been taken to the place by 'clever strategies' used by communities who – Khan, Dominique-Sila. 2002. The Prannathis of one of the Brahmin priest's sons who was – a wish to pose as 'full-fledged' Hindus to dis- Rajasthan: Bhakti and Irfan. In L. A. Babb, V. Joshi, Stefano Allievi is a researcher at the Department of noteworthy detail – his best friend. simulate Islamic features. As religious iden- and M. Meister (eds), Multiples Histories – Culture Sociology, University of Padova, Italy. He teaches A case that may appear similar to a certain tities in South Asia came to be more sharply a n d Society in the Study of Rajasthan. J a i p u r : sociology at the Faculty of Communication Science, extent is that of Panna (Madhya Pradesh). defined, essentially in terms of two antago- Rawat Publications. also at the University of Padova. He is author of The ordinary visitor and devotee can no nistic blocs, colours were used among the L e s convertis à l'islam. Les nouveaux musulmans longer see the m a z a r of Mahamati Prannath symbols that served to demarcate the two d ' E u r o p e (Paris: l'Harmattan, 1998). (traditionally referred to as Nishalank Budh 'communities': saffron for Hinduism, green Dr Dominique-Sila Khan is an associate fellow at the E-mail: [email protected] Avatar and Imam Mahdi), the 17t h- c e n t u r y for Islam. For instance, many local shrines Institute of Rajasthan Studies, Jaipur, India. I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2 Gender 27

L e b a n o n LA RA D EEB W o m e n ' s

During Ramadan afternoons in al-dahiyya al-junu- biyya, the southern suburbs of Beirut, while most people are rushing through traffic to arrive home be- fore i f t a r, a bustle of activity fills a warehouse on a Community Service prominent street corner. A crowd of over one hun- dred people waits impatiently on one side of the building. On the other side, separated by a colourful- ly wallpapered partition, fifteen well-dressed women volunteers rush around filling plastic containers with in Beirut food and packing them into bags along with bread, soda, vegetables, and sweets. At a table along the partition's edge, two volunteers hand these bags to events. Gradually, she will be drawn into those in the waiting crowd. Another table is occupied working with the jamciyya more regularly. by several wealthy donors, sitting with two more vol- As a social norm for women, community unteers, who entertain them while keeping track of service provides an externally visible marker the many children rushing around trying to help. of a woman's morality. While not volunteer- This is the scene one hour before sunset during Ra- ing does not necessarily damage a woman's madan at the food distribution centre of the Social status or reputation provided she has good Advancement Association (SAA). reasons for not participating and is not as- sumed to spend her time frivolously, partici- pating in the activities of a jamciyya adds sig- The SAA is one of the many Islamic jamciyyat, nificantly to public perceptions of her moral or welfare organizations, located in al- character. In this way community service has dahiyya. The organization is active through- been incorporated into a normative moral out the year, providing basic foodstuffs, system for women in al-dahiyya. clothing and shoes, essential household However, volunteers' prolific public par- items, and health and educational assistance ticipation is not without its critics. Despite for approximately two hundred client fami- its links to piety, a woman's volunteer activ- V o l u n t e e r s lies. The jamciyya also conducts education ities are only met with approval if her shelling peas at programmes on topics ranging from 'correct' household responsibilities are also fulfilled. the SAA centre religious knowledge to how to store food Volunteers believe that with proper 'organi- during Ramadan. properly or treat a child's fever. zation', women should be able to manage All of this is done almost entirely with the double shift of household and commu- women's volunteer labour. Without the time nity work, and many take pride in their abil- to this is the battlefield. Women are believed On the one hand, women in al-dahiyya are and energy of women volunteers, neither ity to do so. This too is linked to piety, as the to be innately unsuited to military service, challenging traditional gendered boundaries the Ramadan centre nor any of the other ac- energy and ability to complete one's work in and taking up arms is considered inappropri- through their active participation in the pub- tivities and projects of this and the other both arenas tirelessly and efficiently are ate except in situations of self-defence. In the lic sphere. This is the view of many SAA volun- j a mci y y a t in the area would be possible. viewed as gifts from God, and often taken as context of Israeli occupation of southern teers. For example, while expounding on the further indication of a woman's religiosity. Lebanon (and after, as the border is still con- importance of the SAA as a women-only jam- Volunteering and piety sidered an active front), community work rep- ciyya one afternoon, Hajji Amal observed that Women's motivations for volunteering Why women? resents an appropriate way for women to par- '[m]en think that women can't have a jamciyya vary, but no matter how and why a woman As a public indicator of piety in al-dahiyya, ticipate in the Islamic Resistance without en- that works, because they think that when initially joins a jamciyya, it soon becomes an community service is gender-specific, hold- tering the battlefield. In this sense, the impor- women gather we just gossip or fight.' She integral part of her life and identity, especially ing particular salience for women. To a certain tance of community service is not gender- went on to assert her hopes that, through the her identity as a pious member of the com- extent, this obtains from the structure and specific, but the form that service takes is re- work of the SAA they would be able to munity. Volunteers understand faith as a lad- method of the work itself. From among the lated to perceived gendered proclivities. change men's views of women in the commu- der they must continually struggle to climb. myriad tasks and responsibilities fulfilled by Finally, it is necessary to factor in a gender nity by providing an example of a well-run One of the fundamental rungs on this ladder volunteers, the most constant activity is regu- ideology that values men's work and time and well-organized women's organization. At is mucamalat, mutual reciprocal social rela- lar visits to client families. During these visits, over women's, a valuation linked to the per- the same time, women's volunteerism draws tions. As the vehicle through which personal volunteers distribute material assistance, sistent notion that men are the primary on traditional gender roles and definitions. piety is most clearly brought into the public monitor changes in a family's economic, so- providers. Women's employment is assumed Women's community service is also public realm, community service is an important cial, and health situation, draw on their per- to provide a secondary income to a house- with regard to the public marker of morality it component of these social relations; a com- sonal networks to facilitate access to health- hold, and women's household duties are as- carries. The understandings of piety that in- ponent that encapsulates both the personal care or employment, and provide advice and sumed to allow for more flexibility in time clude community service as a constituent morality and the public expression that to- education. In essence, they function as li- than men's work. Compounding this is the component are understandings produced in gether constitute piety in this community. aisons between these families and the mater- notion that paid employment in a jamciyya part by women in the community. Volunteers' Taking this to an extreme, some volunteers ial and cultural resources managed and dis- does not carry the same weight with regard argument that women have the same capaci- have internalized these social expectations tributed by the jamciyyat. In a community to piety as volunteering does, because it does ty for rationality as men is often extended to into an unorthodox conviction that commu- where a woman's – and her family's – reputa- not represent the same level of self-sacrifice. state that therefore, community service nity service is a religious 'duty' on par with tion would be severely compromised if she Volunteering, for many women, is seen as a should be the rational choice for good Mus- prayer. were to receive unaccompanied male visitors form of martyrdom, paid in sweat instead of lim women in the community and the logical As one volunteer put it, '[f]or us it's not that in her home, household visits are impossible blood. extension of one's moral responsibility. While it's a good thing for us to do this work – no, for for a male volunteer. Women volunteers, on this argument draws upon notions of gender us it's become an obligation, like prayer and the other hand, are able to enter homes read- Women in the public equity, it also contributes to the construction fasting.' Demonstrating a sense of social re- ily. This is especially crucial as many of the So what does women's volunteerism in this of a social norm that carries moral implica- sponsibility is a critical aspect of being a households assisted by the jamciyyat are fe- community and its relationship to piety mean tions for women with regard to status and moral person for many volunteers, and it is male-headed. for gendered understandings of the reputation. In this way, women are participat- important to fulfil that responsibility before Furthermore, women are believed to be in- public/private divide? As Suad Joseph has ing in the construction of community service oneself and God. herently suitable for community work due to noted, researchers and theorists tend to view as a social norm, and the proliferation of a In addition, in order to be seen as a 'good' an understanding of essentialized sex differ- voluntary associations as a constituent aspect broader normative moral system that may be Muslim woman in al-dahiyya, barring ex- ences that posits women as more nurturing of civil society and to locate them in the pub- as constraining as it is liberating. empting circumstances, one is expected to than men. Both women and men in the com- lic sphere. Coupled with assumptions about a participate in at least some of the activities of munity indicate that women's natural empa- gendered public/private divide, particularly at least one jamciyya. Community service has thetic and emotional capacities equip them in studies of the Middle East/North Africa, become a new social norm. This expectation to handle the emotional stress of dealing with jamciyyat and other such organizations are is conveyed by volunteers to their relatives, poverty, to contribute to the proper upbring- thereby associated with men.* By their mere N o t e friends, and neighbours in conversations ing of orphans and the education of the poor visibility in occupying public spaces and en- * Suad Joseph, 'Gender and Civil Society' (Interview about jamciyya activities as well as outright at- more generally, and to be committed to com- gaging in public work, women volunteers in with Joe Stork), in Joel Beinin and J. Stork (eds), tempts at recruitment. Once a jamciyya net- munity welfare. al-dahiyya challenge these assumptions and Political Islam: Essays from Middle East Report work identifies a potential participant who is Interestingly these essentialized sex differ- conclusions. Yet the gendered divide be- (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), judged to be of good moral character – or oc- ences are not necessarily interpreted as limit- tween the public and private has been cri- 6 4 – 7 0 . casionally when an interested woman herself ing women to domestically oriented roles in tiqued as overly dichotomous, particularly in initiates contact with a jamciyya – she will re- society. Many in al-dahiyya believe women the context of the Middle East. Women's com- Lara Deeb is a Ph.D. candidate in anthropology ceive a steady stream of telephone calls and have the potential to make excellent doctors, munity service in al-dahiyya reflects the a t Emory University, USA. invitations to attend fundraisers and other engineers, and politicians. The sole exception porosity and the blurring of the division itself. E-mail: [email protected] 2 8 Gender I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2

G a m b i a MARLOES JANSON On the Boundaries of

Gambian griottes, or female bards, are in a serious predicament. Islamic ethics prescribe that women should behave in a modest way, while conversely the griottes' very profession implies that they stand out Muslim Gender by their behaviour and the way they dress. How do these women reconcile their identity as female per- formers with Islamic values? The Gambia is an inter- esting setting in which to explore this question be- cause of its long history with Islam. There was even I d e o l o g y talk that President Jammeh wanted to impose the s h a r ica in this small West African country. exaltation of man and the adoration of God. The performance at the market is consid- interpret their way of practising d a a n i r o o i n For centuries the griottes' male counter- Qur'anic scholars, who have an influential ered not an 'authentic' form of d a a n i r o o, a moral context. Before they set out for the parts, the griots, have attracted the atten- position in the area where my field research and several patrons condemn it, preferring market, they form groups because as pious tion of scholars. If griottes are mentioned in was conducted, therefore considered the Is- the d a n i r o o performed at their ceremonies Muslims, they believe, they are not allowed literature, however, they mostly appear only lamic identity of griottes dubious. They be- and upon their invitation. The local Islamic to perform individually. A woman venturing in footnotes, or are mentioned in passing. lieved that these women could not sing and scholars disapprove of d a a n i r o o at the mar- on to the street alone is regarded as 'prey to Indeed, in actual fact they are very conspic- still be good Muslims. In their opinion ket for other reasons. In their perception Satan'. By practising on her own, a griotte uous in the Gambia. They can be recognized singing distracts the worshippers' attention earning a living by means of music is im- runs the risk of being depicted as a 'wanton by their flamboyant style of dressing, and from God and leads to the loss of one's self- moral. They argue that griottes should not woman'. When she mingles with her col- with their sharp voices they are audible control. 'expose' themselves as public women. Is- leagues, social control is being exercised. It from a great distance. This being the case, A distinction can be drawn between two lamic law commends unremitting labour, seems that griottes single out specific ele- the following aims to provide insight into occasions on which griottes practise d a a n i- but in the judgement of the Muslim clerics, ments of their traditional cultural back- the griottes' practices. The main activity of r o o. On the first type of occasion they are in- d a a n i r o o practised at the market cannot be ground and integrate and reinterpret them griottes is performing d a a n i r o o, a Mandin- vited by their patrons to perform. This in- regarded as work. The leader of The Gambia in the light of Muslim norms, in order to ka* word that is difficult to translate. When cludes naming ceremonies, marriages, and Muslim Women's Association compared it meet the expectations of the local reformist griottes set out for d a a n i r o o, they sing or re- initiations. On the second type of occasion to exploitation: scholars. The roles of griottes may have ex- cite their patrons' praises. Praises, which are griottes themselves take the initiative to 'Griottes beg from us even though they panded to incorporate various aspects of an composed of a mixture of fixed formulae perform, including at the market. In the area are sometimes richer than we are. Neverthe- Islamic culture, as the Gambian president, and genealogies, are powerful since they af- around Basse Santa Su, the provincial capi- less, we have to give them our last cent, Yayha Jammeh, lately began to demand fect and persuade the patron by referring to tal of eastern Gambia, griottes are difficult which we had saved to support our families. greater adherence to the rules of the reli- the great deeds of his or her ancestors. In re- to ignore. The market is a convenient place What griottes do is very bad and therefore g i o n . turn for their praises, the griottes are re- because griottes are free to go there when- they will have marks in their faces by which In their movements women are restricted warded with money or goods. So, d a a n i r o o ever they want, whereas ceremonies are not they can be recognized on Judgement Day. by the boundaries of the dominant Muslim can be interpreted both as praising and as organized on a daily basis. At the market The Prophet has said that we should scatter gender ideology, but griottes have to cross gift exchange. they easily meet people and earn a little, as sand in their faces.' these boundaries to be able to exercise their D a a n i r o o not only refers to the gift ex- people usually have money in their pockets Moreover, the griottes' increasing contri- profession. In their position as bards, they change between griottes and their patrons, when they go to Basse Santa Su. D a a n i r o o a t butions to household maintenance collides have acquired a certain freedom that other but also to the gift exchange between be- the market is probably a recent phenome- with the Muslim ideal of the man as the women in Gambian society are not allowed lievers and God. People beseech God by of- non. Several middle-aged griottes con- principal provider. to exercise. On the one hand, this explains fering alms to a mediator, in the hope that strued it as the outcome of the historical The negative assessment of the griottes' their strong position, but on the other hand, God will reward them with divine blessings. process in which colonialism induced public performances as conflicting with Is- it makes them vulnerable to criticism. To In the relationship between griottes and pa- changes that eroded the old system of pa- lamic morals may have been increased disentangle themselves from this ambigu- trons, d a a n i r o o has the connotation of tronage. In order to survive, they had to per- under the influence of 'bumpsing' (follow- ous position in which they operate, griottes 'praising' and this is a way for the patron to form at the market. The development of ing tourists). As a result of the enormous have developed strategies to embed their accrue prestige. In the relationship between d a a n i r o o at the market may also be related growth of the tourist industry on the Gam- performances in a reformist Islamic dis- Muslims and God, daaniroo has the conno- to rising economic pressure on women. The bian coast, numerous boys turned 'bumps- course. By employing such strategies, they tation of 'praying' with the aim of entreating griottes with whom I worked complained ing' into a profession. These 'bumpsters' re- are attempting to earn a living without sub- a blessing. An equivalence exists between that they have many 'family problems' gard tourists as patrons who can provide verting their position as respectable Muslim its performance in the sense of praising and nowadays, and indeed, they have become money, luxury goods, and mobility. Some women. its performance in the sense of praying. In to a great extent responsible for feeding equate the obtrusive way 'bumpsters' ask both cases it concerns an invocation that is their households. Taking into account that for gifts with the activities of griottes. They responded to by a reward: a gift from the most of them do not farm and that regular note that 'bumpsing' as well as d a a n i r o o a s patron or grace from God. There are also dif- employment is restricted to men, these it is practised today is h a r a m. The griottes ferences, in particular because of the am- women have to generate money to pay for themselves see no contradiction between bivalent relationship between music and food. The market is the natural place to being a Muslim and being a bard. They try to Griottes dividing belief in Islamic tradition (cf. Charry 2000). practise d a a n i r o o because food crops are behave as correct Muslims by living accord- up their market There is an inherent tension between the sold there. ing to the pillars of Islam and react to the d a n i r o o e a r n i n g s . scepticism of the Qur'anic scholars by ac- centuating the Islamic dimension of their profession.

