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The Islamic Question in British Politics

The Islamic Question in British Politics

CEU eTD Collection

T HE I SLAMIC Q UESTION IN B RITISH P OLITICS OLITICS P RITISH B IN UESTION SLAMIC Q HE I T AND In partialfulfillment oftherequirements forthedegreeof P RESS DURING THE Supervisor: Professo Second Reader:ProfessorMiklosLojko Central EuropeanUniversity Shchestyuk Tetyana History Departm Budapest, Hungary Master of Arts Submitted to 2013 By

r Nadiaal-Bagdadi ent G REAT W AR . CEU eTD Collection in thegovernmental papers. 1917, whichwitnessedalackofinterestforthe of the Arab CaliphateinBritishpolicy aresuggested. Special attention ispaidtotheyear refuting theSultan’s calltojihadareanalyzedan Sultan’s call tojihad,and promoting thetransfer of theCaliphateto Arabia. The strategiesof the Islamic questionresulted in twoseparate de spread ideainBritishpo the essence oftheIslamic questi the Great War. The connectionbetween British Abstract The thesis analyzes theroleof Islamic litics, which was referred to as a common point. It is suggested that litics, whichwasreferredtoasacommonpoint.Itissuggestedthat on. Inthepresentworkquestion isconsidered as awide- i velopments duringtheGreat War: refutingthe Muslim subjectsandtheCaliphisdefinedas Islamic questionintheBritish press, but not question inBritishpoli d thestagesofconsiderationidea tics andpressduring CEU eTD Collection Appendix: Tables onthesources. Bibliography. Conclusion...... Chapter 4: The Islamic question inBritishpolit Chapter 3: The IdeaofEstablishingaCaliphate subjects in1914-1915. Chapter 2:British Concernsaboutthe Otto Politics. Chapter 1:Historiographical Introduction. List ofIllustrations. 1.2. HistoricalBackground: Islamic question 1.1. Historiographicbackgroundoftheresearch. II. SecondarySources: I. Primary Sources: 4.4. ChangesincoveringofIslam in The Times in1917. 4.3. aspoliticalfactor press (1916). 4.2. The coverageofthe Arab revoltortherevo 4.1. The religiousappealofthe . 3.4. The move from the Arab Caliphateto 3.3. Doubtsaboutthelegitimacy oftheOttoma of the Arab CaliphateinBritishpolitics, 1915. 3.2. The official acknowledgment ofRussianclai 3.1. Promoting thesharifofMeccaasan 2.3. The pressontheMuslim opinionin1915. 2.2. The BritishRefutingoftheSultan's calltojihad. Empire. 2.1. British Concernsabout Muslim opinionduring 1.2.3. The changeoftheroleIslamic f 1.2.1. MeaningoftheCaliphatein19 1.2.2. The Islamic question:Muslim popul 1.1.3. The BritishpolicyintheMiddleEast. 1.1.2. Islam inrelationsbetweenGr 1.1.1. Historiographyonthequestionof 4.3.4. The QuestionofCaliphate. 4.3.3. IndiaandHejazintheEasternreports. Mesopotam 4.3.2. ImmunityoftheHoly placesandpresen 4.3.1. Religiousanti-Britishpropaganda. 2.2.2. NotareligiouswarfortheOttoman empire. 2.2.1. Arguing thatGreatBritainisnotanenemy ofIslam. British Policy towardsthe . 2.1.2. The influenceofconcernsaboutMusl 2.1.1. The manifestationofBritishconcerns indifferent sources. the Balkanwars. Table ofContents ...... 99 ...... 99 ...... 1 ...... 1 ...... 101 ...... 101 ...... 70 ...... 70 ia...... 83 ...... 83 ...... iii ...... 101 ...... 101 ...... 21 ...... 24 ...... 24 ...... 104 ...... 104 and HistoricalBackgroundofth in theEasternreportsof1917...... 109 ...... 109 ...... 89 ...... 89 eat BritainandIndianMuslim m ideal can the an SultanastheCaliphofBritishMuslim an Caliphateandpan-Islam th ...... 79 ...... 79 ...... 68 ii ics andpressduringthe century. in ation inBritish Arab revolt(October 1915–June1916). in Britishpo ...... 30 ...... 30 im ...... 15 ...... 15 ...... 55 ...... 55 ...... 45 actor inBritish-Ottom n caliph ...... 87 ...... 87 lt oftheHolyPlacesIslam Arabia inBrit ...... 11 ...... 11 ce oftheChristiantroopsinHejazand m opinionandthepositionofRussiaon didate forthe Arab . s to andthe discussion toConstantinople s the Perio ...... 43 ...... 43 ...... 35 ...... 17 ...... 17 ate intheBritishpress in1915...... 93 ...... 93 litics beforetheGreat War. e Islam ...... 79 ...... 79 -Ottoman relations. d ofNeutralitytheOttoman ...... 38 ...... 38 ish politics (1914-1916)....49 ish politics(1914-1916)....49 ic QuestioninBritish ic ...... 24 ...... 24 ism. s. Arab revoltandafter an relationsduring an ...... 14 ...... 14 ...... 11 ...... 11 intheBritish ...... 19 ...... 19 ...... 50 ...... 50 .....17 .....17 ...61 ...61 ...63 ...63 68 24 11 . CEU eTD Collection Douglas, TheGreat War, 1914-1918:theCartoonist's View Fall oftheBritish Empire List ofIllustrations. 2. A Britishcartoononjihad,from TheBystander 1. A German cartoonaboutjihad,1914(takenfrom: James, Lawrence . London: Abacus, 1997)…………………………………………35 iii , June28,1916,(takenfrom: Roy , London: Routledge,1995)……77 The Riseand CEU eTD Collection Great War, in whichthe waragainst theOttoman empirehadaminor importance. And evenforGreatBritain,which wasagreatcol however remained mainly aEurop Ottoman could hardlybeconsideredastrongenemy. empire approach seems abitsurprising. These scholars often or eveninternational issues. British empire, buttheywillnotspeakmuch ofit, with theOttoman empire wasimportant because , orsome countryinparticular, butnot to speak about Britishpolicy towards theterritor ies of the Ottoman empire,theMiddleEast, period. realize thattheseissues aresome though my researchisdealingwithGreatBritain work willfocus onthe regions outsideEurope: the Ottoman empire and BritishIndia. Therefore, during theGreat War whichdonotevenmention the Library there arestudies onintern strategic considerations will notdeal withmilitary history in thethesis,but Introduction. 3 2 1 Basil Henry Liddell Hart, BasilHenryLiddell 1. Chapter in in These be discussed studies details would : inmemoirs seen both Itcan be W.S. Churchill. of modern CapoPress, 1937)., p.56;David Fromkin, Empire Nicholson & Watson, 1933) War 1938), OdhamsVol.I. Limited, Memoirs Press (London: Lloyd George, David Though Idonotdoubttheimportance ofeconomic andmilitary issues andsuchstudies, their However, therearealarge number of studies Though thechronologicalframes of (London: (London: pp.358-359. 1997) Abacus, 2 whichisaresearchareathepresent thesis (New York, 1990),p.83; George H.Cassar. behind them. The Great War isknownto Lawrence of Arabia [Colonel Lawrence: The Man behind the Legend] Vol.II.

, and in historical studies Lawrence James, how marginal for GreatBritain andfor international affairs of that ational relationsduringtheGreat ean warwiththeprincipalactors A peace to end all peace: the fall of the Ottoman Empire the Ottoman fallof creation the A andthe toend all peace: peace the research are defined by the period of the Great theresearcharedefinedbyperiodofGreat War, I The Great The War. wards theMuslims. They may mention thatthewar 1 onial power, thewarwasmainly aEuropeanone anddevotetheirattention toeconomic, and internationalaffairs duringtheGreat War I of itsimpact ontheMuslim populationofthe on Britishpolitics intheMiddleEastduring the rather withhistory of international affairs and issues connected withtheMiddle East.Butmy repeat thatfrom amilitary pointofviewthe is the mostrelevant – V.1-3. (London), p.483-484, David Lloyd George. Kitchener's War: British Strategy From 1914 To 3 According toMarianKent, eventhe beafirstglobalconflict,which The Rise and Fall of the British British the of Fall Rise and The andmain strugglesinEurope. War orevenon GreatBritain WarMemoirs 1 Thus, even intheCEU to. These studies would studies to. These (Cambridge: Da (London: Ivor Ivor (London:

CEU eTD Collection their impact onMuslim opinion; may observethattheoccupation ofMesopotamia or - Was the Arab revolt considered bytheBritish in - Howwasthescheme ofthe Arab Cali - What wasdonetoensuretheloyalty ofMus - What weretheoriginsofIslamic question political decisions,butalsoina potential of Islam inBritishpoliticsduringtheGreat War. Iwould try toconsiderthemnotonlyin focus ofthepresentstudy, remains out Islam andMuslim opinionwereconsidered in Briti ofMecca. Butafterpointing atthis, they plan forremaking thepost-warworld,andcontribu contributed tothespecialsignificance of th deserves more attention. Itmust beadmitted that to thewarwithOttoman empire (theimpact Muslim opinionasthereasonforit. Ottoman empirethan wasjustified from military 8 7 6 5 4 than thestruggleinEurope. Company protection ofthepropertyOil in In September 2009 there was published a research on the topic very close to the present study, but unfortunately it Menteshashvili, Albert. Forinstance: Janet Wallach, Forexample, Sovietscholar Dantzig Marian Kent, p.138; Cassar, accessed onNovember 21,2009. http://books.google.com/books?id=r8qX4MvK8KEC&pri 1916 governance Sean Oliver-Dee, work: present in the was used not Ottoman in empire:war the Britain with B.M.Dantzig. p.118. 1976), Inc., Publishers The thesiswilladdress the following Therefore, the (Dulles, 2004), p.44 (Lexington Books, 2009). Books, 2009). (Lexington Oil and Empire. British Policy and Mesopotamian Oil 1900-1920 Empire.Oil and 1900-1920 Mesopotamian and Policy British Kitchener's aim Irak v gody angliyskogo mandata available at: , available , p.44. ofmypaperwillbetoanalyze Desert Queen. 4 They evenargue thatBritainpaid more attentiontothewarwith ppeals tothesubjectsofempire. 7

that theideaofCaliphateplayedacrucialroleinLordKitchener’s arrives at this conclusion on the base 5 Thus, Ithinktheissue whichtheyadmit providedimportance oftheattentionmost authors. phate promotedinBritishpolitics?

