Partial County Development Plans As a Means for Preserving Wild Reindeer Habitats in Norway

Partial county development plans as a means for preserving wild reindeer habitats in Norway

Hans Olav Bråtå

Eastern Norway Research Institute, Box 223, N-2601 Lillehammer, Norway ([email protected]).

Abstract: Norwegian wild reindeer habitats are threatened by human intervention. Wild reindeer habitats are joint region wide common pool resources (CPR). Municipalities may be free-riders to that resource if they prefer investments boosting municipal economy despite negative consequences for wild reindeer as a regional resource. Partial county development plans, following the rules of the Planning and Building Act (PBA), are a means that may combine preservation of habitats and development. In order to analyze such plans, theory on CPR management is applied to spatial development planning in the Rondane and Hardangervidda wild reindeer areas. It is shown that the nested system is in accordance with most of Ostrom’s principles. Still, a joint Planning Board ought to be established at Hardanger- vidda and a partial county plan for the whole wild reindeer area there ought to be established. It is recommended that regular monitoring of interventions and planning is established. Finally, a system or mechanism for low cost conflict resolution is needed; but is not easily included into a system based on official actors at different levels, the planning and building act and public anticipation on equal management. The last point is important for mutual acceptance of restrictions on own activity.

Key words: common pool resource (CPR), Hardangervidda, regional planning, Rangifer tarandus tarandus, Rondane, second homes, spatial development planning, tourism, wild reindeer. Rangifer, 28 (1): 89 – 102 Introduction As late as 1900, large and quite intact moun- their municipality. In this way the municipali- tain areas existed in South Norway. Through- ties becomes free-riders; they benefit from out the 20th century these areas were reduced increased economic activity and other mu- and split by human intervention. Today wild nicipalities providing space for the joint wild reindeer areas (Fig. 1) usually span a number reindeer herd, on which their inhabitants may of municipalities, many of which face prob- hunt. The future of Norwegian wild reindeer lems due to declining populations and reduced herds depends on how the land is managed at commercial activity in traditional rural econo- a regional scale, especially concerning tourism mies. Boosting local economies by increasing (Nellemann et al., 2003; Andersen & Hustad, the number of second homes in the mountain 2005). Similar problems, related to logging, areas is one option for increased economic ac- mining, industrial activity and tourism are en- tivity. From the individual municipality’s point countered in relation to North-American cari- of view it is, for tax and employment reasons, bou herds, as in Alberta (Dzus, 2001), British rational to keep the economic activity within Columbia (BC Forest Facts, 2004), Nunavut