Islamizing griottes A striking development is that the griottes often frame their d a a n i r o o as a form of pray- ing. The way they request their patrons for gifts may, to a certain extent, be equated with the way mendicants beg for alms. Gri- ottes, for example, punctuate the praises sung or recited for their patrons at the mar- N o t e ket with blessings. These blessings tend to * The Mandinka comprise the majority of the be fairly formulaic utterances, of the sort Gambian population. 'May God bless you with long life'. Further- more, they lace their praises with Qur'anic R e f e r e n c e s verses and religious phrases. When setting – Charry, E. 2000. Music and Islam in Sub-Saharan out for the market, griottes often wear a Africa. In N. Levtzion and R.L. (eds), The History of special kind of headdress that is usually Islam in Africa. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press. worn by people who have made the h a j j. It seems that by wearing this headdress they Marloes Janson holds a Ph.D. in anthropology and want to emphasize their devotion. They also i s currently teaching at the University of Amsterdam. explain their choice of dress in an Islamic Janson's Ph.D. thesis was entitled The Best Hand is context stressing that they dress splendidly the Hand that Always Gives. Griottes and Their to demonstrate that they have 'a clean Profession in Eastern Gambia (Leiden: Research heart' (i.e. that their appearance corre- School CNWS, 2002). sponds to their moral values). Griottes also E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2 Gender 29

S e n e g a l CLEO CANTONE Women Claiming

A subject that has largely been overlooked until re- cently and whose implications for the various fields of Islamic studies are wide-ranging, is female mosque attendance and the corresponding spatial Space in Mosques organization that it entails. In Senegal the rise and influence of the Mouvement Islamique has granted women a place in the mosque formerly denied them by the t u r u q, the Sufi brotherhoods. Degrees of spa- tial marginalization, on the one hand, and appropria- tion, on the other, vary. Much of the current litera- ture on Senegal maintains that the impact of Is- lamism is still relatively small. Although religious ob- women's area is in Cité Soprim, also in the servance in Senegal is relatively strong and predom- outskirts of Dakar. Here the former women's inantly Sufi in its orientation, the recent infiltration prayer room adjacent to the mosque proper of 'Wahhabi' ideas has given women greater access has been knocked down and redesigned by a to public places of worship. female architect, also an Ibadou. The new women's space includes a wide window to Within the t u r u q the mosque plays no role in allow the women to participate visually in the religious life of women. Rather, women's the Friday prayer. Senegalese mosques usu- religious activity has revolved around alter- ally comprise no more than one floor. Cité native structures, such as pilgrimages to Soprim is an exception and so is the new saints' tombs. Indeed, the notion of Sufism mosque on the south side of the island of representing 'popular' Islam often carries Saint Louis, Mosquée Ihsan. In both these the implication that women opt for this in cases architectural inspiration came from the favour of the more puritanical form of Islam Middle East: in the former the intention was U n i v e r s i t y because it gives them greater room to ma- to accommodate the women on the upper Mosque, Dakar. noeuvre in the religious activities of their storey but this idea was later abandoned for View of 'Les choice. In the case of Senegal, however, logistical reasons. Firmly entrenched in the crintins' and the only a few women hold positions of author- Tijani tradition, Mosquée Ihsan controversial- c o u r t y a r d . ity within the t u r u q, and, surprisingly, these ly accommodates women in the gallery isolated cases have lead some scholars to above the men. comment that 'maraboutic and brother- to further their religious knowledge. By con- Sunni-Ibadous is reflected in the University Today, not only are more women fre- hood Islam will be thus the religion of trast, reformist Islam encourages religious of Dakar. In the university's mosque, during quenting the mosque, their very presence in women par excellence'.1 In reality, with the education and this often takes place in the peek times, especially Friday prayers, few of the mosque embodies the notion of appro- possible exception of the Layenne t a r i q a, mosque, in particular among Ibadous, who the dark h i j a bs remain. Their wearers fre- priation. Spatially, appropriation is reflected women's position is clearly inferior to that of derive their name from the Qur'anic term quent a reformist mosque, more in keeping in the varying degrees to which women men and in no place is this more apparent Ibadu ar-Rahman, or slaves of the Merciful, with their attire, where the segregation of have gained either physical or visual access than in the mosque. organized in the Jamaatou Ibadou Rahmane the sexes is marked by a main road. to what was previously out of bounds for Most Senegalese mosques, in fact, whether group. Henceforth the term Ibadou is wide- The outskirts of the capital are witnessing them in the men's part of the mosque. In Tijani, Mouride, or Qadr, to mention the most ly used to designate those who veil, wear a a mushrooming of new Ibadou mosques. terms of generation, younger women have important t u r u q, exclude the participation of beard, and pray with their arms crossed. As And the more mosques open their doors to often gone to considerable lengths to don young women altogether and relegate those one Ibadou informant put it, 'people are women, the more women come there to the h i j a b and frequent the mosque regular- women who are no longer considered to be hungry for the truth' and the mosque be- pray. Many of my respondents said they ly, in breach of local custom, which discour- capable of tempting men to small buildings comes the ideal locus to convey this mes- came to learn about their religion or to hear ages and even threatens them. Islamic dress that are disconnected from the mosque sage. In order to fulfil this mission, the the sermon of the imam in their own lan- code acts as a means to access public prayer proper. The situation noted by Paul Marty mosque must open its doors to women as guage rather than in Arabic, as is the prac- places and signifies a greater acquaintance during the French colonization of Senegal at well as men. tice in the majority of mosques affiliated to with their religious rights and duties. Simi- the turn of the last century has virtually re- a t a r i q a. larly, degrees of covering point to varying mained unchanged: Les filles voilées doctrinal orientations and serve as identity 'We see, however, a few old women in cer- Reformist Islam is not new to Senegal, yet Women's space m a r k e r s . tain mosques at the Friday prayer. Else- it has only been in the last fifteen years that The metaphor of opening the doors to where, when there is a sufficiently substan- such strands have had an explicit and very women has a literal manifestation as well. In tial and tenacious core of devotees, a small tangible influence on women. The most ob- many of the so-called Ibadou mosques, on boarded or thatched cabin is constructed vious markers of this shift in religious orien- Fridays, when there is an overflow of wor- for them in a corner of the courtyard; and tation are undoubtedly the h i j a b and fre- shippers, the back door is left open so that from there, alone among themselves, they quenting the mosque, both of which are in women praying outside can still participate can follow the mosque service.'2 breach of local interpretations of what a visually in the ceremony. Sometimes this With the exception of the two great Muslim woman should or should not do. In- technique is also used to accommodate mosques of Dakar and Touba, the majority stead of following one particular school of women during their monthly periods when of mosques fit this description. Explanations thought, the Ibadous claim to follow all four they cannot enter the mosque. This simple given point to the fact that according to Ma- Sunni schools of law. Female Sunni infor- measure ensures that they can continue liki tradition, women are not obliged to at- mants, known as l e s filles voilées, would with their religious classes on t a f s i r or h a d i t h N o t e s tend Friday prayer and young women quote a number of h a d i t hs to support while not being able to take up their usual 1 . Originally in French: 'l'islam maraboutique et should not attend at all. Mouride informants women's presence in the mosque and would space for the five daily prayers directly be- confrérique serait alors par excellence la religion in Thiès, including a prominent marabout, admit that often the mosque was the place hind the men. des femmes'. C. Coulon cited in C. Laborde, L a stressed that women should not frequent where they learned such h a d i t hs. Most of the Another way of accommodating women confrérie Layenne et les Lébou du Sénégal: Islam et the mosque because they distract men3 a n d respondents to my questionnaires were below the age of menopause is to allow culture traditionnelle en Afrique (Institut d'Études because their only reason for coming to the young students with some proficiency in small children into the mosque. In one Politiques de Bordeaux, 1995), 86. mosque is to 'think about men'. This atti- French. Most had started to wear the h i j a b mosque, on Tuesday afternoons women 2 . Originally in French: 'On voit toutefois quelques tude helps to explain why there are special and frequent the mosque in their early twen- from all parts of Dakar and from different so- vieilles femmes dans certaines mosquées, à la male guards in the Great Mosque of Touba, ties, in the mid-1990s. cial backgrounds meet to be taught Arabic, prière du vendredi. Ailleurs, quand il y a un noyau the 'Mecca' of the Mouride t a r i q a, to sepa- Some of the first women to veil did so h a d i t h, and the Qur'an as well as general de dévotes assez important et tenace, on leur rate women past the menopause from all under the influence of the Jamaatou Ibadou knowledge. They bring their children and sit construit une petite case de planches ou de other women, including those with small Rahmane. The style of the veil has distinct outside as described above when they are chaume, dans un coin de la cour; et de là, seules children. The former are allowed into the Middle Eastern origins, pinned or sewn ritually unclean. This little prayer room for entre elles, elles peuvent suivre l'office de la mosque precinct in a wing designed to ac- under the chin, often trimmed with lace and women situated in the courtyard of the mosquée.' P. Marty, Etudes de l'Islam au Sénégal commodate them, whereas the latter must rarely going below the bosom. Colours are men's mosque has been renamed Mosquée (Paris: Editions Larose, 1917), 38. make do with the marble pavement or the varied and match with brightly coloured Aisha. The connotations of the name are 3 . See also research by Olga F. Linares, which reveals gravel outside. clothes and extendible petty-coats, used to twofold: one refers to the historical figure of the same attitude towards women: Power, Prayer Generally, Mouride women are taught cover feet during prayer. By contrast, the Aisha, reputed to have been a lady of learn- and Production: The Jola of Casamance, Senegal how to pray but rarely are taught Arabic so newly emerging reformist movement is in- ing, and the other makes a clear reference to (1992), 173. that they can understand what they are troducing much more sober colours and the Sunni/Ibadou orientation of the estab- reciting. Their Muslim education does not styles, including the dark, opaque chador- l i s h m e n t . Cleo Cantone is a Ph.D. candidate at SOAS, London, exceed rote learning of a few s u r as from the like garment and the use of socks. The most One of the most significant examples of U K . Qur'an; hence there is little scope for them eloquent proof of the growing number of the transformation of mosque space into a E-mail: [email protected] 3 0 Gender I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2

Roundtable Report MARGOT BADRAN Bosnia: Re/turning

Islamic feminism/s as forms of consciousness, think- ing, and practice are ascendant, yet in many places they still all too often go unnoticed. In Bosnia rising generations of Muslim women and men emerging to Islam, from an atheistic past and the horrors of war are find- ing their own way back to Islam. In the process, and with a heightened awareness of justice and sensitivi- ty to gender, they are coming to Islamic feminism as voices from Sarajevo tell us. Finding Feminism

