Description of the State Of

UNIVERSIDAD DE JAÉN Centro de Estudios de Postgrado

Trabajo Fin de Máster

DESCRIPTIONTrabajo Fin deOF Máster THE STATE OF OLIVE GROVES IN

MOROCCO

Alumno/a: Tabet, Ouiame

Tutor/a: Prof. D. Julio Calero González

Centro de Estudios de Postgrado de Estudios de Centro Departamento: Geología

Máster en Análisis, Conservación y Restauración de Componentes Físicos y Bióticos de los Hábitats delos Bióticos y Físicos deComponentes yRestauración Conservación Análisis, en Máster

Noviembre, 2020 1

El Tutor da el Visto Bueno para entregar y defender su Trabajo Fin de Grado/Máster Jaén, a 01 de septiembre del 2020

Ouiame Tabet Dr. Julio Calero Autora Tutor

ABSTRACT

The olive tree is a traditional agrosystem around the Mediterranean, when pedoclimatic conditions (soils, climate, geology) are optima for its development. It is ordinary to find this tree in Morocco where it has been present for centuries, but they are troubled with several problems related with its environmental, social and economic sustainability, as water scarcity, soil degradation or loss of rural working days. Olives groves are now the subject of a development plan to not only keep the Kingdom at its current level (2nd world producer for canned olive and 6th for oil olive oil) but to conquer new markets on a global level and thus interest from the craze that this oil known for its benefits. The “Green Morocco” national plan allows, thanks to substantial subsidies, to renew the existing orchards with the traditional “picholine variety” from Morocco and planting of new varieties in super-intensive in order to intensify as much as possible new orchards. The same for the transformation of olives into good quality oil with the installation of modern crushing units which should eventually supplant the multitude of "Maâsra" and thus reduce the environmental impact due to the water sprouts. In the future, the olive will only be represented by its oil and its edible forms, but the residues from its extraction will be valued either in the form of fuel produced for the pomace, or in the form of a base of green chemistry for the refinery by-products.

Keywords: traditional agrosystems, water pollution, soil degradation, social sustainability

CONTENTS

1. Introduction...... 7 1.1 Justification of this work...... 7 1.2. Objectives: ...... 10 2. Methods ...... 10 3. Results and Discussion ...... 11 3.1. A historical and socio-economical insight of olive groves in Morocco...... 11 3.1.1. Introduction and historical development ...... 12 3.1.2. Main areas of olive groves in Morocco...... 14 3.2. Pedoclimate and landscape conditions of the Moroccan olive groves...... 18 3.2.1. Geological framework ...... 18 3.2.3. Soil typologies in Morocco...... 27 3.2.4. Olive mill by-products valorisation...... 39 3.3. Fertilization...... 42 3.3.1. General concerns...... 42 3.3.2. Macronutrients ...... 44 3.3.3. Micronutrients ...... 47 3.4. Pest and diseases and main control strategies...... 48 3.4.1. Main diseases and pests affecting olive groves in Morocco...... 48 3.4.2. Sustainable olive pest control ...... 51 3.5. Challenges of water resource management: irrigation and salinity...... 54 3.5.1. hydric economy of the olive tree ...... 54 3.5.2. Management of scarce water resources...... 56 3.5.3. Soil salinization...... 58 3.5.4. Soil erosion...... 58 3.6. Climate change challenges ...... 59 3.7. Market challenges...... 60 Conclusions ...... 63 References ...... 64

INDEX OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Factors related to agricultural sustainability...... 9 Figure 2 Main Provinces of Morocco...... 14 Figure 3 Regions of morocco after the administrative reorganization in 2015 ...... 15 Figure 4 Distribution of the national olive orchard by agricultural zones ...... 17 Figure 5 Morocco mountain ranges ...... 19 Figure 6 Geological domains of Morocco ...... 19 Figure 7 Olive groves in the steeps of Tafraoute, Province of Tiznit ...... 21 Figure 8 Rainfed terraced olive groves over Paleogene carbonates in Amizmiz ...... 22 Figure 9 Irrigated olive groves over Quaternary materials near to Amizmiz ...... 23 Figure 10 Traditional olive groves over Flysch units, Province of Ouezzane ...... 24 Figure 11 Annual rainfall in Morocco ...... 26 Figure 12 Köppen climate types of Morocco ...... 27 Figure 13 of dominant soils in Morocco ...... 29 Figure 14 Traditional orchard in Bellouta ...... 34 Figure 15 Old traditional oil mill: Maâsra...... 37 Figure 16 Olive mil pomace stored in an agricultural cooperative in Bellouta, Province of Ouezzene...... 39 Figure 17 map of the spatial distribution of organic matter in the sandy soils (rmel) of the Doukkala plain...... 46 Figure 18 map of the spatial distribution of potassium in hydromorphic soil of the Province of Khemisset...... 47 Figure 19 map of the spatial distribution of pH in the Cambisols (Hamri) of Sidi Kacem...... 48

INDEX OF TABLES

Tableau 1 Equivalence of main classification systems for Morocco soils...... 31 Tableau 2 Interpretation of nutrient levels...... 44 Tableau 3 List of the most important phytophagous insect and mite species infesting olive tree in Morocco...... 50 Tableau 4 Effects of water deficit on olive growth and production processes...... 56 Tableau 5 Principes to analyse the environmental sustainability of the soil of olive systems ...... 59

1. Introduction.

1.1 Justification of this work.

According to the FAOSTAT (2019), Morocco is the fifth country in olive production around the world, with a total production of 1,039,117 t, which supposes the 4,98% of the total. Also, Morocco has increased his olive oil production more than a 50% (55%) in the last 25 years, being the second country of the top 10 producers which the highest increase after Portugal. (Vilar et al., 2015). If we compare the last two seasons for which we have data (2017-2018 and 2018-2019), there have been increases of 22% in olives and of 43% in olive oil, increasing the latter from 140,000 t to 200,000 t (Medias 24, 2020).

The consumption of olive oil has also increased very significantly in Morocco in the last 25 (average for the 2009-2015 period), rising to 113.5 x 106 t year-1 or 3.5 kg person-1 year-1 (Fellahtrade, 2018). Again, it supposes an increase of 88%, the highest in the world after Brazil (Vilar et al., 2015). However, most of the production is dedicated to exportation. In this sense, Morocco has increased its exports until reaching 64,000 t for table olive exports, while the average olive oil exports 22,500 t. In this regard, Morocco is the 6th largest exporter of olive oil in the world, according the Exchange Office. These sales generated revenues of more than 320 MDH. They are up 55% in volume and 27% in value regarding to 2017. In front of Morocco we find Spain (320,000 t), Italy (185,000 t), Tunisia (130,000 t), Portugal (50,000 t) and Turkey (45,000 t). Morocco's market share in olive oils is around 2.6% (world exports are around 850,000 t).

Olive groves occupied 1,020,569 ha in Morocco (FAOSTAT, 2019). This accounts almost the 10% of the total surface of this crop in the world (10.8 x 106 ha) and placed the country as the fourth one with the largest area dedicated to olive groves. The increase in olive grove area has matched the increase in production. Thus, in the last 25 years it has gone from 412,000 h to the current surface, an increase of 60% (one of the largest increasing ratios in the world) (FAOSTAT, 2019).

Moreover, beyond these macroeconomics figures, which highlight the substantial economic significance of the olive grove in Morocco, this sector is an important driver

of rural areas, generating more than 380,000 permanent jobs, in which women make up 20 percent of workers in the field (MWN, 2018). Thus, beyond the recent trend towards commercial and export-oriented cultivation, the traditional olive grove (which continues to represent more than 50% of the total) is an important source of wealth for the less developed areas of the country. A survey carried out among farmers in the Chefchaouen region (North-West Morocco), a territory representative of traditional mountain agro- ecosystems, revealed that the wild olive tree (“acebuche”) has been well integrated into the exploitation and management of traditional orchards. Farmers commonly use it for the multiplication of local varieties (i.e. „Moroccan Picholine‟) by grafting for oil production. The valorization of traditional know-how and territorial anchoring would allow the conservation of traditional olive groves and cultivars well adapted to socio- economic realities (LDCSB, 2016) and as a solution to some environmental problems caused by the intensification of the crop, as unsustainable water withdrawals, soil erosion and the biodiversity losses (Harbouze, 2019).

However, even in the traditional olive oil mill („maâsra‟), the extraction of oil poses serious problems of environmental pollution due to its solid (the pomace) and liquid (the waste-waters) residues, which are usually dumped in the nature without no preliminary treatment (Esshale and Karrouch, 2015). The management of extraction residues is undoubtedly an important issue for the preservation of the environment and for human health, and may suppose a relevant added value by residue valorisation (composting, etc.) (ADA, 2012)

The project “Green Morocco” (Harbouze, 2019) aims to make agriculture one of the first sectors of productive development, to modernize it, to promote agricultural investments, to ensure food security, to stimulate exports of agricultural products and to promote local products. The objectives of the Green Morocco Plan by 2020 provide for an area of 1,220,000 hectares planted in the next years. With an olive growing area of 998,000 hectares in 2015, compared to 773,000 in 2009, around 37,000 hectares are planted each year. At this rate, the target of 1,220,000 hectares will indeed be reached in five years (2024 – 2025). Moreover, one of the main premises of the Green Morocco Plan is to attain an environmental a social sustainable agriculture, increasing the income of small farmers and generating development of backward rural areas, as well as reducing the environmental impact of farms (improvement in irrigation, fight against

erosion, carbon sequestration, etc.). For this reason, the promotion and improvement of traditional orchards is considered of utmost importance.

In this work, we will follow the sustainable agriculture concept from Karlen et al. (2003), which was adapted to olive groves for Gómez-Limón and Riesgo (2010). According to this authors, the sustainability of olive groves does not include only environmental sustainability (defined as the capacity of the ecosystem to carry out its functions in a long-term) but also the economic and social sustainability (Figure 1). Each component of the whole sustainability could be estimated in base to several indicators, parameters than can be accurately measured for each farm. Some examples of (micro)economic indicators is the amount and stability of farm incomes, while for social indicators, it should be taken into account the number of working days generated by olive groves in a certain area.

Figure 1 Factors related to agricultural sustainability (Karlen et al., 2003).

The concept of the global sustainability of olive groves, including this three components (environmental, economic and social) has been treated by several authors in Spain following several methodological approaches. Gómez-Limón et al., (2012) applied the method of eco-efficiency assessment, as defined first by OECD (1998), finding a scarce correlation between the eco-efficiency of olive groves and the social indicators. This is explained by the high dependence of Spanish agriculture on subsidies from the common agrarian policy (CAP), even concluding that there is a negative correlation between EU

subsides olive groves eco-efficiency. Carmona-Torres et al. (2014) applied the analytical network process methodology to evaluate the multifunctionality of the olive grove in Andalusia, finding that improved economic performance is not incompatible with social objectives, such as rural development and employment, and with the environmental protection of soil, water and biodiversity. To the knowledge of the authors, none of these quantitative approaches has been used in the Moroccan olive grove. Furthermore, when revising bibliography for this work, we find a lack not only in the application of quantitative methodologies to evaluate the sustainability of the olive grove, but also that the basic information on which these are supported, which was scarce, dispersed and difficult to access.

Efforts in this directions have undertaken by the SUSTAINOLIVE project („Novel approaches to promote the SUSTAInability of OLIVE cultivations in the Mediterranean), funded by the EU (PRIMA call 2018). The main objective of SUSTAINOLIVE is to promote the sustainability of the olive oil sector through the implementation and promotion of sets of innovative and sustainable solutions (Sustainable Technological Solutions) in management practices, based on agroecological concepts and effective exchange and knowledge asset in the main players in the sector, being Morocco one of the six participating countries (together with Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece and Tunisia). Hence, one of the first steps in the project development is to synthesize all the available information about the current state of olive groves in Morocco. As such, this work can be framed inside the SUSTAINOLIVE project.

1.2. Objectives:

The main objective of this study is to make a characterization of the current Moroccan olive groves, based on various bibliographic sources consulted, highlighting the comparison between traditional and intensive cultivation methods, their impact on the environment taking into account the economic and social return of the two methods as well as the sustainability of the olive groves in Morocco.