Rangifer, 28 (1), 2008 89 (Nunavut Planning Commission, undated) and edge about CPR-management will be valuable the Beverly and Qamanirjuaq herds (Beverly for spatial planning since CPR-literature deals and Qamanirjuaq Management Board, 2005). with theoretical and practical aspects concern- Basically these problems are about eco-re- ing how to cope with the problem of free-rid- gions and the fact that human jurisdictional ing, aspects not always explicitly focused in borders often cuts across such regions. This is- spatial development planning but which are sue is relevant to more species and habitats than interesting for a successful regional planning. wild reindeer and mountain areas. Buck (1989) These aspects may be quite detailed or simi- elaborated the problem in relation to fish re- lar to “blueprints” which increase their value sources and estuaries. Rydin & Matar (2006a) as “tool” for actual planning, but on the other focus on forests, whereas Stokke (2006), Galaz hand that may also be problematic, because (2006) and Rydin & Matar (2006b) discuss the contexts and actors varies. Another challenge problem in relation to watersheds and water is the quite formal structures and procedures management. in spatial development planning compared The aim of this article is to analyse regional with the more actors focused CPR-manage- development planning as means for mitigating ment. Merging those traditions is conflicting these problems and to examine the extent to the expectations on equal treatment, which which knowledge about long enduring institu- is basic for bureaucracy and public planning. tions for common pool resource (CPR) man- Still, some elements in CPR-management are agement better such planning. already included in the planning process, such as coordination across borders, but without Planning and common pool resource receiving enough attention and consciousness (CPR) management with regard to basic problems and conditions. Maintenance of common goods – a basic reason for The spatial planning system as being a formal planning system has evolved and new actor oriented ele- Spatial development planning is a public pro- ments are included in the legislation and day- cess that results in a planning document indicat- to-day practice, for example by emphasizing ing where new activities may or not take place. public participation. It therefore seems appar- A basic reason for public planning, as spatial ent that knowledge about CPR-management development planning, is to reduce negative may increase the value of regional plans. externalities caused by individual human ac- CPRs are usually held jointly by a number tion and favour societal goals - common goods of individuals or groups. Nobody controls the (Klostermann, 1965; Friedmann, 1987) but in entire resource, but individual extraction from the 15-20 first years after the Building Act was the resource may influence its long term main- launched in 1965 it had little influence on the tenance. From an individual point of view it spatial development of Norwegian mountain may be rational, especially in the short run, to areas (Arge, 1978; Fiskaa, 1996). However, in extract as much as possible of the resource the mid-1980s things began to change when (Olson, 1965; Hardin, 1968) but this often wild reindeer and the condition of mountain undermines the long term extraction of the areas entered the agenda, a fact apparent in resource and cause problems for others. The a number of contested planning cases and challenge is to make interested parties aware in the initialisation of new regional develop- of possible problems and to accept short term ment planning processes (Rønningen, 1984; and individual restrictions in order to gain long Skogland 1984; Bråtå, 1985; 2001). Knowl- run yields. In short, temptations to free-ride

90 Rangifer, 28 (1), 2008 must be tamed in order to maintain a common good (Klostermann, 1965; Saglie, 2006). The coordination problem is pinpointed by Olson (1965) who suggests that unless there is coercion or some other special device to make individuals act in their common interest then rational, self-interested individuals will not act to achieve common or group interests. Still, a large number of cases describe and analyse how the cooperation problem is overcome (Ostrom, 1990; Bråtå, 2001; 2005). Ostrom (1990) found a number of similarities among long enduring and successful cases of CPR management and proposed some design principles for such management that could be used in the future. Stein et al. (2000) criticizes the use of Ostrom’s design principles. They argue that focusing on the design principles lead us to miss important contextual factors; that the principles are considered as blue prints and that they are based on normative criteria. Meinzen-Dick (2000) agrees the criteria are normative, and points that “success” and “failure” in management can be judged differ- Fig. 1. Map of South Norway with Hardangervidda (no. 7), Rondane (no. 19) and other wild rein- ently by individual actors or groups. Ravnborg deer areas in Norway. (Source: The Norwe- (2000) and Kurian (2000) emphasize that the gian Wild Reindeer Council/Villreinrådet i design principles to a large extent are derivated Norge, http://www.villreinen.no/Villreinrå- from situations quite removed from “the State det/Villreinomraadene.htm). and marked”, often in developing countries, and especially management of irrigation. This prove such planning by introduction of new makes them less relevant for a number of situ- perspectives. This is interesting because many ations. Ostrom (1995) and Singleton (2000), CPR-management studies (e.g. Ostrom, 1990) on the contrary, see the principles as a way of concentrate on the resource but hardly discuss understanding CPR systems, rather than being how to plan the resource system. a blueprint for action. A potential problem for analyses across the The design principles do not escape norma- arenas of big game management (the resource) tive aspects on success and failure and such el- and spatial planning (the resource system) is ements may influence the selection of design that spatial development planning is a means principles. Still, it is reason to believe that de- of coordination, whereas big game manage- sign principles point to aspects worthy to be ment is about one single resource type where examined (Bråtå, 2001). This is the point of interested parties usually have more in com- departure for this article: the design principles mon than in spatial development planning. are one way of understanding regional spa- This may not turn into a problem because tial development planning, and a way to im- the basic concern is human interaction and