The ExtraordinaryThe Bell Gertrude Life of research questions: e warwiththeOttoman empirefor theBritish. lim subjects, when the Caliph called for ? lim subjects,whentheCaliphcalledforjihad? The caliphate question: theBritish government and Islamic in Britishpolitical thought of warontheMuslim populationunderBritishrule) precedetodiscussion ofothermatters. The way 2 scholarsusually agree thatfear of Muslim unrest Irak vproshlom i nastoyashchem connection withthe question of loyalty of British (Moskva: Nauka, 1969). 1969). Nauka, (Moskva: the Persian Gulf wasregarded aslessimportant n tsec=frontcover&hl=ru#v=onepage&q=&f=false considerations, and mention concerns about ted greatly towar-time commitments withthe sh politicsduring theGreat War, whichis the the Arab revoltwere significantbecauseof the considerationsaboutmobilizing s ofstatisticscosts andlosses of (New York: Harperand Row York:Row (New Harperand 8

(New (New York: Doubleday, 1996), before the Great war? before theGreat war? (Moskva, 1960), (Moskva, p.17. , They

CEU eTD Collection British empire: ,which constituted an empire underdirectBritishrule;i Muslim populationwhichwereofspeci present work Iwillmake nodistinctionbetween Br the HolyplacesofIslam, theOttoman empire, –w borders, itwasassumed thatpolic 10 9 concluded thataterm “Islamic question” other attitudes toBritishMuslim subjects. Thus, them “Islamophobia” instead. exactly onthesame concernsregarding MuslimsubjectsoftheBritish empire, as Ido,butcalls of theBritish empire, whichmade question this central forourstudyalso,buta Caliphate Question: The BritishGovernment andIslamic Governance”. different wordingfortheirresearchtopic. The fi recently thereappeared twostudies, basedon thesame assumptions, buttheir authorschose a question isidentifiedonthebasis meaning. UnlikethePolishorUkrainianquesti Besides, unliketheterm“factor”,whichimplies the empires concerned,suchaquestionwassimulta Ukrainian questions,which betweendifferent dealtwithpopulation divided empires. Foreachof re wayforseveral this formulated British empire, duetotheir andsupreme - CantheIslamic questionbeidentifi Muslim subjectsandtheideaofCaliphate? SeanOliver-Dee, Steven Cox, Cox, Steven books, 2009). 2009). books, University, http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1739/1/1739.pdf at: availiable 2003), As atthebeginningof20 The Islamic questionwillberegardedasconc The

idea of an Arab caliphate in British Middle Eastern policy in the era of the the Great era of the in policy Eastern in British Middle of an idea caliphate WarArab The Caliphate Question. The British Government and Islamic Islamic Governance and Question. BritishGovernment Caliphate The The

10 Ifind“Islamophobia” tobearatherstrongterm, excludes which term “Caliphatequestion”doesnot of religion;thus,itis y towardssome partof theMus asons. First of all,itiscalled question–likethePolishor ed in British politics in 1917? ed inBritishpolitics1917? th century Islam wasconsidered an entity regardless of state al interesttoGreatBritain we reflects my approachthebestway. rst isSeanOliver-Dee, having consideredotherpo important. The secondisSteven Cox,whofocuses 3 position of theCaliph for them. The subject was only influence, “question” presupposes a wider only influence,“question”presupposesawider ould haveaneffect onallMuslims. Thus, inthe itish foreign andcolonial policy. The areas with neously asubjectofho ons, identifiedontheba erns aboutloyaltyofMuslim subjectsofthe calledIslamic. Itisworthmentioning, that , accessed15.08.2010. lim world,–forexample India, pointoutatMuslim population re notnecessarilypartsofthe whose book is entitled “The whose bookisentitled“The 9 The ideaofCaliphateis ssible options,itmay be me andforeign policy. ndirect British rule in ndirect Britishrulein sis ofethnicity, this (London: Lexington Lexington (London: (Durham (Durham CEU eTD Collection the affairs oftheempire. The main reasonis th some politicalparty, though itis about theeffects ofthewar onMu were traditionallyimportant enough fortheBritish fo assumption thateven if itwasnotstressed strongly the Great War. This historyofIslamicquestionin presence and importance oftheidea Islamic th shared notonlybythepoliticalelite,butalsopublic. assume these ideasabout thepolitical significan sources wereproducedbypolitical more for variousstatesmenandpoliticiansthanfo course, beinganissueofforeignandcolonial territories of theOttoman empire bydifferent sides, expressed in thepress,usedasavalidargument inadebateabouttheBritishpolicytowards political significance of Islam for issues relatedtoIslam inBritis of Islamexpressedinthepressandbyofficials. Wh everyone. This definedseveralfeaturesofmy approach. features ofsuchconsiderations whichallowustospeak ofthem ascommonpointsaccepted by the MuslimworldduringGreat War determined thefocusof this research on thecommon Ottoman onMuslim empire opinionshouldnotbei independent Persiaand , forwhichGreatBritainalongtime competed withRussia. , andSudan;Britishspheres Another feature of my approachisthatIwillnot For thesame reasonIwilldevo For thisreason Iwillnotstressthedifference My desiretoshowthatconsiderationsabout h politics andthe pressconfirm thatbasic assumptions aboutthe possible tospeculatethatconserva the Britishempirewere widelysh slim opinionwhenthewarstarted. circles. Butmany ofthem wereknowntothepublic;therefore,I of influenceinthe Arab provin te attentiontodiscussingat policy, theIslamic questionshouldhavemattered 4 ce ofIslam fortheempi British politicspriorto r commonpeople. Therefore, most of myprimary at my sourcesdonotallowme tomake such between discoursesonthepolitical significance at matters more isthatnumerous discussions of gnored while analyzingBr in the scale of theFirst World War, these ideas andassuchinfluenced politicaldecisions. Of Islam, impact andthe ofthewar withthe reat totheBritish empire intheyearsprior to reign policy to playapartin considerations trytoattribute aspecial attitude to Islam to tives shouldhavecaredmore for ces oftheOttoman empire, and ared duringthewar. They were leastshortlytheemergence, the Great War supportsmy re wereacommonpoint itish politics towards itish politicstowards CEU eTD Collection 11 suggestion thatimagined thingscanbecome ahistor middle-class, todosotheyshouldbelieve in his argument thatpeopledonotrisk manner, Itry tofollow howthatimage of th and thespecialroledevotedtore sources IspeaknotaboutsituationintheMus towards theregion. of permanent contacts withtheEast influences “Covering Islam” hemakesimportant observations about theEuropeanimagining oftheotherand representatives ofIntellect would definitelynameEdwardSaid,Bene British newspapers bythe difference intheircirculation. parties, Iwilltrytoexplain thedi hand. Similarly, insteadofidentifyingtheviews representatives inCairo, thatweremembers of this questionamong theIndiaOffi difference inattitudetoIslam betweenthepolitical some Office andDepartment thanofapolitical papers, whichoriginatedwithsomeBritishoffici expressed inoneofthem aretheviewsofone newspapers ownedbypoliticalpar statements. The newspapersIused( In the East referred to more ancient times. In East British was the for about East, he states thinking that the British empire. British the Americanprev discourselack of results from onIslamthe Orientalism Orientalism If Iweretoattributethisapproachthe The bookbyBenedict Anderson on imagined co (New York:Vintage1979) Books, 11 Itshould becontributed tohis influence, thatinthisthesisbased onBritish ual history. EdwardSaid,inmy opin

ligion inthatimage. As wellasSaid,thoughperhapsinadifferent fference of coverageof the topicsrelated to Islam inthese three ce andtheGovernment ofIndi The Times, The ManchesterGuardian, The Observer ties, andtherefore itis problematic toclaim thattheviews theirlives and losetheir propert Covering Islam Covering e Muslim world influenced Britishpolitics.

Said opposes British and and French Said British opposes something. The presentstudywasinfluencedbyhis British Residency andthe Arab Bureau,ontheother lim world, but howitwasimaginedbytheBritish, lim world,but dict Anderson, and met and dict Anderson, influence ofthemethodology ofotherhistoriansI 5 the particularimage oftheEast andstatepolicy al. They aremore likely toreflect theviews of party.instea Therefore, ious contacts with the Muslim world, which Muslimdiffers the world, which with ious contacts itfrom (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1981) he shows that that shows he 1981) Paul, & Kegan Routledge (London: in fact thinking about empire, while French in imagining imagining empire, in in French about while fact thinking parties, Iwilldiscuss thedifference inattitude to expressed inthenewspape Middle Eastinparticular. In“Orientalism” and the parties. The samesituation exists withthe ically significantforce, on howthepresenceorabsenceofexperience mmunities impressed me greatly, especially ion, isthegreatestauthortowrite a ononehandandtheBritish y for thefuture benefit of the ways of imagining the Middle the Middle ways of imagining hodology developedby d ofspeakingaboutthe and that history can be and thathistorycanbe rs withthepolitical ) were not ) werenot CEU eTD Collection 14 13 12 contain much material relevant tothe present study on theeffectsof immunity oftheHolyplaces ofthedeclaration of Islam, the Blue bookdoesnot Though theRussianconsulcomments onthespecial the RussianForeignSecretaryandcons with andtheRussianBlueBook. The Blue is representedbypublisheddiplomaticcorrespondence understood itshouldrely ongenerallyacc expressed, andItreatth the widespread ideas,the common pointswithreference towhichdifferent positions were on thebackgroundofsimilar or byotherauthorswithsimilar views.Ofcourse,in Pocock showitonthebackgroundofideasspread in theirtime same genre inotherworksofthe could beunderstoodbyhisreaders. communicate toafuturereader, histextwasnotonlyenabledbythelanguageheusedbutalso makes useofsuchconventions.Pocock inasi character. particular way, sointentionsunderlyingsuchac period. According toSkinnertherear therefore, itwasunderstoodbyhiscontemporaries onl Skinner and Pocock. They suggestthateachtext functionswithinsome society, some language, be more important thanBritisheconomic interests inthe regions. insideandoutside theBritishempire, I explain Sin'aya kniga. Sbornik tainyh documentov izvlechennyh iz arhivov byvshego ministerstva inostrannyh del (The Blue J. G. “TextsA. Pocock, Reflections asEvents: Skinner, Quentin (Moskva:NKID, 1918). Book. Collection of secret documents extracted from the The sourcesusedforeachofth I alsofindsome similarities betweenmy method ed notonlyaseconomically determined. T 12

As in theactofwritingauthorisenga The Foundations of Modern Political Political Thought. Modern of Foundations The em ascommonpointsexactlybecause writings astheydo.Bu

e certainconventionsth e chaptersmay begroupedisse 13 While analyzingatextofcertainauthorSkinnerand on the History of Political Thought”, p.22-23. History ofPolitical the p.22-23. on Thought”, epted ideas. ul inIndiapublishedbytheBolsheviks1918. find BritishviewsaboutIslam andtheMuslims to 6 tions areinevitablyentitie milar waystatesthat archives of theformer Ministry of Foreign Affairs) hus, inconsideringBritishpolitics towardsthe . Neverthelessitiswort Book iscollectionofs thethesisIdonotanalyzesome particulartext attention ofthe Viceroy t aswellSkinnerand ology andtheso-calledIn ged intheintended actofcommunicationhe y ifitaddressedsome . These aretheBritish White Bookonwar Vol. I, p. 97. at enableanaction in orderforanewmessages tobe veral categories. The firstone nobody writesinorderto ecret telegrams between h beingconsideredasa s withessentialpublic to Muslim opinionand Pocock Itrytodefine common ideasofthe tellectual historyof to beunderstoodin . 14

