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Index

9/11, 211, 222–4, 226, 227, 228, 275 Abdullah ibn Abd al-Lat.if Al Shaykh, 48, 52, Commission, 223 58, 59, 60, 75 Abdullah ibn Abd al-Rah. man, 105 Abbas, Mahmoud, 240 Abdullah ibn Juluwi, 39, 70, 82, 205 Abd al-Aziz (1765–1803), 20, 21, Abdullah ba al-Khayr, 105 191 Abu Bakr, 184 Abd al-Aziz (son of King Fahd), 212 Abu Dhabi, 111 Abd al-Aziz al-Muqrin, 226 Abu-Khalid, Fawziyya, 182, 189 Abd al-Aziz al-Qasim, 269 activists, 236, 263–4, 266–7 Abd al-Aziz al-Sheikh, Grand Mufti, 265 Advice and Reform Committee (ARC), 178 Abd al-Aziz ibn Abd al-Rah. man Al Saud see Afghanistan Ibn Saud American invasion of, 225, 230, 237, 276 Abd al-Aziz ibn Mutib ibn Rashid, 37–8 Bin Laden and, 178, 179 Abd al-H. amid al-Sarraj, 112 Saudi Islamists in, 223 Abd al-Mut.t.alib ibn Ghalib, Sharif of Mecca, Saudi jihadis and, 224 20, 32 Saudi support in, 215, 227 Abd al-Rah. man, 23–4, 37–8, 54, 143, 181 Soviet invasion of (1979), 130, 138, 150, 154, Abd al-Rah. man al-Barak, Shaykh, 260, 155, 230, 237, 276 264 see also Taliban Abd al-Rah. man al-Lah. im (lawyer), 252 Ah. mad, amir of Kuwait, 63 Abd al-Rah. man al-Shamrawi, 112 Ah. mad, Prince, 143 Abdul Aziz Pasha, 39 Air Force, 219–20 Abdullah (1814–18), 22 al-Aiyri, Yusuf, 226 Abdullah (1865–71), 23, 69 Ajlan, amir of Riyadh, 24, 38, 198, 205 Abdullah (died 1889), 24 Ajman tribe, 69, 74 Abdullah (half-brother of Ibn Saud), 71, 80 Ali, Sharif, 43–4 Abdullah, Hashemite, 100 Almana (interpreter), 86 Abdullah, King (2005–),211, 217, 253–61, Almana, M., 50 276 al-Amer, Tawﬁq, 266 development programme, 259–60 amirs foreign visits, 260 in historical texts, 195 royal tours, 257 majlis and, 79 Abdullah, King (2005–),asCrownPrince,136, Amnesty International, 251 143, 144, 175, 181, 201 al-Angari, Abdullah, 58 modernisation and, 245, 247, 253 Anglo–Kuwaiti Agreement, 38 new era challenges and, 211, 212–15, 222, 230, Anglo-Persian Oil Company, 88 236–7, 239–40 Anglo–Sa‘udi Treaty (1915), 40 Abdullah, King of Jordan, 255 Anglo–Turkish Convention (1913), 39 Abdullah, King of Trans-Jordan, 67, 204 Aniza, 14, 74, 253 Abdullah, Sharif, 32 Arab League, 153 Abdullah Azzam, 231 Beirut summit (2002), 239, 255

306

Index 307

Arab nationalism, 102, 106, 108, 111, 115, 119, 277 Gulf Cooperation Council and, 152 Faysal’s Islamic politics and, 129 Iran and, 151, 152 rejection of by historical texts, 184–5, 188 Bakri, Omar, 175 see also Bathism; al-Nas.ir, Gamal Abd Bandar ibn Sultan, 212, 214, 223, 237, 259 Arab Petroleum Congress, 107 Bani S.akhr, 253 Arab revolt (1916), 3 Banu Khalid tribe, 74 Arab world in the 1950s, 110–13 rebellion (1670), 13 Arab–Israeli conflict, 135, 150 rulers of Hasa, 14, 15, 16, 20, 34, 35 1967 war, 102, 124–5, 134 Banu Tamim tribe, 15 oil embargo and, 130, 131, 132, 134 al-Banyan, Salih Salem, 52 Arab–Jewish war (1947), 99 Barakat, Sharif, 13 Arabian American Oil Company see ARAMCO Basic Law of Government, 167–8 (Arabian American Oil Company) al-Batha, 215–16 Arabian Peninsula, infidels in, 237 Bathism, 102, 119, 129, 261 Arabic language, al-ammiyya movement and, in Iraq, 102, 112, 119, 126, 151, 152, 230 185 al-Baz, Rania, 269 Araif rebellion (1907–8), 56, 69–70 bedouins, 85 ARAMCO (Arabian American Oil Company), ARAMCO workforce and, 93 10, 91, 92–6, 97, 101, 141 emerging Saudi state and, 8 building of infrastructure and, 92 in historical texts, 195 Dhahran ‘American Camp’, 92–3 royal feasts and, 82 in historical texts, 190 sedentarisation of, 133, 149, 189 King Faysal and, 116 Beirut, 271 King Saud and, 103 Bell, Gertrude, 42, 206 managers, 92–3, 95–6 Benedict, Pope, 260 oil concession (1933) and, 89, 90, 100 Bin Laden, Usama, 178–9, 222, 223–6, 229–30, Palestinian employees, 99–100 275 Saudi dissidents and, 95–6, 110, 126 birth rates, 145–6 Saudi workforce, 93–6, 108, 110 Britain Saudi–American relations and, 100–1, 113 al-Yamama arms deal and, 239 Saud’s foreign policy and, 111 Anglo–Saudi Treaty (1915) and, 40–1 al-T. ariqi and, 107, 108 arms purchases from, 219 ARC (Advice and Reform Committee), 178 Baghdad Pact and, 111 armed forces, Saudi, 87, 108 Hadda and Bahra Agreements with (1925), 45, al-Asad, President Bashar, 256 64 Ashraf, 29, 36 Hasa and, 35 Asi al-Shraym, Fahda bint, 253 Ibn Saud’s relationship with, 45–6, 91, 97–101 Asir, 265 ikhwan rebellion and, 66, 68, 98 Al Saud rule in, 20 King Faysal’s relations with, 115 capture of, 1, 3, 4, 43, 44–5, 67, 97 Palestine and, 98 Idrisi rebellion in, 98 protectorates in Arabia, 37, 66 Ottoman occupation of, 1 Rashidi emirate and, 28 Sharifian emirate and, 32 Saudi state building and, 2–3, 4, 37, 40–1, 43, Association of Muslim Scholars, 235 44–5 Atta, Muhammad, 222 Suez Crisis (1956) and, 111 al-Awdah, Salman, 161, 164, 170, 174, 223, 228, Treaty of Jeddah (1927) and, 45–6 264, 269 Zionism and, 98 budget (2000–8), 219 Badia palace, 90 Buraymi border dispute, 111 Badr ibn Abd al-Moh. sin, 202 Bush, President George W., 222, 230, 234, 236 Baghdad Pact, 110, 111 businesswomen, 247 Bahra Agreement (1925), 45, 64 Bahrain Cairo, 271 Al Saud rule in, 20 California Arab Standard Oil Company Anglo–Saudi Treaty (1915) and, 40 (CASOC), 89