2. Methods

The search for information for this work has been carried out at three levels, which are briefly summarized: 10

1) On the one hand, scientific databases have been consulted to gather contrasted information on specific topics. To search for scientific information, the Web Of Science (WOS) accessible from the website of the Ministry of Science and Innovation (Spanish Foundation for Science and Technology, FECYT, https://www.recursoscientificos.fecyt.es/), through the Identity Service of the University of Jaén (SIDUJA). This search engine allows access to multidisciplinary databases where links to multiple peer-review journals and documents (i.e. Proceedings, book chapters) of high scientific quality are available, indexed in the Journal of Citation Reports. All the search links journals or sources subscript by the University of Jaén, so it was not necessary to use the interlibrary loan service. Searches in the WOS have been carried out mainly in the categories “title” (i.e. “olive groves * AND Morocco *, soils * AND Morocco *, etc.), and in some cases by “author”. On the other hand, the SCOPUS database of the Elsevier publisher (https://www.scopus.com/home.uri) has also been consulted, which also provides access to high quality scientific information.

2) On the other hand, the commercial search engine Google has been used to search for information of all kinds, including scientific articles in the free-access platform and / or published by the authors themselves (as Research Gate), as well as non-indexed journals (i.e Calero et al., 2020, Grandes Cultivos), national and local information newspapers (i.e MWN, 2020; Medias 24, 2020), agricultural portals (i.e Fellahtrade, 2018; FAOSTAT, 2019; IOC, 2018), archive documents, etc.

3) Finally, non-public information has also been obtained (to a limited extent), in the form of personal communication, through the partners of the SUSTAINOLIVE project in Morocco (i.e. LDCSB, 2016). Here, we must mention Dr. Kamal Targuisti, from the Abdelmalek Essaadi University (Tetuan, Morocco).

The information obtained (as can be seen in section 6) includes sources in English, French and Spanish, being in all the sources that used Arabic also translated into French, so they are fully accessible to an international reader.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. A historical and socio-economical insight of olive groves in Morocco.

3.1.1. Introduction and historical development

The olive tree has aroused and still arouses a very particular look since antiquity. This tree is the oldest and one of the more important fruit trees (Therios, 2009). This is also and emblematic of a region, a climate, a way of life, and a civilization: that of the Mediterranean (Loumou and Giourga, 2003).

Botanists recognize two varieties: Olea europaea var. sativa which includes all cultivars and Olea europaea var. sylvestris Mill. commonly known as the oleaster, which is a grouping of both wild and wilted forms (Sibbett and Ferguson, 2004; Barranco et al., 2017). Although its botanical origin is not known, it is considered that it could descend from Olea chrysophylla var. cuspidata Wall., a shrub that grew in countries such as Kenya, Uganda and Ethiopia and that it spread to the Sahara before the Pleistocene (5.3 m.a. BP; Standish, 1960). Its presence in the Mediterranean basin has been verified through pollen for at least 3.2 m.a. BP (Suc, 1984).

Olives were associated to the man from times as old as the Paleolithic and Neolithic (37,000 BC), but its domestication and actual culture was not effective until the Bronze Age (1,500 BC), were some evidences was found in Greece and Asia Minor (Ater et al., 2016). From Greece, olive cultivation spread throughout the Hellenistic world (Italian peninsula and Sicily), but it was the Romans who introduced the cultivation in the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa in the second century BC. Specifically, there is archaeological evidence of exploitation of the olive tree in Morocco, by the Berbers, since at least the year 145 BC (El Bouzidi and Ouahidi, 2016). An emblematic example is the archaeological site of Volubilis, a Roman ruins located in Meknes (northern part of Morocco), where some of the best preserved traditional oil presses (maâsra) in the world have been located. The maâsra, of Roman origin, is a system that is still used with little variation in the country today (Ater et al., 2016).

The study by Moukhli et al (2013), based on a careful examination of documents (books, travel diaries, etc.) on the history of Morocco, shows that olive growing in central Morocco (Marrakech, Sidjilmassa and the Souss) developed much later (between the 12th and 17th centuries). This situation is probably due to the place occupied by the argan tree, Argania espinosa (L.) Skeels, in the production and consumption of vegetable oil in these regions. Massive plantations of the Moroccan

picholine were carried out during the French and Spanish protectorates at the beginning of the 20th century. The number of trees increased from 5.3 million in 1930 to 13.7 million in 1960 (Moukhli et al., 2013). The same public policies were pursued after independence and more particularly within the framework of the National Olive Plan implemented in 1998 and more recently within the framework of the Green Morocco Plan.

Currently, in Morocco, the total area planted is around 1.02 million ha distributed among 400,000 farms (Harvouce et al., 2019). This represent a percentage of the total surface of the country of the 1.46 % and about the 2.24% of the total agricultural surface. This is far from the main crop, the wheat, which accounted for 5.3 million ha (7.4% of the total surface and the 59% of all agricultural lands). By comparison, the olive groves in Spain supposes the 5.4% of the country's total area and 16% of all Spanish agricultural lands (ESYRCE, 2019).

The average annual production of olives is about 1.1 million t, 65% of which is reserved for crushing, 25% for table olives, the remaining 10% representing self-consumption and losses. This represents 5% of the Moroccan GDP and the labour force for this culture is estimated at 15,000,000 working days/year (Fellahtrade, 2016). Table olive production is estimated at 90,000 tonnes per year. Morocco is the second largest exporter in the world of this product. The main producing regions are Marrakech, Fez and Meknes. The products: green olives, black olives, rotary olives, pitted olives, sliced olives, stuffed, candied, etc. A large part, 64,000 tons per year, is exported to European countries and the United States (Fellahtrade, 2016).

Morocco's new agricultural policy, the Green Morocco Plan, aims to profoundly transform the agricultural sector, its institutions, its actors and the modalities of state intervention. This asserted will of exhaustiveness and integration of actions to each other makes it difficult to assess the impact of reform projects, the subject of this note. Therefore, this evaluation will focus on seven reforms and will consider them separately. The synergies expected from the simultaneous implementation of the various reform programs will not be taken into account in this evaluation. The reforms subject to this evaluation are at different stages of formulation and approval, which makes it all the more interesting to conduct this impact evaluation. The reforms under consideration include reforms of the wholesale fruit and vegetable markets, municipal

slaughterhouses, reforms associated with the action of the National Food Safety Office, reforms associated with the renewal of the agricultural council, reform of the public irrigation water sector, reforms in the management of the State's private domain and collective land used for agriculture, and finally the modalities for identifying, selecting, implementing and monitoring projects under Pillar II of the Green Morocco Plan.

3.1.2. Main areas of olive groves in Morocco.

The olive tree can grow in Morocco on a large part of the territory except in coastal areas and desert regions. The main producing areas stretch across almost the whole of Morocco, although the geographical breakdown of orchards reveals that there are three major areas (Figures 2 and 3):

• North (Rif): Tangier, Tetouan, Chefchauen, Taounate and Ouezzane. Produces about a 25% of all Moroccan olive groves.

• Centre: Taza, Fez and Meknes. This area produces more than 50% of all Moroccan olive groves.

• South: Haouz - Marrakesh, Tadla – Azilal, Safi and Essaouira. This region produces about of 25% of all Moroccan olive groves.

Figure 2 Main Provinces of Morocco (Source: https://www.pinterest.es/pin/299489443962973965/). 14

Figure 3 Regions of morocco after the administrative reorganization in 2015 (Source: wikipedia)

Inside the above showed great parts of the country, the orchard characteristics for the most important administrative regions (Prefectures, Provinces) can be detailed:

1) Fes – Meknes.

This region is the main area of olive oil production in Morocco and concentrates large farms of agro-industrial type (40% of national production, 80% of exports), several of this from international companies (French, Spanish, etc.). The production is ensured by a dual agriculture: a large number of small farms with traditional rainfed plantations but favourable relief and soils (“bour”), and some large farms of several hundred hectares of irrigated olive trees each with intensive or super intensive cropping systems (Spanish type, high density, drip, mechanized harvesting) which are focused in exportations.

2) Marrakech – Tensift – Al Haouz.

The olive sector, which is the main arboricultural sector in Marrakech - Tensift - Al Haouz, has experienced remarkable development over the last 4 years. The olive- growing area has now reached 192,000 ha, or 20% of the national area. By 2013, which recorded 158,000 ha of olive trees, the forecasts of the Regional Agricultural Plan (RAP) for 2020 have been reached. If the region contributes to 22% of national olive production, it also represents 64% of exports of canned olives and 10% of olive oil exports. Building on this product is therefore a priority of the RAP (Regional Agricultural Plan), which devotes 70% of its investments. Thanks to the Green Morocco Plan, the region has seen the extension of the area planted with olive trees of 40,000 ha and the establishment of 5 olive oil production units with an annual capacity of 60,000 tons. Total area: 192,000 ha (20% of the national total), of which 156,000 ha are irrigated. Productive area: 170,000 ha Average production: 300 000 t year-1; Number of olive producers: 132,300 (ORMVAH 2014).

3) Beni mellal – Tadla – Azilal.

The orchards in this region show a relatively low level of yield (2 to 3 t ha-1), compared to the potential of the surrounding regions (≈ 7 t ha-1). Are characterized by the dispersion and irregularity of the plantations, with a large number of traditional very small orchards (< 1 ha). These are characterized by: i) strong dominance of gravity-fed irrigation and low investment in the conversion of the gravity-fed irrigation system to localized irrigation; ii) low varietal diversification; iii) unorganized marketing circuit: negative impact on the farmer's income, which loses 1.5 to 2 Dh/Kg in favour of intermediation; iv) insufficient structure of olive collection points and dominance of traditional crushing units or “maâsras” (86%); and v) multiplicity of intermediaries who profit from high margins compared to producers; and v) absence of an interprofessional framework (Fecam, 2014).

4) Tangier – Tetouan and the Rif.

As in the south-earsten region (Beni Mellal – Tadla – Azilal), olive groves in the Rif are mainly traditional mountain orchards with small and rather irregular plantations that suffer from all the mentioned problems (low yield, insufficient incomes, small and no- efficient oil mills, absence of interprofessional framework, etc.). The oil produced by fairly traditional means is usually of low quality (i.e. high acidity, defects) and for self- consumption or local sale.

Finally, the distribution of olive groves according with the orography of the country is as follows (Figure 4) (Ramani, 2015):

Figure 4 Distribution of the national olive orchard by agricultural zones (Ramani, 2015)

a) Mountainous area: 270,000 ha representing 27% of the production. b) Rainfed area: 89,820 ha representing 9% of the production. c) Modern irrigated area: 440,000 ha representing 44% of the production, d) Traditional irrigated favourable area (bour): 205,000 ha, 20% of production.

The main fruit species cultivated in Morocco, the Olive Tree occupies a surface of 560,000 ha including 440,000 ha in irrigated areas (Haouz, Tadla, Souss-Massa, Moulouya, Nador, Boulemane, Oujda, El Kelaâ, Marrakech, Chichaoua, Bénimellal Ouarzazate, Tafilalet. Figuig, Essaouira), 270,000 ha in mountain areas (Chefchaouen, Taounate, Taza, Tangier, Tetouan, Azilal, Khénifra, Al Hoceima), 205,000 ha in favorable bour areas (Sefrou, El Hajeb, Fez, Meknes, Sidi Kacem, Gharb, Loukkos, Benslimane) and scattered between Safi, Settat, Khémisset and Khouribga. The Olive

Tree contributes to employment in rural areas with 11 million working days annually. (Ramani, 2015)

3.2. Pedoclimate and landscape conditions of the Moroccan olive groves.

3.2.1. Geological framework

Geology is an important factor that determines the distribution, productivity and sensitivity to degradation of olive grove agrosystems, mainly through the influence on the relief and soils.

Morocco lies at the northwest corner of the Saharan platform, surrounded by the moving plates of the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. During its long geological history conditioned by this position of hinge, between the African, European and American continents, several orogenic cycles have followed one another, each contributing, by its geodynamic context and its magnitude, to shape the major structural areas from Morocco.