Rangifer, 28 (1), 2008 91 long term management of a ‘common good’. rules are important, as well as their adjustment Another interpretation problem may be that to local conditions (Ostrom, 1990). In spatial Ostrom’s (1990) principles are to a large ex- development planning this is the detailed in- tent based on individuals as interested parties, structions laid down for new and ongoing ac- where as the municipality is a complex array tivities. of interests. Nonetheless, I have concentrated Collective-choice arrangements may tailor rules to on how a municipality as a unit acts towards local circumstances and to particularities of in- other public actors and is aware of the fact dividual resources (Ostrom, 1990). First-hand that a number of discussions are going on experience from implementation of rules is within municipalities throughout all stages of important for commitment and judgements on planning processes. By analysing the possible their function. Revision, following the PBA, is advantages of the design principles in such important because boundaries and rules may situations the principles are introduced to new, be adjusted to new knowledge. Processes, and may be more complex contexts, including when developing the partial county plans and the context of a well organised and planned by subsequent revisions of those plans, are an- western society. This broadens the possible ticipated to increase commitment to the plans understanding and use of the principles and and smooth implementation. turns into a counter argument against those, Monitoring of the resource, its conditions, as Ravnborg (2000) and Kurian (2000), arguing and how management influences the develop- that they are used in too simple situations. ment of the resource, is important. Monitor- ing by appropriators may increase data cred- Design principles for successful long enduring CPR in- itability but external monitoring may also be stitutions important. Studies suggest that jointly accept- In the following, Ostrom’s (1990) design prin- ed knowledge helps the management process ciples are, as a point of departure, elaborated (Ostrom, 1990; Bråtå, 2001; 2005). with regard to the theme of this article. Appropriators who violate operational rules Clearly defined boundaries are important be- are likely to be assessed graduated sanctions by cause they define the right to use the resource other appropriators or official authorities (Os- and who should be included in CPR-manage- trom, 1990). This may restrict the temptation ment (Ostrom, 1990). Landowners are entitled to free-ride, but those breaking joint rules to sell plots (e.g. for second homes) and are ought to face the same level of sanctions be- the primal group of actors for a CPR-manage- cause people seem to accept restrictions if they ment since their decisions directly influence the feel all are treated equally and that sanctions management of the land. The boundaries of are graduated and fair. When this is not the the CPR-resource include the landowners, and case a joint management may be undermined the municipality shall, through the spatial plan- (Bråtå, 2001). An objection is the most power- ning process, judge the added consequences of ful sanction, whereas a comment is a weaker development proposals put forward by these one. The option to raise objections was one landowners. In that process county actors and reason for partial county plans. Zoning is sup- other municipalities may object to plans that posed to direct the planning and be a warning conflict with societal goals and the boundaries on sanctions. then define relevant landowners, other -inter Access to low-cost local mechanisms for conflict ested parties, municipalities and counties. resolution can be seen to facilitate the long term Congruence between appropriation and provision endurance of CPR-management (Ostrom,

92 Rangifer, 28 (1), 2008 Fig. 2. The Rondane County Development Plan, simplified 2000 version, and nearby wild reindeer areas.