CEU eTD Collection should beeitherkeptunderaname verydifferent fr results in searchfor“Grey” and“Mallet”either material also iftheoriginal correspondence ispr Book cannotbefoundintheNational “White Paper”thereisnonethatfitsthename oftheRussiantranslation. mentioned atall. there areextractsfromtheFrench Yellow Book manage tofindreferencesit. would relyonthatRussiantranslationof1914,as immediately translatedintoRussianandpublishe Britain wasnotguilty ofthewar. Itmay outbreak of warwiththeOttoman empire th for between the Ottoman empireandtheBritish. It coverstheperiodbetweenoutbreak of warinEur telegrams betweentheForeignOffice andtheBrit contem 19 18 17 16 15 purposes. The bestproof papers oftheForeignOffice onlysinc document files. It may alsobemissing inthe Archiv such incontemporary articlesin “The Rupture With The Turkey”,National Archives Catalogue, “Official Papers” in “Turkey Deceptive uptothe Last”, “The Rupture with Turkey”, 2010). 2010). I searchedforitbothasthe White Bookandthe However, theEnglishoriginal didexist,a “The White Bookon War with Turkey” (orperhaps porary source. 17 EvenintheCatalogofNationa WWI Document Archive, The Times The Times

http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue The New The York Times On oneoftheweb-sitesdedicated The Times , December 11, 1914, p.7. , December 11, 1914, p.7. e 1915. Archives Catalogasthereisno of thisarethe articles in http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Of 15 be observed thatforpurposethebookwas andin eserved inthearchive. Buttherewere nomatching , November 22, 1914, 1914, p.10. , 22, November 7 . So,if the correspondence is inthe Archives, it and theGerman White Book,butthisoneisnot I couldnotfindtheBritis It was published almost immediately after the It waspublishedalmostimmediately afterthe ish Ambassador inConstantinople,LouisMallet. nd thebookisnotjustaRussianforgery for e purposeofpropaganda–toshowthatGreat d inPetrograd1914.InthepresentstudyI om theRussiantranslation, es, asaccording tothe catalog itcontains White White Paperintheintern The New York Times ope andtheruptureof l Archives among numerous resultsfor the White Paper, foritisreferredtoas The Times tothehistoryof (accessed May 20, 2010). need to preserve propaganda needtopreservepropaganda ficial_Papers (accessed April 27, 18 h originalatfirst. Ithoughtperhaps,the 19 16 or asapartofbigger et, butIdidnoteven andTheNew York diplomatic relations ) isacollection of CEU eTD Collection existence. Itprovideditsreader imperial. At thebeginning ofthetwentiethce question was essentially imperial, thus itisvery important thatthe Britishpress system was issues likeloyalty, whichbecame extremely importa thepolicyneedstobesecret treaties.Sometimes were keptsecret.Secondly, theanalysisofpr very important toknow howtheeventswerepres Macaulay of Islam theBritishempire for that wasmade public. This isextremely important reasons. Firstly, theyreflect newspaper – newspapers asTheTimes, White Book”. throughout theworkIwouldrelyon English original withthecorrect title onlywh 21 20 Moreover, theverypublication of1914is search forthisphraseonthein collection: “correspondencerespecti search ofthetracesoriginal, asitcontains partoftheoriginalname ofthepublished empire. However, thearticlein produced thatBritainhadbeengu explanation regarding“the White Paper”,where Times Correspondence respecting ev “Turkey Deceptive uptothe Last”, http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924101131922 The second categoryof sourcesisrepresented bynewspapers. These aresuch British 20 mentioned atthebeginningofthisdiscussion.

reads The New York Times the only true history of a country istobefoundinitsnewspapers. , theonlytruehistoryofa Therefore, itis theideasspreadinsociety, ands ents leadingto the rupture of relations with Turkey The ManchesterGuardian

s “with asubstantial amount of were spreadnotonlyamong politic ternet, thereferencestoit the Newthe York Times The New York Times . Special attention is paid tonewspapers inthis thesis for several ng eventsleadingtotheruptureof ilty inthe rupture theRussiantranslationandrefertocorrespondenceas“the availableat“Internet Archive”. , accessed June 21, 2010. , November 22, 1914, p.10. p.10. 1914, 22, , November 8 ntury imperial presssystem alreadycame into carried publicly, especiallywhen wespeakabout en thethesiswas alreadyfinished. Therefore for showing thatideasa he argued againstthewrongimpression ithad ess isessential,aspoliticsconsistsnotonlyof ented totheircontemporar nt duringthewaryears. Thirdly, theIslamic appeared tobemore valuable forthefurther of diplomatic relations withtheOttoman , and might befoundinmany google-books. how theinformation aboutthepolitics The Times articlecontainsMallet’s news andcommentfrom aroundthe The Observer,andone American ians. As afamous quotationof relationswith Turkey”. Ifwe (London, 1914), availiable at availiable 1914), (London, bout thespecialmeaning 21 However, Ifoundthe ies, ifsome treaties

CEU eTD Collection the Continentwhichitannounced observes, alreadyonitsfifteenthanniversary Times issues. colonies wasnoteffected bytheGreat War, thusit 26 25 24 23 22 discussed inthememoirs ofRonaldStorrs study. contains accountsaboutpoliticali 10, 1917.Bytheendof theyear affairs inRussia,Rumania, theNearandMiddle reports, asource peculiar to1917. This seriesofw The Times intheMiddleEast. and PhilipGraves,whoinfluenced Britishpolitic Times the Muslim leadersofIndia,publishedin is itsspecial connections withtheBritishGovernme the othertwo. The otherreasonthatexplainsthegreatimportance of correspondents ofitsown. Thus, itcontainedmore and empire”, David Lloyd George, Ronald Storrs, Harold Herd, Potter, Simon J.Potter, izdatel'stvo, 1934), Vol.I-II; David Lloyd George, G.P.Putnam's Sons, 1937). at: availiable p.107, 2003), George 1952), p.88. & Unwin, Allen The Observer The wasthenewspaper whichtraditionally paid much attention toforeign news. As HaroldHerd The Times willenjoymoreattention inthethesis Memoirss. makeupthefourthgroupof source The Muslim opinionduringthewaris The thirdgroupofsourcesistheCabinetpapers was notonlyinfluenced bythe Government, butalsoenjoyed theinfluence onit:Leo Amery 23

22 News and enjoyed agreat overseas readership. More , p.190. , p.190. The MarchThe Journalism: The of Story British Press the of from Present to the 1622 Day. (London: Orientations News and the the British News and World. The Emergence Press Imperial of an System 1876-1922. which largely reliedon ReuterNews Agency, Voennye memuary http://www.oxfordscholarship.com (London: Nicholson & Nicholson Watson,(London: 1945);

ssues connectedtoIslam, whichis thefirstin 46 Easternreportswerepublishe ( War memoirs War The Times wereforwardedtoitbytheGovernment. 25 andDavidLloydGeorge. Voennye memuary The Times publishedalonglistof Great Britain. ) (Moskva: Gosudarstvennoe social'no-ekonomicheskoe 9 East andNorthern Africa wasstartedonJanuary s during thewarwereformer correspondentsof information onforeignandimperial issuesthan hadtocontaininforma eekly resume ofpolitical nt. Manymaterials, such aspublicappealsof . These aremostlyrepresentedbytheEastern , accessed April 16,2010. than the othernewspapers. Firstof allThe over, consumption ofth The Memoirs of Sir Ronald Storrs. ( 24 War memoirs Unlike verysignificantforthepresent The Times forthepresentstudy d. Practically eachofthem 26 ) (Moskva:Gosudarstvennoe The ManchesterGuardian, The accountsofthe Arab The Times hadforeign tion related toimperial and military political important eventson e imperialpressin (Oxford, (New (New York: The CEU eTD Collection 27 Lawrence. revolt canbefondinthementioned abovememoirs ofStorrs andthewell-knownmemoirs of T. E. Thomas Edward Lawrence, social'no-ekonomicheskoe izdatel'stvo, 1935), Vol. IV. 27

Seven pillars of wisdom: a triumph. Seven pillarsof wisdom:a 10 (New (New York: 1991). books, Anchor

CEU eTD Collection of thepresentstudywithinit,andthen proceedto the research willbeconsideredinthis chapter. I the CaliphateandMuslimloyaltywasbased. Thus, bot which implies theemergence anddevelopment of requires anoverviewofboththeexistinghistoriographyontopic,a as Mohammedwasconsideredtobethe“s Mohammed asthehead oftheummah(community devoted to theorigins ofIslam, observethatth studies abouttheCaliphateandpan- ar British duringtheGreat War werenotonly the pr Islamism. 1.1. Historiographicbackg Chapter 1:HistoriographicalandHistoricalBackgroundofthe 29 28 treaty ofKuchuk-Kainarji1774,whentheOttoma historical meaningofthec change. can notbeappliedtotherealities first centuries of Islamallowsthem toconsider Arnold Joseph Joseph Arnold Toynbee, “The Islamic World the in PeaceSettlement” since Frederick Denny, Middle East: fourteen Islamic centuries Sultans” in in Sultans” (London: Oxford University Press, 1927), Press, 1927), V.1.; University Oxford (London: Tufan Buzp Weismann, I.B. Tauris, (London: Zachs Fruma pp.17-37. 2005). Islamic QuestioninBritishPolitics. 1.1.1. Historiography onthequestion ofCaliphateandpan- The discussionoftheIslamic questioninBrit The ideasabouttheunityofallMuslims and The studiesof Arnold J. Toynbee and Tufan Buzpı Ottoman reformOttoman regeneration: ofButrus Muslim and studies in honour Abu-Manneb Islam and the Muslim Community the Muslim Islam and oncept of Caliphateinthe19

of Modernhistoryasthetitle (New Jersey, (New p.34. 1997), round oftheresearch. eal ofprophets”,thelastthekind. (Illinois: Waveland(Illinois: 1998), Press, e titleCaliphshouldmean will start withhistoriography andconsidertheplace theoriginal meaning ofthetitle,which,however, 11 historicalbackgroundof e essentialforthepresentstudy. Manystudies the ideasonwhichwar-time discourseabout oduct oftheirownimagination. Therefore, the of believers) inallaspects except forprophecy, ı ish politics and the press during theGreat War nar, “The Question of Caliphate under the Last Ottoman the Caliphatewhichwereconsideredby n empire waslosingits n empire h thetheoreticalandhi th nar onthecontrary century. Survey of International Affairs 1925 was alsoasubjecttohistorical 29 They observethatsincethe a successoroftheProphet nd historicalbackground, p.32, p.130; Glen E.Perry, Glen p.130; p.32, the eventsdiscussed. storical backgroundof politicalpowerover 28 are devotedtothe The focusonthe / Ed. by Itzchak . The CEU eTD Collection Islam. based on Thomas Arnold’s workof1924. be considered inthelastchapter of thethesis. Th Office andevenseveralpieces ofhis authorship shared byBritish statesmen –workedatPolitical But heretheuseofhis“Survey”canbejustif with Greek,Jewishor Turkish case One might feelreluctanttorelyon Arnold J. Toynbee, takingintoaccounthi politics duringtheGreat War. view ontheCaliphasuniversal no means consideredasuniversalandcoul authority. Buzp distinction of functionsbetweenthe two. The titl 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 became sensitive toquestion ofprotection over the Holyplaces, whichwasemphasized asaground stress onthepositionofCaliph,a discusses thechangesinOttomansymbolism of his turntoIslamism andasummary of the official doctrine adoptedby Abdul Hamid II.Ca already publishedaworkonIslam except theOttoman sultansthatclaimed thetitleof Caliph. century most oftheMuslims countriescame under Ottoman empire, the doubletitleof some territories, the authorityof the Caliphover th Selim Deringil, Caroline Finkel, in announced At leastthey were regularly Thomas W. Arnold, Thomas Arnold, Ibid. Toynbee, p.36-37. “Islamic”, Buzp 1909 1909 pp.493-498 http://archive.org/details/caliphate029219mbp Except forstudies onthe Caliphate, thereexist a 35 ı (London: I.B. I.B. Tauris,1998).(London: nar, “Question”. Thus it’s anopinionexpressedinthe“S ı The well-protected domains: ideology and the legitimation of power in the well-protected in Ottoman The Empire, of power the legitimation and ideology domains: 1876- The Caliphate The nar furtherapproachesthespiritualizatio Osman’s Dream: Story Empire The Ottoman the of 1300-1923 30 while Toynbee pointsout A Propagation the of History Faith the Muslim of theOttoman sovereignsinthe19 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1924); ava