This is how we distinguish three domains, defined according to the location and the importance of the effects of the most recent orogenesis (Michard et al., 2018) (Figures 5 and 6). From South to North, they are the following: 1) the anti-Atlas domain and its Saharan extension, 2) the Atlas domain and 2) the Rif domain. These are separated from each other by the South Atlas accident, on the one hand (anti-Atlas and Atlas domains), and the limit of tertiary basins from the North, on the other hand (Atlas and Rif domains). The last two are predominantly structured by the Variscan and Alpine orogenies, while the first domain has been essentially shaped by the Precambrian and Variscan orogenies.

Figure 5 Morocco mountain ranges (Source : wikipedia)

Figure 6 Geological domains of Morocco (Source: Michard et al., 2008) a) Anti-Atlas and Saharan domain

The Anti-Atlas extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the southwest, towards the northeast just to Ouarzazate, and further east to the city of Tafilalt, covering the regions of Sus- Masa and a part of the Draa-Tafilalet (see also Figure 3). In the south and east, it limits

to the north-western part of the Sahara. This domain accounted approximately one-third of the country surface.

Intimately linked to the West African shield in the South and limited by the South Atlas accident in the North, this area is formed by a Proterozoic base. The geological origin of this unit was the northern part of the Archean ridge of the Reguibat, dated to 2800 million years, the oldest in the country and which is affected by the Eburnian orogeny at 2200 million years. To the north of this Eburnian base is the mobile part of the Pan- African crust of upper Proterozoic age, which formations are covered in discordance by transgressive series going from the infra-Cambrian to the Carboniferous and which are deformed by the Hercynian orogeny. These domains are rich in volcanic rocks as ophiolites and vulcanites, and also in calc-alkaline plutonic intrusions. The reliefs are mountainous, although the heights are much lower than in the Atlas (maximum altitude: 2,712 m from the Amalun`Mansur peak), alternating with dry river valleys. The meridional slope of the Anti-atlas, before descending towards the course of the Draa, is interrupted by a thin ridge of hills formed by rocky outcrops in which the scarce outcropping water generates some oases and irrigations, but in general olive groves are of the traditional and rainfed type (Figure 7).

Figure 7 Olive groves in the steeps of Tafraoute, Province of Tiznit, southern region of Sus – Massa, Anti-Atlas mountains (Source: https://www.alamyimages.fr/photos- images/atlas-mountains-morocco-tafraoute.html )

b) Atlas and Meseta domains

The Atlas mountain range runs practically the entire length of the country, from west to east from the Atlantic coast to Algeria (high Atlas), and from southwest to northwest to the Rif (Middle Atlas). The Atlas separates the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean from the Sahara Desert and, in fact, is one of the factors that cause the dryness of this desert.

Located between the southern Atlas accident and the southern edge of the Pré-Rif, this area consists of: 1) a Palaeozoic basement (western “Mesetas” of the Central Massif in the Region of Khenifra – Beni Melal, and in the Rehamna Province) from Cambrian to Carboniferous in age, structured by the Hercynian orogeny and consisting essentially of sedimentary rock with frequent volcanic outcrops and granitoids intrusions, and 2) a cover, formed of essentially Mesozoic and Cenozoic carbonates (Figure 8), comprising

two structural units: i) an area with folded cover comprising the High and the Middle Atlas, having undergone early Alpine tectonics, and ii) an area with tabular coverage including part of the middle Atlas and the highlands and horts in eastern Morocco (“Oran plateau”). Finally, and although it is not properly part of this domain, parallel to the northern border of the Atlas, we find extensive plains of Pliocene alluvial fans composed of conglomerates and red sandstones (Figure 8).

In the High-Atlas area, mountainous reliefs predominate (the Toubkal, 4,167 m, is the highest point in North Africa) that have been eroded into deep valleys and streams that flow into the desert plateaus that surround them. Geographically the High-Atlas occupies the Marrakesh-Safi, Draa-Tafilalet and Beni Mellal-Khenifra Regions. In the area of the Middle Atlas, of very complex geotectonics, tabular and folded areas alternate (the maximum height of the range is the Jebel Bou Naceur, 3356 m) with volcanic plateaus, occupying mainly the provinces of Khénifra, Ifrane, Boulmane,among other.

Figure 8 Rainfed terraced olive groves over Paleogene carbonates in Amizmiz, Province of Al Haouz, southern region of Marrakesh - Safi, High Atlas Mountains (Source: Sustainolive project, 2019)

Figure 9 Irrigated olive groves over Quaternary materials near to Amizmiz, Province of Al Haouz, southern region of Marrakesh - Safi, High Atlas Mountains (Source: Sustainolive project, 2019)

c) Rifain domain

Located in the north of the country. It presents a characteristic geology similar to that of the Betic systems in the Iberian Peninsula, together with the one that makes up the Arco de Gibraltar. This range is made up of non-native units carried along the margin of the African plate. It is made up of the internal zones (Intrarif), the flysh zone and the external zones (Prérif and Mesorif). The north of the Rif, on the Mediterranean coast, is the geologically different Alboran Domain.

The internal zones are represented in two regions on the Mediterranean coast: between Sebta and Jabha and in the Bokkoya. By their origin, these internal zones are linked to the Alboran plate, individualized in the Mesozoic between Africa and Europe, and consist of several crystalline (peridotites) and Paleozoic detrital materials deposited in a deep basin, which are more of less metamorphosed (gneisses, schists, quartzites). The flysh units correspond to alternating marls, clays and sand of turbiditic genesis of Mesozoic and Cenozoic ages hilly landscape with a relatively low energy relief (Figure 10).

The external zones correspond to the old external ridge, established on the North African margin, filled with thick Mesozoic and Cenozoic series of carbonates (Triassic and Jurassic limestone and dolomites, Cretaceous marls and sandstones, Miocene marls,

etc.), much of them strongly folded and where karst landscapes are common (ONHYM, 2015).

Figure 10 Traditional olive groves over Flysch units, Province of Ouezzane, northern region of Tanger – Tetouan – Al Hoceima, Rif (Source: Sustainolive project, 2019)

3.2.2. Climate constraints

Olive tree needs minimum temperatures between 0 - 7 ° C during the winter dormancy for flowering bud differentiation in spring (Therios, 2002). Minimum temperatures above 7 ° C cause a failure of flowering. On the other hand, the olive tree does not tolerate absolute temperatures in winter below -7 ° C, because intense frosts, especially sudden ones, cause irreversible tissue damage (Connor and Fereres, 2005). In addition to minima, average temperatures are also an important factor in the physiology of olives groves. If temperature do not rise above 7 ° C or fall below 16 ° C at any time of the year, there is also a high risk of failure in flowering (Sibbett and Ferguson, 2005). For this reason, annual mean temperatures higher than 22 - 24 ° C can be considered as problematic from the profitability point of view (Sys et al., 1991), even more so in climate change future scenarios with increases in temperatures (Ponti et al., 2014). In Morocco, this problem is amplified by the “Chergui” (a warm wind from the sahara, very commun in Morocco), which in a few hours can completely burn the flower in spring, and cause the fruit fall and slow down the growth process of the fruit in summer due to the excessive effect of evapotranspiration. This has a negative impact on the quality and quantity of oil extracted.

The olive tree does not generally resist a temperature below -15 ° C except for some rare varieties, this isotherm delimits its cultivation area in latitude and altitude. The olive tree resists up to around -12 to -10 ° C punctual frosts in winter vegetative rest, but at a temperature of -1 to 0 ° C, damage can be very significant for flowering. Nevertheless, a marked winter is necessary for him to induce the production of flowers and therefore of olives. The olive tree is a rustic tree, indifferent to the nature of the soil but demanding in light; it fears humidity, but withstands exceptional droughts and suffers little from the action of strong winds. However, from 35 to 38 ° C, vegetative growth stops and at 40 ° C and above, burns damage the foliaceous apparatus, which can cause the fruit to fall, especially if irrigation is insufficient. Hot winds during flowering, fogs, strong humidity, hail and spring frosts are all unfavourable factors for flowering and fruiting (Olivier, 2003)

Morocco, as a North African country that lies between two climatic zones, temperate in the tropical north to the south, Morocco is distinguished by several types of climates that can be classified according to the mean annual rainfall (ombrotype) (Rivas- Martínez, 1987): humid (> 1000 mm year-1), subhumid (from 600 to 1000 mm year-1), dry (from 600 to 350 mm year-1), semi-arid (from 350 to 200 mm year-1) and arid (< 200 mm year-1) (Figure 11). Moreover, in the Koppen classification, Morocco showed eight thermo-pluviometric climates (Figure 12): i) Desert type (BWh, BWk, BWh and BSk), ii) Mediterranean type (Csa and Csb) and iii) Continental type (Dsb and Dsc). Of all these climates, Csa (hot-summer Mediterranean) and Csb (warm-summer Mediterranean) are optima for olive groves, since they have an average temperature of the coldest month between around 5 °C to 8 °C, that ensures spring flowering, and enough rainfall, between 350 y 800 mm year-1 (ombrotypes from semi-arid to subhumid). The Continental warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Dsb) is in the limit of suitability for olive groves, mainly by the average temperature of the coldest month (between – 3 °C and 0 °C), which are lower limit of tolerance of olive trees (0 °C). The other climates are unsuitable for the crop due to the low mean annual temperatures (Dsc) or scarce rainfall (desert types; unsuitable excep if irrigated).

The olive tree requires a mild, sunny climate and tolerates drought quite well. On the contrary, it doesn‟t tolerate too much water and therefore excessive flooding, as in very

clayey soils in bottom valleys or humid ombrotype, can suffocate the roots (Ortega et al., 2016). For rainfed olive groves with 600 mm year-1 of rain (ombrotype subhumid) well distributed over the year, the olive tree develops and produces optimally. Between 200 and 600 year-1 (ombrotypes dry and semiarid) production in rainfed system is possible but the soil requires deep soils with progresively more water retention capacity (i.e. Avalaible Water Content, AWC, > 1.4 mm cm-1), or plantation densities of 100 tree ha-1 or lower. As example of the latter, in the south of Tunisia, where rainfall can be less than 100 mm year-1, most of the plantations have less than twenty trees per hectare. With rainfall less than 200 mm year-1 (ombrotype arid) olive growing risks being economically unprofitable (Sys et al., 1991). The mean annual rainfall of Morocco is showed in (Figure 11).

Figure 11 Annual rainfall in Morocco (Styring et al., 2016)

Figure 12 Köppen climate types of Morocco (Source: WorldClim.org)

As can be seen in the figures, only the mountainous regions of the Rif, the High-Atlas and Middle-Atlas, as well as the northernmost part of the Anti-Atlas, would present rainfall > 400 mm year-1 and therefore suitable for a rainfed normal production, although it is necessary to bear in mind that in the highest heights they could be limited by mean temperatures < 7 ° C and frosts. In the rest of the country, precipitation allows marginal productions and a low profitability in the crop, if irrigation is not applied.

3.2.3. Soil typologies in Morocco.

Determined by the Geology and Climate, the soil is probably the environmental factor that most influences the cultivation of the olive tree, since it not only determines the nutritional status of the crop, but also determines a large part of the influence that precipitation and temperature have on the tree (edaphoclimate). The olive tree is a very robust tree that grows well in soils of all kinds, avoiding only excessively acidic or waterlogged soils (Therios, 2002). However, not all soils can sustain an economically profitable crop, especially in rainfed conditions in dry climates. For optimum growing of olive trees, soil must be deep, permeable, well balanced in fine elements (50% clay +

silts) and with 50% in coarse elements (medium and coarse sands), being the medium textures (loam, silty clay loam, silty loam, and silty clay) perfect for the same (Barranco et al., 2017). For economic profitability, soils with steep slopes, greater than 15%, should be avoided, since this causes excessive runoff with the effect of water loss and erosion, as well as stony areas greater than 20% in coarse fragments (> 2 mm), which makes it difficult to tillage the soil and reduce the volume of soil accessible by roots (Sys et al., 1991).