Rangifer, 28 (1), 2008 93 1990). A joint board has been important for tourist destinations. The Rondane material such conflict resolution in wild reindeer man- is based on documents from all twelve mu- agement in the northern part of Rondane since nicipalities in the area. Documents include all it helped facilitate the generation, over time, of types of written material related to municipal mutual trust (Bråtå, 2001). and county development plans: letters, plans, The rights of appropriators to develop their own minutes, reports, etc. The period studied is organisations is positive (Ostrom, 1990) and has from the 1970s until 2003. Interviews with been, for example, important to the develop- politicians, planners and wild reindeer manag- ment of Norwegian wild reindeer manage- ers supplement documentary sources (Bråtå, ment (Bråtå, 2001; 2005). Norwegian citizens 1997; 2001; 2005; 2006). An analysis of elec- have a democratic right to organise and at local tronic data provides knowledge on the number and county levels a number of interested par- and location of second homes in Rondane at ties have done so. A variety of organisations, different time intervals before and after the in- including ones for landowners, give people troduction of the partial county plan (Bråtå & different options to participate in the planning Overvåg, 2006). process according to PBA prescriptions. Most long enduring CPR-systems are in- The Rondane region cluded in nested enterprises. A nested enterprise The Rondane region covers 7100 km2 and means that an actor has formal and informal comprises twelve municipalities in the two relations to other actors. Establishing rules at counties, Hedmark and Oppland, in South one level without appropriate rules at other Norway (Fig. 2). levels will produce an incompetent system Surveys in 2006 revealed 4100 wild reindeer that may not endure in the long run (Ostrom, in the winter herd; the long term goal is 4500. 1990). Each level and organisation ought to Outdoor recreation is a major activity and act as prescribed in the PBA or be developed the number of second homes (cabins, cottages through regional practise. Partial county devel- etc.) has increased considerably. In the region opment plans for CPR-management are based as a whole there were 17 816 second homes on a system of nested enterprises: County by the end of 2005. The majority are located development plans have instructions for mu- at the fringe of the region but serve as points nicipal master plans, which have instructions of departure for outdoor activity that reaches for local plans and in turn prescribe accepted deeper into the region. Considerably more sec- interventions by individual landowners. ond homes are built in the western and south- ern than the eastern and northern parts of the Methods and data region (Bråtå & Overvåg, 2006). By the early The article uses Norwegian data on municipal 1980s county governors and mountain boards and county development plans, and planning (managers of crown land) became worried processes. Spatial planning data were collected about the future of wild reindeer habitats, and for case studies in the Rondane and Hardan- a report on the range used by wild reindeer, gervidda wild reindeer areas (Fig 1). and human interventions, in the Rondane re- At Hardangervidda the studies focused on gion was drawn up (Bråtå, 1985). The report the municipalities of Hol and Nore & Uvdal was generally accepted and used as an argu- in the eastern part of Hardangervidda, due ment against development proposals, and by to their important winter forage areas and the the mid-1980s the plight of wild reindeer ar- Numedal and Hallingdal valleys popularity as eas was at the forefront of planning debates.

94 Rangifer, 28 (1), 2008 Despite this no regional development plan to up of a Planning Board comprised of munici- guide future planning existed (Bråtå, 2001). pal, county and county governor representa- Thus a major question was how to inspire tives from both counties. The board’s aim was each municipality to closely evaluate its inter- to guide interested parties in applying the Ron- ventions and support the long-term regional dane plan and to promote its follow-up. An- maintenance of the wild reindeer habitat. The other task was to calibrate judgments of plans answer was a joint partial county development across county and municipal borders. plan, including the relevant parts of Rondane During the 2000 revision, the planning zone in Hedmark and Oppland. That plan was initi- was enlarged due to changes in land use by ated in 1986 by Erik Winther, mayor of the wild reindeer. The zone of influence was divided Ringebu municipality and county agencies. A in two subtypes taking into account that land partial county development plan was selected with substantial interventions had to be judged because municipal participation during the differently than areas with few impacts. Com- preparation was anticipated to create greater ments from municipalities were a major reason commitment and because the municipalities for changing the zone of influence. could influence the guidelines set out to guide The partial county plan’s function as a steer- their future planning. A partial county devel- ing document depends on voluntary imple- opment plan justified power against free-rid- mentation by municipalities or the county ers. The nature conservation act was the alter- authorities’ use of it for objections. After an native, but feared by municipal politicians due introductory period the partial county devel- to little influence on joint rules. Despite good opment plan reduced the number of new in- intentions, not all municipalities, mayors and terventions in Rondane. In fact, second homes chief executive officers were involved in the were often located further away from the plan- planning process. Nevertheless, all municipali- ning zone or the numbers of second homes ties formally adopted the plan which was ap- in municipal development plans were reduced. proved by the Ministry of Environment (ME) The primary reason was the county governor’s in 1991. use of the plan as a basis for objections. When The overall goal was to maintain wild rein- municipalities noticed the objections, they deer habitat and to allow new development omitted some planning proposals in conflict that did not conflict with wild reindeer. The with the partial county development plan. The range used by wild reindeer was defined as a temptation to become a free-rider was coun- planning zone (Fig. 2). Existing activity within teracted by objections, and the municipalities that zone could continue but new interven- experienced that planning proposals were tions were not allowed if they conflicted with considered quite equally across municipal and wild reindeer habitat. The rest of the region county borders. This was potentially a problem – the space between the planning zone and because historically, most economic develop- surrounding valleys – was defined as a zone of ment in Rondane had taken place in Oppland, influence. There new impacts were allowed if causing people in Hedmark to view new re- they did not increase disturbance in the plan- strictions as unjust. Quite equal considerations ning zone. New second homes in that zone, a are due to the efforts of the Planning Board. major theme, were supposed to be located as It has exercised a policy of some give and take, distant as possible from the planning zone. but has been restrictive in terms of new de- Instructions guided the planning for each velopment proposals. The Planning Board has zone. The Rondane Plan included the setting also counteracted a general problem of many