308 Index

Canada, military supplies from, 219 dissidents, 95–6, 110, 126, 196, 234–5, 262 Carter Doctrine, 155 see also activists CASOC (California Arab Standard Oil divorce, Ibn Saud and, 75–6 Company), 89 dress code, regional identity and, 194 CDLR (Committee for the Defence of driving, ban on women, 161–2, 269–70 Legitimate Rights in Saudi Arabia), 171–6, al-Duwaysh, Faysal, 55, 58, 62–3, 65, 66, 141 178–9 centennial celebrations (1999), 11, 192 economic crisis, 222 capture of Riyadh and, 197–208 economic forums, businesswomen and, 247 challenges to, 208–10 economic recession, 144–5, 149 Ibn Saud and, 197–208 economic reform, 215–22 Churchill, Winston, 91, 204 education, 106, 117–18, 120, 128, 139, 146, 218 Cities of Salt (Abd al-Rah. man Munif), 273 historical narratives and, 183–90 civil service, 83–6, 148 scholarships, 260 Committee of Allegiance, 257–9 of women, 117, 118, 120, 147, 260 Committee for the Defence of Legitimate Rights Education, Ministry of (Wizarat al-Maarif), 183 in Saudi Arabia (CDLR), 171–6, 178–9 Egypt, 239, 255 Committee for the Propagation of Virtue and Arab nationalism and, 102, 106 Prohibition of Vice, 252, 268 Camp David Agreement and, 150 communication technology, 273–4 coup (1956), 108, 110 communism, 261 Faysal’s relationship with, 128 historical narratives on, 185 Muslim Brotherhood, 112, 227, 231, 276 Saudi–American relations and, 114, 115, 138 nineteenth-century invasion of Arabia, 22, 23, Conference of Saudi Arabia in 100 years, 206–7 26, 53 constitutional reform, advocates of, 261–3 Ottoman occupation of, 13 construction, foreign workers, 260 peace treaty with Israel (1979), 239 Consultative Council, 118, 177, 180, 261, 264 rivalry with Saudi Arabia, 256 Law of, 167, 168 Saudi–American relations and, 115 consumerism, 124 Saud’s alliance with, 112, 113, 114 Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Saud’s exile in, 118 Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Suez Crisis (1956) and, 102, 108, 111, 112, 114 Punishment (UN), 250 war with Israel, 125, 130, 131 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Yemen and, 113, 115, 119, 124–5, 126 Discrimination Against Women (UN), 250 see also al-Nas.ir, Gamal Abd Convention on the Rights of the Child (UN), Eisenhower Doctrine, 114 250 elections, candidates, 2005 municipal, 248–9 Cordesman, A., 235 emirates, 6–8, 35–6 Council of Higher Ulama, 264 see also Rashidi emirate; Saudi–Wahhabi Council of Ministers, 91, 104, 118, 168, 217, 248, emirates; Shariﬁan emirate 251 employment, 260 customs duties, 85 Ende, W., 30 external pressures on Saudi Arabia, 233–41 Dah. lan, A., 31 extremism, 245 debt, national, 217, 218 Extremism and Moderation (National Dialogue Defence, Ministry of, 86, 213 Forum), 244 development programme, 259–60 al-Dhari, Harith, 235 Fahd, King, 10, 110, 143–50 Diriyyah centennial celebrations and, 203, 204, 205 Ottoman sacking of (1818), 22, 34, 53, 55 as Crown Prince, 136, 138, 143 Saudi leadership in, 14–15 death of, 212–14, 253, 256 Wahhabism in, 16–17, 18 government reforms and, 167–8 discrimination, 264–5, 268 Gulf War and, 159 dissident literature liberation of Kuwait and, 224 oil industry and, 96 Memorandum of Advice and, 164 on Saudi history and development, 196–7 speech, 190–2