The optimum pH ranges between 7 and 8, but can go up to 8 to 8.5 with, however the risks of induction of iron and manganese deficiency (case of calcareous soils with calcium carbonate content > 70%). Above 8.5 (alkaline or sodic soils) the crop is unsuitable due to physical and chemical problems derived from excess sodium (Boulouha et al. 2006), while if the pH < 6 (acid soils) the soils are too poor in nutrient, particularly in potassium, for a profitable production without a significant fertilisation (Barranco et al., 2017). On the other hand, an organic matter content of at least 1% is necessary, both to ensure a good supply of nutrients (mainly nitrogen, but also micronutrients) and a sufficiently soft structure to avoid root suffocation problems (especially in clay soils).

Morocco is characterized by several different types of soils, different from one region to another (Figure13).

Figure 13 of dominant soils in Morocco. Source : DSMW-FAO-UNESCO

Field observation and laboratory analysis of soil samples make it possible to characterize the potential and the constraints to crop development. Most important types of soil in Morocco have local names (Billaux and Bryssine, 1967), which correspond with specific groups of the FAO (FAO, 1975) and USDA (Soil Survey Staff, 2010) classification:

1) Tirs. These are Vertisol both in FAO and USDA classifications. Deep soils with a predominant clay content, in particular swelling clays which give them a specific behavior. They are well supplied with nutrients and retain considerable water, which is an asset for the crops they support. Hard and compact in the dry state, then sticky in the wet state, these soils are difficult to work. This type of soil is generally located along large basins and plains (that of the West, province of Khenifra, plains of Chaouia, Doukkala and Abda in the province of Safi, and widely distributed in the Rif). Vertisols have a very high potential for olive growing (Moussadek et al., 2017).

2) Hamri. This is a denomination of a complex of soils that could be associated mainly to Cambisols (calcic and eutric Cambisols) in the FAO system, or to the groups of 29

Calcixerepts or Haploxereps in the Soil Taxonomy (order Inceptisols, suborder Xerepts). In general, they are moderately deep soils, often over calcareous substrate as limestone or marly limestones. They are generally decarbonated on the surface and poor in organic matter, showing a coloured subsurface B horizon more or less clayey. They have a wide distribution both on the slopes of mountain ranges and the plateaus, for example, the Rif and northern Middle Atlas (Region Fez – Meknès) or the High-Atlas (Region of Marrakech – Safi). These soils show relatively good physical and chemical properties and have a medium to high potential for olive growing, depending on the stoniness and the steepness of the specific site.

3) Hrach. Deep soils scarcely evolved that are developed over loose parent material, as Cretaceous and Paleogene marls or Quaternary silts and sands, on level or gently sloping slopes (< 15%). They could be associated to the Regosols in FAO and to the suborder Orthent (order Entisols) in Soil Taxonomy. The colour varies according to their situation, while their texture is generally coarse. The organic matter content is variable according to the location of the soils, but in general is low (less than 1.5 %). This soils are abundant in the eastern slope of the Middle Atlas, in the east Region of the country and also in Fez - Meknès and the north of Draa - Tafilalt, and have a medium potential for olive growing, especially under irrigation.

4) Dhess. Very deep, coarse to very coarse-textured soils, the genesis of which is dominated by fluvial inputs. From a classification point of view, they are assigned to Fluvisols in the FAO system and to the suborder Fluvents (Entisols), but can also include other typologies (Arenosols, Regosols). They are most often located on fluvial valleys and at the edges of Oueds. These soils are permeable and, in general, are good agricultural soils, but the sandier subunits have a lower AWC, so irrigation could be required for olive growing if annual rainfall < 400 mm year-1. Their organic matter content is variable, and can show some chemical constraints (poor nitrogen, potassium and boron content and, eventually, salt excess). Although they occur throughout the geography, they are abundant in the Sebou basin, Province of Fez, and the Moulouya valley and Eastern High plateau.

5) Biad. Shallow soils (deep < 40 cm) stony and rich in clay, resting on limestones or calcareous crusts (petrocalcic), which can also be mainly associated to Leptosols in FAO and Orthents and Cambids (order Aridisols) in Soil Taxonomy. They are located,

generally, on slopes or plateaus. They occupy large spaces in the arid and semi-arid regions of Morocco, as the Pleistocene plains and plateaux of the north of the Atlas, and have a negligible value for olive growing.

6) Rmel. Morphologically, this soils are quite similar to the Dhess, and can be classified as Arenosols in the FAO system and the suborder of Psamments (Entisols) in the Soil Taxonomy. They are deep soils, part of which is generally made up of wind (or alluvial) and coarse texture, which can cover clay formations (case of the Doukkala plain). Rmel are frequents in the wester Atlantic coast (Mamora) and also in the Zemmour plateu. They are poor in organic matter and have a low water holding capacity, but might develop a high potentiality for olive growing under irrigation (Fellah, 2019).

Tableau 1 Equivalence of main classification systems for Morocco soils (Source: Badraoui et Stitou, 2001).

In addition to the above soils, other frequent typologies in the country are the following:

7) Forest brown soils. They are located in the middle and upper reaches of the mountain ranges, both of the Rif and the Middle and High Atlas, over limestone or siliceous rocks, and belong to the Kastanozems, Phaeozems and Chernozems groups of the FAO system (order Mollisol in Soil Taxonomy), depending on the degree of brunification of the surface horizon. In these areas, brow soils alternate with Leptosols and Regosols, which occupy the steepest slopes. They are soils with clear forest vocation, with little agricultural potential but high ecological value (Abies pinsapo, Cedrum atlantica, etc.).

8) Desert soils. They occupy the southern regions and areas with rainfall < 200 mm year-1. Can be assigned to the Aridisols order in the Soil Taxonomy, or Leptosols, Regosols and Calcisols in the FAO system. They are heterogeneous soils, which include soils over carbonate crusts (Calcisols) as well as hamadas (Leptosols), regs (Regosols) and saline basins (Solonchacks). They show scarce agricultural potential, which is completely dependent on irrigation and susceptible to degradation by salinization, sodification and erosion.

9) Hydromorphic soils. Some areas of Morocco related to wide river plains and depressions present easily flooded soils (Gleysols in FAO system, Aquents in Soil Taxonomy), which have been traditionally used for the cultivation of rice and sugar cane. This is the case of the Gharb Plain and the alluvial plain of the Loukkos river, north-east of Rabat. They are very fertile soils, with high potential for growing olive groves if soil drainage is carefully controlled.

3.2.4. Main production areas regarding the physical factors

The main production areas extend throughout the country, with the exception of the Atlantic coast, although three major CIO regions (2012) stand out in the geographical distribution of plantations (6th colloquium GEOFCAN- 25-26 / 09 / 2007- Bondy, France):

• The North. The Rif region in northern Morocco. The climate is optimal (500 – 600 mm year-1, Csa – Csb Koppen climate) and the soils, as Vertisols and Cambisols, which are abundant over Quaternary silts and clays (Chefchauen, Taounate and Ouezzane), show a high potential for this crop. However, orchards tend to be low-productive mountain olive groves, being to some extent limited by relatively high slopes.

• The Centre: Provinces of Taza, Fès and Meknès. Olive groves are sited over Miocene and Plio-Quaternary soft limestones and blue marls of plain topography, which develop deep and fertile Fluvisols (local Dhess) which can be considered as the foundation for much of Morocco's modern irrigated agriculture (Moussedek, 2014), and the climate is similar to the Rif and, consequently, optimum for production.

• The South: region of Marrakech, Provinces of Haouz, Tadla, Safi and Essaouira. This region is mainly made up of Quaternary formations, deposited on limestones of

Miocene age, but also in the foothills of the High Atlas (Azilal). The soils are Cambisols (Hamri) and Calcisols, which have some physical and chemical constraints aggravated by a deficit of rainfall (about 400 mm), so irrigation is highly recommended or essential.

3.3. Varieties and olive grove production systems.

3.3.1. Farming systems in Morocco

Olives are everywhere in Morocco, with small to medium sized groves on the coastal plains, on mountain slopes, on roadsides and as part of town streetscapes and even in the Saharan oases.

Generally speaking, traditional groves are characterized by small densities (100 to 150 trees ha-1), unmanaged trees (very light pruning or no pruning), traditional hand or pole harvesting, lack of irrigation and fertilization and very low yields (< 2 t ha-1), whereas new intensive and superintensive groves are characterized by high (150 - 1000 trees ha- 1) to very high (> 1000 trees ha-1) densities, irrigation, mechanical harvesting, intensive management and mineral fertilization and high or very high yields (> 10 t ha-1) (CGDA. 2008). The characteristics of each of these systems are discussed below.

According to MADRPM (2018), traditional olive groves, with an average farm size of 1.5 ha, represent 52% of the olive groves in Morocco, including mountain and rainfed areas. Intensive olive groves, in flatter areas and with irrigation, would account for up to 44%, while super-intensive orchards would account for less than 5% of the total (about 40,000 ha). a) Traditional olive-growing:

Traditional olive-growing is characterized by very old agricultural practices and persists in all olive-growing countries (Figure 14). This production system gives the species an excessive hardiness. This system of cultivation is characterised by low production, the picking of olives is manual, requiring a high use of labour and generating very high production costs. The main agronomical features are: i) trees with several trunks (2 to 3), sometime in a single trunk if the soils are extremely poor, ii) Planting frame of 10-12

m with a density of 80 to 120 trees ha-1, iii) rainfed or, occasionally, subjected to sparse traditional irrigations (gravitational system), and iv) medium to low yields: From less than 2000 to a maximum of a 4000 kg per hectare

Several studies reveal how climate change, particularly irregular precipitation, extreme rainfall events, long periods of drought and extreme temperatures, is inﬂuencing olive production (Chebbi et al., 2018; Lorite et al., 2018; Santos et al., 2017; Gabaldón Leal et al., 2017; Rosenzweig et al., 2001), so traditional rainfed olive groves has a high variability in yield that that hinders its economic profitability in the market.

Figure 14 Traditional orchard in Bellouta, Province of Ouezzane (Source: Sustainolive project, 2019).

Traditional olive growing contributes significantly to the preservation of the environment by providing drought-resistant plant cover, helping to combat soil erosion, and contributing significant organic matter to the soil. It is also noted that the substitution of olive trees for cereals, improves the income of farmers while preserving the environment. b) Intensive or modern olive-growing:

In the countries of the Mediterranean basin, alongside the traditional cultivation system, intensive olive growing has been developed. In fact, most of the evolution of techniques in recent decades allows for the intensification of cultivation, the density of planting in

this system varies between 200 to 600 trees per hectare (Figure 15), generally equipped with irrigation system with water quantities of 1500 to 2500 m3 ha-1, and characterized by a high olive production: 8000 to 12000 kg ha-1. The harvesting in this system is mechanized using trunk vibrators or harvesters. c) High-density or super-intensive olive-growing

The first super-intensive olive tree plantations (about 2000 trees ha-1), took place in Catalonia around 1995 (Navarro and Parra, 2008). It is a planting system characterized by a distance between trees of 1 to 1.5 meters between trees, with a separation of 3 to 7 meters between lines, which is dependent on the attitude and of water availability (Rius and Lacarte, 2010). According to Tous (2010), the planting density in this system can reach more than 1500 trees ha-1 with high yields (between the third and seventh year average yields of 8000 to 13000 kg ha-1 can be obtained), with a high efficiency of the straddle harvester or harvesting machine during this planting period reducing the time of harvesting which improves the quality of oil obtained.

In super-intensive groves, special attention is paid to tree pruning. The trees are formed in a central axis whose height limit does not exceed 2.5 m, following a pyramidal structure that will allow the machine to harvest without damaging the tree. In this system it is recommended to use less vigorous varieties, such as the Arbequina variety, which adapts well to this cultivation system, despite its demanding vigour in frequent pruning to control tree volume (Navarro and Parra, 2008).