Rangifer, 28 (1), 2008 95 partial county development plans, i.e. that they alifjell for winter forage (Skogland, 1984). If easily are forgotten. wild reindeer were no longer able to use re- Some implementation problems exist: such maining eastern mountain areas of Hardan- as how close to the planning zone new de- gervidda the winter carrying capacity for all velopment plans can be allowed without pos- of Hardangervidda would decrease by 13% to ing threats to wild reindeer. Additionally, the 17%, or 1500–2000 animals (Skogland, 1984). partial county development plan is not a con- This alarmed the Directorate for Wildlife, servation plan but a plan that is supposed to which strongly opposed development propos- allow some intervention. In general, few new als and advanced the need for coordinated spa- harmful impacts are allowed for in the plan- tial planning. During the following decade new ning zone and in the zone of influence new second homes and other facilities were accept- impacts are often located further from the wild ed at the fringe of Dagalifjell, in accordance reindeer area than before the plan was adopted with proposals in Skogland (1984). Still, several (Bråtå & Overvåg, 2006). proposed second homes were also stopped due to objections from the county governor. Eastern part of Hardangervidda At Lufsjåtangen wild reindeer were not a Controversies arose in the 1980s theme in development plans throughout most Hardangervidda is approximately 8000 km² of the 1980s but entered the agenda in the late and is considered the largest mountain plateau 1980s due to the county governor’s objections in Europe. The number of wild reindeer has to a plan for second homes. In 1992, the ME varied from 21 700 in 1979 to 5000 in 2002. supported an objection against a development Long-term goal is 8000–10 000 animals. Fig. plan due to the importance of Lufsjåtangen as 3 shows the north eastern part of Hardanger- winter forage area and as a passage to the Ble- vidda and the area subject to the county devel- fjell wild reindeer area (Fig.3). opment plan in question. At Dagalifjell the number of second homes County development plan for eastern Hardangervidda during the period 1950-2004 increased from and municipal planning 77 to 1006. Most of the area is located in the In February 1993, the ME requested the coun- municipality of Nore & Uvdal but the north- ties of Telemark and Buskerud to prepare a ern part is within the borders of Hol. The in- partial county development plan for eastern troduction of an environmental division at the part of Hardangervidda. The ambition was County governor in 1982 caused conflicts in to clarify future land arrangements and the the 1980s between the division and the Nore needs of wild reindeer (Buskerud County & & Uvdal municipality concerning wild reindeer Telemark County, 1995). The municipalities issues. Despite the municipality having planned adopted the plan, which was approved by ME to keep migration routes free of new second in 1998. A wild-reindeer zone was defined where homes the governor feared that new develop- wild reindeer had priority (Fig. 3). Another ment would reduce the use of Dagalifjell by zone comprised surrounding land including wild reindeer. existing second homes and areas where new Conflicts caused the ME to initiate a regional second homes were planned, the “second homes analysis of the consequences’ of existing and and tourism” zone. Instructions were laid down new tourist facilities in the municipalities of for each zone. Sangerfjellet, Dagaliåsen and Nore & Uvdal, Hol and Tinn. The ecological Hallandsfjell which were formerly used by wild analysis pointed out the importance of Dag- reindeer, especially at population peaks, were