34 s, orhistoriosophicapproachinhisfamous“Study ofHistory”. before1914andduringthewar and spiritual leaderof the Muslim worldwasshared inBritish The Times nd thefactorsthatcouldundermine it. , accessedon May 20, 2010. 33 d beappliedtoseveralMuslims rulers. Thomas Arnold wasaveryinfluentialscholar who the sultan’s activities inthis regard. ied byseveralreasons.Heinfluencedtheopinion thatpriortothe19 . urvey” isofbothstatesman andscholar. can befoundamong Easternreports, the whichwill e discussionofcaliphatein 12 Intelligence Department of theBritish Foreign e ofCaliph became regardedas denoting spiritual the Europeanrule,andthereremained norulers em wasmaintained. This, aswelltheuseof roline Finkelprovidesan powerwithregardtothenewlymanifested lot of works thatconsider pan-Islamism as th century:Sultan-Caliphsuggestedthe ı n of theconceptof Caliphateinthe . New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1913. lable at 32 As willbeshowninthisstudythe th century thetitleof Caliph wasby held publiclecturesabout (London: John Murray, John (London: 2006), theSurvey isentirely s periodicalsympathies 37 The Caliph’s power alysis ofreasonsfor 36

31 Selim Deringil But,inthe19 th

CEU eTD Collection Kayal only after1905thatthequesti items bearinghisname. gaining somefinancialandmilitary help,here Muslim countriesunderEuropeanco very carefultousehisCali significance, hepartlysupportsal Europeans”, widespread needoftheMuslim l mention supportersofIslamism among the Y Hamid. The booksbyShaw, andShawHasanKayal Islamism promoted was bytheagentsof Abdul Hamid. 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 opportunity toidentifythecommon ideasaboutpa politicization of Islam inFren Karpat observes that the gained itsuniversality inthe 19 Islam, whichcannotbeconsideredwithinonly considered inanotherarticlebyBuzp of theCaliph’s title. The oppositionofsharifs’ Karpat, Karpat, Kemal H.Karpat, Hasan Kayal S.J.Shaw, and E. K. Shaw, CaesarE.Farah, “Great Britain, CeasarE.Farah, “Reassessing Abdulhamid II's Islamic policy”, Buzp (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), p.144-150. p.144-150. 1997), Press, California of University (Berkeley: l. Vo pp.269-271. Ottoman State at des : International Journal for the Study of Modern Islam http://www.jstor.org/stable/3693438 I wouldalsoliketopay But quiteafew studieson theOttomanempire c So, thoughthesestudiesdonotfocusonthepe ı discusses thetalks aboutthe Arab Calip .: Reform, revolution and republic: the rise of Modern Modern therise of Turkey, republic: and ІІ.: Reform, revolution p.304-305. 1808-1975, ı nar, Tufan. the Caliphate Ottoman to “Opposition Politicization Politicization 43 ı andthoughheconsidersthat Abdul Hamid providedIslam withthepolitical Arabs , Arabs and Young Turks: Empire, Ottoman inthe Islamism 1908-1918 and Ottomanism, Arabism, (Oxford UniversityPress, 2001), p.49. The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, Islam: Reconstructing of Politicization The State, intheLate Community and Faith, , p.46, p.50. , p.46. 45 History ofthe Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey phal positionagainstEuropeans. Butexceptforconsidering these ch, RussianandBritishdomains. on ofCaliphategainedimporta

Germany and the Germany the Ottoman Caliphate”, and special attentiontothestudyofKemalH.Karpatonpoliticization eaders tounitearoundone so theargument ofCeasarFarahstatingthat Abdul Hamid was , accessed on May 20,2010. accessed on , ntrol appealedtotheOttoman su ı nar. 38 CaesarFarahexpressesdoubts oung Turks, andtheiruseofthisideology. hate duringthe secondconstitutional period. 13 sponded mainly bysending them some symbolic in theEarly Years of Die II:1877-1882”, Abdulhamid Welt one oftheabovecategories. As wellas Toynbee, to thegrowingOttoman controloverHejazis n-Islamism of Caliphateinthe andtheconcept onsider pan-Islamism thereignof after Abdul 39 Archivum Ottomanicum , Vol. 36,Issue 1(Mar., 1996),pp.59-89;ava ı areamong thelast. Thus, Shaw andShaw According toanotherar riod oftheGreat War, theyprovidean 44 central institutionin nce ontheinternationalarena. Kapratexplainsthatthoughleadersof Der Islam. issues Karpatalsoobservesthe ( ltan asCaliphwith theaim of С Volume66, Issuep. 2: 264, ambridge University Press, 1992), Press, 1992), University ambridge thatanideologyofpan- 14 (1995/96): 14 pp.198-199. th century“thankstothe ordertoopposethe ticle of his,itwas 40 41 42

Hasan

ı l ı able CEU eTD Collection influence ofconsiderationsabouttheMuslim opi war Caliphatemovement inIndia. relations between theOttomans, the War, arethe most completestudies onthis issue. subjects. The worksof Azmi ÖzcanandKemal Karp about thestudies thatconsidertheroleofIs significance duetoMuslimpopulationunderBritishcont 49 48 47 46 Caliphate in1905-1914. Farah observeshowtheBritish-Germ subjects throughhim. no needfortheBritishgovernment toaddresshim assuchandtotryinfluencetheirMuslims Indian Muslims instead, ashad they notregarded Ottoman Sultan astheCaliphduring between theIndianMuslims to andtheOttoman Sultan provinces in thesame manneras Azmi Özcan. Muslims, andalsothe symbolis Among suchcommonpointsistheir focus onthefi Ottoman empireof Abdul Hamid’s time andthe Britishideas about Islam duringtheGreat War. Farah, Farah, “Great Britain”. Rauf,“Pan-Islamism the North Abdul and West Geoffrey Malcolm Gathorne-Hardy, “The Islamic World” in Karpat, (Winter at: available 2007): pp. 21-42; & Butler Tanner(London: pp.110-142 Ltd,1950), 1924 PERCEPTION%28abdulrauf%29%5B2%5D.pdf While KemalKapratand Caroline Finkelattri The ideasabouttheunity 1.1.2. Islaminrelationsbetween Several other studies that consider Indian Muslims inBritish policyhave nocommon points. (Leiden, New New (Leiden, York, 1997). Köln, The Politicization of of Islam; Politicization The 49 Lawrence James in hisstudies

m oftheCaliph’s power. Azmi Özcan, ofIslam andtheCali http://www.sam.gov.tr/perceptions/volume12/winter/winter-002- 47 theIndian Mutiny; Abdul Raufand Azmi Özcan point to the Abdul Raufapproacherspan-Islamism inoneoftheIndian British andIndianMuslims inthe19 an rivalrycontributedtothein Frontier Province of British India (1897-1918)” (1897-1918)” India British of Province Frontier , accessed April 18,2010. Pan-Islamism: Indian Muslims, the Ottomans and Britain, 1877- Britain, and Ottomans the Pan-Islamism:Muslims, Indian 48 lam inrelations between Britainand herMuslim

14 the Ottoman sultanas th Great Britain andIndianMuslims. gure oftheCaliph,hissupreme positionover all spatch of the Indian nion onissueslikethedispatchofIndian 46 at, though theypaylittleattentiontotheGreat A Short HistoryInternational of Affairs1920-1939 They observebothth bute thebeginningofth British influence, whichfirst appealed tothe ph asitsreligiouslead rol. Therefore, afewwordsshouldbesaid on theBritishempire observesthe crease intheimportance of the eir Caliph therewould be th century, andthepost- e development ofthe is specialrelations er gainedpolitical Perceptions ol. 2 1 . l Vo

CEU eTD Collection Middle EastrefertoIslamandtheMuslim opi the Ottoman empire figured in strategic calc Question School”,asSelim Deringilcallsit. Acco understudied andenjoysagreathistoriographyof attention totheissuesof theMiddle East,th great number ofbooksdevotedtotheGreat War wh vast groupofstudiesaboutBrit and Britishpolicytowardsitsterritories willbec 1.1.3. TheBritishpolicy intheMiddleEast. during theGreat War. makes valuableremarks onthereasonsandmeans ofencouragingtheloya 55 54 53 52 51 50 Holy cities ofMeccaandMedina,thepossessi ally because hewasthe most influential leader in can bedistinguished.LiddellHartand Wallach, for Gulf byBritonCooperBush. book onMesopotamian oilbyMarianKent, while workingonthethesisbelongtothisvast beginning of20 troops toEgyptand Briton Cooper Bus Kent, in “Introduction” Deringil, Gathorne-Hardy, “The Islamic” , pp.110-142 Chandrika Kaul, “War and Government Publicity” in Lawrence James, Press, 1967). 1967). Press, (Manchester: Manchester Univers Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India ( BritishIndia of Raj: and Unmaking Making The As thepresentstudywilldiscu Among thestudies,whichconsider Some ofthesestudiesdonotpa Oil . th century. The Rise and Fall of the British Empire the British of Fall Riseand The с h, the PersianGulf. 51 Britain and the Persian Gulf, 1894-1914 1894-1914 Gulf, Persian the and Britain Finally, Gathorne-Hardydiscussesth The well-protected domains. 53 According tosu 55

ity Press, 2003), pp.119-134. 2003), Press, ity However, most ofthestudies a ain andtheMiddleEastduringth ss theBritishconsiderations 50 y attentiontotheissuesofre Chandrika Kaulinthe study the religiousmeani London: Abacus, 1998), p.444. p.444. 1998), Abacus, London: ch characteristicsmostof 54 nion whentheydiscussthe Arab revolt. categoryof“theEasternQuestionschool”. e British policy towardstheMiddle Eastwasnever ulations ofEuropean powersduringthe19 Reporting the Raj: the British theBritish press the Raj: Reporting c. 1880-1922 India, and and thestudyaboutBritish politics in thePersian 15 onsidered, it can be classified as belonging to the onsidered, itcanbeclassifiedasbelongingtothe rding tohisdefinition, (London: Abacus, 1997), p.440-445; Lawrence James, Lawrence (London: p.440-445; 1997), Abacus, religious matters, asharif, andthe emir of the on ofwhichenabled thesultan’s claims to itsown. This ismainly instance, argue thatHussa ich focus on European issues and pay little ich focusonEuropeanissuesandpaylittle (Berkeley, Los of University California Angeles: e “Kaliphatemovement” inIndia. ng ofthe Arab revolt,twoapproaches bout theBritish politics towards the e Great War. Though thereisa regarding theOttoman empire, ligion atall.Forinstance, the on IndiaintheBritish press thebookswhichwereused the schoolfocusedonhow lty of Indian Muslims lty ofIndianMuslims duetothe“Eastern in waschosenasan th –the 52