Over the last decades, the cultivation of olives has been improved by more competitive management practices. Recent studies have shown that irrigating olive orchards results in a remarkable increase in product quality and yield (Ahumada-Orellana et al., 2018; Martorana et al., 2017; Zeleke and Ayton, 2014; Fernandes-Silva et al., 2013; Psarras et al., 2011; Moriana et al., 2003; Melgar et al., 2008). In fact, traditional olive orchards are being converted to intensive and super-intensive cultivation systems (Bernardi et al., 2018; Stillitano et al., 2017; Arbonés and Pascual, 2014; El Mouhtadi et al., 2014; Lodolini et al., 2014; Gómez del Campo, 2013; Martín-Vertedor et al., 2011; Tous et al., 2010; Orgaz et al., 2006).

Although this conversion is improving product quality and quantity and sector proﬁtability, it requires a larger amount of energy input and water withdrawals which generates corresponding environmental impacts.

3.3.2. Cultivars

The main cultivars in Morocco, according to FAO (http://www.fao.org/faostat) are: a) Moroccan Picholine (or Zitoun). A very heterogeneous autochthonous variety that occupies more than 96% of the olive orchards. It is a vigorous and productive variety and is adapted in all types of soils. b) Meslala. An autochthonous variety with limited distribution. It is a very productive variety suitable for table olives only, because its fruits have a very low oil content. c) Haouzia. This variety is a selection of the variety Moroccan Picholine and Menara in Marrakech. It is very productive, with high oil content (23%). The fruit weigh between 3 to 5g, it is tolerant to Cycloconium oleaginum and comes very early in production. d) Menara. The Menara variety is a selection of the variety Moroccan Picholine of the Menara olive grove in Marrakech. It is very productive, with high oil content (23%), the weight of the fruit is from 2 to 3g and comes very early in production (FAO, 2010).

Moroccan olive growing is made up of 96% of the population variety "Moroccan Picholine", double end variety, oil and canned, with a normal richness in oil, but susceptible to peacock eye disease. The rest of the heritage consists of Meslala, canned olive, Picholine from Languedoc, Dehbia, mainly concentrated in irrigated (Haouz, Tadla, El Kelaâ), Ascolana dura, Manzanillo, Frantoïo, Picual, Gordal Sévillana etc... Two clones of Moroccan Picholine are being disseminated (Fellahtrade, 2016).

3.3.3. Olive oil extraction and olive oil mills.

In Morocco, the olive oil extraction sector includes a modern sector composed of units operating with centrifugation (continous two-phase and three-phase processing with a horizontal centrifugation settling tank) and semi-modern (discontinuous systems equipped with super-pressed) and also a traditional sector composed of traditional units known as maâsras (Figure 15). (Fellahtrade, 2016).

Figure 15 Old traditional oil mill: Maâsra (Source: Sustainolive project, 2019).

The number of maâsras is estimated at more than 15,000 units, most of them small capacity. They crush about 160,000 tons of olives per year. The oil produced is generally of poor or even bad quality, with a high oleic acidity due mainly to the storage of the olives after harvest (storage directly on the ground after harvest, duration of transport, hygiene, etc.). The vast majority of the oil produced by this method is consumed locally. It is important to know that these "maâsra" reject all the produced residues in the natural environment, which generates an aqueous pollution far from being negligible.

The number of semi-modern and modern units is about 565. They crush about 600,000 tons of olives per year and this figure is constantly increasing. The semi-modern units use the pressing technique or three-phase technique. Their number is decreasing in favour of modern units using the technique of decantation and centrifugal separation (two phases technique).

The three-phase technique, although still in use, is now prohibited for new units to be built, to be replaced by the two-phase technique produce very good quality extra virgin and virgin oil. The reason is obviously due to the pollution of watercourses and groundwater by the olive mill waste water (OMWW). This two-phase technique does

not require dilution water and improves the oil yield of the process and don‟t produces OMWW, but requires: 1) to spread the olive mill pomaces (OMP) at 60% humidity with the problems that can be linked to the presence of polyphenols (a very weakly biodegradable product) and hydrophobic compounds which can asphyxiate the soil structure, or 2) to modify or build new dryers to valorise the fresh pomace (see below).

The olive mill pomace (Figure 16) is the residual part of the olive after crushing in the advanced two-phases system. It still contains about 4 to 5 % oil, sometimes more depending on the method of crushing. This oil, called olive-pomace oil, is extracted from the pomace, after drying it, using a food solvent, generally hexane. Once the solvent is evaporated and then condensed for recycling, the crude oil is refined (washing with water, neutralization, de-waxing, decolourization and deodorization). This olive pomace oil is used locally for cooking, especially in the southern provinces of Morocco. Part of it is also exported to Europe and the United States. It should be noted that this pomace oil can advantageously replace olive oil and most other vegetable oils for all cooked culinary preparations. It should also be noted that olive pomace oil, rich in oleic acid and cheaper than olive oil, can be used as a raw material for all green chemistry requiring a reactive molecule thanks to its double bond and its organic acid function. (Société POLYVERT Casablanca).

Once the pomace oil has been extracted, a residue is obtained, the dry spent pomace, composed essentially of lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose. It is widely used as an industrial fuel (PCI # 3500 Kcal/kg) in brickworks and cement plants and to produce steam and electricity in cogeneration plants. Other uses are possible: composting, animal feed, manufacture of activated carbon, agricultural amendment, furfural production, etc. (Société les Huileries de Meknes) (L‟olivier au Maroc, 2013).

Figure 16 Olive mil pomace stored in an agricultural cooperative in Bellouta, Province of Ouezzane (Source: Sustainolive project, 2019).

3.2.4. Olive mill by-products valorisation

The environmental problem of olive rims and olive by-products (OMWW, OMP) remains unresolved in the olive-growing countries, particularly in the countries of the southern and eastern shores of the Mediterranean, which are undergoing extensive planting and industrial modernization programs to increase and improve the quality of their olive production. Doula et al. (2017). Thus, the need to find effective and feasible solutions in the developing olive-growing countries has led the International Olive Council, in partnership with the Common Fund for Commodities, to take an interest in this environmental problem, which is now a cause for concern for the entire Mediterranean basin.

It is in this context that the Project "Use of olive rims and olive mill by-products on agricultural land" was set up for the benefit of four olive-growing countries of the Southern Mediterranean: Algeria, Morocco, Syria and Tunisia, with the assistance of the "Olive Team" of the National School of Agriculture of Meknes as the executing agency of the said project.

The by-products related to the manufacture of olive oil, i.e. pomace, their valorization allows many uses. For example, they are very efficient as soil amendment if correctly composted. The by-products obtained after the extraction of olive oil are often left aside. However, when the pomace is valorized, it brings many advantages. In this section, we will see how to use the pomace as compost for the fertilization of the plots. 39

By using the by-products as compost, farmers can reduce their fertilizer costs but also limit the production of polluting waste.

The main by-products of the olive tree are:

- The products of pruning (wood and leaves); - The olive mill pomace (OMP), which is composed of the stone, the pulp, the skin and in some cases, the water of the olive vegetation; - Olive mill waste water (OMWW), which come from the liquid fraction of the olives and the water that may be added during the crushing process; a) Valorisation of pruning products

The objectives of pruning are to increase production, limit alternation, slow down ageing, eliminate dead wood and superfluous wood. We distinguish between training pruning, annual maintenance and fructufication pruning and regeneration pruning. Formation pruning is carried out in two phases: (1) when the tree reaches a height of 1.5 m, we ensure the formation of a monotronc by eliminating the low branches and keeping the central stem and (2) when the tree exceeds 1.50 m in height, we select a maximum of 5 carpenter branches by eliminating the central stem above the starting point of a carpenter. The maintenance and fruiting pruning exposes all the young foliage and eliminates the exhausted wood (the leaf is the place of synthesis of the carbon elements and has a life span of 3 years). By this size also, the leaf/wood ratio is kept as high as possible and the air must circulate throughout the entire melting without encountering areas with too dense foliage. Regeneration pruning is applied to trees that have been abandoned without pruning or care for a long period of time. It brings new branches and makes the fruiting process more accessible for harvesting. (Fellahtrade, 2020). In Spain, common values for pruning residues in olive groves is 3000 kg per ha and year, however, much of the traditional olive groves in Morocco apply a very ligth pruning or even, don't pruning at all.

The residues of pruning have many applications: Direct use in animal feed: they are used as a substitute for hay or straw; Compost manufacture; Use as fuel for industrial or domestic use: Pruning wood from olive and other trees is transformed into pellets after crushing, Drying and compression, as a raw material in the paper industry, the manufacture of furniture or works of art from olive wood. (Fellahtrade, 2016)

b) Valorisation of OMP

- Feed use: Use of olive pomace in animal feed after addition of other components (bran, cactus, molasses, fodder, minerals...).

- Use of pomace as fuel: Olive pomace is a fuel with an average calorific value (2950 Kcal/kg). After separation of the pulp from the pits, the pulp is processed into pellets and the pits can be used directly in boilers. Doula et al. (2017)

- Use of olive pomace for fertilising agricultural land: Use of olive-pomace compost on agricultural land for improving soil fertility and crop productivity. The spreading of these wastes must be the subject of a prior study in order to specify the rates and periods of spreading adapted to the fertilised crops. This technique makes it possible on the one hand to reduce fertilisation costs and on the other hand to limit the pollution of these discharges. Doula et al. (2017) c) Agricultural use of OMWW:

- Biogas production: The application of the anaerobic digestion process to OMWW allows about 80% of the organic substances to be transformed into biogas (65 to 70% methane). The anaerobic purification of the vegetable gardens allows to reach energy autonomy, or even a slight surplus. The installation and management of anaerobic bioreactors requires an important basic investment.

- The compostage: OMWW can be used to obtain a fertilizing compost for soils. The advantage of the compost formed from the OMWW is the absence of pathogenic microorganisms with high concentrations of phosphorus and potassium, unlike urban solid waste. (FAO, 2016)

- Soil spreading and fertilization: Use of the OMWW to avoid soil compaction: This aspect is very interesting for areas where water is a limiting factor; Direct use as a fertilizer: the controlled application of the OMW and the OMP compost constitute a fertilization adapted to the olive tree, vine and certain annual cultures, without risk neither for the environment nor for the culture; OMW can be used in irrigation because of their richness in water and mineral nutrients, but with precautions due to its hydrophobic behaviour. (FAO, 2016)

3.3. Fertilization.

3.3.1. General concerns.

Fertilization is a common practice in olive growing because it aims to satisfy the nutritional requirements of trees when the nutrients required for its growth are not provided in sufficient amounts by the soil. Since soils may differ in fertility, and nutrient requirements may vary among different olive orchards depending on tree age, variety and olive production system, it would be illogical to provide general recommendations for olive fertilization.

The annual fertilization program may vary among orchards and among years within an orchard. However, repeated fertilization programmes are customary in many olive- growing areas. A survey of olive fertilization practices in the Mediterranean region (Fernández-Escobar, 2008) revealed that in 77% of cases the fertilization programme was repeated every year and generally involves applying several mineral elements, which always included nitrogen, even when in most cases the nutritional status of the orchard was unknown. This approach tends to apply more mineral elements than necessary, some of which may already be available to the tree in sufficient amounts to guarantee a good crop, and, at the same time, it may cause mineral deficiencies if a specific element is not applied in sufficient amounts. The farmer attempts to return to the soil the nutrients removed by the crop in order to maintain soil fertility and provide a good nutritional status of the trees. However, the reuse of elements by the tree, the elements applied by irrigation water or rain, mineralization of the organic matter, tree reserves or nutrient dynamics in the soil exchange complex. Also, it has been proven that if an element is available in the soil in sufficient amount for the plant, there is no response to fertilization with this element. Accordingly, the excessive application of non-needed fertilizers increases growing costs, contributes unnecessary to soil and water pollution and may have a negative effect on the tree and crop quality.

Today it is considered that a rational fertilization tends to: (i) satisfy the nutritional needs of an orchard; (ii) minimize the environmental impact of fertilization; (iii) obtain a quality crop; and (iv) avoid systematic, excessive application of fertilizers. Predicting the amount of fertilizers required annually to support optimum productivity is not simple. Under a rational point of view, a nutrient must be supplied only when there are

proves that it is needed. For this purpose, leaf-nutrient analysis provides an indication of tree nutritional status and represents an important tool for determining fertilization requirements. Interpretation of the results of leaf analysis is based on the relationship between leaf nutrient concentration and growth or yield. Comparing actual leaf nutrient concentration to reference values allows the diagnosis of nutrient deficiency, sufficiency or excess. (Troeh and Thompson, 1993).