The present moment in Bosnia is one of both ulty of Islamic Studies, along with others member of parliament serving for four ethnicities have always been found in promise and peril. The country emerged from medicine, engineering, and econom- years, being its only veiled parliamentarian. Bosnia even at the heart of families them- from half a century of communism only to ics, set up a website called Znaci, or Signs In 2002 she quit politics to turn her atten- selves. In our movements around Sarajevo, experience a war that viciously shredded it. (www.znaci.com). tion to reconstructing civil society through Amra and I came face-to-face with some of There are two major influxes from outside: Amra Pandzo-Djuric is of the same gener- independent activism, working with the those proclaiming their dedication to inter- political Islamic currents and cadres of ation as Samir. She too comes from an athe- NGO Woman to Woman she had helped to cultural dialogue and peace. On two differ- peaceniks, each working closely with insid- ist past and although also from a Muslim organize after the Dayton Accords. Woman ent occasions we were firmly told that with ers. Neither is particularly congenial to gen- family she calls herself a convert to Islam. 'A to Woman monitors laws and legislative de- the s e r i o u s problems Bosnians now face der. The former want to take over gender convert? Yes', she affirmed, 'I was an atheist bates concerning the well-being and stabili- there is no time to talk about women, gen- and impose their conservative agenda. The and I converted to Islam.' She was quick to ty of society as a whole while keeping an der, or feminism. For such people, no hard latter ignore gender altogether. With the say also that she is an Islamic feminist. Amra, alert eye on gender. The NGO also organizes ethnic issues, no hard religious issues, and protracted public erasure of religion Mus- who acts as the administrator of the Interna- women's studies courses that examine vari- certainly no hard gender issues – indeed no lims had confined themselves mainly to dis- tional Forum Bosnia's Centre for the Study ous forms of feminisms but have yet to deal gender issues at all. I came to understood crete home rituals. The 1970s saw a certain of Gender Issues, is also doing an M.A. in so- with Islamic feminism. Nirmina added al- her disaffection with the shallowness of liberalizing when there was some public cial work at the Faculty of Political Science most parenthetically that she was the first much of the 'dialogue' and what can be space accorded to religion but this occurred at Sarajevo University. Earlier she had woman in Bosnia to be trained as a theolo- called 'soft-togetherness'. Quick with the in a context of state control. The Muslim worked as a journalist for the wide-circula- gian. She had been part of the initial enter- bon mot A m r a said: 'I think it is essential to community and the administrative religious tion magazine D a n i and for Bosnia-Herze- ing class at the Faculty of Theology and took discuss, but to discuss essential things.' Our leadership, the Rijaset, show marks of the govina state television. During the war she her degree in 1981. Her professor, the late talk steered to the Qur'an. 'Oh, humankind! constraints of the past. Now new genera- turned her attention to directing a youth Ahmet Smajlovic, helped arrange for her to We created you from a single (pair), m a l e tions of Muslims are re/turning to Islam. But programme set up by a French NGO and continue her graduate studies at al-Azhar a n d f e m a l e , and nations and t r i b e s that you to what Islam? Herein lies the story of an when the fighting ceased she helped found University in Cairo, but untoward circum- may know one another (not that you may emergent Islamic feminism in Bosnia. and run the NGO Information Support Cen- stances put an end to this. Focusing on the despise one another)' (49:13, emphasis tre. Like most women everywhere Amra present and future she said with conviction: added). Why remove gender from inter-reli- The local feminist scene came to feminism through her experience 'I am always for movement – for upward gious and intercultural dialogue? A good When I was invited by Rusmir Mahmutce- as woman: the everyday experience of in- movement. I would like to know more about Bosnian Islamic feminist question. hajic, Head of the International Forum equities, injustices, and patronizing behav- Islamic feminism.' Bosnia, to participate in the Roundtable on iours. She found her own solution and path Women and Sacrality in Sarajevo in October away from patriarchal injustices in the Specificities: The Bosnian (2002), organized by its Centre for the Study course of her return – her conversion – to w e a v e of Gender Issues, where I gave a paper on the Islam of the Qur'an. However, she feels a Several things are striking about Islamic 'Islamic Feminism/s in and beyond East and need to know much more: 'I am an Islamic feminism in Bosnia: the particular combina- West', I found it an excellent chance to ex- feminist in the sense that I want to discover tion of an atheistic upbringing and war that plore the local Islamic feminist scene. Most more fully what it means to be a woman in propels a return to a gender-egalitarian simply defined, Islamic feminism is a dis- Islam and really fight for it. This means prac- Islam, especially evident among the younger course and practice grounded in the Qur'an tising Islam in an enlightened way.' generations; interest by both women and and its core ideas of social justice and gen- Others I met from a slightly older genera- men; courage to stand up and be counted der equality. It is a growing global discourse tion were unfamiliar with Islamic feminism, as Islamic feminists; and an openness to Is- informing and informed by local elabora- but were open. Nirman Moranjik-Bamburac, lamic feminism by those who had not con- tions and practices. How does Bosnia fit into Head of the International Forum Bosnia's sidered it before. Also notable among Bosn- the picture or how does Bosnia fill out the Centre for Gender Issues, is a professor at ian Muslims is the absence of a religiously picture? Personal trajectories offer salient the Department of Comparative Literature based antagonism to the West, which is i n s i g h t s . in the Faculty of Philosophy at the Universi- hardly possible because they a r e W e s t e r n . Samir Beglerovic is a graduate student at ty of Sarajevo and at the Academy of Dra- Shaped within an old Western Islamic soci- the Faculty of Islamic Studies (Fakultet Is- matic Arts. She teaches feminist literary crit- ety, yet one with Eastern historical influ- lamskih Nauka), an independent institution icism, and is a feminist herself but admits ences, and the only Western Muslim com- of higher study founded in 1977 offering that until now she has not dealt with reli- munity that does not constitute a minority, undergraduate education as well as M.A.s gious aspects of feminism. She was quick to Bosnian Islamic feminism will have impor- and Ph.D.s. He explains quite simply that he add, however, that it interested her: 'It is tant things to say to Muslims in the new is an Islamic feminist because he wants 'to necessary to learn about Islamic feminism Muslim communities in Western Europe and express the Islamic view'. The ease and con- because we have a lot of women who are the Americas, as well as to Muslims in the viction with which he says this may take believers and who are sensitive to gender older Eastern societies still uncomfortable aback those who consider the combination discourse.' She concedes that although fem- with 'the West'. of Islam and feminism an oxymoron. But to inist books first came to Bosnia more than Meanwhile outside political Islamic cur- him it makes perfect sense. Growing up two decades ago (the earliest from France rents are inhibiting to those Bosnian Mus- knowing little about Islam, Samir, born in and the United States), feminism to this day lims seeking their own path. Both Samir and 1973, was an atheist. The experience of war remains controversial in the academy as Amra spoke of the attempts of various Is- helped catapult him to Islam. Coming to well as the broader society. lamist currents (the Wahabbis, other Salafis, knowledge of Islam through the door of the I met Nermina Baljevic at the NGO Zene S h ici s, etc.) to exert influence and win local Qur'an, he finds in Islam's Holy Book a Zenama, or Woman to Woman (or I should adherents. Samir tells how others are quick strong statement of justice and equality say I re-met her for we had first come to- to name him and claim him. He simply that cannot be parsed: justice and equality gether at an international Islamist confer- wants to find his own way in Islam. Amra cannot logically be allocated to some and ence gathering women from around the points to the negative gender dimension of not to others. He was meanwhile encour- world in Khartoum in 1991). She conceded such influences and pressures: 'With all aged in his progressive thinking at the Fac- that she does not like the word feminism, these currents women are really suffering ulty of Islamic Studies by Adnan Silajdzic, a reflecting a common perception that femi- and being misused.' Margot Badran is a senior fellow at the Centre for professor of ca q a ' i d, and Reshid Hafizovitch nism is alien to her culture and associated What about Islamic feminism, pluralism, Muslim Christian Understanding at Georgetown who teaches Sufism, who were both atten- with negative ideas and practices. But, she and peace? A multiplicity of religions and University. She is a historian of the modern Middle tive to gender, as well as Esmet Busatlic, a went on to confess that she does not really ethnicities has always been an integral part East, women, and gender. Currently at the ISIM professor of Islamic Culture and Civilization know what feminism means. The record of of the Bosnian weave. New to Bosnia is what completing a book on comparative Islamic through whom resonates the tradition of Is- Nirmina's life itself reads like a feminist CV is labelled inter-faith or intercultural dia- feminism/s, she is also editor of Brill's new series on lamic humanism. To widen their debates on par excellence. Hostilities had barely cooled logue – what before was simply called talk- Women and Gender in the Middle East and Islamic Islamic feminism and other key issues Samir down when this single mother (whose hus- ing to your neighbour or debating with your W o r l d . and a group of fellow students from the Fac- band was killed during the war) became a colleague. Intersections of religions and E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2 Historical Approaches 31

I n d i a CLAUDIA PRECKEL Wahhabi or

Hardly is any historical Indian Muslim figure of the 1 9t h century as controversial as Sayyid Siddiq Hasan Khan al-Qannauji al-Bukhari (1832–1890). The reason for all the contrasting assessments of his personality National Hero? was his astonishing career: he rose from an impover- ished scholar to the son-in-law of the Prime Minister at the court of Bhopal.1 In 1871, the widowed ruler of this principality, Shah Jahan Begum (r. 1868–1901) chose him as her second husband. After his marriage, Siddiq Hasan Khan Siddiq Hasan Khan established the reformist move- ment Ahl-e Hadith (people of the prophetic tradi- tions), which soon became a dominant Muslim group achieve his/her aims. Hence, it may be inter- famous books by the reputed Yemenite tional network of anti-British agitators, in Bhopal. But as soon as Siddiq Hasan's career had esting to show which personal relations scholar and q a d i Muhammad b. cA l i a s h - reaching from Bhopal to Egypt, Istanbul, started, it came to a sudden end. were really important in Siddiq Hasan's ca- Shaukani (d. 1834), who gained fame mainly and the Mahdist Sudan. The British Resident reer – and which connections became cru- for his legal theories of rejecting the t a q l i d, Lepel Griffin immediately reacted and de- cial only to the eyes of posterity. The follow- i.e. the strict adherence to one school of law. posed Siddiq Hasan. Other prominent lead- ing gives an analysis of Siddiq Hasan's per- Shaukani insisted on the i j t i h a d, i.e. to find ers of the Ahl-e Hadith like Husain b. Muhsin sonal networks, trying to avoid the cate- the proof (d a l i l, pl. a d i l l a) of a legal opinion and Muhammad Bashir Sahsawani (d. 1908) gories of 'Wahhabi' or 'nationalist hero', in the Qur'an and s u n n a. Shaukani applied further propagated the objectives of the which have determined the characteriza- the method of i j t i h a d in his own f a t a w a, col- movement. This points to the fact that some tion of Siddiq Hasan for more than 100 lected in his voluminous Nail al-autar. people at the court of Bhopal only wanted years. Shaukani's works, all of them containing to eradicate Siddiq Hasan's dominant influ- Born into a Sayyid family, strongly con- heavy criticism on t a q l i d, spread all over ence on the Begum. Nationalist circles, how- nected to the Tariqa-ye Muhammadiya re- India starting from the late 1850s. The ever, had labelled their hero as 'a victim of form movement of Sayyid Ahmad Barelwi (d. Yemenite brothers in Bhopal as well as Sid- the British imperialism'. At first, the British 1832), Siddiq Hasan made the first steps of diq Hasan were responsible for this 'Shau- were proud to have caught 'one of the lead- his personal career as the secretary of the kani boom'. Siddiq Hasan, formerly influ- ing figures of the Indian Wahhabis'. Later Prime Minister at the court of the Islamic enced by the teachings of Shah Waliullah (d. they had to admit that they had overreacted principality of Bhopal. Since 1818 this Cen- 1762) and Sayyid Ahmad Barelwi, shifted to to intrigues and rumours circulating at the tral Indian princely state was ruled by strong the Yemenite tradition of Shaukani and Hu- court. female rulers, the Begums. Sikander Begum sain b. Muhsin. Husain wrote several i j a z a t Every group mentioned above neglected (r. 1844–1868) followed her mother Qudsiya (teaching permissions) to him, which al- completely that Siddiq Hasan in his works Begum (r. 1818–1837) to the throne (m a s- lowed him to teach several works of this had always denied Muhammad b. cA b d a l - n a d) and secured the succession of her Yemenite tradition (e.g. by the Ahdal family, Wahhab's influence on the Indian re- daughter, Shah Jahan Begum (r. 1868–1901). the Mizjajis, and mainly Shaukani). formists. Rather, he had accused the Najdi of Sikander Begum, on the one hand, needed At this time, around 1857, Siddiq Hasan religious fanaticism and bloodshed among support from the British to protect Bhopal's was a young scholar with limited influence. fellow Muslims. Siddiq Hasan himself was territory from the invasions of the Marathas He even lost his job as a secretary to the far away from being an anti-British agitator: and Pindaris. On the other hand, she wanted Prime Minister and had to leave Bhopal. he did not support the Mahdist revolt in to have her reign legitimated by a group of Later on, in 1859, he was allowed to return Sudan and did not even justify Islamic jihad Islamic scholars. Thus, she invited several to Bhopal and was appointed Head of the against the British in India. He opted for a ulama of reformist background to Bhopal. Bhopal State Archives by Sikander Begum. close cooperation of Muslim rulers and the Among them was Sayyid Jamal ud-Din Dih- His career gained further impetus when he British authorities within the framework of lawi (d. 1881) who had been, like Siddiq married the widowed daughter of the Prime Islamic s h a r ica. Hasan's father, an active member of the Minister Jamal ud-Din Khan. From that time All in all, Siddiq Hasan was a reformer who Tariqa-ye Muhammadiya. onwards, Siddiq Hasan was one of the most gained most of his religious knowledge influential scholars in Bhopal. His career from his Yemenite teachers. His link to The 'Yemen connection' reached its climax when the widowed ruler Yemenite scholarship even overshadowed When young Siddiq Hasan approached Shah Jahan Begum made him her Nawwab- his connection to Indian reformist circles Bhopal, Jamal ud-Din took him under his consort in 1871. Siddiq Hasan started exten- into which he was born. The combination of wing. Due to the fact that from now on he sive propagation of the theories of Shau- the analysis of Siddiq Hasan's oeuvre and lived in financially secure conditions, he kani, Ibn Taimiya, and to a lesser extent the that of his social network is the objective of could continue his personal studies, which opinions of Sayyid Ahmad Barelwi. This mix- the further research concerning this subject. Siddiq Hasan In 1885, Siddiq Hasan was deprived of all his he had had to interrupt before. In Bhopal he ture of Indian and Yemenite religious re- K h a n posts and titles by the British, thus forcing came to know two Yemenite brothers who formist teachings became fundamental to him into privacy. For a period of more than had been living in Bhopal for several years, the Ahl-e Hadith movement, of which Sid- one year, he had to retire in his own palace, namely the brothers Zain al-cA b i d i n ( d . diq Hasan was one of the most active mem- Nur Mahall, completely isolated from his 1880) and Husain b. Muhsin al-Hudaidi (d. bers. He wrote almost 300 works in Arabic, wife and his supporters. Due to this sudden 1910). Sikander Begum had met the Yemi- Persian, and Urdu dealing with the elimina- end of his career, in the Indian nationalist nite family in Hudaida during her pilgrim- tion of unlawful innovations (b i dca), the up- views prevalent since 1918 Siddiq Hasan is age to Mecca in 1863. She invited Zain al- coming approach of the Day of Judgement described as one of the first heroes of the cA b i d i n to Bhopal, because she was looking (yaum al-qiyama) and the need for reform of anti-colonial struggle. for a new qadi al-qudat (chief judge) for her the Indian society according to the model of This nationalist paradigm is overshad- state. the early Islamic community in Medina. It owed by another perspective about the his- Although Zain al-cA b i d i n did not know was mainly the insistence on i j t i h a d t h a t torical figure of Siddiq Hasan: several Mus- Persian or Urdu, nor did he belong to the caused conflicts among all Indian Muslim lim sources describe him as a puritan and a Hanafi school of law prevailing among the groups of that time, e.g. the Deobandis and Wahhabi, closely linked to the reformist Indian Muslims (he was a S h a f ici), he soon the movement of Ahmad Riza Khan Barelwi movement of Muhammad cA b d a l - W a h h a b became acquainted with the situation in (d. 1921), who were all strict followers of the (d. 1762) in today's Saudi Arabia. Besides Bhopal. After a short time, he knew all rele- Hanafiya. N o t e s these contrasting views, the sources lack an vant manuals of Hanafi law in India and Siddiq Hasan's enemies in Bhopal's as well 1 . Claudia Preckel, The Begums of Bhopal (New Delhi, assessment of the 'real' Siddiq Hasan. As a wrote his legal decrees (f a t a w a) according as in other Muslim circles chose the easy 2000); Shaharyar Muhammad Khan, The Begums of consequence, it is necessary to apply chang- to that school. Later, he invited his younger way to get rid of him: they denounced him B h o p a l (London, 2000). ing research methods in order 'to avoid brother Husain to join him in Bhopal. Husain as a 'Wahhabi', which was synonymous with 2 . Thomas Eich, 'Quest for a Phantom: Investigating common pitfalls of historiography, like pro- decided to undertake the long journey to 'anti-British', 'fanatic', and 'puritan'. At first, Abu l-Huda al-Sayyadi', I S I MN e w s l e t t e r 7 (2001): jecting modern nationalist paradigms … Bhopal, where the Begum cordially wel- the British did not believe these rumours, 2 4 . back into the past'.2 Consequently, the so- comed him. She employed him as a teacher mainly because the Begums proved to be cial network analysis, originally developed of the local dar ul-hadith (house of the loyal supporters of the British in several crit- Claudia Preckel, M.A., is currently working on her by the Manchester school of anthropolo- teaching of the prophetic traditions). It was ical situations. Later, the British began to ex- Ph.D. dissertation on Siddiq Hasan Khan and the gists in the 1950s, seems to be a suitable re- around 1856, that Husain taught h a d i t h t o amine Siddiq Hasan's books critically and emergence of the Ahl-e Hadith in Bhopal. She is search method. Taken the premise that Siddiq Hasan. This close teacher-pupil rela- discovered some writings in which the theo- member of the Junior Research Group 'Islamic every individual (ego) is embedded into a tion made a deep impression on Siddiq ry of jihad was explained at length. When Networks in Local and Transnational Contexts, network of personal relationships, it is inter- Hasan and caused a significant change in his the British further detected that 17 'Wah- 1 8t h– 2 0t h Centuries' at the Ruhr-University Bochum, esting to observe which parts of his/her intellectual orientation. The reason for this habi' scholars from Najd had come to study G e r m a n y . ego-network a person activates in order to change can be seen in his studies of various in Bhopal, they began to think of an interna- E-mail: [email protected] 3 2 Historical Approaches I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2