96 Rangifer, 28 (1), 2008 Fig. 3. The Hardangervidda East County Development Plan, simplified 1995 version. not included in the area governed by the plan reindeer was a theme from the beginning. The and no planning board was established. county governor announced he would place a During the preparation of the partial county high priority on the partial county development plan, in 1995, the elaboration of the Municipal plan when considering municipal proposals. Master Plan for Nore & Uvdal started, and wild Municipal planners used the Hardangervidda

Rangifer, 28 (1), 2008 97 East Plan to dismiss or reduce landowners re- governor and others objected, citing a conflict quests for new second homes. Although the with the needs of wildlife. The majority of the municipality reduced the number of new sec- second homes were kept as proposed. ond homes planned, second homes and wild reindeer became a theme at the public hearing Discussion in 1997 because a substantial number of new The partial county plan maps clearly define second homes were still proposed. The county the outer limits, the boundaries, of the common governor objected to 240 new second homes pool resource and consequently the relevant proposed at Dagalifjell due to conflicts with counties and municipalities. Still, at the early wild reindeer. At Lufsjåtangen the environ- phase of the Rondane Plan, these limits were mental division objected to new second homes not obvious: initially only municipalities at the outside of existing local development plans core of the region were supposed to be includ- due to wild reindeer and the number of new ed and one plan for each county was proposed. second homes there was reduced. The county A ME decision to develop a plan for the whole governor did not object to development plans region paved the way for joint management in zones for second homes and tourism. (Bråtå, 2001). Congruence between the exten- Throughout the planning process in Nore sion of the resource, the wild reindeer, and the & Uvdal some confusion emerged: were there space, on which they depend, was achieved. restrictions on further development within the This is not the case for Hardangervidda, where zone for second homes or not? Planning pro- only a part of the wild reindeer area, still an posals in Telemark increased the need for dis- important one, is subject to joint planning in- cussion on how to interpret the partial county structions. As a consequence, regional actors development plan. Clarifying these aspects now aim at a plan for the whole wild reindeer and the partial county development plan’s role area. for municipal planning became a task for the Boundaries not only define relevant actors county. They emphasized that proposed de- but also the possibility for sanctions against velopment within the zone of second homes free-riders. In both mountain areas the most and tourism was in accordance with the partial important part of the wild-reindeer areas are county development plan and that no reason clearly defined. The problem is adjacent areas, for objection existed. The county was not sure where new activity can cause disturbance that about the knowledge base on which the zones stretches into the wild-reindeer area. At Har- were laid out. At negotiations a compromise dangervidda East this problem was handled by was achieved, allowing for new second homes omitting the most extensively developed parts at the fringe. These negotiations led to a joint from the plan or by defining them for tourism. understanding of the partial county develop- Still, in the early phase of implementation, it ment plan and the environmental division was unclear how to judge plans proposed in the learned they had to be cautious about objec- zone for tourism. Objections, negotiations and tions in zones allowed for tourism in the par- interpretation by the county were necessary tial county development plan. before a joint interpretation was established. The 2003 Master Plan for Hol proposed In Rondane new tourist facilities are supposed extensive development of second homes at to be accepted in the zone of influence if the their part of Dagalifjell but located in the zone impacts are not harmful to the reindeer. In this for second homes and tourism defined in the way the planning is adaptive to the changing partial county development plan. The county land use of the wild reindeer but it is made