Optimum tree nutrition could be achieved combining this information with soil and environmental factors that affects tree growth and symptoms of nutrient deficiency or excess (Fernández-Escobar, 2007). Leaf analysis has proven useful as a guide to fertilizer management of olive trees, and may promote more environmentally responsible use of fertilizers. In a long-term experiment carried out in four olive orchards established on different types of soils, that compared the fertilization practice based on foliar diagnosis versus the current fertilization practice in the area based on the annual application of several nutrients, it was obtained that the current practice in the area increases in more than 10 times the cost of fertilization without an increase in yield or vegetative growth; on the contrary, this practice negatively affects oil quality due to a reduction of total polyphenols in olive oil (Cadahía, 2005). Despite that, recent studies indicate that leaf analysis is being underutilized in olive growing, since few growers perform leaf analysis annually. Sixteen elements have been recognised as essential for plant growth: carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (0), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), sulphur (S), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo), boron (B) and chlorine (Cl). Nickel (Ni) is also considered essential for some authors. They are essential elements because the plant is unable to complete its life cycle without them; no element can substitute for another; and the element has a direct impact on growth or metabolism. (Wild, 1996)

The first three elements, C, H and O are non-mineral and represent approximately 95% of the dry weight of an olive tree. They are not added in fertilization because the tree can get them from the carbon dioxide (CO2) present in the atmosphere and spread it to the leaves through the stomata, and from the water (H2O) in the soil, taken up by the roots, whose combination by photosynthesis forms carbohydrates, the major plant nutritional component. The others are mineral elements and they are the reason why we fertilize. Together they only represent 5% approximately of the olive tree dry weight; therefore, we can easily cause an excess of one of them. These elements are uptaken by 43

the olive roots from the soil solution where they occur as ions. Perennial plants like the olive have nutrient storage organs to help them easily reuse nutrients. This is why nutrient needs of these plants are lower than annual plants.

The critical level of a nutrient is defined as the nutrient concentration in the leaf below which plant growth and production rates decrease compared with other plants with higher concentrations. These levels are universal for each species and are valid irrespective of where or how the plants are cultivated. Table 2 gives the critical nutrient levels in olive leaves.

Tableau 2 Interpretation of nutrient levels (dry-weight basis) in olive leaves sampled in July. Compiled by Fernández-Escobar (2004).

3.3.2. Macronutrients a) Nitrogen. Is the mineral element required in the largest amounts by plants and consequently, it is commonly used in the fertilization programs of horticultural crops. As no usual rocks (i.e, limestones, silicates) have this element in its composition, nitrogen is highly dependent (98 %) of the organic matter content in the soil, so deficiency may be associated to soil with low organic matter. As example, soils of Doukkala plain (Figure 17) is commented. Soil N in this region are limited to inter-dune depressions, and very scarce in the rest, determined by the low levels of organic matter. Four main types of soils are encountered in the irrigated area, the "tirs" vertisols which represent 57% of the irrigated area, the sandy-silt "faïd" soils (20%), the sandy "rmel" soils (16%) and the chestnut and red "hamri" soils (7%). (Fiche cc doukkala abda,

2011). Since it is lost easily through leaching, volatilization or denitrification, there is the perception that an increase in nitrogen fertilization always results in increased yield. However, long-term studies dealing with the optimization of nitrogen fertilization in olive orchards have demonstrated that annual applications of nitrogen fertilizers are not necessary to maintain high productivity and growth. On the contrary, this practice resulted in negative effects on the tree, on crop quality and on the environment (Fernández-Escobar, 2011). These studies recommend that the best strategy to optimize nitrogen fertilization in olive orchards, as well as other nutrients, is the application of nitrogen fertilizers only when the previous season‟s leaf analysis indicates that leaf nitrogen concentrations have dropped below the deficiency threshold. These are the nutritional imbalances that can affect the majority of olive orchards and which it is advisable to monitor through testing. Nevertheless, it is unusual for these imbalances to coincide all at once in the same orchard. A good diagnosis of the nutritional status of olive orchards by leaf analysis, and good fertilizer application techniques can lead to a sustainable and responsible use of fertilizers. In this sense, fertigation and foliar fertilization -particularly in rainfed orchards-, may increase nutrient use efficiency. Also, since sufficient know-how is available in this cultural technique, we can conclude that more knowledge must be transferred to the olive sector in order to obtain safe, quality products.

Figure 17 map of the spatial distribution of organic matter in the sandy soils (rmel) of the Doukkala plain (Province of Safi). Note the scarcity of organic matter, where almost 60% have less than 1.5 %. Thus, this soils require nitrogen fertilization (Source: http://www.fertimap.ma/en/cartes-2.html). Potassium. Deficiency of this mineral is the major nutritional disorder in rainfed olives because the low soil moisture limits the spread of the potassium ion through the soil solution and prevents its absorption by the roots. As example we commented the soils of the Province of Khemisset (Figure 18). The majority in this area of the soils are of Biad type (clay-limestone, 80%); the shoots represent only 5% and the Hrach 15%. The dominant crop is cereals. The olive groves present in this area are extensively managed, receiving practically no particular care. (Green Morocco, 2011). It is worse when yields are high because is the element removed in largest amounts by the crop, around 4.5 g K/kg olives. Potassium deficiency is difficult to correct in olive orchards because the potassium fertilizer is uptaken in smaller amounts by trees suffering from a deficiency. Tentative doses for soil application in such cases are around 1 kg K/tree, provided that soil moisture is not a limiting factor. In rainfed olive orchards, between two and four leaf applications of 1%-2% K have given satisfactory results, although it is usually necessary to repeat the applications in following seasons until K reaches an adequate level in the leaves. Applications should be done in the spring because young leaves absorb more more K than mature leaves.

Figure 18 map of the spatial distribution of potassium in hydromorphic soil of the Province of Khemisset (Region Rabat - Khenitra). The amount of potassium in almost the 70% of soils is under the required level (250 ppm K2O) (Source: http://www.fertimap.ma/en/cartes-2.html).

3.3.3. Micronutrients

In calcareous soils, iron, manganese and boron deficiency may occur in addition to potassium deficiency (at pH > 8.0, practically 100% of the iron is blocked). Trees suffering from iron deficiency, known as iron chlorosis, display a characteristic series of symptoms such as yellow leaves, small shoot growth and lower yield. These symptoms are the means of diagnosing iron deficiency as leaf analysis is of no use in such cases because iron accumulates in the leaves even when deficiency occurs. Iron chlorosis is difficult and costly to correct. The best solution for new orchards is to choose a variety that tolerates this anomaly. In established orchards the remedy is to apply iron chelates to the soil, which makes iron available to the plant for a moderately long period in comparison with other products, or to inject iron solutions into the tree trunk. Olives are considered to have high boron requirements. Soil availability decreases under drought conditions and at higher soil pH values, particularly in calcareous soils as in the Sidi Kacem area (Figure 19). In this region the Picholine languedoc represents about 20% of the trees, since the pH is favorable for olive tree cultivation (pH > 8) according to (figure 19). Boron deficiency can be remedied by applying boron to the ground at a rate of 25-40 g per tree. In calcareous soils with a pH > 8 and in rainfed orchards, it is

preferable to apply soluble products to the leaves at a concentration of 0.1% boron, prior to flowering. Calcium deficiencies are to be expected in acidic soils. In these situations, it is necessary to apply a limestone amendment, i.e. applying calcium carbonate or calcium oxide to neutralize the acidity. The amount required depends on the soil texture and pH, and has to be calculated on the basis of soil analysis results.

Figure 19 map of the spatial distribution of pH in the Cambisols (Hamri) of Sidi Kacem (Region Rabat - Khenitra). More than the 70% of soils have pH > 8.2, so serious micronutrient deficiency may be expected (Source: http://www.fertimap.ma/en/cartes- 2.html).

3.4. Pest and diseases and main control strategies.

3.4.1. Main diseases and pests affecting olive groves in Morocco.

The most important foliar diseases of the Moroccaine olive tree are: 1) peacock's eye caused by the agent Spicolea oleagina (Cycloconium oleaginum), 2) cercosporiosis caused by the fungus Pseudocercospora cladospiroides (Cercospospora cladopiroides) and 3) anthracnose caused by attacks of two fungi of the genus colletrichum: Collectricum acutatum and Collectricum gloeosporioides (Gleosorium olivarum). Production losses caused by these diseases in Morocco are estimated at 10% in addition to the deterioration in oil quality. (Agriculture, 2012)

These three diseases cause heavy defoliation and weakening of olive trees, reduce plant productivity and quality of olive oil, and are responsible for regular fungicide treatments in the olive groves. Another important disease is Verticillium Wilt caused by the vascular fungus Verticillium dahliae. This disease was unknown 30 years ago, and currently is considered the most serious disease and the main challenge for olive growing in some Mediterranean regions, such as in northern Morocco. Other diseases having a moderate impact on olive groves in Morocco are tuberculosis or olive knot caused by the bacterium Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. savastanoi, which is associated with wounds on leaves and branches, and a root and crown rot caused by several species of the oomycete genus Phytophthora, especially prevalent in water-logged soils (Trapero and Blanco, 2010).

The olive is a woody crop representing a complex agroecosystem in which many organisms from different trophic levels are well balanced. Some of them are phytophagus or pathogens of the olive tree while some others are entomophagous, predators and parasitoids, antagonists of pathogens and even there are some species looking for shelter. The phytophagous or pathogen organisms that feed and/or develop on olive may determine to a great extend if olive can be grown economically in certain situations. Effective olive crop protection thus becomes essential to minimize the losses caused and to ensure that full benefit is drawn from other production inputs. Unfortunately, pest control operations may very often break off the above mentioned agroecosystem balance, giving rise to unsustainable olive farming. The phytophagous invertebrate species, mainly insects and mites, known to feed and/or develop on the olive tree exceed one hundred, with a rather large group of them being composed of polyphagous or oligophagous species, each having many to a few host plants, respectively, in addition to olive. Some of them have evolved populations or strains adapted to olive so that in those areas olive is preferred to other hosts. A second, smaller group is composed of monophagous or oligophagous species closely associated with the olive tree, and with a few other Oleaceae of the Mediterranean Basin. The species from the first group are usually occasional pests whereas species from the second group that have either evolved on Olea europaea, or have populations that in recent times have adapted to olive, may cause economic losses comprising the smooth running of the crop and posing a serious risk for the annual yield. Most of the thousands of publications on olive insects around the Mediterranean basin concern fewer than a dozen species which

are major pests, at least in those countries where olive growing is a key crop, including Morocco (Table 3). Among them are the key pests, the olive fly Bactrocera oleae (Diptera: Tephritidae), the olive moth Prays oleae (Lepidoptera: Yponomeutidae), the black scale Saissetia oleae (Homoptera: Coccidae), and some secondary but sometimes also key pest such the oleander scale Aspidiotus nerii (Homoptera: Diaspididae), the two olive scolytids Hylesinus oleiperda and Phloeotribus scarabaeoides (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) and the olive pyralid moth Euzophera pinguis (Lepidoptera; Pyralidae). (CTO, 2016).

Tableau 3 List of the most important phytophagous insect and mite species infesting olive tree in Morocco (Source: Badraoui et Stitou, 2001).

These olive pests and diseases represent a clear restriction on olive oil production due to the reduction in yields and to the increase in total production costs. It is estimated that losses associated with the action of olive pests and diseases account for approximately 30% of the olive production, with 10% being allocated to the two major insect pests, B. oleae and P. oleae, and more than other 10% due to three diseases, peacock spot, Verticillium and anthracnose. Accordingly, to the International Olive Oil Council, approximately 30% of the olives produced in the Mediterranean region are lost to pests and diseases, with an annual control of pests and diseases of olive exceeding 200

million euro, 50% of which are for insecticides and fungicides, regardless of the cost of the side effects that these entail. Therefore, given the economic and social importance of this crop, olive-growing and olive protection practices should be carried out timely and under the criteria that encourage sustainability in agriculture. (INRA, 2002).