CEU eTD Collection Caliphate Question: The BritishGovernment andIslamic Governance”. on theideaofCaliphate in British politics throughout thewar. However, recentlythere appearedseveralstudies whichfocus jihad orasaresultofthescheme ofthe Arab Ca influence oftheOttoman Caliph,howwa subject wasignoredwhenwar Caliphate influenced Britishpolitics, isitpossibl questions regardingtheBritish attitude tothe the Arab revoltseems tobemuch during thewar. revival ofoldrivalries Constantinople werewellknown,afterthewarshe alliance withHusseinwasdetermined much more counteract jihadafter2years an interpretation,however, anumber ofquestions:w provokes similar waythatthe Arab revoltwasimportant forundermining theChaliph’s calltojihad. claims to Caliphate. George Antonius speaking 60 59 58 57 56 period, andanalyzesseveralBritishdocuments on Caliphate Question during theGreat War. Init, wider chronologicalperiod,thanth correspondence inspiredsharifto Caliphate. Oliver-Dee, Isaiah Friedman, Fromkin, George Antonius, Wallach, Kegan Paul, 1973), p.65; Bassam p.65; 1973), Tibi,Paul, Kegan p.115. Thus, boththeaccountsof Arab revolt,eitherasameans ofcounteractingSultan’s callto The secondapproachisrepr 56 Peace, Desert Therefore, theysuggest,bysupportingHussein Caliphate 58 , p150; Liddell Hart, Liddell Hart, , p150; InthestudiesofFriedman and Tibbi it p.98; Karpat, Karpat, p.98; The Question of , 1914-1918. British-Jewish-Arab Relations British-Jewish-Arab 1914-1918. Palestine, of Question The The Arabthe story awakening: . it wouldpose amuch greaterthreat inBritishpolitics. The firstisabookbySeanOliver-Dee, entitled“The The politicization The of war? Should something not have been done earlier? of war?Shouldsomethingnothavebeendoneearlier?

Lawrence establish aCalipha bettersupportedbyarchivalsour declared? declared? And ifthe : a critical inquiry inquiry a critical nationalism: Arab e presentstudy, withoneofthe esented byFromkin,Cassar, and s his call to jihad counteracted? s hiscalltojihadcounteracted? , p. 43-44. , p. 43-44. , p.256;Cassar, of the Arab national movement Ottoman Ifapost-war Caliph. perspective onthe liphate are episodic andnot trace the Islamic factor 16 e thattheCaliph’s influence ontheBritishMuslim about Arab national awak national about Arab Oliver-Dee providesashortdescriptionofthe Caliphate onthebackgroundofit.However, the by apostwarperspective:asRussianclaims to would alsopossessaCaliphandinthecaseof te ofhisown. Arab revoltwasnotca Kitchener's isalsoshownthattheMcMahon-Hussain theBritishdeprived thanthe German-controlled Caliph (New York:St.Martin , p.57. 59 Though thesecondapproachto hy wouldtherebeaneedto ces, italsoraisesanumber of chapters beingdevotedtothe (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1945). 1945). Hamilton, Hamish (London: 60 Kent. They argue thatthe The bookencompasses a (London: Routledge & Routledge (London: ening discussesina lled toundermine the theSultanofhis 's Press, 1991), 1991), 's Press, 57 Such CEU eTD Collection both sides. the correspondencebetweenOtto sovereign ruler, than any claim to“exclusive sove 1.2.1. MeaningoftheCaliphatein19 the GreatWar. 1.2. HistoricalBackground:IslamicquestioninBritishpoliticsbefore 64 63 62 61 acknowledged their loss ofpolitical According tothetreatyofKuchuk-Kainarji1774with the loss of theMuslim territories by theOttoman empire from theendof the18 such ontheinternational level.So,itneedsto became regardedasaspiritualheadoftheMu Muslim rulersuntilthe19 T.Arnold, eveninthe16 be onlyoneCaliphastheh of Cordoba),whichexistedatthesame time, whic 11 But, asoftenhappens,theorydoe of the Arab Caliphate. the Great War, andstudieshowso-calledIslamo first ofall. The secondstudyworthmentioning isathesisofSteven C they areproducedbyexpertswhoargue againstapopul documents heanalysesareaboutmeaningofthe Karpat, Toynbee, “The Islamic”, p.31. Frederick Denny, Cox, th fourteen Islamiccenturies fourteen there were states called (the Abbasi In theorytheCaliphshouldbebothaspiritualandtemporal authorityoverallMuslims. The first development thatcontributed totheview of theCaliphate asspiritual authority was Idea The Politicization The 63 . Karpatalso observesthatthe“ideaofIs Islam and the Muslim Community the Muslim Islam and 61

, p.48. , p.48. (New Jersey, (New p.34. 1997), th th -17 ead ofallMuslim world. According to century”.

th century thetitle of Caliphwasusedto denoterather acompletely s not always coincide withpractice. Thus, forexample in the10 authorityover the Crimea,but 64 man courtandMughalrulersof Butinthecourseof19 beconsideredhow thatchange occurred. (Illinois, 1998), p.32, p.130; GlenE.Perry, p.130; p.32, 1998), (Illinois, slim communityoftheworld,andwasacceptedas 17 phobia contributedtothe reignty over theentire Islamic community”, for in term Caliphate,andnotBritishpolicy. Moreover, d Caliphate, theFatimid Caliphate, the Caliphate h means itwasnotconsideredthatthereshould th ar opinion,thataCaliph century. lamic unityremained analienconceptto th centurytheOttoman Sultan-Caliph Toynbee, whoinhisturnrefersto Russian empire, theOttomans it wasstatedCrimea remained India thetitlewasappliedto ox, who focuses exactlyon ox, whofocuses development th is aspiritualleader centuryonwards. TheEast: Middle of theidea th 62 -

CEU eTD Collection empire. Christian territories,andtoincreasehisin position ofCaliphhelped Abdul Hamid todefinea nonexistent ideological force”, European powers. authority of Islam wasthat most of thepreviously India andEgypt,whichclaimed th of titlethe Ottoman rulersfrom 1517,itwas neveremphasized before the19 the Sultan-Caliph “as apotential source of military separation between thepolitical authority of th became anactive factor ininternationalrelations. international treaty, wherethenotion of Caliphate was explicitly stated, 76 75 74 73 72 71 70 69 68 67 66 65 the transfer of titlefrom thelast Abbasid Caliph to belonging of theCaliphtitletoHouseofOsma to the Arab provinces. Yildiz, invited Arab religiousl of Caliph. under theauthorityofCaliph. Ibid. Finkel, Finkel, Selim “Great p.264; Deringil, Britain”, Farah, Karpat, Karpat, Toynbee, “The Islamic”, p.36-37. Toynbee, “The Islamic”, p.33, p.36-37; Lee, “Abdulhamid II”, p. 660. Toynbee, “TheIslamic”, p.33;Buzp Toynbee, “TheIslamic”, p.33. Buzp Finkel, The official policyof Abdul Hamid, whoga The seconddevelopment whichenabledtoregardtheCaliphassupreme spiritual But duetothenewimportanceattachedth ı 74 nar, “The Question”, p.19. Osman’s Osman’s Osman’s Dream Finkelobserves,thatheorganized something like “Islamic Vatican” in hispalace in The Politicization The Politicization The 70 The Europeanadvancecausedevenindepe , p.495. , p.495. p. 660. II”, , p.492, p.498; Lee, “Abdulhamid 69 Thus, thereremained norulersexceptth , p.493; Lee,“Abdulhamid II”, p.659-660; Toynbee, “The Islamic”, p.32-35. 75 , p.15. , p.15. , p.48. Hesentreligiousmission to Africa andChina,receivedmessengers from

eaders toliveinIstanbul 72 alsocontributedtothatdevelo ı nar, “The Question”, p.19. eir allegiance to him asCaliph. 65 Thus, as Toynbee Thus, Buzp and The well-protected e sultanandreligiousauthorityoftheCaliph. fluence among theMuslims beyondtheOttoman 18 independentMuslim statesbecame dependenton andeconomic help” toresist the Europeans. 67 n werealsoemphasized. Among themfigured new focus of state loyalty after the loss of the new focusofstateloyaltyaftertheloss ,theCaliph’s roleof theprotector of Itwasalsothefirstdocument toupholda e titleofCaliph,the legitimate grounds of ve “thecaliphateandthefaithahitherto ashisadvisers,employedthem onmissions ndent peripheralMuslim , p.46-48;Buzp e Ottoman sultans thatclaimed thetitle pment. Though “Caliph”wasapart 76 ı

nar point out,this wasthefirst ı nar, “The Question”, p.17. 66 thefirsttimeCaliphate leaderstolook th century. 68

73 The 71

CEU eTD Collection majority intheIndianarmy. Muslims constituted one-fifth ofthepopulation, Egypt andSudan. This contributedtotheneedc significant amountofMuslims intheBritishempire. British Muslim subjects:therivalry 1.2.2. TheIslamicquestion:Mus schhol waspromoted, thatitwas 81 80 79 78 77 appealed tothehelpof Abdul MejidastheCali India Company totheIndiaOffice. beef fat. The Mutiny spread overseveralprovinces and caused thepass ofauthority from theEast the HinduandMuslim soldierstobitepaper cartridg by religion.Firstofallthiswa European travelersin19 the subordinationofallsphereslifeinOrienttoreligionimpressed theimagination of understand thesignificancegiventore the needto considerthereligious attachment of MuslimstotheCaliphate wasreinforced. To establishment ofBritishruleinEgypt1882that of questions aboutthebasisfor active policyof Hamid contributed toAbdul th andMedina, possessionoftheHoly relics. Fromkin, Fromkin, Fromkin, Finkel, Deringil, Thus, inthe19 More thanthehalfofMu Two factorscontributedtothe Besides, theBritishhadexperien relations. Osman’s The well-protected, A peace A peace A peace , p.494. , p.494. , p.97; Özcan,., p.97; , p.36, p.96. Storrs, , p.97; th century theCaliph wasregarded asthe spiritual leader of allMuslims. The th -thebeginningof20 p.24; Buzp the assumptionofCaliphate. Orientations