Index 309

succession and, 180–1, 254 GDP (gross domestic product), 116, 133, 144 transfer of power from, 222 Germany, military supplies from, 219 United States and, 156, 237 Ghalib, Imam, 111 al-Faleh, Matruk, 252, 262 al-Ghamdi, Said, 149 al-Faqih, Saad, 172, 173, 175, 176, 177 al-Ghargini, Khalid, 83 Faruq, King of Egypt, 91, 204 girls, education of, 117, 118, 120 Fatah, 255 Girls of Riyadh (Raja al-Sani), 272 Fatat al-Qatif, 270 Golub, D., 132 fatawa, 225, 228, 265–7, 269 al-Gosaybi, Ghazi, 164, 272 Al Faysal, 214 Grand Mosque siege (1979), 10–11, 130, 139–42, Faysal (Al Saud ruler, 1834–8), 23 156, 196, 222, 227, 268 Faysal, King (son of Ibn Saud), 10, 43, 72, 75, Guantanamo´ Bay detention camp, 224, 252 83, 101, 116–24, 256 guardianship, over adult women, 270 administrative and planning policies, 116–17 Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), 152–3, 237, Arab world and, 124–9 256 assassination of, 120, 137–8 Gulf states, 239 centralised state, 212–14 Gulf War (1990), 11, 142, 156, 158–81 Council of Ministers and, 92, 104, 118 government reforms (1992) and, 180 dissident literature on, 196 Islamist opposition and, 158, 160–3, 164–6, economic and social reforms, 118–19, 120, 129, 178–9, 192 130, 133 MIRA and, 175 education and, 117–18, 120, 128 ‘secularist’ demands for reform and, 163–4 Islam and, 102, 119–21, 127–8, 129, 133–4, 138–9, 191–2 Hadda Agreement (1925), 45, 64 Ministry of Foreign Affairs and, 86 Hail oil embargo and, 131, 133–4, 136 capture of (1921), 41–2, 44 oil revenues and, 116, 117, 118, 121–2 Juluwi governors in, 70 plot to overthrow (1969), 126 Rashidi emirate in (1836–1921), 25–9 power struggle with Saud, 102, 103–5, 110 rule of amirs in Riyadh, 23–4 Saudi–American relations and, 115–16 al-H. akim, Khalid, 83 al-T. ariqi and, 107 al-H. amad, Turki, 271, 272 visit to Washington, 100 Hamas, 239–40, 255 Faysal, King of Iraq, 61, 67, 112 al-H. amid, Abdullah, 252, 262, 263 Faysal ibn Muamar, 243 al-H. amid, Isa, 263 Faysal ibn Musaid ibn Abd al-Aziz, 137–8 Hamilton, Lloyd, 88 Faysal ibn Turki, 34 H. amza, Fuad, 83, 86 al-Fayz family, 253 al-Hariri, Rafiq, 211, 239 fertility rates, 145 Hasa finances, state revenues under Ibn Saud, 84–5, Al Saud rule in, 20 89 Banu Khalid rulers of, 14, 15, 16, 20, 34, 35 fiqh, Wahhabism and, 20 customs duties, 85 First World War, 2, 4, 28, 37, 39–41, 43, 58 h. ad. ar communities of, 86 Firun, Rashad, 105 historical narratives on, 193, 196 Foreign Affairs, Ministry of, 86 Ibn Saud visits as King, 82 foreign workers, 146, 221, 260 Islam in, 33, 34–5, 62, 63, 85 France Juluwi governors in, 70 military supplies from, 219 nineteenth-century, 33–5 Suez Crisis (1956) and, 111 Ottoman occupation of, 1, 2, 13 Free Officers, 108 Saudi state formation and, 1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 39, Free Princes, 106, 108, 110, 118–19, 122 60–1 Friedman, Thomas, 255 Shia tribal groups in, 193 al-H. asan, H., 193–4 Gaza, 255 al-H. awali, Dr S.afar, 160–1, 164, 170, 174, 223, GCC (Gulf Cooperation Council), 152–3, 237, 228, 264–5, 269 256 hijackers, 9/11, 222–3

310 Index

Hijaz, 216 ibn Rashid, Saud, 253 activists in, 236 Ibn Rifada, 97 Al Saud rulers in, 20 Ibn Saud, 1, 12, 212 Arab revolt (1916) and, 3–4 ancestor cult around, 202, 204–8 army and police force, 86 Asir and, 97–8 capture of (1925), 42–6, 62, 67, 71, 81, 85 brothers of, 69, 70–1 customs duties and taxes, 85 centennial celebrations and, 197–208, 208–10 dress style and regional identity, 193–5 consolidation of royal lineage, 9, 69–71, 71–7 elite, 148 cousins of, 69–70 h. ad. ar communities, 86 death and succession, 10, 101 Hasa and, 34 desert excursions, 80–1 in historical texts, 186, 196 dress, 78–9 Ibn Saud as King in, 61, 62, 81 establishment of Saudi state, 2–5, 8–10, 68, 69 incorporation into Saudi state, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, First World War and, 2, 39–41 67 Hasa and, 35 Islam in, 30, 62 historical narratives of, 191 Ottoman occupation of, 2, 13, 22 horse races and, 81 rural–urban divide, 30–1 ikhwan and, 55, 56–9, 59–66, 66–9, 84, Sharifian emirate, 7, 29–33, 36, 45 139 Sufis in, 267 international politics and, 91 tribal groups, 29–30, 32, 193 Islam and, 39, 87, 207, 208 historical narratives see official historical majlis and, 77–83, 101 narrative marriages and children, 9, 69, 71–7, 83, 253 Hizb al-Tah. rir, 175 meeting with Roosevelt, 100, 204 Hizbollah, 239, 240, 265 mut.awwaa of Najd and, 47–50, 52, 54–6, Hogarth, D., 30 59–66 Homeland is for All, and All are for the Homeland oil wealth and, 10, 69, 87–9, 89–92 (petition), 266 Palestine and, 98–100 horse races, 81 royal court and, 9 human rights, 234, 250–3, 261 royal feasts, 9, 82–3 organisations, 270 state affairs and, 83–7, 104 Human Rights Commission (HRC), 251–3 ulama and, 87 Human Rights Social Committee (al-Lajna Ibn Saud, military campaigns, 37, 77, 86–7 al-Ahliyya li H. uquq al-Insan), 251 Hail (1921), 41–2 Human Rights Watch, 251 Hijaz (1925), 42–6, 61–2 Al H. umayyid, 34 Najd, 42, 44, 56, 60–1 H. usayn, King of Hijaz, 73 Riyadh (1902), 4, 6, 25, 28, 37–9, 52, 54, 187, H. usayn, King of Jordan, 111, 124, 127 197 H. usayn, Sharif (1908–24), 2, 3, 30, 42, 43–4, 61 ibn Saud, Muhammad, 16, 17, 187 al-Huthlul, Alla, 271 ibn Sulayman, Abdullah, 84–5, 86, 106 oil concession (1933) and, 88 Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad, 15–17, 19, 25, Ibn Taymiyya, Taqi al-Din Ah. mad 231 47, 48, 49, 51, 54, 65, 187, 209, 231, 276 ibn Taymur, Said, Sultan of Muscat, 111 Ibn Baz, Abd al-Aziz, 139, 160, 163, 164, 166, ibn Thunayan, Abdullah, 23, 42 184, 198 Ibrahim Pasha, 22, 53 ibn Bijad, Sultan, 66, 71 al-Idrisi, Muhammad, 43 ibn H. ithlayn, 66 Idrisi emirate, 43, 97 ibn Khalaf, 55 ikhwan (Muslim tribal military force), 4, 37, ibn Khalifa al-Thani, Shaykh Hamad, 238 56–9 ibn Rashid, Abd al-Aziz, amir of Hail, 37, 38, dress and manners, 55, 58–9 39, 40, 41, 44 historical narratives of, 189 ibn Rashid, Abdullah, amir of Hail, 23, 69 hujjar (village) settlements and, 57 ibn Rashid, Muhammad, amir of Hail, 24, 26, Ibn Saud and, 55, 56–9, 59–66, 66–9, 84, 139 37 mut.awwaa of Najd and, 55, 56–9, 59–66, ibn Rashid, Muhammad, amir of Najd, 60 67–8