One key issue in olive growing is the threat of new and/or emerging pests or pathogens which can potentially cause significant losses. The most predominant way is by invasion of alien species or pathogenic races which is usually related to human activities (i.e., trade) and/or natural migration, but in olive crops it is more commonly detected the emergence of new pests or pathogens due to the transformation of an indigenous species from an organism of minor significance to an important pest or disease. This could be related to various human activities affecting the established equilibrium in the olive agro-ecosystem, with emphasis in cultivation practices (high density plantations) or crop management practices (pruning, intensive application of insecticides, etc). Finally, it is not well known how the global warming could affect the incidence of the actual olive pest or pathogens and the emergence of new ones. (CIHEM, 2013)

3.4.2. Sustainable olive pest control

Despite the considerable progress made by Moroccan researchers in the development of olive co-products, the lack of legislation to regulate the use of these products hinders the development of this sector in Morocco. Meanwhile, other competitor countries, especially those in the Mediterranean, are taking advantage of Moroccan know-how in this area to increase their output, minimize the effect of these products on the environment and also develop new sources of clean energy. (Agrimaroc, 2018).

Current olive pest and disease management strategies are still based on the use of chemical pesticides, either in traditional Mediterranean olive groves or intensively managed olive plantations. However, increasing public sensitivity towards environmental pollution in this key Mediterranean agro-system and problems derived from the side effects of these products has provided the impetus for the development of alternative, benign pesticides. Likewise, Regulation (EC) 848/2008 of the European Commission resulted in a drastic reduction in the number of authorized active ingredients for olive pest control and a more limited reduction in the authorized fungicides for disease control. Further, the prevailing environmental awareness, and the high prevalence of Sustainable Agriculture as a guiding principle of EU agricultural

policies has led to the European Parliament to the establishment of a framework for Community action to achieve a sustainable use of pesticides which under the shelter of the concept of Integrated Pest and Disease Management (IPDM or IPM), prioritize non- chemical methods of pest control. Accordingly, from January 1, 2014 in Europe will only accommodate the olive pest control according to the principles of IPM. IPM strategy developed in the 1960s and 1970s is based on ecological principles. It encourages reduced reliance on pesticides through the use of a number of control strategies in a harmonious way to keep pests and diseases below the level causing economic injury. It came out of the realization that too heavy a reliance on pesticides (particularly those with broadspectrum activity) can cause major problems, notably effects on human health and safety, environmental contamination, pesticide resistance in target and non-target organisms, resurgence of secondary pests, plant damage or yield loss (phytotoxicity), residues on fruit and products, with national and international consequences. There is also general community concern about the use of pesticides, particularly on foods.

IPM commonly utilizes or encourages biological control through natural enemies such as predators, parasites, insect pathogens and non-pathogenic antagonistic or competitive microorganisms. It also frequently involves cultural control strategies to minimize pest and disease entry and their spread in space and time. Cultural controls include protocols of entry to farms; manipulation of the field environment to discourage pests and diseases, such as opening crop canopies to increase air movement and reduce humidity; the elimination of alternative hosts for pests; or growing nectar and pollen-producing plants to encourage natural enemies. IPM may also involve the physical destruction of infested and infected materials and the use of tolerant or resistant plant species, where available. Chemical pesticides are used judiciously, and thus play a supportive role. The major components of IPM systems are: (i) identification of pests, diseases and natural enemies; (ii) monitoring of pests, diseases, damage and natural enemies; (iii) selection of one or more management options on the basis of monitoring results and action thresholds, from a wide range of pesticide and non-pesticide options; and (iv) use of selective pesticides targeted at the pest or disease for instance, pesticides that will interfere least with natural enemies, targeted only at infested trees or parts of trees. As an example, the Agricultural Entomology group of the University of Cordoba, Spain, has studied the susceptibility of 20 Spanish olive oil cultivars to the olive fly B. oleae

under rainfed and irrigated conditions. We have found highly significant differences among oil and table varieties in their susceptibility to olive fly attack, with the most susceptible oil varieties being 'Nevadillo Blanco de Jaén', followed by either 'Picudo' and 'Lechin de Sevilla' and the least ones 'Arbequina' followed by 'Empeltre', while the most susceptible table varieties were „Ascolana Tenera‟ and „Gordal Sevillana‟ and the least ones „Callosina‟ and „Kalamón„. On the overall, for each cultivar, susceptibility to B. oleae was higher under irrigated conditions than under rainfed ones. Currently, bioinsecticides are considered the most viable alternative for olive pest control. Nonetheless, not all entomopathogenic microorganisms invade susceptible hosts in the same way. While viruses, bacteria, and protozoa have to be ingested with food, entomopathogenic fungi (EF) enter via the exoskeleton, a mode of action by contact which makes them an attractive alternative to chemicals for the biological control of several olive pests. Besides, EF have a dual role as bioinsecticides as they may be used both as microbial control agents and also as an unexplored source of new insecticide molecules of natural origin. It was revealed that there is an elevated occurrence of the mitosporic ascomycetes Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae in the soil of olive crops but also in the olive and olive weeds phylloplane. Besides, it has been found B. bassiana as a natural biocontrol agent of the olive moth Prays oleae and the olive pyralid moth, Euzophera pinguis. It has been shown that these native isolates are in general well matched to the particular olive crop environmental conditions. Among them, there are several isolates that show potential to be used against medfly both in adult sprays and in soil treatments beneath the tree canopy for puparia control, and even one B. bassiana isolate obtained from an infected larva of E. pinguis with high biocontrol potential against this pyralid in stem and branch (pruning bounds) (Spanish Patent P201030539) (Quesada-Moraga and Santiago-Álvarez, 2008). The demand for natural insecticidal compounds to be incorporated in pest control programs in IPM grows each day as they degrade more quickly and possess excellent ecotoxicological profile. Example of this is inclusion of spinosad, secondary metabolite produced from the fermentation of the actinomycete soil Saccharopolyspora spinosa in the regulation of organic farming. Among the microorganisms, entomopathogenic fungi which share the same ecological niche that phytophagous insects, fulfill all criteria of the "intelligent screening" in the search for new insecticidal compounds of natural origin. Secondary metabolites and macromolecules secreted in vitro by several M. anisopliae isolates from our strain collection have shown high insecticidal activity against adult tephritids that

may be developed as new insecticide molecules of natural origin for medfly control (Quesada-Moraga and Santiago-Álvarez, 2008).

With regard to olive diseases, a big piece of research has been developed in the Department of Agronomy at the University of Córdoba during the last 20 years (Trapero and Blanco, 2010). Results have characterized the epidemics of main diseases, including the complex of fungal aerial diseases (peacock spot, anthracnose and cercosporiose), Verticillium wilt, phytophthora root rot and olive knot, as well as the epidemics of new diseases such as alternaria and botryosphaeria fruit rots and a branch canker caused by Neofusicoccum mediterraneum. This information together with results of research on different control methods (physical, cultural, biological, genetic resistance and chemical) are serving to define integrated control programs for each disease and implement a comprehensive strategy for integrated management of pests and diseases in commercial groves which might be easily transferred to Maroc.

3.5. Challenges of water resource management: irrigation and salinity.

Intensive development under irrigation in arid and semi-arid zones leads the more often to the degradation of the quality of soil and water resources. The magnitude of the degradation is strongly linked to the quality of irrigation water to the lack of control of the trilogy: Irrigation-Salinity-Drainage and to non-rational agricultural development practices. Apart from water erosion, which is of course a major environmental problem to which many practical aspects of irrigation are directly related (turbidity of the water, siltation of reservoirs, deterioration of structures), most forms of soil degradation are more or less associated with salinization.

3.5.1. hydric economy of the olive tree

The olive tree is characterized by low water use efficiency. Depending on the variety, this generally varies from 0,5 to 2 kg/m3 under localised irrigation for an orchard in full production. The species tolerates water deficiency, but above a critical threshold, vegetative growth and yield drop considerably. The response of the olive tree to water stress also appears on certain oil quality parameters. It significantly increases the concentration of phenols and decreases that of chlorophyll and certain fatty acids, particularly oleic and linoleic, while it does not affect free acidity, which is the most important criterion for determining oil quality.

Irrigation of the olive tree Traditionally, since olive production is carried out under rainy conditions, therefore this species is able to survive in periods of intense drought giving acceptable production (Fernandes-Silva et al., 2010), certain numbers of anatomical adaptations and physiological mechanisms allow it to preserve its vital functions, even under very severe conditions. These mechanisms include the tomentose (fluffy) appearance of the underside of the leaf; the high conductance of the tissues; the reduced number of stomata and their position in small depressions on the upper surface of the leaf, which contribute to limiting transpiration (d‟Andria et Lavini, 2007).

Numerous experiments have shown that irrigation is a fundamental instrument for the qualitative and quantitative improvement of tree production.

According to Moriana et al (2003), irrigation has an important impact on the productivity of olive groves, even with small quantities of water (Sole, 1990). In summer, and from the hardening of the stone, it is possible to apply a cut-off of irrigation water supply, while ensuring that water stress has not reached a level that reduces the growth of the olive tree in an irreversible way (Pastor, 2005).

The calculation of water requirements in the different olive production environments is only possible if the main edaphic and climatic parameters are correctly defined. In order to manage irrigation properly, it is necessary to be familiar with the two-year olive tree cycle, especially if a deficit irrigation strategy is used (Fernandez and Moreno, 1999).

In a Mediterranean environment, shoots appear at the beginning of spring (end of March for the northern hemisphere) (Table 4). The growth flow in spring, which is the most important, lasts until mid-July (Rallo and Cuevas, 2008), if the climatic conditions are favourable (rainfall in early autumn or irrigated olive groves), a vegetative recovery may even occur in autumn (between September and mid-October). If no incidents delay fruit set, only one percent floral induction is needed to obtain a good production (d'Andria and Lavini, 2007). The stone (endocarp) of the olive (drupe) begins to lignify (harden) between four and six weeks after setting, and the fruit continues to grow for three months. The mesocarp (pulp) continues throughout the summer, with the sigmoidal evolution that characterises it, the fruit ripens at the moment of the complete change of colour and the growth can be considered to be complete at the beginning of the ripening process. Irrigation planning should take account of the interaction between

the water requirements of the olive tree and its different phenological stages: i) at the time of bud-break, the availability of water and nutrients is fundamental to guarantee vegetative growth, flower formation, flowering and fruit set (d'Andria and Lavini, 2007), ii) during the hardening phase of the stone, experience shows that the olive tree is less sensitive to water stress. During this period, it will therefore be possible to reduce the volume of water inputs, which will allow a significant saving in the seasonal volume of irrigation without causing significant negative effects on production (Pastor, 2005; d'Andria and Lavini, 2007), and 3) during lipogenesis (synthesis of triglycerides) and cell filling take place during the ripening phase of the fruit until harvest. This is therefore a period when the plant is very sensitive to hydric stress, especially if the deficiency occurs in summer, as this is the time when the final size of the fruit is defined and the reserves necessary to ensure a correct production potential for the following year accumulate in the plant (d'Andria and Lavini, 2007).

Tableau 4 Effects of water deficit on olive growth and production processes (Source: Beede et Goldhamer, 1994).

3.5.2. Management of scarce water resources.

Apart from evapotranspiration measurements and in the absence of measuring or control devices (tensiometers, Californian tank), the personal experience of the olive grower alone makes it possible, by a permanent compromise between the nature of the soil, the density of plantation and climatic variations, to bring the necessary doses to the water needs of the olive tree. In some areas where rainfall is 450 to 650 mm/year, the water

supply by gravity is estimated at 6000 to 8500 m³/ha/year between March and September. In localized irrigation and for an olive grove of 400 trees/ha (table olive), the volume of water supplied is 3200 m³/ha/year (capillary with a flow rate of 4 l/hour with 4 drippers/shaft, 8-10 h by irrigation every 3 days). The operating time of the irrigation system is 5-6 months/year. (Fellah-trade; 2020).