East Africa XAVIER LUFFIN Colonialism and

The European attitude towards the Muslims in East and Central Africa can be seen in two different, al- Muslim Mobility most antithetic phases. The first one covers the ex- ploration and the conquest periods, when Muslim traders helped Europeans to reach the most remote The information gathered by the Euro- In the beginning, the Belgians also recruit- army because they considered them as the areas and Muslim soldiers were enlisted as indige- pean explorers about Africa reached Eu- ed many Muslims to the army. Between best warriors. nous soldiers. The second phase covers the settling rope, and some European governments – 1874 and 1900, many mercenaries were en- So, the relationship between Muslim com- period, when Muslims were almost rejected from so- Belgium, Germany, and Great Britain – de- rolled to help King Leopold II's officers 'con- munities and colonial powers was an am- ciety. Both were closely related to the Europeans' cided to colonize these new territories. At quer' the Congo Free State (Etat Indépen- biguous one. Muslims were seen as materi- perception of the African and Arab cultures. the beginning, Europeans continued to see dant du Congo). At first, they mainly came ally and culturally more developed than the Muslims as potential allies in a totally new from Zanzibar. Later, Somalis, Ethiopians, other Africans, and thus as more valuable in- Since the very beginning of their arrival in world. Hausas, West Africans, and even Sudanese terlocutors. But this meant, too, that they Central Africa, the Europeans were in contact were enlisted. In 1894, some of these Su- could eventually have a kind of influence on with 'Arabs' (in European sources, 'Arab' often Military, politics, and religion danese left Congo and were recruited by the local populations, whether in religion or refers to Muslims as a whole, including Asians, Germany – which ruled Tanganyika (Tan- the British in Uganda. in politics. The colonial powers quickly un- Swahilis, and 'half-cast' Arab-Africans). E v e r y zania), Burundi, and Rwanda until 1918 – Due to the political influence of the derstood that the most efficient way to di- explorer's diary mentions the presence of seems to have been the more open-minded Swahili merchants in Eastern Congo, the minish this potential influence was to make these ivory- and slave-traders, even in re- towards the Muslim communities. They colonial administration even gave them Islam and Muslims into an alien culture, not mote areas like Manyema (Eastern Congo). adopted Kiswahili – which was then closely some administrative posts. In 1887, Stanley only different but even opposed to African The presence of Arab (and Persian) traders on associated with Muslim culture – as an offi- appointed Tippo-Tip, a famous Zanzibari v a l u e s . the East African Coast goes back to the 10t h cial language in their territories, which at- slave-trader, as governor of Stanley Falls century, and their contacts with the African tracted a lot of Muslims to work in the ad- (now Kisangani). But the Arab and Swahili population gave birth to the well-known ministration as well as the local army and merchants quickly understood that the Bel- Swahili culture. In 1840, the Omani Sultan police. The fact that the Germans founded a gians did not aim to share anything and that even decided to transfer his capital from city like Bujumbura also attracted many they had to fight if they wanted to keep Mascate to Zanzibar. They were in contact Muslim merchants. At the beginning of the their power in Eastern Congo. Between with the Nyamwezi and Yao African traders, 2 0t h century, Johanssen, a missionary, con- 1892 and 1895, several battles opposed Eu- who seem to have penetrated the inland sidered that it was the German colonial ad- ropeans and 'Arabs'. A couple of years later, since the 18t h century. Using these people as ministration itself that opened Rwanda to colonial troops fought against the Sudanese guides, Arab traders followed the same path Islam. And when Germany had to leave the Mahdists in the northern province. The Eu- in the first half of the 19t h century and went administration of both Rwanda and Burundi ropeans finally won those conflicts and put deeper and deeper into the Dark Continent to Belgium, the majority of the inhabitants a term to any Muslim political influence. in order to find ivory and slaves. This created of Bujumbura, Burundi's capital, were Mus- This was the start of a radical change in the a Muslim society composed of different com- lims. Most of them were not Burundians, but nature of the relations between both com- munities. Some of them were of Omani de- Swahilis, Arabs, Indians, and Congolese. munities, the former allies becoming ene- scent, having settled on Zanzibar and the In the last decades of the 19t h century, the m i e s . East African coast since generations, but it in- British chose Muslim 'tribes' to help them But the major element explaining the cluded also Persians, Indians, and Baluchis as conquer or rule East Africa: Zanzibari, Su- change of attitude towards Muslims is the well as Swahilis and other 'mixed' Arab- danese, Somali, Swahili, and later even Indi- role played by the Church, whether Catholic Africans. Finally, the so-called Wangwana, lit- an troops. Yet, after the Sudanese mutiny of or Protestant. The missionaries had been ac- erally 'freemen', constituted local Muslim 1897, British officers decided to diversify tive since the exploration phase, yet their African tribes. their recruitment and enlisted more and impact grew considerably during the set- more local soldiers, like Baganda and later tling period due to their monopoly on the Arab blood, African blood Acholi. Of course, most of these soldiers, education system. Missionaries were afraid When the first Europeans decided to ex- sometimes accompanied by their wives, set- of Islam, seen as a serious rival in the area, plore the forests of Central Africa, the area tled down where they were brought by their and they had to fight its spread by all was already well known to Muslim traders. British officers. For instance, Captain Lugard means. In the 1880s, the Church organized a That is why most of the European expedi- enlisted 'Nubi' soldiers from Southern Sudan campaign in Europe against the slave trade tions departed from Zanzibar and Bag- and brought them to Uganda. Actually, in Africa. This also had a strong impact on amoyo, where they could find carriers and these warriors belonged to various Muslim the way Muslims were seen, although it soldiers but above all guides that knew the populations originating from Southern often – not always – was a political tool roads, the habits, the material needs, and Sudan. Later, they continued to serve the more than a real humanistic feeling in the the languages of the local population. On British Crown and went to Kenya, Tanzania, colonial administration. After that, Belgian the road, they could also benefit from the and even Somalia. Nowadays, their descen- authorities were very suspicious towards information given by the ivory- and slave- dants still live in these countries. Some of the Muslims and this until the Indepen- traders. That is why 'Arabs' and Muslims them continued to serve the British Crown dence of Congo. A report about Manyema's were quite well considered by the European during the two World Wars and even helped Muslims issued in 1959 – one year before explorers; yet that was not the only reason. the British colonial troops to fight the Mau the Independence – underlines the way The European mentality of the last century Mau rebellion. In the same way, today most Muslims were systematically harassed by firmly considered that the world's popula- of the inhabitants of Isiolo, Kenya, are the authorities: building of new mosques and tion was divided in different cultural levels: grandsons of Somali soldiers enrolled in introduction of religious books as well as Is- Westerners were of course the most civi- Kismayo and Aden during the First World lamic education in general were forbidden. lized nations and the Africans were nothing War. Arrival of alien Muslims – seen as potential but savages. The Arabs stood obviously in But if those Muslim tribes were well con- predicators – was made difficult. Neverthe- between: Arabo-Islamic contribution to civi- sidered by the colonial rulers for their mili- less, Muslim merchants coming from West lization was recognized, even if the relations tary purposes, they had to stay away from Africa or from British East Africa were nu- between Europe and Muslims have not al- any political aspirations. The main reason merous in the region. ways been easy. This conception influenced for this segregation was the religious factor In the first decades of the 20t h century, the the way they were considering the Arabs in itself: the British wanted to favour Protes- widespread idea that Muslim Africans were Africa. tant Africans, through education as well as more educated, more civilized, and were It is interesting to notice that the Arabs selection for local power. In Uganda for in- better fighters helped Muslims to move eas- described by the explorers are almost sys- stance, Muslims – and Catholics – were soon ily inside the European colonies. Yet, the tematically compared to the Africans: the marginalized and they were denied access very same reasons for their inclusion later latter are depicted as nude or half nude, to some political posts and even chieftain- excluded them from society. But the colo- lazy, stupid, cowardly, and ugly. Arabs, on cies. On the Swahili coast, the British tried to nial administration still needed many hands the other hand, are well dressed, proud, emphasize the Arab origin of the Muslims in to exploit 'their' territories. They thus began noble, but also cruel and cunning. Descrip- order to make Islam look like an alien ele- to favour some of the local peoples, with tions of mulattos are even more interesting: ment, despite its presence in East Africa whom they also began to become better ac- they inherited their good characteristics – since many centuries. For instance, colonial quainted. For instance, the Belgian adminis- whether physical or intellectual – from their law did not consider the Arabs, Abyssinians, tration moved numerous Baluba from Kasai Arab ascent and the negative ones – often Baluchis, Somalis, Comorians, and Mala- to Katanga province and Rwandans to Kivu Xavier Luffin teaches Arabic at the Université Libre de limited to their physical features – come gasies of Kenya as 'natives', even though in order to exploit those rich areas. In the Bruxelles and the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium. from their African blood. they had been there for generations. same way, they enlisted the Bangala in the E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2 Academic Affairs 33

United States JOEL BEININ N e o - C o n s e r v a t i v e s

The 11 September attacks on the United States creat- ed an opportunity for the denizens of neo-conserva- tive and Israel-oriented think-tanks to exploit the le- gitimate fears of the American people and launch a Threaten Academic campaign aimed at imposing a new orthodoxy on what may be thought and said about the Middle East, especially on university campuses. So far, this cam- paign has had only a limited impact. But students and scholars with dissident opinions, especially Freedom those of Middle Eastern origins, are feeling some pressure to lower their profiles and conform. compiling a black list). ACTA's catalogue of persions on scholars because of their na- Richard Perle, Chairman of the Defense Poli- Shortly after 11 September Martin Kramer, unacceptable speech includes my comment tional origin violates the most basic democ- cy Board, is a member of WINEP's Board of former director of the Dayan Center for Mid- that, '[i]f Usama Bin Laden is confirmed to ratic traditions of the United States and is a Advisors, as was Deputy Secretary of De- dle East Studies at Tel Aviv University, pub- be behind the attacks, the United States form of racism. fense Paul Wolfowitz, before he joined the lished a lengthy screed condemning the en- should bring him before an international tri- The sloppy thinking of Harvard University Bush administration. Perle and Wolfowitz tire field of Middle East studies in North bunal on charges of crimes against humani- President Lawrence Summers is another are the intellectual leaders of the 'chicken America: Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure of ty'. Among the other items cited are '[i]gno- bad omen for the future of free debate on hawks' who have provided the rationale for Middle East Studies in America. Kramer al- rance breeds hate' and 'there needs to be an Middle East-related issues at US universities. the Bush administration's drive to war with leges that the 'mandarins' of the Middle East understanding of why this kind of suicidal At the start of the current academic year he I r a q . Studies Association of North America violence could be undertaken against our addressed a student prayer meeting and ar- The activities of ACTA, AVOT, Campus (MESA) have imposed an intellectual and c o u n t r y ' . gued that harsh criticisms of Israel were Watch, and their fellow travellers recall the political orthodoxy inspired by Edward 'anti-Semitic in their effect if not their in- era of Senator Joseph McCarthy, when Hol- Said's O r i e n t a l i s m. Among the disabilities of Policing dissent t e n t ' .2 Among other things, Summers was lywood actors and writers, trade union lead- American Middle East studies, according to The attack on American universities in the referring to a petition signed by 600 Har- ers, politicians, and university faculty mem- Kramer, was the failure to predict the 11 name of 'defending civilization' was a ruse vard and MIT faculty, staff, and students to bers were branded as un-American commu- September attacks and to warn the Ameri- for ACTA's real agenda: suppressing any divest university funds from companies that nist sympathizers. McCarthy and his follow- can public about the dangers of radical form of dissent from the Bush administra- do business in Israel as a protest against Is- ers succeeded in narrowing the range of Islam. Kramer was acclaimed in the pre- tion's policy in response to the 11 Septem- rael's continuing occupation of the West American political debate and cultural ex- dictable political circles. But few scholars ber attacks. Thus, ACTA regarded as inher- Bank, the Gaza Strip, and East Jerusalem. pression, and in depriving many innocent have taken his arguments seriously. ently suspect the call to understand better Similar efforts have been launched at some people of their careers and livelihoods. The In response to questions raised on univer- why some people in other lands hate the forty campuses. Whatever one thinks of this assault on Middle East and Islamic studies sity campuses about the need to launch a United States enough to kill themselves to political demand, it is not anti-Semitic. has comparable objectives: to delegitimize war against Afghanistan following the 11 harm Americans. By contrast, the administration and facul- critical reflection on US Middle East policy September attacks, the American Council of In March 2002, former Secretary of Educa- ty of the University of North Carolina resist- and nuanced understandings of contempo- Trustees and Alumni (ACTA) issued a report tion and 'Drug Czar' William Bennett ed efforts to dictate their curriculum. The rary Islamic social and political movements, entitled 'Defending Civilization: How Our launched Americans for Victory over Terror- university was sued in court by the Family and to harness the study of Islam and the Universities Are Failing America and What ism (AVOT). AVOT aims to 'take to task those Policy Network, a Christian right group, be- Middle East to the most narrowly construed Can Be Done about It'.1 ACTA's founder and who blame America first and who do not cause it assigned Michael Sells's translation interests of the national security apparatus. Chairperson Emerita, Lynne Cheney, is the understand – or who are unwilling to de- and interpretation of the early verses of the Tenured faculty members do not general- wife of Vice-President Dick Cheney; and the fend – our fundamental principles'. On 10 Qur'an, Approaching the Qur'an: The Early ly risk losing their jobs. However, in Decem- former Democratic vice-presidential candi- March Bennett published an open letter as R e v e l a t i o n s, as summer reading for all in- ber 2001, Sami al-Arian, an associate profes- date, Senator Joseph Lieberman, is a mem- an advertisement in the New York Times d e- coming first-year students. Family Policy sor of computer science at the University of ber of its National Council. A lengthy quote scribing the external and internal threats to Network's president, Joe Goover, argued South Florida, was threatened with termina- by Ms Cheney appears on the cover of the the United States. According to AVOT, the that '[b]y forcing students to read a single tion after being of accused of being a terror- report, suggesting that she supports its con- external threat comprises 'radical Islamists text about Islam that leaves out any men- ist sympathizer on a notorious right-wing tents and giving the document the appear- and others'. The internal threat consists of tion of other passages of the Koran in which television programme. Professor al-Arian is ance of a quasi-official statement of govern- 'those who are attempting to use this op- Muslim terrorists find justification for killing of Palestinian origin and has been an Islam- ment policy. portunity to promulgate their agenda of non-Muslims, the university establishes a ic activist for the Palestine cause outside of ACTA's report asserts that 'our universities "blame America first"'. AVOT's list of internal particular mind-set for its students about the classroom. His case is still under adjudi- are failing America' because of inadequate enemies includes former President Jimmy the nature of Islam. This constitutes reli- cation. So far, there are no similar cases in- teaching of Western culture and American Carter because he criticized George Bush's gious indoctrination [which is] forbidden by volving professors of Islamic or Middle East history. The original appendix to the report 'axis of evil' concept as 'overly simplistic' the Supreme Court.'3 Studies. But graduate students and un- lists 117 university faculty members, staff, and 'counter-productive', as well as con- Daniel Pipes jumped on the bandwagon tenured faculty are likely to feel intimidated, and students who ACTA alleges are negli- gressional representatives Dennis Kucinich and assailed the university for obscuring the especially if university administrations do gent in 'defending civilization' (the names (Democrat, Cleveland) and Maxine Waters violent character of Islam. Thus, the Univer- not firmly resist the pressures from the neo- were excised after ACTA was criticized for (Democrat, Los Angeles). sity of North Carolina became one of the conservative right. Such resistance will be Another effort to police dissent specifical- first institutions featured on Campus Watch. difficult because the campaign to delegit- CALL FOR APPLICATIONS ly targets those who teach Middle East stud- However, the university won the legal case, imize dissent and narrow the range of ac- ies on university campuses. The Middle East and the reading and discussion programme ceptable thought comes from circles close Forum, a think-tank run by Daniel Pipes and went forward. to the Bush administration. If university ad- Harvard Law supportive of the Israeli right wing, estab- ministrators capitulate, the lack of under- lished a website pretentiously called Cam- Delegitimizing critical standing of Islam and the Middle East in the pus Watch. Campus Watch claims to 'moni- r e f l e c t i o n United States will become even more en- S c h o o l tor and gather information on professors It is not coincidental that these efforts to trenched than is already the case. who fan the flames of disinformation, incite- police the boundaries of acceptable opinion ment, and ignorance'. Campus Watch al- about Islam, the Middle East, and US policy F e l l o w s h i p s leges that Middle East scholars 'seem gener- in the Middle East emerged following the 11 ally to dislike their own country and think September attacks and as the Bush adminis- N o t e s The Islamic Legal Studies Program (ILSP) of Harvard Law School even less of American allies abroad. They tration was launching a drive to war against 1 . http://www.goacta.org/Reports/defciv.pdf invites applications for its 2003–4 visiting scholar fellowships. portray US policy in an unfriendly light and Iraq. There is a clear political agenda behind 2 . Lawrence Summers, 'Address at Morning Prayers', Applications will be accepted from individuals with a range of disparage allies.' Campus Watch asserts that these efforts. AVOT is funded primarily by Memorial Church, Cambridge, Massachusetts, backgrounds, traditions, and scholarly interests. Fellowships are 'Middle East studies in the United States has Lawrence Kadish, chairman of the Republi- 1 7 September 2002. both stipendiary and non-stipendiary, and available for doctoral become the preserve of Middle Eastern can Jewish Coalition, which has long tried to ( h t t p : / / p r e s i d e n t . h a r v a r d . e d u / s p e e c h e s / 2 0 0 2 / candidates as well as for more advanced scholars and practi- Arabs, who have brought their views with bring Jews into the Republican Party. Martin morningprayers.html). tioners. Please contact us or consult our website for details of them. Membership in the Middle East Stud- Kramer is a visiting fellow at the Washington 3 . Joe Glover, 'Book Fails to Tell Whole Truth', U S A the fellowship and the formal application process. The deadline ies Association (MESA), the main scholarly Institute for Near East Policy (WINEP) – the T o d a y, 8 August 2002, editorial is 1 February 2003. association, is now 50 per cent of Middle most influential of the Israel-oriented think- ( h t t p : / / w w w . u s a t o d a y . c o m / n e w s ) . Eastern origin.' tanks in Washington – which published his I L S P These assertions are maliciously false. Ex- book. In addition to directing the Middle Joel Beinin is professor of Middle East History at Pound Hall 501 pressing dissent from prevailing foreign East Forum, Daniel Pipes is a WINEP adjunct Stanford University and past president of the Middle Harvard Law School policy is no indication of whether one does scholar. Campus Watch appears to be in- East Studies Association of North America. His latest Cambridge, MA 02138, USA or does not like the United States. The ma- spired by Kramer's book. Although Kramer is book is Workers and Peasants in the Modern E-mail: [email protected] jority of the members of MESA are not of not directly involved in Campus Watch, he Middle East (Cambridge University Press, 2001). www.law.harvard.edu/programs/ILSP Middle Eastern origin. Moreover, casting as- has issued a statement supporting its aims. E-mail: [email protected] 3 4 Media I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2