Index 311

National Guard and, 87 Islam nomadic population and, 57 Basic Law of Government, 167, 168 rebellion (1927–30), 63–6, 66–8, 71, 84 in Hasa, 34, 35, 63–4, 85 siege of mosque in Mecca and, 138–9 in Hijaz, 30, 61–2 industrial plant, 260 historical narratives of, 183–4, 185–6, 187, information technology, 179, 232, 236 188–9, 196 communication technology, 273–4 Ibn Saud and, 39, 87, 207, 208 internet, 179–80, 225, 249, 262, 273–4 Islamist candidates, 2005 municipal elections, Institution of Ifta and Scholarly Research, 139 248–9 interfaith dialogue, 260–1, 265 Islamist movement (1990s), 261 Interior, Ministry of, 169, 213, 225, 234, 252, 261, King Fahd and, 191–2 262 King Faysal and, 102, 119–21, 127–8, 129, International Convention on the Elimination of 133–4, 138, 139 All Forms of Racial Discrimination (UN), King Khalid and, 138–43 250 majlis and, 80 International Monetary Fund, 217 modernity and, 5, 149–50, 161–2 internet, 179–80, 225, 249, 273–4 in Najd, 4, 6, 8, 16–20, 36, 37, 46–56 petitions and, 262 oil concession and, 87–8 investment, Saudi, in United States, 137 Saudi dress code and, 194 Iran Saudi wealth and, 10 Baghdad Pact and, 110 siege of mosque in Mecca, 10–11, 130, 139–42, Hizbollah and, 239 156, 196, 222, 227, 268 Iraq and, 240 symbolic significance of Saudi Arabia King Faysal’s foreign policy and, 127 for, 5 nuclear programme, 255 Syrian and Egyptian pilgrims and, 63 regional influence, 255–6 tribal heritage and, 269 relations with, 211 umma (community), 11 revolution (1979) and Islamic Republic of, see also ikhwan; Islamist opposition; 130, 138, 141, 150–2, 154, 156, 230, 264 mut.awwaa;Shia community; Wahhabi Saudi dissidents in, 196 movement Shia influence of, 265 Islamic Development Bank, 128 United States and, 135, 152, 154 Islamic Solidarity Fund, 128 war with Iraq (1980s), 130, 138, 150–2, 154, 156, Islamisation programme, al-Sahwa and, 224 214, 215, 233, 276 Islamist novelists, 272–3 Iranian Assembly of Experts, 265–6 Islamist opposition, 11, 158, 160–2, 164–6, Iraq, 3, 13, 21, 64, 67 171–80, 192 Baghdad Pact and, 110 Advice and Reform Committee (ARC) and, Bahra Agreement with, 45, 64 178 Bathist regime, 102, 112, 119, 126, 151, 152, 230 centennial celebrations, 209 coup (1958), 112 Committee for the Defence of Legitimate Free Officers, 108, 112 Rights in Saudi Arabia (CDLR) and, 171–6, Gulf War and, 152, 158, 159, 160–1, 163 178–9, 209 Hashemites, 111–12 internet and, 179–80 Ibn Saud’s foreign policy and, 100, 111 media discrediting of, 170–1 jihad in, 236 MIRA and, 175–7, 178, 209 proposed model democracy, 255 succession and, 180–1 Saudi dissidents in, 196, 234–5 terrorism and, 223–4, 229 Saudi–American relations (1970s), 135–6 Ismaili activists, 263, 266–7 Saud’s visit to, 112 Israel Shia ascendance in, 264, 264–5 peace treaty with Egypt (1979), 239 United States occupation of, 229–30, 237, 255, Saudi–American relations (1970s), 135–6 267, 276 war on Lebanon, 239 violence in, 234–6, 240 see also Arab–Israeli conflict war with Iran (1980s), 130, 138, 150–2, 154, 156, Israeli–Hizbollah war (2006), 256 214–15, 233, 276 Israeli–Palestinian crisis, 239