79 s theIndianMutinyof1857-1858,whic They appealedtotheOttoman sultanastheirCaliph. With the not necessaryfortheCaliphto slim populationoftheworldlived British acknowledgment oftheOttoman SultanastheCaliph of ı with Russiain Asia, and theneed 81 nar, “The Question”, p.21. Finkelobserves thatduring theIndian Mutiny theBritish ligious feelingsoftheMuslims, itmight beremembered that ced anumber ofuprisingsth , p.83. , p.83. lim populationinBritish-Ottoman ph oftheirMuslim subject 19 about 60million, besidesMuslimsconstituted the th e generalacceptance ofthisview, andraised century themost. ficially remained apartoftheOttoman empire, onsider theirreligiousf es toloadtheirrifle,asitcontainedporkand 77 At the same time theviewof theHanafi belong tothetribeofKoreish. 80 to reassure theloyaltyof the underBritishruleinIndia, eir Muslin subjects inspired

h startedwiththerefusalof s, and“heco-operatively eelings. OnlyinIndia, 78

CEU eTD Collection Islamic excitement inEgyptandIndia1905 by religion,asitwasled anti-British agitation in counteracted withthehelp 90 89 88 87 86 85 84 83 82 letter from one Arab, that warns the British that in will of the Caliphregardless of their personal sympathies. objectively existingpan-Islamism ofEgyptians, Writing abouttheseyearsStorrs observedthatit expressed strongdissatisfactionwiththelack Muslims should alsoex newspaper wascausedbyrumors thatthe Turks wa the wasanuprisinginNorth West Frontier Province ofIndia,which according toaLahore would besupportedbyIndians. Russian attacktherewouldberesistance inIndia, made Viceroy RobertLytton exaggeratetheMuslim dangerinIndia;hesuggest warned theBritishthatif theydidnotassist theOttoman empire,theywould behated inIndia. This empire. Duringthewarof1877-1878betweenO Afghanistan whowascallingtheIndian British occupation of Quetta in1876 wasfollowed bythe anti-British propaganda of Amir of During thenextdecadeCaliph’s name beganto responded withaletterto Storrs, Farah, “Great Britain Philip Graves, Rauf, “Pan-Islamism”, p.26. Özcan, Ibid. Özcan, Özcan, Finkel, Özcan, Pan-Islamism Sometimes suchuprisings wereconnected w Pan-Islamism Pan-Islamism Pan-Islamism Osman’s Orientations The Life of SirPercyThe Life Cox , p.497. , p.497. , pp.82-83. , pp.82-83. ”, , p.72. , p.79. , p.19. , p.103. , p.103. pp.271-272. pp.271-272. Indiaand Afghanistan. terminate infidels. by areligiousleaderreferred toasMahdi. oftheCaliph,as Abdul Hamid suggest be readoutinIndianmosques en

86 During the war between the Ottoman empire and Greece in 1897 in Greece and empire Ottoman the between war Duringthe (London, Melbourne: Hutchinson &Co, 1941), p.176; James, Muslims tojihadagainst theBritish. 87 Itisobservedthatduring 85 ofBritishsupport tothe Ottoman empire. 20 inspired The revoltin1883theSudanwasalso who acknowledgedthattheyshouldsubmit tothe -1906 alsocausedsignificantBritishconcerns. thecase of warthehearts of theMuslims would was necessaryinEgyptto bementioned atFridayprayersinIndia. butiftheOttomans wouldattackIndiathey ith Muslim sentiments towardstheOttoman ged awaragainstChristians,andthatIndian ttoman andRussianempires IndianMuslims 90 To supporthispointStorrs quotesa joying thepeopletoremain calm”. ed hisassistancetocalm downthe the warthe Muslims of India takeintoaccountthe 84 And again,itwas ed thatincaseof Raj, 88 p.444; 83 Pan- The 82 89

CEU eTD Collection and theallegiancewithOttoman Empire. contributed to the Britis British subjects andreside inBritain”. largest Muslim statesagainsttheRussianthreat. Ottoman politics: there existedpan-Islamic societies, British-Ottoman relations of their basis. However, pan-Islamism continuedto playa rolein after 1907-1908, whenBritainsigned anallied ag welfare ofMoslems allovertheworld because a the world”anditwas“adutyincumbent onGreatBr the Britishwereconstantly reminded thatKing leader wastheOttoman Caliph,createdthebasisfo Empire, andthefactthatGreatBritainha The Russianempire wasacommon enemy thatthr subjects. subjects, the Britishtried toavoid any conflicts w 96 95 94 93 92 91 doctrine ofpan-Islamism empire, andthe Young Turk revolt took placeintheOttoman empire. The Young Turks replacedthe hear onlythevoiceofCaliph. relations during theBalkan wars. Shaw and Shaw, and Shaw Lawrence, Seven, and Islam” in “England Baring, Evelyn Aaron Klieman, Storrs, Ibid. London: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1970), p.3. p.3. 1970), Press, Hopkins London: Johns The Limited, 1913), p. 407-408. p. 407-408. 1913), Limited, The roleplayedbythequestionofCaliphatein 1.2.3. The changeoftherole of But itwasnotonlyapolicywhichaimed toa 92 Orientations

Foundations of British Policy in the the in Policy Arab British of World:Foundations the Conference 1921 of Historythe of OttomanEmpire, pp.304-305. p.46; Finkel, Finkel, p.46; , p.83. , p.83. h recognition of thespiritual authority of the Turkish Sultan astheCaliph by anationalistic ideology. Osman’s

91 Political and Literary Essays (1908-1913) (1908-1913) LiteraryEssays and Political Thus inordernottoprovoke , p.521. , p.521. 94 Thus British rivalry withRussia during the 19 d asignificantMuslim population,whosereligious George V was“thegreatestMohammedanrulerin 21 93 ith the Ottoman Sultan, theCaliph of their Muslim the Islamicfactor inBritish-Ottoman That iswhyin1913LordCromer observedthat r theestablishment ofa reement with itstraditional rival–theRussian eatened both theBritishIndiaand theOttoman very large number ofth void conflicts,butapolic itain to defend theinterests and tosecure the British-Ottoman relations wasto berevised 95 96 Botheventscoulddeprive traditional andin1910-1911 the Young Turks the discontentofBritish Muslim (London: MacMillan and Co., MacMillanand (London: common front ofthetwo common front eir co-religionists are y ofactivealliance. (Baltimore and (Baltimore and th century century CEU eTD Collection the Ottoman Empire, nottoprovoketh the agreement withRussiatheywereincontradiction.GreatBritaincoul the needtocounteractRussianthreatcombin on British Muslims. reported toBerlinabout Oppenheim Germany’s ambitionsandher Muslims aroundtheworldcanbeconfidentinhisfriendship,wasperceivedasevidenceof Wilhelm IIinDamascus onNovember 8, 1898,inwh economic issues,butalsotriedtousetheIslamic andBritain. in theMiddleEast,whichcontributedtof Ottoman empireandhow thisshiftb will bedevoted toreasons whichcontributed toth relations became evidentonlyduringtheBalkanwa of theIndian Muslims inrela 103 102 101 100 99 98 97 significant activity of theMuslims of India,whoforwarded theirdemands toBritainandtheSultan, Muslims inIndia. have toanswer towhatextent theirdiplomacy Cromer observed,aftertheagreemen Pasha’s visit toLondonBritishpoliticians continued attempted to usetheauthorityof the Caliphtoinfluence the loyaltyof Albanians. Kent, Pan-Islamic Crescent. the “Exploiting Aims”, Finkel, Baring, “England and Islam”, pp.410-411. Fromkin, “Great p.268. Britain”, Farah, on Great The the Documents Art of Possible: Diplomacy, Power (New 1814-1914 York, p.270. 1996), From the1880sGermany, notRussiabecame regard Thus, ifbefore1907thereligioussentiments The newsituationbecame evidentduringtheBalkan War. Onthe one hand,itshowed Oil Osman’s A peace ; Fromkin, A , p.521. , p.521. , p.31-32. 103 99 101

Itshouldbementioned thatGermany no Рeace

, p.30. , p.30. tions withtheOttoman empire.

intentions towardsBritainanditsMuslimsubjects. ecame evidentduringthe Balkanwars. theBritishsensitivityto t withRussia,itwaseasy topredictthatBritishofficials would e dissatisfactionofhernewally. The Times act thatin1907atreatywasnegotiatedbetween 22 ed inBritish supportfortheOttoman Empire, after , p.7. 27, 1915, April inEuropewoulddependonthesentiments of e shift inBritishpolitics regarding Russiaandthe of theMuslim population factor toitsadvantage. The speech ofKaiser rs of1912-1913. Thus, thispartofthechapter to emphasize the importance ofthesentiments ich hestatedthat theSultanand 300million ed asthemain threattoBritish interests 98 The newsituation inBritish-Ottoman t onlycompeted withGreatBritainin influence of the Ottoman Caliph influence oftheOttoman Caliph d nolongeropenlysupport 102 Considering this,Lord under Britishruleand 97 100 During Talaat In1908von CEU eTD Collection undermine theBritishconfidenceinloyalty ofMuslims andIslam inIndia. published anaddressfrom Aga ,urging Indian additional emphasis wasmade onthedutyof important than alliance withthe Russian empire. dissatisfaction ofBritishMuslim support the Ottoman whichbecame empire, evidentdu all Muslims. But becauseofthe Anglo-Russian agreement could notcontinue of1907,Britain to from theconsequencesofherownaction. empire andadoptingapolicysimilar to Lord Cromer observes, itrevealedthatnoone 108 107 106 105 104 Ottoman empire”wereconsidered as of theBritishempire anddemanded against aMuslim power. However, heobserved, be oneofintolerance would berespected,thatBritishpolicynever situation, SirEdwardGrey maintained that religioussentiments of Muslim subjects of the Crown organized acollectionof fundsforthe “Indian Moslems andtheBalkan “Indian Moslems And Turkey”, Baring, “England”, p.412. Baring, “England and Islam”, pp.410-411. “Mahomedan Movementsin India”, p.5. Times Times In asimilar waythedemands ofMuslims ofI Therefore, ontheeveofGreat War, theCaliph , July 15, 1913, p.9. 1913, 15, , July , July 15, 1913, p.9; “Mahomedan Agitation In India. Effect of the Balkan War”, The Times

War. Appeal bythe Aga Khan”, The Times subjects. Howevertheir dissatisfaction wasconsidered less that Britishministers shouldtake , September 15, 1913, p.5; “Indian Moslems and British , Moslems British Policy”, “Indian September and p.5; 15, 1913, defense oftheHolyplacesIslam. unsubstantiated in thearticles of TheTimes. the oneobservedduringCrimean war. 106 , Moslems “Indian British Policy”,p.9; and April 19, 1913,

in theGovernment suggest British Muslims toremainloyal. Thus, 23 that Britain cannot protect the Ottoman empire that BritaincannotprotecttheOttoman empire ndia who“seektodominat Muslims torefrain from anyactionsthatmight was consideredtobethespiritualleaderof ring the and resulted in the ring theBalkanwarsandresultedin The TimesThe , February 14, 1913, p.5. up arms for the defense of the up arms forthedefenseof ed supporting the Ottoman ed supportingtheOttoman or unprovokedaggression The Times 104 Ontheotherhand,as 108 e theexternal policy

, October 7, 1913, 1913, 7, , October 105 107 Inthisnew However, The Times The The CEU eTD Collection connection tothe Arab revolt. usually either mentioned asoneofthereasons for military decisions, orisconsideredin Islamic factor inBritish policytowards the 112 111 110 109 biographies. received much attention. the Ottoman empire, whichdeclaredneutralit empire withtheCaliph. dangers thatmight arisefrom thereligious 2.1.1. Themanifestation ofBritis influenced thestatepoliticsduringthatperiod. phenomenon during theOttoman (Augus neutrality probable war withtheOttoman onBr empire Neutrality oftheOttomanEmpire. 2.1. BritishConcernsaboutMus Islamic factor in British polic British counteracted the threatofjihad. This how theywerehandledpriortothe Arab re present inBritishpolicyandpublic concerns about theOttoman sultanasthereligious leaderof BritishMuslim subjectswere Chapter 2:BritishConcernsabouttheOttomanSultan as Liddell Hart, Lloyd George, Baring, “England”, p.407. the in issue Introduction. was The discussed the CaliphofBritishMuslimsubjects in1914-1915. As wasalreadydiscussed intheIntroduction, littleattention isusuallypaidtothe These concernsaremost evidentlyreflect In August 1913,LordCromer reproachedBr In thispartofthechapterIwouldliketo 112 Lawrence, These sources showpan-Islamic sentiments of British Muslims towardsthe Voennye ,Vol.I-II, Storrs, p.66-68; p.43; Wallach,p.43; 110 Butwhenin August 1914warstarte y towardstheOttoman empire.