E u r o p e RENÉ ROMER A d v e r t i s i n g

Is European advertising a mirror of the demograph- ics of the European societies? The answer seems to be no. But is it? The limited number of cases where advertisers do promote their products and services and Changing to Asian, Arab, African, or Latin American Europeans most probably reflects the importance that Euro- pean nations attach to integrating these various eth- nic communities in their societies. D e m o g r a p h i c s The European landscape is changing rapid- ly. Europe has become an immigration con- tinent – a continent in which the Judaeo- Ethnic marketing In many countries, advertisers use local brand Uniekaas. Their motto 'unique cheese Christian and humanist traditions are en- On a small scale, targeted marketing and values to promote their products and ser- for unique people' successfully matches the riched with new Islamic and Hindu dimen- communication towards specific ethnic vices. But do these traditional local values traditional Dutch values represented in but- sions. Many European citizens have not yet communities was introduced in Europe in still do their job in a culturally diverse soci- ter and cheese with all Dutch citizens of a adapted to these rapidly changing demo- the early 1990s. Ethnic marketing consul- ety? Do such values appeal to those with foreign mother tongue. In the commercial graphics. tants advised advertisers to develop target- 'foreign' ethnic roots? In most cases, the an- we find an Arab-Dutch family having break- The increasing cultural diversity of Euro- ed ethnic campaigns because the different swer is no. In the Netherlands in the early fast while the mother tells the child what pean consumers also impacts businesses. communities were said to be too different 1990s, the peanut butter brand Calvé used mothers in the Netherlands traditionally do: Candy producers like Haribo and Van Melle from the regular consumer. Marketers were the motto 'Who has not grown up with 'first you have a savoury sandwich, then you are substituting their meat-produced gela- advised, for example, 'not to use the white Calvé?' For millions of Dutch citizens with a have a sweet sandwich'. Of course, the tine with alternative substances making it colour in advertising for the Moroccan com- non-Dutch ethnic background, it was easy mother speaks in Arabic. The motto remains suitable for the halal and kosher markets. munity, because white is the colour of to say 'I did not grow up with Calvé!' A few the same: 'unique cheese for unique peo- Several financial companies now market tar- mourning'. Amongst the other suggestions years later, the motto was changed into ple'. geted insurance and investment products were that 'Caribbeans consider yellow to be 'How tall do you want to grow?' Without In other European countries we find inter- such as funeral insurances to cover the a colour of happiness'; 'young blacks think abandoning its brand value 'energy to esting examples as well. In the United King- blue is a dull colour'; and 'in print advertis- grow', it suddenly extended its target audi- dom, targeted services in a number of Asian ing for the Turkish community one should ence to include ethnic communities that languages were promoted by radio com- use a lot of pictures and few words'. Ethnic had not grown up with Calvé peanut butter. mercials and print advertising in five differ- marketing agencies often promoted their ent Asian languages. The British Army made businesses by emphasizing the differences A European dream? use of famous Asian personalities such as between communities. Sometimes, however, local values can Naseem Hamed to create the image of a dy- In recent years, we notice a change in the work: the 'American dream', for example. namic, modern, and young organization for way we tend to look at the markets. Mar- Before 9/11, the American dream was in- which to work. Other famous Asian and keters start to realize that a growing num- deed a dream for many – but not all – ethnic Afro-Caribbean British were cast to promote ber of Asian, Arab, African, or Latin Ameri- cultural communities in and even outside products and services as well, such as Meera can Europeans are p r i m a r i l y E u r o p e a n s . the United States. Is there such an equiva- Syal, Ian Wright, and Frank Bruno. In France They might be Europeans with a double ori- lent in Europe for the American dream: a Eu- a chatting Asian-French woman was cast to entation – an orientation towards the coun- ropean dream, or a British, French, or Dutch promote the Tchatche service of France try of residence and an orientation towards dream, which is universal for all ethnic cul- Telecom. The SNCF (the French Railways) the culture of the country of birth or their tural communities living in Europe? The made use of testimonials of commuters (grand)parents' birth – but they a r e E u r o- question, unfortunately, cannot be an- with a wide variety of ethnic backgrounds. peans. Many are born and raised in Europe. swered positively. This does not, however, The children's fashion brand Natalys cast a They go to school in Europe, fall in love, get obstruct advertisers in finding universal val- young black child for its advertising, while married, and raise children, all inside E u r o p e ues. Diesel jeans' motto 'for successful liv- Universal Music contracted Jamel Deb- – not as Asians or Africans, but as E u r o p e a n ing' has been effective in many countries bouze and Omar et Fred as spokespersons. citizens. and for many cultures. The 'family values' of These are some examples of commercials As European citizens, people watch Arab the global brand Western Union Money where the advertising sector is apparently and Asian television networks such as Al- Transfer is another fine example. far ahead of politicians when it comes to the Jazeera, Zee TV, or B4U, but these same Eu- As we have just seen with Calvé peanut acceptance of cultural diversity as the new ropeans enjoy BBC, Sky, ZDF, Antenne 2, or butter, our good examples are not limited standard in the European societies. Unfortu- TVE. An Asian-British citizen may watch the to global brands only. In recent years we nately, these are still exceptions. Just like Asian-British networks Prime TV and Remi- have seen some excellent advertising cam- Europe, the advertising sector as a whole niscent TV, but on the same evening pick up paigns for local brands, going one step fur- does not yet mirror the changing European BBC's news headlines. As Europeans, con- ther than Calvé. The Dutch mobile phone demographics as an integral part of their sumers read the Daily Jang, N i m r o o z, S i n g brand Ben is one. Ben promotes values of business. These examples are proof, howev- Tao Daily, or a l - A h r a m, while these same Eu- 'individuality' and 'straightforwardness'. In er, that the advertising world can play a ropeans read The Independent, Bild Zeitung, advertising, these values are always linked major role in presenting a European society Le Figaro, or any other European newspaper. to individuals, whether they are white or that has changed forever. Even though It is not uncommon for a Turkish-Dutch citi- black, Muslim or Christian, young or old. Or- there have been setbacks since 9/11, the A still from an transport of the deceased abroad – for zen to start the day by reading both the dinary people are the heroes of communica- growing diversity in European societies can- a d v e r t i s i n g those of the relevant faith, the ritual wash- Dutch M e t r o newspaper and the Turkish tion. Amongst the many interesting exam- not be put to a halt. Most large advertising campaign by the ing of the body before transport is included. daily H ü r r i y e t. Indeed, diversity has become ples, two television commercials certainly agencies are located in Europe's major cities Dutch Railways. Some health insurers cover the costs for the core of European societies. stand out. such as London, Paris, and Amsterdam. male circumcision, while a few banks offer The one commercial shows a young Mus- These are all cities in which the population Islamic investment products. However, in Local values lim girl in front of the mirror before leaving is growing more diverse by the day and most instances such fundamental adapta- As we have seen here, the European con- the house. She is binding her hair together since the 'colour' of the workforce in Eu- tions will not be required. What is needed, sumer becomes more diverse by the day. and puts on her scarf, while her father is rope's leading advertising agencies is likely however, is adapting the ways in which we But the majority of those in the European proudly glancing at her. After covering her- to change sooner rather than later, advertis- advertise for these products. advertising sector tend to look at the con- self, she picks up her mobile to go. But be- ing will in the future most definitely adapt Why have fundamental adaptations in ad- sumer as white, or at least as Caucasian. fore she leaves, she slips her mobile into a to these new European realities. vertising not taken place? Why is cultural di- Even the ever-increasing local ethnic media phone pouch, protecting both herself and versity in advertising considered on an inci- landscape in many European countries is her precious phone. In another commercial, dental rather than a structural basis? A pos- not considered by most advertisers as we see an office department. All employees sible explanation could be that advertisers worth spending part their media budgets are quietly working on their computers. have for too long been looking at what sep- on. Suddenly one employee receives an sms arates ethnic communities instead of what If advertisers do end up focusing on the message. After reading the message, the binds them. The consequence is that mar- biggest segments, as we have seen before, man starts dancing around the department keters end up with too many niche markets. can they not give a more balanced repre- waving a Turkish flag. Apparently, the Turk- René Romer is strategy director with TBWA\Direct Since advertising budgets do not allow for sentation of Europe's changing demograph- ish national football team has just won its Company, a leading advertising agency in addressing every niche market efficiently, ics in their general advertising? Yes they latest match. When putting the flag away Amsterdam. Romer is specialized in diversity marketers focus on the most substantial can, and a small but growing number of ad- and taking his seat again, he kisses his mo- marketing and is author of the book Thuis in segments: in other words, 'the average con- vertisers already do manage to cope with bile and starts working. N e d e r l a n d (At Home in the Netherlands), a practical sumer'. And the average consumer in Eu- the multicultural dilemmas with which they Another brand-awareness commercial handbook on diversity marketing. rope is predominantly white. are faced. that stands out is that of the Dutch cheese E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2 Research Approaches 35