312 Index

Italy Khartoum, 126 military supplies from, 219 al-Khobar Towers bombing, 254 Ottoman Empire and, 43 Khomeini, Ayatollah, 142 al-Khunayzi, Najib, 264 Jabal Shammar, 27, 28, 61 khuwwa payments, Rashidi emirate and, 27, 28 Janadiriyya festival, 189, 254 King Abd al-Aziz Centre, 243 Japan, oil embargo and, 132 King Abdullah’s Economic City, 260 al-Jarba family, 253 King Saud University, 252 al-Jawf province, 216 King Sultan Air Base, 223 Jawhara bint al-Sudayri, 70 Kuwait Jazan province, 216 Al Sabah, 24, 37, 41 al-Jazeera, 211, 238–9, 256 Anglo–Kuwaiti Agreement, 38 Jeddah Anglo–Saudi Treaty (1915) and, 40 capture of (1925), 44 British protectorate of, 67 development in, 215–16 exile of Al Saud to, 24, 37, 48, 199 economic forums and, 247 Gulf Cooperation Council and, 152 National Dialogue Forum, 246 Gulf War and, 152, 158, 159, 160, 163, 230, 233 Treaty of (1927), 45 Iran and, 151, 152 Jerusalem, oil embargo and, 133 jihad and, 64 jihad liberation of, 214, 215, 224, 239 Gulf War and, 163, 165 terrorism and, 238 ikhwan and, 64 women in public ministerial ofﬁce, 268 Wahhabism and, 17, 18 warriors, 87, 232 Labour, Ministry of, 221 jihadism labour force, 146–8, 220 causes, 231 al-Lajna al-Ahliyya li H. uquq al-Insan (Human concept of, 231 Rights Social Committee), 251 Joint United States–Saudi Committee for largesse, sources of, 259–60 Economic Cooperation, 137 Law of the Consultative Council, 167, 168, 169 Jordan, 239 Law of the Provinces, 167, 169 Arab–Israeli war (1967) and, 3, 67 Leatherdale, C., 66 Baghdad Pact and, 111 Lebanon, 239, 240, 256, 265 Hadda Agreement (1925) with, 45, 64 liberal novels, 272 Hashemites, 111 Libya Ibn Saud’s foreign policy and, 100, 111 Free Ofﬁcers, 108 King Faysal’s foreign policy and, 127 relations with, 256 Jubayl, conquest by Ibn Saud, 2 Saudi dissidents in, 196 judiciary, Basic Law of Government and, 168 Saudi–American relations (1970s) and, 135 Juhayman ibn Muhammad al-Utaybi, 139, 141, literature 142, 222, 268 expressions of change, 271–3 Al Juluwi, 70 terrorism and, 271 Longrigg, Stephen, 88 al-Kabir, Saud, 70 Kabul, 276 Madina Karbala,AlSaud raid on, 21 Al Saud rule in, 20 Kennedy, John F., 115 capture of (1925), 44, 63 Khalid (Al Saud ruler in Najd), 23 Sharifs and, 30 Khalid, King (1975–82), 10, 127, 138–43, 144 majlis,IbnSaud and, 77–83, 101 as Crown Prince, 116, 118 Malh. amat al-tawh. id (theatrical performance), Khalid (nephew of Ibn Saud), 71 202 Khalid (nephew of King Faysal), 137 al-Maliki, Shaykh, 267 Khalid al-Faysal, 214 manpower development, 218 Khalid ibn Sultan, 214, 259 marriages Khalilzad, Zalmay, 235 exogamous, 124 Kharj, Al Saud rule in, 20 of Ibn Saud, 9, 69, 71–7, 83

Index 313

172 173 174 5 177 32 al-Mas ari, Muhammad, , , – , Muhammad ibn Aid., Mashahida (Shia merchant community), 52 Muhammad ibn Awn, Sharif (1856–8), 32 Mecca Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Jubayr, Shaykh, Al Saud rule in, 20 168 capture of (1924), 44, 63 Muhammad ibn Nayef, 214, 259 conference (1962), 127 al-Muhayya compound (Riyadh), 231 Iranian pilgrims and, 151 municipal councils, 249–50 National Dialogue Forum (2003), 244 municipal elections (2005), 248–50 Ottoman occupation of, 13 Munif, Abd al-Rah. man, 96, 273 pilgrims in, 85–6, 89 Munira (sister of Ibn Saud), 70 Sharifs of, 30, 31–2, 42–3 Muraba palace, 90 siege of mosque (1979), 10–11, 130, 139–42, al-Murra tribe, 238 156, 196, 222, 227, 268 Musaid ibn Abd al-Rah. man, 105 Wahhabism and, 20, 142 Muscat, 67, 111 media Muslim Brotherhood, 227, 231, 276 centennial celebrations and, 198, 201–2 Muslim League, 128 international scrutiny, 245 Muslim World League, 128, 168 Islamist opposition and, 170–1 mut.awwaa, 4, 8, 37, 46–56 Israeli and Saudi, 256 Egyptian invasion of Arabia and, 53 Memorandum of Advice and, 165 family connections, 51 National Dialogue Forum and, 246 ﬁqh and, 47–8, 49 political reform and, 262 Ibn Saud and, 47–50, 53–5, 59–66, 67 women and, 247 ikhwan and, 54, 55, 56–9, 63, 65, 67 Memorandum of Advice, 164–6, 170, 173, 176, Mashahida and, 52 224 new generation of, 150 merchants punishment and, 49–50, 54 families in Hasa, 34 Saudi rulers and, 53 Ministry of Foreign Affairs and, 86 settlements, 48 Mesopotamia, Al Saud raids on, 21 tax collection and, 85 Midhat Pasha, governor of Baghdad, 34 trade and, 51 military cooperation tribal confederations and, 51–2, 55–6 Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) and, 153 Wahhabism and, 48 with United States, 137, 155–7 women and, 147–8 military spending, 218, 219 zakat payments and, 49, 54, 85 minorities, recognition for, 263–7 Mutayr tribal confederation, 24 MIRA (Movement for Islamic Reform), 175–9, Mutib ibn Abdullah, 214, 259 209 Mishal, Prince (governor of Mecca), 258 Nada ibn Nuhayer, 55 Mishari, 23 Najd modernity, 232 h. ad. ar communities of, 8, 86 authoritarian rule and, 242–74 Hasa and, 33–4, 35 Islam and, 5, 149–50, 161–2 in historical texts, 186–7, 190, 194 monarchy Ibn Saud as Sultan in, 61 continuity of, 259 Ibn Saud’s military campaigns and, 42, 44, succession in, 258–9 56, 59 al-Moqrin, Samar, 272 Islam in, 4, 6, 8, 16–19, 36, 37, 46–56 Movement for Islamic Reform (MIRA), 175–9, Ottoman Empire and, 13, 22 209 population growth and employment Moza, Shaykha, 238 opportunities, 148–9 Mubarak, President, 255 rural–urban continuum, 30 al-Muhajirun Organisation, 175 Saudi expansion in, 14–15, 20, 21 Muhammad (half-brother of Ibn Saud), 70–1 Saudi state formation and, 1, 2, 3, 4, 38, 39, Muhammad, Prophet, 29, 57, 62, 204 68, 194 historical narratives and, 183–4, 193 Najran, 266 Muhammad Ali (Ottoman Sultan), 22, 31 Naqshabandi, Hani, 271