98 Rangifer, 28 (1), 2008 difficult because a large number of plans have ties have learned that the plan will actually be to be judged concerning possible impacts. The enforced. Proposed interventions in the most border of the common pool resource may be protected zone in both mountain areas faced debated, which is a threat to a successful CPR equal and graduated sanctions which mean that management (Ostrom, 1990; Bråtå, 2001). the formal power put to use by county level Partial county plan development processes, agencies were adjusted to how much plans following the PBA instructions, brought about conflicted with the instructions laid down in joint instructions adapted to the local condi- the county development plan. This is, despite tions (Bråtå, 2001). Consequently, Ostrom’s some discussions, also the case for the tourism (1990) second point on congruence between appro- zone at Hardangervidda. In the zone of influ- priation and provision rules is fulfilled. This is im- ence in Rondane it is implied that sanctions are portant as it defines how municipal planning graduated: Planning proposals not in conflict proposals, and other proposed interventions, are accepted. Other proposals have to include are supposed to be judged. The partial county mitigating efforts, whereas those in conflict plans increased the number of instructions face objections. The Planning Board is im- which municipalities had to consider but no portant, as it tries to facilitate equal judgments new planning resources were introduced. In across municipal and county borders, which the Rondane case the counties, the principal may increase commitment to the plan. Their owners of the partial county plan, allocated involvement in regional development planning some resources to the Planning Board. Some and their knowledge about what is accepted as additional resources are allocated for individual just sanctions are part of it, but has been criti- studies, but resources aiming at increasing the cised. CPR-studies in general seem to empha- development part of the plan, as activities not size the importance of such joint boards and harmful to wild reindeer, are not allocated. the lack of such a board at Hardangervidda is The planning processes when developing thus a potential weakness. the partial county plans, and the subsequent The conflict resolution mechanisms are the ones revisions, are examples of collective choice arrange- defined in the PBA and established through ments as defined by Ostrom (1990). Revisions traditions in the counties, as regular meetings have increased the focus upon the plans and between county agencies and municipalities. adjustment of the boundaries (Bråtå, 2005). The Rondane Planning Board takes part in New knowledge was important for the ini- conflict resolution. In the first elaboration of tiation of the partial county plans (Skogland, the Rondane Plan informal contact between 1984; Bråtå 1985). Still, although individual politicians at county and municipal levels facili- reports are produced when needed, no regu- tated the resolution of conflicts (Bråtå, 1997; lar monitoring of the planning exists. It can be 2006). Still, no local low-cost arenas for con- argued that annual monitoring is not needed flict resolution exist. Conflicts often become a because the spatial plans last for at least four formal matter, which is a weakness for a long years. However, it may be wise to monitor enduring CPR-management. regularly because current joint knowledge can Norway has a free right to organize, and a num- be an important point of departure for further ber of organizations exist, but the question is action (Friedmann, 1987). the real access to situations where decisions are The planning processes, but most of all made and influence. It is linked to the previous objections, have influenced a number of pro- point that no formal, local low-cost conflict posed interventions by which the municipali- resolution mechanism exist. Still, it is difficult