The Mediterranean HENK DRIESSEN A Seaward View

In the last few years there has been an upsurge of scholarly interest in the circum-Mediterranean area as part of a wider academic movement to rethink and revitalize area studies. As a transitional zone the on a Transitional Mediterranean area has always had a somewhat un- certain, marginal, and ambivalent position in the field of established area specializations, which until recently were defined by rather rigid and arbitrary geo-political boundaries. 'The Middle East', a prod- R e g i o n uct of the strategic thinking of 19t h-century 'Europe' (itself a problematic category), is a case in point. Scholars, in particular anthropologists, working in es, until recently probably the most impor- the Middle East and North Africa have often studied tant one. Awareness and knowledge of and this region as detached from the wider Mediter- openness towards the wider world have al- ranean world. One good reason to correct this my- ways been ingredients of maritime culture. opic perspective is to be found in the basic fact that What is of particular interest is h o w and i n the Mediterranean region has been the breeding w h i c h contexts Mediterranean people, past ground of globalization and cosmopolitanism in i m a g e and present, evoke cosmopolitanism; the which the sea played a major role. meanings they attach to it; and how they as- similate understandings of cosmopoli- Anthropologists and to a lesser extent geog- not available tanism into their behaviour. Greek refugees raphers and historians have largely avoided from former Smyrna and their descendants the Mediterranean Sea as if they suffered in Piraeus, old families in Tangier, Triest, and from hydrophobia. Almost all statements on Alexandria, frequently evoke a past defined Mediterranean unity, in which the sea is seen o n l i n e as cosmopolitan. In doing so they stress, in as the connection between peoples, cul- varying combinations, features such as eth- tures, and societies, and Mediterranean di- nic-religious plurality, multi-lingualism, cul- Beach scene versity, in which the sea is conceived as a tural refinement, openness, enterprise, tol- at the port of barrier, are based on research conducted in erance, and intercultural exchange. A l e x a n d r i a . the interior rather than in the coastlands. Thus, a basic question is whether the re- This is all the more striking because Mediter- vival of seaports in parts of the circum- ranean seaports, with their ethnic trading death. In spite of its storms and torments, it during attention. During the past ten years Mediterranean area goes hand in hand with minorities, have for more than two thousand made possible Paul's missionary travels and the largely clandestine trans-Mediterranean a renewed emphasis on cosmopolitanism years been hubs in networks with connec- thus the spread of the Christian faith. The migration has become a major socio-politi- under changing political, economic, and tions to other regions. Not only the anthro- problematic relationship of Islam with the cal issue within the European Union and will technological conditions (think, for in- pological but also the geographical perspec- sea, which is reflected in written as well as undoubtedly remain so for the coming stance, of the impact of tourism, migration, tive has been marked by terracentrism. oral traditions, is linked with the limited de- decades. A seaward perspective pays spe- and the mass media). In order to answer this Though this inland orientation is hardly sur- velopment of a maritime culture on the cial attention to the passages and connec- broad question an interdisciplinary ap- prising, it is nevertheless biased.1 southern and eastern shores of the Inner Sea. tions across the Mediterranean with regard proach is needed in which a political-eco- The study of the circum-Mediterranean The incompatibility of sea life with Islam goes to transnational community formation, the nomic perspective is joined with a cultural area, with an emphasis on c i r c u m, should not a long way to explain why Muslims missed exchange of consumer goods and informa- and historical one and a broad gamut of re- neglect the sea, because it has made possi- the boat at the time of maritime expansion tion, and the distribution of symbolic, social, search techniques and sources are com- ble a relatively easy transport of people, towards the New World, when there was still and religious capital. For instance, there is a bined. This implies a need not only for goods, and ideas. The primacy of the sea and a relative power balance between Cross and growing conviction in the towns of north- multi-local but also (and rather) for trans- of a maritime focus is thus a matter of logical Crescent in the Mediterranean area. To be ern Morocco that Islam is now coming from local anthropological, geographical, and priority determined by the sea's central posi- sure, there are many exceptions to these the European side of the Mediterranean historical research – in other words, re- tion in a network of connections, even in the generalizations and they deserve systematic with devout returning migrants who are search o n and i n the connections and pas- present age of fast communication by air, and accurate research. The role of the sea in often considered to be more 'true Muslims' sages between different localities and iden- satellite, and cable. Of all seas and oceans, the rituals of coastal towns and villages than local ones. The ordeals of being a mi- tities around the Mediterranean Sea. And, fi- the Mediterranean has the longest docu- around the Mediterranean is yet another fas- nority in a non-Islamic environment are said nally, it means a willingness to reconsider mented history of human interaction. Re- cinating topic that should be further ex- to strengthen Muslim devotion. Moreover, old regional categories and divisions such cent genetic, archaeological, linguistic, and plored, apart from the instrumental relation- migrant communities across the Mediter- as 'Europe', 'North Africa', and 'the Middle anthropological research has demonstrated ships coast-dwellers maintain with the sea. ranean have more freedom in creating asso- East'. that pre-neolithic exchange occurred be- ciations than in Morocco.2 This shifting of tween the northern and southern shores. Modern transients: the Islamic frontier is a challenging topic for This article is a summary of Henk Driessen's The recent finding of a series of early-palae- tourists and migrants scholars of contemporary Islam. inaugural lecture held at the University of Nijmegen olithic flint tools on Sardinia indicates that A seaward perspective inevitably entails on 28 June 2002. For references, see Henk Driessen, more than 300,000 years ago Homo Erectus sustained interest in tourists and migrants Revival of Mediterranean Mediterrane passages. Een zeewaartse visie op was able to travel short distances over sea. as modern transients. Each year between c o s m o p o l i t a n i s m ? een overgangsgebied (Amsterdam: Uitgeverij June and September approximately 110 A seaward perspective not only pays privi- Wereldbibliotheek, 2002). The sea as social space million tourists spend their holiday along leged attention to the sea and the people One of the topics deserving more attention the Mediterranean shores, making up one- who use and cross it, but indeed also to the concerns the relationships of Mediterranean third of the global tourist flow. In the light of seaport, a settlement form that has received peoples, past and present, with the sea. This this massive arrival of foreign, and more re- only scant treatment in the humanities and theme involves perceptions, classifications, cently domestic tourists, the Inner Sea has social sciences. The recent renaissance of and exploitations of the sea. During its long taken on an entirely new meaning as an Mediterranean seaports – Marseille, documented history the Inner Sea was often economic and social resource. Moreover, Barcelona, Genua, Alexandria, but also small- attributed an ambiguous and sometimes al- mass tourism has transformed and homoge- er ones, such as Algeciras and Koper – con- together negative role in Mediterranean cos- nized formerly diverse coastal landscapes stitutes a fascinating field for interdiscipli- mologies. Until the 18t h century, when a sig- with regard to buildings, economic and nary area research. The following questions N o t e s nificant change of attitude towards the sea leisure activities, manners, and the percep- may be raised: Are the maritime towns and 1 . See Oceans Connect, 89 (1999), a special issue of took place, particularly on the northern tion and organization of time. It has also cities foci of cultural convergence? What role The Geographical Review. For the Indian Ocean shores, it mostly inspired fear and abhor- drastically affected centre-periphery rela- did they play in the different stages of the area see A. Wink, 'From the Mediterranean to the rence. Several Ancient Greek and Roman tionships, the fragile coastal environment, globalization process? Less sweeping ques- Indian Ocean: Medieval History in Geographic thinkers saw it as a corrupting sea, the easy and the quality of life in most Mediter- tions include notions of maritime urbanity, Perspective', Comparative Studies in Society and communications being felt as a threat to the ranean countries. Although much research the impact of the port on town life, changing History 44 (2002): 416–45. integrity of social order. However, at the has already been done, the ongoing diversi- attitudes of coast-dwellers towards the sea, 2 . See M. Juntunen, Between Morocco and Spain. Men, same time the Inner Sea was mare nostrum, fication of touristic demand and supply – for the revitalization of maritime identity, and Migrant Smuggling and a Dispersed Moroccan an integral part of the imperial territory and instance the emergence of Islamic beach its relationship with ethnicity, nationality, C o m m u n i t y (Helsinki: Institute for Asian and identity. In the Old Testament the sea is de- tourism in Mediterranean Turkey or of re- and transnationality. African Studies, 2002). picted as a plumbless and dark depth hosting tirement migration to Italy and Spain – is an Especially the link between Mediter- the wreckage of the Flood, an empire of important theme for further inquiry. ranean seaports and cosmopolitanism is a Henk Driessen, Cultural Anthropology and chaos, monsters, and demons. In the eyes of The massive counter-movement of Medi- promising research topic. If there is an eco- Mediterranean Studies, University of Nijmegen, the the Church Fathers, especially Augustine, the terranean migrants to the North is an equal- logical dimension to cosmopolitanism then N e t h e r l a n d s . sea was both a source of life and a realm of ly sweeping phenomenon that needs en- the seaport is certainly one of its main nich- E-mail: [email protected] 3 6 Conference Reports I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2

B P B NATHAL M. DESSING The Islamic Charter as a Tool for Integration The Bundeszentrale f ü r Politische Bildung (BPB), Pro- jektgruppe Migration, organized an international conference on 'Muslime und Islam in Europa: Die Inte- gration einer r e l i g i ö s e n Minderheit' at the Ost-West- The conference brought together some 150 thority. This became clear in the discussions also take the form of education and other Kolleg, B r ü h l, Germany, from 10 to 13 July 2002. The academics, teachers, politicians, activists, on the Islamic Charter at the B r ü h l c o n f e r- skills. On this basis he advises women to conference compared the processes of integration of and journalists, including Mohammed Abdul e n c e . dress tastefully and to be modest in their at- Muslims in Western Europe and discussed the Islamic Aziz (Forum Against Islamophobia & R a c i s m , Mohibur Rahman of the Muslim Council of tire if they must choose between wearing Charter drawn up by the Central Council of Muslims in London), Soheib Bencheikh (Comité Région- Britain, for example, mentioned three con- the headscarf and a job. Germany. al des Affaires Islamiques, France), Coskun cerns. According to him, emotional attach- These statements aroused much contro- Ç ö r ü z (Member of Parliament, the Nether- ment to a country cannot be encouraged versy, particularly among the British partici- Article headings of the Islamic Charter lands), Nadeem Elyas (Central Council of through a written document. Furthermore, pants. Mohammed Abdul Aziz, for example, – Islam is the religion of peace Muslims in Germany), Fatma-Zohra Mes- he sees no reason for British Muslims to ex- felt that the ethnic minority discourse in – We believe in a compassionate God saoudi (Centre socio-culturel de la rue de plain or justify nationality or religion, since France and Germany concentrates on first- – The Qur'an is the verbal revelation of God Tanger, Paris), and Mohibur Rahman (Mus- they already feel that they belong. A Charter generation issues such as the headscarf, – We believe in the prophets of the one God lim Council of Britain). is in his view a defensive exercise and there- while the United Kingdom has long passed – Humankind will be held accountable on Judgement Day The Islamic Charter is a document consist- fore undesirable. Lastly, he suggests that this phase. Muslims in Britain, says Abdul – Male and female Muslims have the same task in life ing of 21 articles developed by the Central the Charter's aims could be better achieved Aziz, speak about respect and diversity, and – The five pillars of Islam Council of Muslims in Germany (Zentralrat by investing the time and effort in more not about minorities as a problem. Barbara – Islam is at once faith, morality, social order, and way of life der Muslime in Deutschland e.V., ZMD) and practical ways. John of Humboldt University argued that – Islam does not aim at abolishing wealth adopted in its general meeting of 3 Febru- Similarly, Nico Landman of Utrecht Uni- the fear of difference and wish for homo- – Islamic law obliges Muslims in the diaspora ary 2002. With this document the ZMD aims versity regards increasing participation of geneity is deep-rooted in German society, [in principle to observe local law] to promote dialogue among Muslims and Muslims in political processes and public whereas Britain tolerates diversity to a – Muslims accept the constitutionally guaranteed separation not to exclude divergent opinions, says debates as more important than the devel- greater extent. o f powers, and the juridical and democratic order ZMD chair Nadeem Elyas. opment of an Islamic Charter, which claims Thomas K r ü g e r, BPB president, said that – We do not aim at establishing a clerical theocracy The Islamic Charter may be regarded as a to speak on behalf of 'the Muslims'. He controversy, the guiding principle of politi- – There is no conflict between Islamic teaching and the core further example in a series of documents thereby alludes to the plurality of opinions cal education, must be used to further dis- human rights drawn up by governmental or representa- among Muslims in the Netherlands. cussions on the integration of Muslims. The – [European culture is] formed by the [classical Greco-Roman and] tional bodies in various European countries Soheib Bencheikh, mufti of Marseille, was lively discussions during the two days of the Judeo-Christian-Islamic heritage, and the Enlightenment that seek to describe or to codify the posi- not sure if France needed an Islamic Charter. conference suggest that this aim, at least, – It is necessary to develop a specific Muslim identity in Europe tion of Muslims in Western societies. Anoth- Taking an individualistic view of Islam, he was fully met. He announced that the BPB, – Germany constitutes the centre of our interests and activity er example, though different in status and believes that no one has the right to deter- in cooperation with the Goethe Institute – Reduction of prejudices through transparency, openness, origin, is the report 'l'Islam dans la Répu- mine the theology of the future. He empha- and Deutsche Welle, is developing an Islam and dialogue blique', drawn up in 2000 by the High Coun- sized the importance of transparency, of portal with information on the Muslim – We are beholden to the whole of society cil on Integration, an advisory body to the avoiding provocation, of Muslim role mod- world and Islam and Muslims in Germany. – Integration while maintaining Islamic identity French prime minister. The report treats the els to display the beauty of Islam, and of – An honourable way of life in the midst of society history of the separation of church and state imam-training institutions independent of – [We are] party-politically neutral in France, describes Muslims and Islam in the countries of origin and of the French France, and ends with recommendations. government. He also argued that the idea Dr Nathal M. Dessing conducts research on Islam in Such documents are vulnerable to criticisms behind the headscarf is the protection of Europe and is ISIM educational coordinator. concerning their representativeness and au- the woman. Nowadays, this protection may E-mail: [email protected]

S E D E T CACO VERHEES Political Islam in Sub-S a h a r a n A f r i c a On 28 and 29 October 2002, the conference 'Political Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa: Narratives, Itineraries and Networks' was organized by the research institute SEDET (Sociétés en développement dans l'espace et Marc-Antoine Perouse de Montclos, who law of the s h a r ica, and this has led to a storm tion, she considers these reformist groups dans le temps) of the Université Paris 7 Denis Diderot. presented his research on political Islam in of protest from Western states. Mukhtar as a threat to the achievements of the femi- The objectives of the conference were to identify, Nigeria between 1803 and 2003, suggested Umar Bunza of the Usmanu Dan Fodiyo Uni- nist movement in Senegal. More women in analyse, and define the actors of political Islam in the an economic reading of political Islam. Ac- versity of Nigeria focused on the influence West Africa are wearing the h i j a b n o w a d a y s , different countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, where Islam cording to him most political Islamist groups of Iranian politics and ideology on political which she sees as depriving women of their has often been referred to as an Islam of brotherhoods have primarily economic interests. Further- Islamic movements in Nigeria. While most liberty. For her, the reformist movements (c o n f r é r i e s). In earlier research the Islam of the broth- more, he thinks Islam nowadays is not more Muslims in Nigeria would vote for imple- use a discours d'enfermement, and are only erhoods is often depicted as peaceful and non-politi- political than it was 200 years ago, and there- mentation of the s h a r ica, the most extremist interested in controlling women's sexuality cal, whereas the reformist groups are said to be politi- fore the political dimension should not be movement in Nigeria, Yan S h ica h, is against and fertility. In contrast, Cleo Cantone cal in scope and often use violence. But how do these over-emphasized. Souley Hassane discussed it, because they believe true s h a r ica can only (SOAS, London), herself a converted Muslim trends actually relate? the marketing of Islam. To illustrate this, he be realized after a successful jihad, after – wearing a veil – spoke about the veil as an mentioned the marabouts guérrisseurs, reli- which the whole state will be an Islamic opportunity for women in Senegal to prac- Reformist groups do not always have a clear gious agents who are paid for their services, state. Thus, this group does not acknowl- tise Islam in the public sphere, instead of al- political agenda. They are first and foremost and the dowry. In addition to the economic, edge the s h a r ica under a non-Islamic demo- ways being confined to their homes. While interested in purifying Islam from the tradi- marketing, and electoral dimensions, R ü d i- cratic government. Perouse de Montclos in the mosques of the brotherhoods women tional influences of the Sufi brotherhoods, g e r Seesemann proposed a new dimension: also argued that the s h a r ica can only be im- are discouraged from entering the mosque, like praying with a chapelet ( c h a p l e t ) , 'the quotidian dimension'. He sees the di- plemented in a Muslim state, affirming that the newly built Sunni mosques all have a m a r a b o u t a g e, and the worship of saints. chotomy of 'reformists' and 'brotherhoods' as s h a r ica legislation in Nigeria causes prob- space for the women to pray as well as a Some reformist groups, however, attract another way of saying 'modern' and 'tradi- lems mostly related to two articles of the room where they can receive Qur'anic many brotherhood-affiliated members. tional', respectively, which is not a reflection constitution: freedom of religion and free- lessons. Cantone therefore considered veil- Therefore, it seems that we should ap- of what is happening in the field. He also cri- dom of movement. A Muslim who converts ing a positive development, interpreting it proach them as groups that react to and in- tiqued the division between little and great to Christianity in the north of Nigeria is sen- as empowerment (see p. 29). teract with each other and with the govern- traditions. In order to understand how peo- tenced to death. This conflicts with the arti- ment. At the conference this was done from ple perceive Islam and everything related to cle on freedom of religion. In the south of different angles. Bakary Sambe proposed to it, researchers should look at the debates Nigeria there is the option to convert, but revisit the terrain of Islam in Senegal as it that take place on a local level (in the little according to the freedom of movement a can no longer be understood in terms of this tradition), because it reveals more about the Christian should be allowed to settle in one (simplified) dualism. The changes that took debates at the top level (in the great tradi- of the Muslim states. place in the last twenty years, the growing tion). In other words, researchers should con- Several scholars focused on female Mus- dynamics of the c o n f r é r i e s that have not es- textualize Islam on the level of everyday life. lims. Fatou Sow, a Senegalese scholar and The organizers of the conference hope the papers will caped modernization, the politicizing of the The (partial) implementation of s h a r ica i n member of SEDET, warned of the resur- be ready to be published at the end of 2003. marabouts, and the external influence ask various West African countries was the sub- gence of Islamist groups in Senegal. She is a for a new approach, which – according to ject of a number of papers. In Nigeria some feminist Muslim, and having fought all her Caco Verhees is a Ph.D. candidate at the ISIM. Sambe – should be interdisciplinary. states have now put into practice criminal life to free herself from a subordinate posi- E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2 Arts and Literature 37