314 Index

Nasif, Abdullah Omar, 168 Ottoman Empire, 1–2, 7, 13, 24, 121 al-Nas.ir, Gamal Abd, 102, 106, 110–11, 112, 113, First World War and, 2, 4, 39–41, 43, 44 119 Hasa and, 34–5, 39 Arab–Israeli war (1967) and, 124 Hijaz and, 31–2, 33 Saudi–American relations and, 114, 115 history of, 183 Yemen war and, 124–6 Rashidi emirate and, 26, 28, 38 Nasserites, 261 Saudi–Wahhabi expansion and, 21, 22 nation building, 10–11 Ottoman–Egyptian invasion of Arabia (1818), 1 National Day celebrations, 12 Ottoman–Saudi Convention (1914), 39 national debt, 217, 218 National Dialogue Committee, 244 Palestine, 113 National Dialogue Forums, 242–8, 264, 269, 277 Ibn Saud’s policy in, 98–100 National Guard, 87, 109–10, 115, 123, 142, 189, King Abdullah and, 255 212–13, 254, 257 oil embargo (1973) and, 134 National Society for Human Rights (NSHR), war (1948), 94–5, 108 251–3 Palestine Authority, 240 Nayef, Prince, 118, 143, 170, 201, 262, 268 Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO), 127, new era challenges and, 212, 214–15, 227, 132 234 Palestinians, 239–40 al-Nojaymi, Shaykh Muhammad, 266 Partners in the Nation (petition), 264 nuclear programme, Iran, 255 peasantry in Hasa, 33 Nura (sister of Ibn Saud), 70, 206 Peninsula Shield Force, 153 Pentagon, 222 Obaid, N., 235 Persian Gulf, Hasa and, 33, 34, 35 ofﬁcial historical narratives, 11, 182, 183–90, petitions, 261–2, 264, 266 206–7 Petraeus, General, 236 centennial celebrations (1999) and, 11, 192, Philby, H. St John, 72, 73, 75, 78–9, 80, 83, 89, 197–208, 208–10 206 challenges to, 192–7 pilgrimages, tax revenues from, 86, 89, 90, 121 in political speech, 190–2 PLO (Palestine Liberation Organisation), 127, oil 132 boom, 220, 221–2 Political Committee of royal court, 85–6 commercial production of, 89–92 political reform, 246, 257, 261–3 concession (1933), 69, 87–9, 100, 190 polygamy, 268 crisis, 214 Ibn Saud and, 71–6 embargo (1973), 10, 118, 130, 131–4, 135 population exports and GDP, 116, 144 2004 census, 220 in historical texts, 190 growth, 145, 148, 216 production, 90, 91, 218, 237 poverty, urban, 215–16 revenues, 103, 116, 117, 118, 121–2, 133, 217 power, royal circles of, 213–14 society in 1940sand1950s and, 92–6 princes wealth, 6, 10, 106, 124, 129, 182, 197 as ‘businessmen’, 122 oil prices Free Princes, 106, 108, 110, 118–19, 122 2000–2008, 218 key, 213, 257 decreases, 130, 144, 209–10 patronage and, 122 increases, 130, 131, 132, 217, 221 Sudayri Seven, 105, 143 Oman, 20, 40, 46, 111, 152 Provinces, Law of, 167, 169 al-Omar, Nas.ir, 229, 264, 265 public sphere, women and, 247–8 Onassis, Aristotle, 111 punishment OPEC (Organisation of Petroleum Exporting ikhwan and, 59 Countries), 107, 131, 136 mut.awwaa of Najd and, 49–50, 54 Organisation of the Islamic Conference, 128 al-Qah. t.ani, Muhammad ibn Abdullah, 139, 140 Organisation of the Islamic Revolution, 142 al-Qaidah, 178, 223–7, 229, 232–3, 234, 257 Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries in Arabian Peninsula, 229 (OPEC), 107, 131, 136 in Iraq, 255