109 Therefore, inthischapter Iwantto demonstrate that opinionatthebeginn Desert, p.147-148. Orientations lim opinion during thePeriodof during lim opinion h concernsindifferentsources. 24 volt of1916,inparticul would allowus tojudgetheimportance ofthe connection ofMuslim subjectsoftheBritish Ottoman duringtheGreat empire War. Itis argue thatconcernsabout ed inlaterdescriptions, likememoirs y, wasuncertain,theseverydangerswere itish Muslimsubjectswereawide-spread t-October 1914),and toconsiderhowthey itish politiciansforunderestimating the , p.149. , p.149. ing ofthewar, and d inEuropeandthepositionof ar bywhatmeansthe theinfluenceof then to consider 111 and CEU eTD Collection 120 119 118 117 116 115 114 113 the Britishgovernment aboutwastheManifest emperor adoptedIslam, andthattheGerm campaign in Aleppo, wheretheMuslims ex wereso The most vividexample ofthepropaganda propaganda, why wouldheinform government aboutit? his propaganda exactlybecauseofits campaigns inofficial Turkish media. Louis Foreign Office reported aboutreligious anti-B of Muslims intheOttoman empireandoutsideit. Thus, LouisMalletinthecablesto in Constantinopletothejoint expressed that explicitly, shouldhave been the to thereason ofthesefears. empire. was afearthattheCaliph’s Britain might haveupontheMuslim populati Storrs recalledthat“the chiefmenace layin significance andwasadelicate issue duetothepossibleeffect onBritishMuslims. Ottoman empire. Ottoman SultanastheoverallbasisofBritis Ibid, Ibid, Ibid, Belayakniga ovoine s Turtziyei Wallach, Storrs, David Lloyd George, Storrs, Menteshashvili, Menteshashvili, The onlyleafletpropagandawhichLouisMall Most oftenLouisMallet The same abouttheCaliph’s concerns in p.89. p.135 100. p. 116 Orientations Orientations These sourcesidentifyboththeBritishfear Desert Queen 117 oranti-Britishcampaigns conductedinthemosques Irak, 113 , p.149. , p.149. , p.149; DavidLloyd George, DavidLloydGeorge recordedthatawarwith Turkey gainedspecial p.83. p.83. Voennye , p, Р , p, .148. , Vol.IV, p.67. call toHolywarwouldprovoke German-Ottoman agitationthatappe

( The White Book on Waron Book White The with Turkey reported aboutoralag influence onthe Muslims of th ans were fightingforans were Islam withRussia. the influencewhich Turkish hostilitieswithGreat on ofBritishIndia, Egypt,and Sudan”. Mallet assigned importance tohostile religious Voennye 25 fluence onBritishMuslim subjectsthoughnot h concernsabouttheprobablewarwith basis forthe attention oftheBritishEmbassy ritish oralagitation, leafletpropaganda, and such kind, Mallet reported about, was a suchkind,Malletreportedabout,wasa o of Aziz Shawinwhichappealed to the et consideredimportantenoughtoinform ,Vol. IV,p.66; Wallach, cited that they believed that the German cited thattheybelievedtheGerman itation, referringtoit s ofreligiousdiscon )(Petrograd, 1914),p.34, p.100, p.139. mass discontentthroughoutthe e Britishempire. Otherwise, aled toreligi 118 Desert orbytheimams. tent andpointout as eitherreligious , p.147; ous sentiments 120 114 115

Ronald There There 119

CEU eTD Collection religious solidarity of Muslims. Malletinfo 131 130 129 128 127 126 125 124 123 122 121 Mallet consideredthatthereshouldbenodoubts, declared aholy warandattackedIndia. informed thatthe Telephone agency from Egypt,orforcedtheEgyptiangovernment toadoptfetvaofthesame content. that theBritishclosed going tostrikeadecisiveblowonIslam, Mallet reportedaboutthecampaign inthepresswhichaimed toshowthatGreatBritain is England wantedtodragtheMuslimstatesinholywaragainstGermany. pointed out tothearticlein local newspapers,whichportrayed fanaticism”. Ottoman government. and thereforethepublishedmate introduced there.Mallet statedthat thecensors when withtheproclamation of the neutral st , Egypt,IndiaandotherMuslim countries. Islam. Muslim soldierstoleave thearmies of theEn signed by10representativesoftheMuslim co Belayakniga ovoine, Thisshould beeither GermanOttoman or news-agency. Ibid, Ibid, Ibid, Ibid, Ibid, Ibid, Ibid, Ibid, Ibid, The German origin ofsuchpropaganda Mallet paid special attention totheviewsexpressed inth 121 p.138. p.138. p.140. p.138. p.135. p.132, 138. p.140. p.130-131. p.142. p.137, p.135. According toMallet’s reports 124 Heinformed the Foreign Office of thos p.141. 123 Hereportedabouttheuseofpr Al-Azhar inEgypt, the Terjuman-i-Hakkikat from September 19

rials could be regarded as revealing the position of the rials couldberegardedasrevealingthepositionof Britain as anenemy of Islam. 130 131 , copiesofthemanifesto weredistributedinBeirut, 127 circulated the“news” that amir of Afghanistan

andthatithasbeenreportedintheOttoman press rmed theForeignOffice thattheManifesto was 26 tente powersandjoinintheuprisingtodefend hip preventedpublishing atus oftheOttoman empire censorshipwas 122 is stronglyemphasized inthe White book. untries underforeignruleandcalledthe

that behindthescenesofallitwere 128 e articlesinthe Turkish centraland andhadforbiddenthepilgrimage ess for“theexcitationofreligious e Ottoman press,especially 125 Inparticular, Mallet of alternative views, th which stated that whichstated that 126 A month later month A 129 He CEU eTD Collection except theshortnotesabout August-October 1914.Mostofthearticlesdo possibility oftheenemy use origins with theenemy of Britain therefore newspapers alloverthecountry. Embassy everydayissued“streams ofliesandde it isstated thatin ordertoensure thatGr 138 137 136 135 134 133 132 to classtheconstantly recurrentGerman threat those ofcomparativelyunsubsta The Observer successful, it wasrecognized eveninthepress,thatther the war:toprovokeHolywa Times miscalculations, andcondemned tofailure. was devotedinthepresstoshowenemy plans toraiseIslam as“intrigue”basedonthe conflict” Notes onDr.Prueffer activities inSyria“trying to Great Britain”andisreportedtohavebeen disseminated throughSyria,andprobablyIndia. about). Itwascharacterizedas“theinflaming document urging Mahomedans tofightagainst Germans, whichexcited the religious fanaticism of Turks against the British. “Turkey and England: Mr.Sidney Whitman and Moslem Feeling”, “The Sudan And The War. Unanimous Loyalty”, “Alternatives for Turkey”, Ibid. “German Plotin Turkey”, Ibid, Ibid, articlespointedout attheaim oftheintr It isremarkable thatin thepress German The same concernscanalsobeidentifiedin Though remarks on enemy religious propaganda were short and vague, a lot of space Though remarksonenemyreligiouspropagandawereshortandvague,alotofspace p.101. p.101. p. 140. 140. p. 135 137 andacampaign ofintriguesinEgypt butduring Ottoman neutrality this possibi itwasargued that“inthe viewofour The Times, The Times, of appealstoMuslims.

Manifesto ofsheikh Aziz Shawin ntial charactertotheirtrue proportion. Among theseIventure r andMuslim diversioninIndi 133 November1, 1914, p.1-2. September 30, 1914, p.9. Attention tothereligiouspropagandaandidentifyingits eat Britain wasanenem The Times, Thus, unlikethereportsof White Book,The e wereconcernstheenemy wouldprove intrigue 27 to raisethespiritofIslamagainstEngland”. igues andofpullingthe reveals thatMallethadconcernsaboutthe notfocusonenemy religiouspropaganda, 136 famation”, whichwerecirculatedin Turkish origin of theintrigues was stressed as the discussions onpagesof wereevenmore vague. incite thepeople totake part inthis December 29, 1914, p.7. December 29, 1914, real troublesitisdesirabletoreduce lity wasfully denied. For instance, in The Observer, The a, Egypt, and Caucasus. Later a, Egypt,andCaucasus.Later 134 (whichMalletalsowrote y of Islam the German y ofIslam theGerman 5. p. 1914, 30, August Ottoman empireinto the British press of 132 Forinstance, 138

CEU eTD Collection whether Turkey may gainsomething from it. the Northern Africa would assist German indeed wereveryprosperousforGermany, asun Times doubts about theOttoman position anda to influencetheOttoman position,andinthose main reasonoftheirsupposedfailure. This wasstressedbothinthearticleswhichattempted 145 144 143 142 141 140 139 would bedrastic. troops werewellpreparedasBritishinEgypt prepared, one considersthattheywereaccompaniedbystat these proposalsofupholdingthene because ofthelaststatement that attitude andreminders oftheca Germany, theyriskedtheir existence asastate. integrity ofherterritories, neutrality to preventthe spreadof this help herthemost andthreat that Turkey stoodatthecrossroa be trusted,ifcompared to “TheChoice of the Turks”, “Turkey Enters the Fray”, “The Choice of the Turks”, “Turkey asa Combatant”, “TheChoice of the Turks”, “The Choice of the Turks”, “TheChoice of the Turks”, September30, 1914, p.9. September30, 1914, p.9. Guardian, andTheManchesterGuardian Thus inthearticles thatcouldinfluence theOttoman position, journalistsof both However, itwascontinued,ifthe Turk 142 October 30, 1914, p.7. p.7. 1914, 30, October the Ottoman empirewasopen toattacks inmany directions, 145 These threatsareoftenfollowedbyaccountsthatdemonstrate the The Times, The Times, The Times,The Times,The Times,The to providefinancialsupport. The Times,The Times,The long well-knownBritishsupport.