Rangifer, 28 (1), 2008 99 to see how new organisations could influence planning following the PBA instructions. Re- the CPR-management since it is based on for- gional plans may be one of the devices pointed mal institutions and rules within the spatial de- to by Olson (1965), but they are more com- velopment planning system. plicated than municipal plans due to a larger Partial county development plans are based number of actors, and because joint action on the Norwegian system of nested enterprises at across juridical borders is presupposed. Les- different levels and the PBA. The CPR-man- sons learned from actor based theory, as CPR- agement is then influenced by that system’s theory, give insight in factors that may gain re- weaknesses and strengths. It is a weakness if gional planning and mitigate the coordination paramount goals at national and regional lev- problem, despite the fact that the main actors els only are implemented by objections, which are municipalities not individuals. were the case for wild reindeer issues in the Although an accordance with Ostrom’s prin- 1980s. Joint plans for large mountain areas, ciples exist, some notable elements remain adapted to local circumstances and based on to be implemented. Firstly, a joint Planning municipal commitment, was a means to come Board ought to be established at Hardanger- a step further. A nested system based on plan- vidda and a partial county development plan ning is important due to predictability and it for the whole wild reindeer area ought to be enables public actors to sanction free-riders. established. Secondly, regular monitoring of The last point has been important for a reduc- interventions and planning ought to be estab- tion of new harmful interventions in Rondane, lished at the regional levels. Lastly, a system although local and municipal commitment also for low-cost conflict resolution mechanisms seems to reduce such interventions. ought to be established even though this may not be easily included into a system based on Conclusion official actors at different levels, PBA prescrip- A CPR-management process based on a sys- tions and the public’s expectation that equal tem of nested enterprises and the PBA has in treatment will be a part of any system. The last Rondane reduced the number of new poten- point is important for mutual acceptance of tially harmful interventions whilst allowing for restrictions on own activity. further development. Studies of the planning experiences of Hardangervidda East indicate Acknowledgements the same. A common pool resource perspec- This article has been possible due to a project funded tive shows that the system described is in ac- by the Research Council of Norway, the Changing Land- scapes Programme. I would also like to thank the two cordance with most of Ostrom’s (1990) design anonymous reviewers for challenging comments. principles. These principles, and CPR-management theory, supplement the implementation References of regional plans. The basic element of public Andersen, R. & Hustad, H. 2005. Wild reindeer and so- planning is to get from knowledge to action ciety. A guide to preservation and development of the few remaining mountain areas of Europe habitated by wild (Friedmann, 1987) and favour societal goals reindeer. [In Norwegian]. Temahefte 27. Norwegian (Klostermann, 1965), whereas the basic prob- Institute for Nature Research, Trondheim. 79pp. lem of CRP-management is that unless coer- Arge, N. 1978. Lessons to be learned from spatial develop- cion or some other device exists, individuals ment planning in Norway? Some results from a research will not act to achieve common interest (Olson, project. [In Norwegian]. Norwegian Institute for Ur- ban and Regional Research Working Paper Number 1965). At the level of individual municipalities 10. Oslo, 19pp. this is managed through spatial development

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Kunnskap om forvaltning av fellesressurer øker forståelsen av regionale planer for villreinområder

Abstract in Norwegian / Sammendrag; Norske villreinområder er truet av menneskelige inngrep. Villreinområdene er en regional fellesressurs, men kommunene kan bli gratispassasjerer i forhold til utnytting av denne ressursen ettersom de kan bli fristet til å vektlegge utbygging som gir lokaløkonomiske effekter, på tross av negative konsekvenser for villreinen som en regional ressurs. Fylkesdelplaner, som er basert på plan- og bygningsloven, er et virkemiddel som kan kombinere bevaring og utvikling. For å forstå slike planers muligheter og begrensninger analyses her fylkesdelplanene for Rondane og Hardangervidda øst i forhold til teorier om forvaltning av fellesressurser. Analysen viser at planleggingen og det offentlige systemet som er bygget opp omkring planene, er i tråd med de fleste av Ostrom sine prinsipper. Det bør imidlertid etableres et planråd for Hardangervidda og fylkesdelplanen der bør utvides slik at den omfatter hele villreinområdet. Det bør etableres et system med regelmessig kartlegging av planleggingen og effektene av det. Det bør også etableres et system som gir grunnlag for å løse konflikter på en enkel måte, men dette er ikke enkelt fordi planleggingen er basert på det offentlige planleggingssystemet og forventninger om like behandling av saker. Lik og rettferdig behandling av saker er viktig for at aktører skal kunne godta restriksjoner på egen aktivitet.

102 Rangifer, 28 (1), 2008