Index 315

Qandahar, 276 violence in, 225, 254 al-Qarni, Shaykh Awad, 149 women’s driving demonstration in, 161–2, Qasim 269 activists in, 236 Riyadh, capture of, 4, 6, 26, 28, 37–9, 52, 54, 69, Al Saud rule in, 20, 24 70 conquest by Ibn Saud, 4, 37, 38 centennial celebrations and, 197–208, Juluwi governors in, 70 209 Rashidi emirate and, 26 historical narratives of, 187 Unayzah, 195 ‘Riyadh Spring’, 261 Qas.r al-Masmak, 205 Riyadh University, 117, 119 Qatar, 225, 237 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 91, 100, 204 1995 coup, 238 Royal Air Force (British), 254 Al Saud rule in, 20 Royal Guard, 87 Anglo–Saudi Treaty (1915) and, 40 al-Rumaiyh. i, Dawud, 126 Gulf Cooperation Council and, 152 relations with, 211, 239, 256 Al Sabah (amirs of Kuwait), 24, 37, 41 terrorism and, 238 al-Sadat, Anwar, 128 Qatif, 270 Saddam Husayn, 152, 154, 158–9, 161, 163, Al Saud rule in, 20 229–30, 233, 255, 264, 276 conquest by Ibn Saud, 2 al-Saffar, H. asan, 264, 266 municipal council, 264 al-Sahwa, 223, 224–5, 228, 229 registered voters in, 248 see also Islamist opposition Shia tribal groups in, 193 al-Said, Nas.ir, 95, 109 al-Qus.aybi, Abdullah, 89 Sakakah, 216 Qutb, Sayyid, 227, 231, 276 al-Sakina, 274 Salafis, 264 al-Rafida in the Land of Monotheism (al-Omar), jihadi movement, 224 265 Salim I, Ottoman Sultan, 13 Rafsanjani, Ayatollah Hashemi, 265 Salim al-Sibhan, 24 railways, 91, 92 al-Sallal, Abdullah, 112 rape, 270 Salman, Prince, 181, 212, 214–15 Rashidi emirate, 2, 7, 8, 25–9, 36, 37–8, al-Sani, Raja, 272 109 al-Saqqaf, Khayriyyah, 147 conquest by Ibn Saud, 2, 24, 28, 41–2 satellite television, 247, 256 Ibn Saud’s marriages, 75 Saud (brother of Ibn Saud), 70 1906 38 1875 23 Rawd.at Muhanna, battle of ( ), Sa ud (died ), Reagan, Ronald, 155–6 Saud, King (son of Ibn Saud), 10, 71, 72, 73, 75, reform, society and, 261–74 79, 83, 101, 102–10 regional competitors, 237–41 abdication and death, 110 regional identity, dress code and, 194 Council of Ministers and, 92, 104 religion, state, 254 foreign policy, 111–13 religious reform movement, 234, 236 government finances and, 103 revenues see state revenues historical texts and, 190 105 118 19 Rid.a, Muhammad Ali, King Faysal and, – Riyadh oil industry and, 96 Al Saud rule in, 20, 23–4, 25 power struggle with Faysal, 102, 103–5, 110, construction boom, 90–92 122 ikhwan and, 58, 64–5, 67 visit to Washington, 100, 114 King Abd al-Aziz Historical Centre, 205 Al Saud rulers, 212 mut.awwaa of Najd and, 54, 59–60 centennial celebrations (1999)of,11, 192, National Dialogue Forum (2003), 244 197–208, 208–10 oil wealth and, 90–1 criticisms of, 178–9 Qas.r al-Masmak, 205 fragile revival (1824–91), 22–4 registered voters in, 248 in historical narratives, 187–8 street scene, 99 origins of (1744–1818), 14–22 uneven development in, 215–16 al-Sahwa and, 224

316 Index

Al Saud rulers (cont.) South Yemen, Saudi–American relations (1970s) state formation and, 1, 6 and, 136, 155 succession and, 180–1 Soviet Union Wahhabiyya and, 237 Egypt and, 128–9 Saud al-Faysal, 155, 212, 214, 240, 268 invasion of Afghanistan (1979), 130, 138, 150, Saud al-Kabir (Saud ibn Abd al-Aziz), 70 154, 155, 230, 276 Saud ibn Abd al-Aziz (1803–14), 20, 22 Saudi–American relations and, 114 Saudi–American relations, 212, 223, 232, 233–7, Saud’s foreign policy and, 111 256 Standard Oil of California (SOCAL), 88–9 1970s, 130, 133, 135–8 state affairs 1980s, 154–8 fragmentation, 212–15 Ibn Saud and, 100–1 Ibn Saud and, 83–7, 104 see also United States of America legitimacy, 11 Saudi–Wahhabi emirates, 4, 7, 8, 14, 25, 31, narratives, 182 35–6 reformist agenda, 242–53 Hasa and, 34 religion, 254 in historical narratives, 185–6, 191 state formation, 1–5, 37–68, 69 mut.awwaa of Najd and, 53 in historical narratives, 187–190 Rashidi emirate and, 26, 27 state revenues, 84–5 Saudisation programmes, 221 oil wealth and, 89, 90 al-Sayf, Tawfiq, 264 as source of largesse, 260 Second World War Sudayri Seven, 105, 143, 212, 213 oil production and, 90, 91 Suez Crisis (1956), 102, 108, 111, 112, 114 Saudi–American relations and, 113 Sufi community, 267 sectarianism, rejection of by historical texts, 184 suicide bombings, 234–5, 273 security measures, 226 Sulayman the Magnificent, 13 September 11 see 9/11 Sultan, Prince, 110, 136, 143, 181, 212, 214–15, 239, sexualisation of politics and violence, 271–3 254 Shakespear, Captain, 39–40 as Crown Prince, 257, 257–8, 259 al-Shalan family, 253 Sunni groups, 264 Shammar tribe fatwa against Shias, 266 capture of Hail and, 41 political, Iran and, 255 Hasa and, 33 Supreme Economic Council, 217 Ibn Saud’s marriages, 75 Syria, 13 Iraqi branch, 253 Al Saud raids on, 21 mut.awwaa of Najd and, 52, 55 Arab–Israeli war (1967) and, 125 National Guard and, 109 Bathism and, 102 Rashidi emirate and, 25–6, 27, 36 relations with, 211, 239, 256 Wahhabism and, 19 Saudi–American relations (1970s), 135 Sharifian emirate, 7, 8, 29–33, 36, 42–3, 44 Ottoman Empire and, 13 Taif, 20, 43, 63 Sharm al-Shaykh, 256 Treaty of (1934), 97 al-Shayeb, Jafar, 264 T. alal ibn Abd al-Aziz Al Saud, 101, 104–6, 108, Shia community, 63, 64, 85, 141, 141–2, 266 109, 110, 118 activists, 263–4, 267 Taliban, 223–5, 230, 276 discrimination against, 265 Tarfa (wife of Ibn Saud), 75 historical narratives and, 184, 193 al-T. ariqi, Abdullah, 105, 106–7, 108, 116, 123 Iran and, 255 tawh. id, doctrine of, 19 riots (1979–80), 130, 141–3, 152 taxes, 85–6, 121, 145, 265 ‘Shia crescent’, 255 revenues from pilgrims, 86, 89, 90, 121 Sibila, battle of (1929), 66 see also zakat payments SOCAL (Standard Oil of California), 88–9 al-Tayyib, Said, 262 social change, 269 technology, 218 social reform programme, 234, 236 innovations, in reign of King Faysal, 120, 138 socialism, Arab politics and, 102, 108, 115, 119, 126 telegraph, Islam and, 65