D e b a t e KHALED RAMADAN Art in

As a cartoon figure, Dirk always dominates the last page of NU, The Nordic Art Review. One of Olav West- phalen's best Dirk strips is the one that follows the 9/11 – in his word – 'occasion' (NU vol. 111, no. 6/01). the Aftermath The first drawing starts by showing Dirk as an angry artist. The second shows him together with an art critic in a gallery where Dirk is telling the critic that we cannot go back to business as usual. In the third, Dirk underlines that artists have to rise to this histor- of 11 September ical occasion. In the forth drawing Dirk emphasizes that artists' work should be part of a mighty struggle for a truly democratic and peaceful world. The critic Penetrating the Real Thing then comes to his senses and asks: 'How do you re- The theorist Slavoj Zizek described the fall flect all that in this new piece of yours?' While look- of the WTC comparing it to the Hollywood ing at a sculpture entitled Perseverance Dirk answers: catastrophe as 'the element of truth'. Zizek 'Well it is a mould of the permanent dent I put into my writes that in Karl-Heinz Stockhausen's couch while watching the CNN for two months.' The provocative statement that the planes hit- result is a positive cast of Dirk's ass. ting the WTC towers were the ultimate work of art, one can see the collapse of the WTC To chase the change and look for it in delib- towers as the culminating conclusion of the erate rational ways with known outcomes is 2 0t h-century art's 'passion for the real'. The not the way to practise art. Change should terrorists themselves did it not primarily to come as a natural reflection and not as a ra- provoke real material damage but for the tional behaviour dictated by the mass spectacular effect of it: the authentic 20t h- media only. Artists who choose to switch century passion to penetrate the Real Thing. and adjust their art production according to The Real Thing is what the world (including what they have heard on CNN, which keeps the art world but excluding the Hollywood telling us that it is the time of change and planet) has been witnessing so far. The Real that the world will never be the same, Thing has always been out of the Hollywood should try to take a neutral look into their planet. But when the Hollywood planet was American Football behaviour. They have to ask themselves hit by reality, suddenly the world of our fan- (life size, 9mm where they stand in relation to 'other' news, tasy became a Universal Reality. bullets), by which we do not see on CNN. Since when Slavoj Zizek plays with reality, authentici- Khaled Ramadan. did the world become static and unchange- ty, and the fake sphere in order to welcome able? It has always been exposed to and re- after 9/11. Voices from the USA, Germany, anti-war statements made before 9/11. the new and free world in joining the Real flected fluxes and constant change in all and the Arab peninsula were all busy con- Donna Huanca, who works in the gallery, World. He says that '[t]he ultimate American fields and in all directions. The world never demning the 'occasion' but at the very same stated that '[t]hey said we were displaying paranoiac fantasy is that of an individual liv- looks at itself at any moment of time. So 'it time answering those who say 'these things anti-American activities.' Huanca asked if ing in a small idyllic Californian city, a con- will never be the same' is just an empty should not happen here, not in the US' with they were familiar with the artists and em- sumerist paradise, who suddenly starts to s t a t e m e n t . a 'well, these things should not happen any- phasized the role of art at such a critical time. suspect that the world he lives in is a fake, a where'. Art should be concerned with all The agents were more interested in where spectacle staged to convince him that he Detector of change human communities and not only one of the artists were from. They were pointing lives in a real world, while all people around In FlashArt, December 2001, Giancarlo them. As Politti said, art should be humani- out negative things, like a new painting by him are effectively actors and extras in a gi- Politti wrote that art has always been the ty's most sensitive alarm, detecting changes Lynn Randolph of the Houston skyline on gantic show. These shots were always ac- sensitive detector of change and is a deli- within human communities at large, always fire, and a devil dancing around with George companied with the advance warning that cate seismograph of our time. If art is about using the same barometer of value judge- Bush Sr. in the belly. The Art Car Museum's 'some of the images you will see are ex- detecting first and curing afterwards, why m e n t . director, James Harithas, described the visit tremely graphic and may hurt children' – a from the G-men as unbelievable. 'People warning which we never heard in the re- should be worried that their freedoms are ports on the WTC collapse. being taken away right and left.' Robert We were told that nothing will be the Dogium, the FBI spokesman, said the visit same in the era of post-9/11. In reality was just a routine follow-up on a call 'from things look different. September 11 means someone who said that there is artwork of a that nothing has really changed. The world's threatening nature to the President'. conflict patterns did not change a bit. Another incidence which makes us think Change as such did not emerge in art, poli- deeply before producing art after the world tics, military, or – well, I cannot say that has decided to change itself is this: nothing happened to the economy. That alone will have its impact on all sectors in- On 26 October it knocked on the door of cluding art. The collapse of the stock market the art activist A. J. Brown: 'Hello, we're in NY in the 1930s did indeed take with it from the Raleigh branch of the Secret the local and the overseas art life. Such eco- Service. We're here to check if you have nomic changes are never without conse- anti-American material in your quences. Yes, in that sense one can confi- a p a r t m e n t . ' dently say that world matters are getting 'Are you sure?' w o r s e . 'Yes, we got a report that you've got Art activists in the shadow of the 'event' a poster of anti-American nature.' have to make a stand. Either you are with art No UN (life size), 'Have you got a warrant?' or you accept everything your government by Khaled No. But they wanted to come in and look says, whether it is true or false. Are the R a m a d a n . around. They explained to Brown: artists going to do something about it or are ' W e already know what it is. It's a poster they going to wait for the CNN to do so? then did art activists not detect the other Who is challenging what? of Bush hanging himself.' Well, then it's Dear ART, Welcome to Slavoj Zizek's Desert side of the coin? Can art activists afford the The role of art is not only to detect and a poster with a target on Bush's head. of The Real. humanistic luxury of reacting seriously only react but also to challenge the unspeakable T h e poster they were interested in was to what is taking place within the American and the 'political correctness'. At any time, one that depicted Bush holding a rope, boundaries? If we look into what most visu- from art one must expect confrontation with the phrase: 'We Hang on Your Every al artists did after 9/11, the majority went rather than confirmation. Therefore, art Word. George Bush. Wanted: 152 Dead.' into writing, shocked and without knowing should be political and analytical if it wishes The agents kept looking at the walls that how to approach it. For those who chose to to keep its position as detector. contained posters from the Bush counter- do it straight after the 'occasion', their The latest challenge to the art world after inaugural, a 'Free Mumia' poster, and Khaled Ramadan is a visual artist and architect, achievement, as Dirk's, came from one 9/11 came in suit. Terrence Donahue of the a Pink Floyd poster with the phrase: a n d is currently a Ph.D. candidate in art history at source only, namely CNN. This unbalanced FBI and Steven Smith of the Secret Service 'Mother, should I trust the government?' Copenhagen University, Denmark. He is also curator behaviour is what artists are supposed to arrived at the Art Car Museum, an avant- Then they asked: 'Do you have any pro- for the Nordic Institute for Contemporary Art since abandon. So far columnists, writers, and au- garde gallery in Houston. Secret Wars w a s Taliban stuff, any posters?' 2 0 0 1 . thors have been pretty effective straight the title of the exhibition, which contained E-mail: [email protected] 3 8 Arts and Literature I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2

A w a r d PRINCE CLAUS FUND distinction of the Prince Claus Fund's high- Principal 2002 est award. Yet we might also add one more thing that distinguishes him: it is what we might call his cultural vision, which is that of Prince Claus Award an Islamic humanist. From the Qur'an he Prince Claus Awards borrows the statement that the diversity of Since 1997, the Prince Claus Awards have been presented to people languages is a gift from God and quotes an and organizations to recognize and encourage their exceptional Chafik has also produced work on the thirty- litical demands. It is an attempt to make old saying: 'Learn languages! The more lan- achievements in the field of culture and development in Africa, three centuries of Berber culture and has transparent the history of Morocco, before guages you know, the more men you're Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean. The Fund does not only written several educational books. and after the arrival of the French, before worth.' The idea of turning Arabic into the honour artists, intellectuals, and cultural organizations for the high As if this were not reason enough to pre- and after independence. He does this by re- only language of Morocco leads to impover- quality of their work. It also looks in particular at the positive sent him with the award, there is also his placing the silenced presence of the Berber- ishment. The wealth and vitality of a culture changes they bring to their society and culture. The Principal Award tenacious battle for the emancipation of an speaking population with its active pres- is intrinsically bound with the extent to is given every December during a festive ceremony at the Royal original, but marginalized people of Moroc- ence as an often unhappy, but always pre- which it is able to absorb difference. Profes- Palace in Amsterdam. co – the Berbers – from the Rif to the Atlas. sent historical player. sor Chafik has thus developed a vision of Especially the Berbers found themselves The life of Mohammed Chafik, which has cultural development as a process that con- compelled by poor living standards to mi- passed from the French colonial period, trasts sharply with thinking within a closed The Principal 2002 Prince Claus Award was grate to foreign lands, including the Nether- through independence, and into modern identity. awarded to Mohammed Chafik (b. 17 Sep- lands. This award is therefore also an ac- Morocco, makes him an experienced and ir- The Prince Claus Fund recognizes in Mo- tember 1926) on 11 December for both his knowledgement of the Moroccan minority refutable advocate for the liberation of hammed Chafik an ambassador for culture academic oeuvre and his tenacious struggle in the Netherlands. Professor Chafik's career Berber culture. His conclusions are aimed at and development. By presenting him the for the emancipation of the Berber people. has always been marked by his sense of sol- a better future for Morocco: the need for a award, the Prince Claus Fund is also endors- Chafik's academic endeavours culminated idarity with marginalized Berber culture. He national debate on the position of the ing a vision of the meaning of language and in his bilingual dictionary of Amazigh. This has been an inspirational teacher, a school Berbers, a constitutional recognition of the languages in the modern world: language is three-volume work in Amazigh and Arabic inspector, Secretary of State, and a tutor to language as a national language, a policy a mother tongue – which embodies the was published in 1990 (vol. I), 1996 (vol. II), the children of the royal family. He is cur- for deprived regions, an active insertion of wealth of one's own cultural identity – a and 2000 (vol. III). It compiled vocabulary rently Rector of the Royal Institute of the language in education and government, contribution to the future in which lan- collected from Morocco to Libya, from Alge- Amazigh Culture, which was founded in the erasure of prejudice from the accounts guages may be regarded as cultural trea- ria to Chad, and opened it up not only to 2001. of the nation's history, opening up the sure troves for global development, and the Arabic speakers, but also to the Berbers, A clear line thus runs through his life, that media to the language of the people, and collective property of humanity. who found in this book a recognition of the of the insertion of Berber culture into the the right for parents to register their chil- richness of their language. This publication national and international life of his country. dren under their Berber names, to name but by the Royal Academy of Morocco is the first The written culmination of this work is the a few. Laudation address by Andriaan van der Staa, Chair step towards achieving complete equality impressive Manifeste Berbère (2000). The His academic research and his work as an of the 2002 Prince Claus Awards Committee, in for the country's original language. Besides title suggests a political pamphlet. Howev- emancipator of Berber culture make Mo- honour of Mohammed Chafik, recipient of the this Dictionnaire Arabe-Berbère, Professor er, the piece is much more than a list of po- hammed Chafik an obvious choice for the Principal 2002 Prince Claus Award.