In Morocco, the total area planted is around 1,02 million ha distributed among 400,000 farms, of which about 200,000 ha (36% of total surface) can benefit from irrigation. This represent a percentage slightly higher to the Spanish one (31%, ESRYCE, 2019).

While Morocco has some quantities of surface and ground water, access to water resources is marked by a strong annual irregularity, with episodes of droughts, but also floods, which are increasingly recurrent and intense. In addition, water resources are very unevenly distributed throughout the country, since 93% of the country is located in arid and desert areas. Thus, rainfall is characterized by decreasing gradients from North to South and from West to East. Some regions receive 600 to 700 mm per year, while others receive less than 100 mm/year. The three water basins of the Atlantic zone (Sebou, Bouregreg and Oum Rabii) provide two thirds of the country's freshwater potential. Over its entire territory, Morocco receives an annual rainfall of 140 billion m3. The water resource potential is estimated at 22 billion m3, divided into 18 billion m3 of surface water and 4 billion m3 of groundwater. This corresponds to about 700 m3 / inhabitant year, which places Morocco in a situation of structural water stress. (RSAM; 2019).

Morocco has long since put in place public policies to manage this scarce resource. Thus, the dams policy initiated in 1966 has enabled the country to build up a significant hydraulic infrastructure heritage consisting of about 109 dams, a storage capacity of more than 17.5 billion m3 with a regulated volume of 9.5 billion m3 and 13 water transfer systems. In 1995 Morocco drafted and implemented a water law 26 that establishes integrated, planned, decentralized, concerted and participatory management of water resources, the "user pays" and "polluter pays" principles, and finally, the development of water resources and their protection against pollution and overexploitation. (Harbouze, 2019).

3.5.3. Soil salinization.

Salinization by definition represents the quantity of mineral salts that are dissolved in the soil and that cause harmful effects on plants. Soil and water salinization, soil and water pollution, in general, there is a gradual decline in agricultural productivity.

The salinization process is partly due to natural cycles, but human activities also have an amplifying effect due to the intensification of agricultural activity, and the poor combination of high evaporation and inadequate supply of irrigation water in relation to its salt content. According to Harbouze (2019), soil salinization due to irrigation reduces the surface area of irrigated land in Morocco by 1 to 2% per year, then it is a very serious problem regarding the future economic and environmental sustainability of the olive grove in this country. Salinization is a problem difficult to achieve when water quality is bad, as occurs in many coastal irrigation areas in Morocco (i.e. Rabat region). On the other hand, it is an endemic problem in arid areas (in general, rainfall less than 250 mm year-1). The proposed solution is a strict control of the electrical conductivity of irrigation water, as well as improving irrigation systems (Harbouze, 2019).

3.5.4. Soil erosion. This environmental impact has become worse in the last years since the expansion of the olive grove towards soils with unfavourable conditions for agricultural production (steep slopes, torrential rains, high soil erosion). These adverse conditions and the deficient management of the soils by farmers damaged the spontaneous vegetation (farms with uncovered soil).

In Morocco, soils are characterized by fragility and sensitivity to natural hazards (wind and water erosion) as well as to anthropic actions (bad farming practices). However, as in other Mediterranean countries (Calero et al., 2019) the most active soil degradation process is that of water erosion, which is the main environmental threat to soil capital (MEMEE, 2011). This is due to the Moroccan climate characterized by winter rains and sometimes very heavy summer showers that cause heavy runoffs leading to significant erosion. Soils affected by medium to heavy water erosion cover an area of more than 12 million hectares, or 18.5% of the total area of the national territory (HCEFLCD, 2013). This erosion problem causes a loss of storage capacity of dams through silting of about

75 million m3 /year and a cumulative total loss of 1,750 million m3 out of 17.5 billion m3 of total storage capacity of dams (CESE 2018).

To curb land degradation, Morocco, as part of its policy to combat desertification and land degradation, has identified numerous measures implemented under programs and projects of the Ministry of Agriculture and those of the Department of Water and Forestry. Thus, the National Watershed Management Plan (PNABV) sets priorities for action and proposes financial and institutional mechanisms for implementation and for combating the problems of soil erosion and silting of hydraulic dams (Harbouze, 2019).

Tableau 5 Principes to analyse the environmental sustainability of the soil of olive systems(Gomez-Limon and Laura Riesgo, 2014)

3.6. Climate change challenges

Droughts in Morocco are increasing in frequency and intensity. Associated with global climate change, this trend will likely be more evident in the future. Drought damage to the agricultural sector affects both rural livelihoods and the national economy as a whole. Olives are more drought tolerant than citrus but water scarcity is still an issue. Reduced water, whether from reduced rainfall or irrigation, results in less, and lower quality olive oil. For smallholders, water scarcity adaptation consists largely of digging wells when existing wells dry up, or forgoing irrigation altogether. The study found that this was even the case when growers were incentivized to adapt. A Government of Morocco (GoM) and Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) scheme gives growers trees and funds for the first two years of irrigation and maintenance. After that, the program expects growers to continue tree maintenance on their own. However, this was not happening as irrigation costs from pumping or water charges tend to be prohibitive to small-scale landholders. Olive growers with larger drip irrigation farms maintain

large retention ponds to store water for each irrigation cycle. This allows them to consistently irrigate their plantations, although it also reduces the surface area available for planting. Small-scale farmers have fewer options.

To cope with the unprecedented climate conditions, processing mills are also affected, traditional mills produce lower yields, which reduce worker incomes, and modern mills receive fewer, and lower quality, raw materials, which impacts their ability to plan production cycles. (World bank group, 2015).

Agriculture in the Mediterranean is becoming more and more confronted with the water deficit and the warming estimated at 2°C over the last five years decades (Giannakopoulos et al., 2009). In Morocco, according to the RCP4.5 scenario by 2050, all agro-ecosystems will be in a state of flux are particularly vulnerable to climate change. The regions of Marrakech and Southwest (Agadir, Taroudant) would no longer be favorable to olive growing. On the other hand, the agro-ecosystems based on associations between olive trees and cereals and/or fodder crops would be more resilient, as would traditional and diverse agro-ecosystems. Furthermore, in increasingly mild winter conditions, the deficit of flowering in the olive tree, and therefore of fruit, would be one of the challenges of tomorrow's olive growing. A reduction in production in the orchards of the Marrakech region was observed in 2016; it would probably be related to the main reason for this is the lack of flowering and the lack of cold weather during the previous winter (Costes et al., 2016).The understanding of mechanisms of adaptation of the flowering of the olive tree to the global warming is particularly urgent to be able to characterize local genetic resources and to identify the genotypes best adapted to mild winters.

3.7. Market challenges.

World olive oil consumption in 2019/20 was expected to reach 2,950 million t, which is 8% higher than the last crop year. World exports of olive oil, were expected to reach approximately 975,000 t. European member countries are set to export more than 60% of the world‟s total, with Spain in the lead with 304,200 t (+4.4%); followed by Italy with 236,000 t (+18%); Portugal with 39,500 t and Greece with 9,800 t. The group of other member countries outside the European Union are expected to post an increase of 110.3% with a total of 349,500 t. Of these, Tunisia expects to export 200,000 t

(+123.5%); Turkey 90,000 t (+100%); Argentina 30,000 t (+82%); Morocco 15,000 t (+114.3%); with the other member countries exporting smaller volumes. Based on these figures, it can be said that Morocco still has a high growth potential regarding the olive oil market.

The country‟s olive main regions for olive production are Marrakesh, Casablanca, Meknes and Fez. Marrakesh specializes in table olives whilst Meknes and Fez produce more olive oil. In this areas, olive oil production tends to be characterized by high- quality, export-oriented processors. Many of these high-quality export processors have won multiple awards at international competitions for their unique olive oil. (OOM; 2020). However, according to MADRPM (2018), traditional olive groves, with an average farm size of 1.5 ha, represent 52% of the olive groves in Morocco, including mountain and rainfed areas. Here, the olive grove is barely professionalized, depending on family farms that lack mechanization and access to fertilizers and phytosanitary products. Harvesting is done mainly by hand, so it takes several months. This implies that the harvested olives are stored in the oil mill sometimes for up to 10 days, with a very significant loss of oil quality. These data clearly indicate that there is a serious competitiveness problem that affects most of the olive groves in Morocco, weighing down their development possibilities and access to international markets.

In Morocco, olive oil, which has been little valued until now, is at the beginning of the differentiation process. The quality of olive oil is considered an important factor of competitiveness. For policy makers, the signs of identification of quality and origin (eg. Protected Origen Denomination, POD) are proving to be the appropriate key to the recovery of Moroccan olive oil that remains unidentified and still sold in bulk. This product is a first step to meet the expectations of professionals in the sector who have long expressed their desire to improve the quality of Moroccan olive oil. Thus, the development of the oil is part of the overall objectives of the Green Morocco Plan for improving the living standards of olive growers and the improvement of the olive sector. The quality of olive oil is strongly influenced by the quality of the olives crushed and by the oil extraction process used . The production of extra olive oil quality virgin and preserving these aromas, also requires mastery the period and methods of harvesting of olives as well as the stages of transport, from conservation and crushing of olives. The damage caused to the olives during these steps, negatively

affect the quality of the quality of the finished product. The quality of olive oil is also affected by the duration and conditions of storage. Auto-oxidation of olive oil during storage, would depend on several factors. (Agrihorti ; 2018).

In the face of such a situation, the strategy adopted by the Green Morocco Plan has the following objectives:

- Control production costs to ensure that production internationally competitive prices thanks to an improvement of upstream agricultural yields (restructuring, intensification and, very important, improvement in farmer training). For this, access to credit lines and subsidies that allow small farmers and cooperatives to carry out improvements in the crop is a priority, not only to renew the existing orchards with the traditional variety picholine of Morocco, but also the plantation of new varieties in intensive in order to industrialize at most new orchards, and the transformation of olives into good quality oil with the installation of modern crushing units that should eventually replace the multitude of "maâsra".

- To improve the quality of olive products, and earn additional income by valorisation of by-products. which can constitutue a new source of wealth. The development of the olive sector can help create new jobs related to the sustainable management of the environment, including eco-tourism.

- Control the supply, as far as possible, to avoid the loss of value in the food chain and the low prices at the origin of the product.. For this, the grouping of cooperatives and producers in large associations should be promoted with the help of the government.

In this context, the main challenge facing the Moroccan olive sector is how to adapt to a highly competitive market, through the modernization of farms (intensive and super- intensive systems), while maintaining the ability to generate rural employment and make a sustainable use of resources. ( NSDMOS; 2019).

Conclusions

This work showed us the importance of olive cultivation in Morocco which is one of the main olive producing countries and allowed us to describe the overall situation of olive growing in our country, as well as the limiting constraints found, such as soil type (olive trees are mainly found in the Tirs, Hamri, Hrach types), climate change (Olive trees generally grow in climates: Csa and Csb), soil erosion and water supply as Morocco is counted among the countries that suffer from drought.

In conclusion, this work defines the impact of olive growing on the environment as it shows the difference between the traditional and modern olive tree cultivation, the latter gives greater quantities of olive oil with good quality. We have tried to mention the solutions of the use of olive tree by-products (such as olive stones and olive pomace), however, in case of spillage in nature, without prior treatment, there will be negative impacts. In fact, these effluents are hardly degradable due to the phytotoxic and antimicrobial substances (phenols, fatty acids, etc.) that they contain, in other words, instead of throwing these harmful by-products into the environment, they can be valorized and reused (such as the Valorization of pruning products, Valorization of OMP, Agricultural use of OMWW). in order to be useful for the environment, something that ensures its sustainability as well as that of the olive-growing in our country. It was also stressed the importance of the "Green Morocco Plan" which supports the renewal of existing orchards with the traditional variety picholine of Morocco and also the planting of new varieties in super-intensive in order to industrialize as much as possible new orchards. The same goes for the transformation of olives into good quality oil with the installation of modern crushing units that should eventually replace the multitude of "maâsra" and thus reduce the environmental impact due to the margines, which has increased the demand for olive oil of good quality and consequently has impacted the performance of farmers.

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