Index 317

terrorism, 267, 274 centennial celebrations and, 209 internal, 222–33, 241, 242, 244, 254, 261 extremism, 264 al-Thani, Amir Hamad, 239 Hasa and, 34 al-Thani, Shaykh Hamad ibn Khalifa, 238 in historical narratives, 188, 189, 190, 191–2 al-Towayjri, Khalid, 258 mut.awwaa of Najd, 48–9 trade, mut.awwaa of Najd and, 51 Shia Islam and, 39, 141–2 Trans-Jordan see Jordan tradition, 267, 276 tribalism see also Saudi–Wahhabi emirates emerging Saudi state and, 9 al-Walid ibn T. alal, 214 heritage, Islamic tradition and, 269, 270 ‘War on Terror’, 223, 229, 233, 261, 262, 264 historical narratives on, 184, 189–90, 193 Westernisation, 245, 270 in reign of King Faysal, 123 historical narratives on, 185 al-Turki, Mansour, 234 women, 234 Turki, Prince 143 demonstration (2007), 263 Turki al-Faysal, 214–15, 268 discrimination against, 268 Turki al-Sudayri, 251 driving demonstration in Riyadh, 161–2, 269 Turki ibn Abdullah (Al Saud ruler, 1824–34), 22 education of, 117, 118, 120, 147, 260 employment of, 147, 163, 268 unemployment, 220–1 media and, 247 National Dialogue Forum and, 245 National Dialogue Forum and, 245 United Arab Emirates novelists, 271–2 Gulf Cooperation Council and, 152 prohibition on exogamous marriages, 124 UAE–Qatari Dolphin Undersea Natural Gas public sphere and, 247–8 Pipeline, 238 quest for equality, 268–70 United Nations, 250–1 unemployment and, 221 United States of America Western agenda and, 245 arms purchases from, 219 Women of Vice (Samar al-Moqrin), 272 Gulf War and, 158–60, 161 World Muslim Congress, 127 influence in rape case, 270 World Trade Center, 222, 231, 275 invasion of Afghanistan, 225 World Trade Organisation, 217, 254 Iran and, 135, 152, 154 Islamist opposition and, 178, 180 Yah. ya, Imam of Yemen, 67, 73, 97–8 Lend-Lease Program, 91, 101 al-Yamama arms deal, 239 Marshall Plan, 113 Yamani, M., 194 military cooperation with, 137, 155 Yamani, Muhammad Zaki, 116, 118, 148 occupation of Iraq, 229–30, 237, 255 Yasin, Yusuf, 83, 86 oil concession (1933), 69, 87–9 Yemen, 7, 21, 43, 67 oil embargo (1973) and, 10, 130, 131, 132, 133, Arab workers from, 146 134 conflict in Asir and, 97–8 Saudi Arabia in 1950s and 1960s, 113–16 Egypt and, 113, 115, 119, 124–5, 126 see also Saudi–American relations establishment of Arab Republic, 112, 115, 135 universities, 117, 119 Free Officers, 108 Utayba tribe, 58 Saudi–American relations and, 115 al-Uthaymin, Abdullah, 183, 187 see also South Yemen Uthman ibn Muammar, 16 youth, National Dialogue Forum and, 245 Uyaynah, Wahhabi reform movement and, 16, 17 zakat payments, 121 mut.awwaa of Najd and, 49, 54, 85 van der Meulen, D., 77, 101, 206 Rashidi emirate and, 27 violence, 244–5, 247 Saudi–Wahhabi emirate and, 20, 21 voters, registered, 248 Wahhabism and, 16, 17, 19 al-Zarqawi, Abu Musab, 235 Wahba, H. afiz., 83, 86 al-Zawahiri, Ayman, 227, 275 Wahhabi movement/Wahhabiyya, 4, 5, 11, 15–22, Zibari, Hoshyar, 235 227, 228, 231, 232, 233–4, 237 al-Zirkili, K., 79