P r o j e c t of publications about current Arab cultural WITTE DE WITH CENTRE discourse. T a m á s s 1 includes essays and Contemporary Arab projects by Walid Sadek, Jalal Toufic, Saree Makdisi, Tony Chakar, Bilal Khbeiz, Elias Khoury, Rabih Mroué, The Atlas Group Pro- The Middle East is a region that is often overlooked in R e p r e s e n t a t i o n s ject/Walid Raad, Marwan Rechmaoui, and present-day exhibitions, and when it is not, the focus Paola Yacoub & Michel Lasserre. T a m á s s, is mainly on traditional culture. The image that is pre- which means contact, touch(ing), contigui- sented thus denies the fact that contemporary Arab ty, adjacency, or tangency (when combined culture is a pilot region, a political and cultural labora- as khat t a m á s s and khoutout t a m á s s it can tory that is highly complex. It is because of this com- also mean demarcation line(s) or confronta- plexity that Catherine David does not focus exclusive- tion line(s)),* seeks to create an open forum ly on 'contemporary art' in her new project, but also for debate and the exchange of ideas, im- envisages the whole of cultural production, whether ages, and projects between different parts literature, philosophy, or journalism, as well as the im- of the Arab world and the rest of the world. ages and the patterns of thinking that currently exist in the Arab world. This is what lies behind the project's C a i r o / E g y p t title: Contemporary Arab Representations. At present, a new phase is being devel- oped under the title 'Cairo/Egypt'. In the Contemporary Arab Representations i n c l u d e s Arab world, communication is neither fluid seminars, performances, publications, and nor easy; freedom of expression is still diffi- presentations of works by different authors cult. Egypt is an example of a culture that is – visual artists, architects, writers, and poets affected by a lack of liberty. The project will I Do Not Think – with the aim of encouraging production, encourage the particular strategies that are People Leave interaction, and exchange between the dif- undertaken by the participants to achieve a Hamra Street, ferent cultural centres of the Arab world and truly uncensored analysis and critique. Hamra Street the rest of the world. The project aims to Contemporary Arab Representations w i l l Project, Ashkal tackle heterogeneous situations and con- thus create a new voice among those who A l w a n . texts that may sometimes be antagonistic only focus on the glorious past of the Arab or conflicting, and thus to acquire more spe- world while totally overlooking or even cific knowledge about what is currently with the development and promotion of an for analysing unprecedented dynamics, denying its present or future. In contrast going on in certain parts of the Arab world, experimental and critical contemporary Arab speeds, and configurations, the reverbera- with this, it will stimulate progressive pro- to look at the complexity of aesthetics in re- culture was sufficient reason to single out a tions of which can be heard beyond the jects in order to show that Islamic extrem- lation to social and political situations, and group of authors who feel the need to meet Middle East. ism and archaism are not apparent in all as- to encourage people to think more deeply and discuss a medium-term cultural project The unfolding of this project has been pects of Arab society. about the role currently played by cultural in their own city and in their personal con- presented in different phases. It began with practices in our own countries. t e x t . a seminar at the Universidad Internacional N o t e All the participants in the project aim to de Andalucía (UNIA) (22–26 October 2001) * Rohi Baalbaki, Al-Mawrid. A Modern Arabic-English B e i r u t / L e b a n o n propose representations that can broach and continued with a colloquium at the D i c t i o n a r y (Beirut: Dar El-Ilm Lilmalayin, 2001). 'Beirut/Lebanon' was the first in a series of the reality of the city and the present condi- Akademie Schloss Solitude in Stuttgart (7–9 presentations. At present, Lebanon and the tions in urban society. And they all realize February 2002). Several dossiers have been For further information, please contact Witte de Middle East are essential to an understand- that there are no theories or forms that can published in cultural journals, including the With, centre for contemporary art, the Netherlands. ing of contemporary culture: the post-war encapsulate the phenomenological com- Arteleku magazine Z e h a r (issue 46/2002), E-mail: [email protected] situation they are living through is complex plexity of contemporary Beirut and Leba- S p r i n g e r i n (issue 2/2002), and Camera Aus- – the Ta'if Accords do not guarantee defini- non. Thus, as Saree Makdisi writes in his arti- tria (issue 78/2002). The project has been T a m á s s 1. Beirut/Lebanon tive peace, and in this age of globalization, cle 'Laying Claim to Beirut: Urban Narrative hosted by the F u n d a c i ó Antoni T à p i e s i n Price: 25 Euro the country can be seen as an exceptionally and Spatial Identity in the Age of Solidere', Barcelona (2 May – 14 July 2002) and by Illustrations in colour and black and white important laboratory for a variety of rea- Lebanon can be understood not simply as a Witte de With, centre for contemporary art 23.5 x 17 cm, 168 pp. sons. Although Lebanon can no longer post-modern state but also as the first ex- in Rotterdam (14 September – 24 November English paperback serve as a 'model' or 'exception' within the ample of a state on a lease. Indeed, the in- 2 0 0 2 ) . ISBN 84-88786-61-1 Arab world, the concern of many Lebanese terest of the country or the region is also The project was accompanied by the pub- intellectuals – immediately after the war – linked to the need to find new instruments lication T a m á s s 1, which is the first in a series T a m á s s 2. Cairo/Egypt is forthcoming (May 2003). I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2 Miscellaneous 39

Call for Papers P.S. VAN KONINGSVELD Religious Change in Pluralistic Contexts ’Religious Change in Pluralistic Contexts’, an international congress to be held in Leiden, the Netherlands (28–30 August 2003), is orga- The common experience among most if formation as a result of their (ongoing) trans- distinguished in this context: (1) the behav- nized by the Leiden Institute for the Study of not all ethnic minority religions in the West plantation to Western societies. ioural dimension – e.g. changes in the prac- Religions (LISOR) in cooperation with the Lei- is the transition from a communitarian sys- The transformation from one system to an- tice of religious rituals, feasts, dress, and di- den Centre for Asian, African, and Amerindian tem to a secular system with Christianity as other is accompanied by many forms of reli- etary codes, and in the application of reli- Studies (CNWS). The central aims of the con- the dominant faith, where religions have to gious reinterpretation and change, many of giously based principles of family law; and gress are to present relevant case studies of function within the private sphere in the first which may be related directly or indirectly to (2) the cognitive dimension – e.g. reinterpre- religious change and reinterpretation in plu- place. In Europe, Judaism experienced this regulations (laws, political measures, ju- tations of normative religious traditions and ralistic contexts derived from all periods and transition primarily in the 19t h century, in the risprudence) imposed by the nation-states dogmatic thought under the influence of geographical areas of human history, and to Emancipation when Jews were granted citi- in order to integrate religious institutions dominant social customs and of prevailing contribute to theoretical reflection on the zenship in the European nation-states. Islam, into the normative patterns of the dominant philosophies. phenomenon of religious change in pluralis- Hinduism, Buddhism, and many other reli- societies. They are often sanctioned by reli- Scholars of religious studies from all over tic contexts, so as to contribute ultimately to a gious traditions of non-Western origin, in- gious authorities under the influence of the the world are invited to submit their propos- more adequate understanding of this phe- cluding African and Arab Christianity, experi- social and cultural environment of their re- als (of one page maximum) for the congress nomenon in the modern age. enced and continue to experience this trans- spective societies. Two dimensions may be before 1 February 2003.

A N N O U N C E M E N T Please send your proposals to: Leiden Institute for the Study of Religions (LISOR) Mrs B. d'Arnaud UCSIA Summer Seminar E-mail: [email protected] Prof. Dr P.S. van Koningsveld is director of LISOR. The UCSIA is an independent, international, and If the prospect of clashing civilizations is to be human rights, secularization, religious identity, and E-mail: [email protected] multidisciplinary college focusing on issues of reli- avoided, a profound understanding of the barriers new religious trends. gion, culture, and society. It is an offspring of the to intercultural dialogue is required. The seminar The seminar will be of interest to graduate stu- Saint-Ignatius University College of Antwerp (Uni- aims to contribute to building this understanding. dents and scholars in the humanities (religious stud- versitaire Faculteiten Sint-Ignatius Antwerpen, The programme is geared towards gaining scholarly ies, philosophy, linguistics, history, and literature) UFSIA). Its main objective is to provide an interna- insight into historical, philosophical, religious, and and the social sciences (anthropology, sociology, tional and interdisciplinary platform for academic socio-economic barriers to peaceful and prosperous law, and economics). research, education, and social services contribut- intercultural exchange and cohabitation at local and ing to the creation of a better and more just soci- global levels. For more information, or to participate, please contact: ety. The seminar will offer a multidisciplinary experi- Barbara Segaert, Project Coordinator The UCSIA is holding a summer seminar on 'Chris- ence. Barriers to intercultural and inter-religious dia- Univ. of Antwerp, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, tianity, Islam, and Judaism: How to Conquer the Bar- logue are to be explored from different academic OASeS, Gratiekapelstraat 10, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium riers to Intercultural Dialogue?', to be held at perspectives. Lectures and workshops will focus on Tel.: +32 3 220 49 70, Fax: +32 3 220 46 36, Antwerp University, Belgium, from 15 to 26 Septem- the following themes: peace and conflict, national- E-mail: [email protected] ber 2003. ism and ethnicity, religious minorities, gender, w w w . u f s i a . a c . b e / o a s e s

A D V E R T I S E M E N T 4 0 I S I M NEWSLETTER 1 1 / 0 2 C o n t e n t s

Stefano Allievi Aki Nawaz Converts and the Making of European Islam Fun Da Mental Radical Music, Political Protest 1 2 2 ISIM Events Inaugural Lecture: ISIM Chair I S I M MEDICAL ETHICS a t t h e University of Amsterdam Annelies Moors E d i t o r i a l Marcia C. Inhorn Date: 13 March 2003 by Dick Douwes Gender, Religion, and In Vitro Fertilization Venue: University of Amsterdam, the The International Institute for 2 2 3 Netherlands the Study of Islam in the Modern Letter to the Editor World (ISIM) promotes and P H I L O S O P H Y Conference: The Anthropology Hakan Yavuz conducts interdisciplinary o f Islamic Law 2 Nader Hashemi O r g a n i z e r s : M.K. Masud, Annelies Moors, Léon research on contemporary social Alexis de Tocqueville and Democracy in Muslim and intellectual trends and Scholarship and Activism in Islamic B u s k e n s S o c i e t i e s movements in Muslim societies Family Law 2 4 D a t e : 14–16 March 2003 Annelies Moors V e n u e: Leiden University, the Netherlands and communities. 3 Asma Afsaruddin 'Civil' and 'Democratic' Polity: A 9th-Century Workshop: Gender and Conversion to Rights at Home: Tanzania Sounding T r e a t i s e Islam Boards 2 5 O r g a n i z e r : Karin van Nieuwkerk ISIM Fellowships Laila al-Zwaini D a t e : 16–17 May 2003 4 RELIGIOUS PRACTICE V e n u e : University of Nijmegen, the Netherlands The ISIM welcomes the following new fellows: F E A T U R E S Dominique-Sila Khan Conference: Sufism and the Modern The Tale of the Hidden Pir Urban Middle Class Ph.D. Fellows Martin Riexinger 2 6 O r g a n i z e r s : Martin van Bruinessen, Dadi – Nadia Sonneveld, M.A.: 'Reinterpretation of The Islamic Creationism of Harun Yahya Darmadi, Julia Howell, in cooperation with IIAS K h u lc in Egypt: Intellectual Disputes, the 5 G E N D E R and Melbourne University Practice of the Courts, and Everyday Life' D a t e : 4–6 September 2003 CURRENT ISSUES Lara Deeb V e n u e : Jakarta, Indonesia Women's Islamic Community Service in Beirut Visiting Fellows Arye Oded 2 7 Workshop: What Happened? Telling – Dr Armando Salvatore: 'Public Islam and the Islam and Politics in Kenya Stories about Law in Muslim Societies Nation-State in Egypt: Historical, Conceptual, 6 Marloes Janson O r g a n i z e r s : Annelies Moors in conjunction with and Comparative Dimensions' On the Boundaries of Muslim Gender Ideology Martin van Bruinessen 2 8 CEDEJ, IFAO, and Utrecht University – Dr Dominique-Sila Khan: 'A Hidden Heritage: The Violent Fringes of Indonesia's Islam D a t e : October 2003 Islamic Culture in Contemporary Pranami 7 Cleo Cantone V e n u e : Cairo, Egypt Communities in India' Women Claiming Space in Mosques Pedro Brieger 2 9 For more information on these and other ISIM Events Affiliated Fellows please consult the ISIM website or contact the ISIM Latin Islam since 11 September – K.H. Hussein Muhammad: Collection of Islamic 8 Margot Badran S e c r e t a r i a t : materials in the Leiden University Library and Bosnia: Re/turning to Islam, Finding Feminism Tel: +31 71 527 7905 Isa Blumi 30 Fax: +31 71 527 7906 other libraries in the Netherlands Indoctrinating Albanians: E-mail: [email protected] – Dr Salman Harun: 'Interpretation of the Qur'an Dynamics of Islamic Aid HISTORICAL APPROACHES w w w . i s i m . n l in the West' 9 Claudia Preckel ISIM WEBSITE The ISIM invites applications and research A C T I V I S M Wahhabi or National Hero? Siddiq Hasan Khan proposals for various programmes. 3 1 The ISIM website will soon be relaunched in Sindre Bangstad order to provide better service and expand Applications from candidates in the social Revisiting PAGAD: Machoism or Islamism? Xavier Luffin our online information resources. New sec- sciences, humanities, and religious studies will 1 0 Colonialism and Muslim Mobility tions will include up-to-date listings of ISIM be considered. Applicants should be 3 2 competent in academic English. The ISIM and non-ISIM events, fellowships, grants, Armina Omerika fellowships and their respective application Bosnian Young Muslims 1939–1991: A Survey and a more accessible links section. All ISIM ACADEMIC AFFAIRS deadlines are as follows: 1 1 publications, including the ISIM Newsletter, – Ph.D. fellowships Joel Beinin the ISIM Papers Series, and the ISIM Annual (1 March 2003 and 1 September 2003) M I G R A N T S Neo-Conservatives Threaten Academic Freedom R e p o r t will be available online. The new for- 3 3 – Post-doctoral fellowships Sadik Harchaoui mat will allow users to subscribe directly to (1 March 2003 and 1 September 2003) Church and State in Multicultural Society M E D I A the N e w s l e t t e r and request back issues or – Visiting fellowships 1 2 other ISIM publications. We hope that the (1 March 2003 and 1 September 2003) René Romer new site will become a valuable resource to – Sabbatical fellowships Agathe Petit Advertising and Changing Demographics researchers and all those interested in Dying a Senegalese Muslim in France 3 4 (1 March 2003 and 1 September 2003) 1 3 modern Islam. The ISIM welcomes your RESEARCH APPROACHES feedback and comments. For more information on the various fellowships and for Miniya Chatterji application forms, please consult the ISIM website. The S h ica Imami I s m aci l i Community in Canada Henk Driessen 1 4 A Seaward View on a Transitional Region 3 5 Gyorgy Lederer ISIM Publications Islam in Post-Socialist Hungary CONFERENCE REPORTS 1 5 The following ISIM publications are available at the ISIM. Nathal Dessing LAW & SOCIETY The Islamic Charter as a Tool for Integration Publications in the ISIM Papers Series include: 3 6 – Islam, Islamists, and the Electoral Principle in the Middles East (ISIM Papers 1) Alaine Hutson by James Piscatori Gender, Mobility, and S h a r ica Caco Verhees – Thinking about Secularism and Law in Egypt (ISIM Papers 2) 1 6 Political Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa 3 6 by Talal Asad Muhammad Khalid Masud – S h a r ica, State, and Social Norms in France and Indonesia (ISIM Papers 3) Islamic Law and Muslim Minorities ARTS & LITERATURE by John R. Bowen 1 7 – 'Traditionalist' Islamic Activism: Deoband, Tablighis, and Talibs (ISIM Papers 4) Khaled Ramadan by Barbara D. Metcalf Jamila Bargach Art in the Aftermath of 11 September Orphans of Islam: Family, Abandonment and 3 7 Secret Adoption Special ISIM Publications include: – Muslim Jurists' Quest for the Normative Basis of S h a r ica (ISIM Inaugural Lecture) 1 8 Prince Claus Fund Principal 2002 Award: Mohammed Chafik by Muhammad Khalid Masud PUBLIC SPHERE 3 8 – New Voices of Islam by Farish A. Noor (Interviews with Muslim Intellectuals) Sami Zubaida Witte de With Centre Religious Authority and Public Life Contemporary Arab Representations The following publications are forthcoming: 1 9 3 8 – Muslims, Minorities, and Modernity: The Restructuring of Heterodoxy Moussa Khedimellah in the Middle East and Southeast Asia (ISIM Chair Inaugural Lecture) Aesthetics and Poetics by Martin van Bruinessen of Apostolic Islam in France – A Naqshbandi Télémaque 2 0 – 2 1 by S¸ e r i f Mardin (ISIM Papers 5)