en themost, proposed theOttoman topreserveits empire ses of Britishsupport totheO ds oftwopaths. The Ententecountries, thestatesthatmight in caseofwartheOttomans ri October 31, 1914, p.9. October 30, 1914, p.9. August 28, 1914, p.9; “Turkey p.9; 28, 1914, August hostilities”, begins August 28, 1914, p.9. p.9. 28, 1914, August August 28, 1914, p.9. p.9. 1914, 28, August for Turkey”,“Alternatives p.9.; 1914, 28, August August 28, 1914, p.9;“Alternatives for for Turkey”, p.9;“Alternatives 1914, 28, August utral statusareof suggestedthattheadviceGermansgiveto Turkey ddressed onlyBritish subjects. European warand wereready toguarantee the military operations,buttheyexpressed doubts 139 28 s wouldchoosewar ontheprovocationof Therefore, despitetheassurances offriendly They warnedthatGerman adviceshouldnot which appearedwhentherewerealreadyno rest inEgypt,CaucasusandtheHolywar ements thatthegarrison inEgyptwaswell- 141 a threatening

140 ttoman empireas wellasIslam, 144 Itwas statedin thearticles andifneededtheiractions sk theirexistence as astate, character. Es 143 The Times, The Manchester The Times, or that that or Allies' pecially if The The CEU eTD Collection 155 154 153 152 151 150 149 148 147 146 calm downtheanxietiesofBritishpublic,andtopersuadeMu reiterate againand thatth subjects werewidespread. Were theBritishno newspapers supportstheassumption thatconc about thedegenerationoftheircoreligionists, Egypt, allegiance and loyaltyof 70million of Muslims inIndiaandtheMuslim inhabitants of to provethat. ambitions. Islam asawhole didnothaveanintentionof Government”. propaganda” wasproclaimed more tobe“one with theMuslim populationofthe Allie and takenuptheswordindefianceofSultan’s wishes”. “the Turk cannotpreachaHoly notfollo stressed thattheworldofIslamwould Ottoman hadchosentojointheCentralpowers,thusafter empire this eventthe articles Turks totakethesideofwinner, powers. the Allied advantage of the Allied forces inthe war “The Choice of the Turks”, “German Plot in Turkey”, “German Plotin Turkey”, “Turkey asa Combatant”, Ibid. Ibid. “Turkey asa Combatant” , “NewIslam LurksBehind the Smoke ofBattle”, “Alternatives for Turkey”, “Turkey asa Combatant”, , 1914, p.10. p.10. 1914, 2, November loyalty”, Thus, thisconstantdenial of possible succes After theattackof 153 butthatMuslims shouldlook 151 The Observer, Examples ofMuslims alreadyfightingin 150 152 Itwasstatedthatthough Turkey has Notonlywasitstatedthatthe Ge 147 Perhaps,thisdemonstrationofpow August 30, 1914, P. 30, 1914, August 5. Goeben The Times, November1, 1914, p.1-2;“Warning To The Porte”, The Times, The Times, The Times, The Times, The Times, The Times,The

War whenhehasexchangedthefezforPrussianPickelhaube, ere wasnoIslamic threat. This andBreslau onRussiansea-ports, itbecame evidentthatthe October 31, 1914, p.9; “British Moslems: Declaration of Unflinching Unflinching of Moslems: Declaration “British p.9; 1914, October31, October 31, 1914, p.9. November1, 1914, P.1-2. October 31, 1914, p.9. September 30, 1914, p.9. buttheysoundra August 28, 1914, p.9. p.9. 1914, 28, August with detestationattheactions 146 The New The York Times, James, 1916; 12, March andexpressionsofconfidenceinthevictory 154 29 becoming plianttoolforfurtheranceofGerman s by“cultivating anassiduousPan-Islamic w theGerman intrigue. Itwasmaintained, that t anxiousaboutit,therewouldbenoneedto orwatchitwithsorrow. erns about the influence of war on Muslim erns abouttheinfluenceofwaronMuslim of themany miscalculations oftheGerman s ofthe“German intrigue” intheBritish ther threatening. yielded toPrussianintrigueandgold, the alliedforcesin Francewereused 149 rman intrigue cannot influence the The attempt toprovokeproblems er wasexpectedtoconvince the denial appears asameans to slim subjectsof the British 148 of Turkey, feelbitterly 155

The Times, Raj , p.444. CEU eTD Collection 159 158 157 156 Prime Minister, Lord Asquith himself was“very be damaging forBritaintoappearas the SecretaryofState for War a to sendatorpedoflotillasinkthemifnecessary. 17, 1914whenChurchilllearne violations ofOttoman statusduringth neutral effect ontheBritishMuslim-subjects wascons the Britishpolitical thinking atthattime. Ottoman neutrality demonstrates well theplace of Foreign Office and the BritishEmbassy inConstantinople. importance ofpreserving itwasrepeatedly Cunningham remarks, 2.1.2. TheinfluenceofconcernsaboutMuslimopinionandthe reality. propaganda, andresulted inthearguing of the British press that they were unlikely toturn to memoirs, causedtheattenti empire onBritish Muslim subjects werereally wide-spread, asthey werementioned in questionable. empire thattherewas aforeigninflue Ibid. Fromkin, Belaya Allan Cunningham,“The Wrong Hourse? Anglo-Ottoman Relations before the First World War” in Collected essays Ontheonehand,probablewarwith Turkey The official policyofGreatBritain,ifthe Therefore, itmay beconcludedthatconcerns empire. towardstheOttoman position ofRussiaonBritishpolicy , p.17,p. 33, p. 48. Peace , p.65-66. , p.65-66. / Ed. by Edward Ingram, (London: Frank Cass, 1993), Cass, Frank 1993), Ingram, /Ed. (London: Vol.2, Edward by p.242. 156 inthisperiodwasdirectedon on oftheBritish Ambassador at

nd theSecretaryofState forI d about“thepurchase”of the aggressor against the Ottoman empire. nce ontheCaliph,which made hisposition is period. According toLord Asquith, on August 30 stressed inthecorrespondencebetween the idered. They causedBritaintoignorecertain much againstanyaggressiveactionvis-a-vis word policycan beapplied toitas Allan theconsiderationsabout the Caliphatein about theinfluence of warwithOttoman 158 seemed tobeadelicatequestionandits ButtheCabinetadopted the views of preserving Turkishneutrality. The Goeben ndia, whoargued thatitwould 157 Constantinople The policyofpreserving and Breslau 159 , heproposed to religious The British The CEU eTD Collection Turkey, wh. [ich] w[oul]d.exciteourMussulmans inIndia&Egypt”. 166 165 164 163 162 161 160 Kinross remarks, wasbydefinitionanegativepolicy, thepolicyofpreservingneutrality as defense ofhisoffice”. direct Turkish ruleacknowledge noauthorityintheSultan to callthem toarms exceptin upon Russianports,theGerman planwasserious provocation andthefinalentryof Turkey onth the Sultan”. of aggressionandwasforcedtotakeuparms in andRussia]thateveryeffort wasmade to “It waswithaviewtothisre the Ottoman empire finally ente Goeben Muslim subjects.Fromkin remarks thatBerlin preventing theeffect ofhostilepropaganda appea Afghanistan. might offend Turkish or Arab opinionorprovok expeditionary forcethereinacaseof warwasin Muslim opinionincalm. to waituntilthe Turks declared the war, wh on theMuslims ofIndia astoBritish intentions inthewar. that wouldacceleratetheOttoma Graves, LordHardinge,the Viceroy ofIndia,al “Turkey and theMoslems”, New The York Times “Turkey and theMoslems”, New The York Times Fromkin, James, Ibid. Graves, Quoted from: Fromkin, These Britishattempts toavoidtherole But, ontheotherhand,theseconcernsshould andBreslau Raj Life Peace, , p.445. , p.445. 165 163 , p.177-178. , p.177-178. However, hecontinued,asthe Allies

P.67. P.67. didnotprovokeBritaintodeclarewar. 166 Peace

162 General Delamain, whowassenttothePersian Gulf tolandthere , p.74. , p.74.

sult [toprovokeaHolywarinthedominions ofGreatBritain, red thewar, ajournalistof n Empire’s movement andproduceafalseimpression towar , November 20, 1914, p. 8. , November 20, 1914, p.8. 31 wasdisappointedthatcontinuouspresenceof ich wouldenable the British to preserve the so realizedtherisksofundertakinganyaction e discontentof“Mohammedans” ofIndiaand e fieldofwarwasmade attack byawanton structed toavoid anypreventive actions, that defense of theterritory and theauthority of ling tothereligioussolidarity of the British make itappear that Turkey wasthe victim ly damaged, as“theMoslems outsideof of aggressor wereaneffective tool in “remained patientlyirresponsive”tothe not beoverestimated, because,asLord the New York Times 161 164 TheViceroy’swas suggestion On November 20,1914when OnNovember 160 According to Philip to According observedthat: CEU eTD Collection demands regardingcapitulations. Britain neitherproposedtheOttoman empire alliance noragreedtosatisfythe Turkish 173 172 171 170 169 168 167 Muslim populationintheGulfa intentions to Turks and Arabs. Arab inorder toprotect the interests of the OilCompany and to demonstrate British Barrow wasorderedbytheSecret to haveuponMuslim sentiment inIndia. presence therewasnecessarytopreventthepo sabotage intheregionshouldnot the region nowwouldbedisastrous, even th Department oftheIndiaOffice, In aMemorandum datedSeptember 2,1914 Arthur the effects ofpropagandajih Wilson, thedispatchofIndian about thedispatchingofIndiantroopstoEgyptandPersianGulf. According toJeremy influence onBritishMuslim subjectswastaken Ottoman onMuslim empire subjectsdidinfluen importance thanthepositionofOttoman empire. of thealliance withFrance,andespecially Balkan war, Britaincouldnotafford herselfth policy in1914 wouldnotpermitted Mallet totry todothis. during August-October 1914couldhelptowin Menteshashvili, Menteshashvili, Ibid. Graves, Jeremy Wilson, James, “Wrong”, Cunningham, pp.242-244. Lord Kinross, Paperbacks, Octopus Publishing Group, 1990), p.166. p.166. 1990), Group, Publishing Octopus Paperbacks, 2002) Publishers, It ispossible tostatethat theconsiderati Raj Life , p.444. , p.444. , p.175. , p.175. The Ottoman Centuries: the Fall The of Ottoman Centuries: Riseand The Turkish Empire (New York: HarperCollins Lawrence of Arabia: the authorized biography of T.E.Lawrence Irak , , p. 601, 605-606. p.83-84.

ad inEgypt,wherethepro-Turk 173 justified the policy of Britain inthe Gulf, sayingthat toleave nd topreventthepe troopstoEgyptwa 167 This landingwasexpectedtoimpress theopinionof be takenintoconsideration. ary ofState forIndiatoland Allan Cunninghamsharestheview thatactiveactions 172 Therefore, ontheSeptember 26,1914General 32 e activesupportoftheO Russia,whoseattitude wasaccordedmore litical effect thatth ough from amilitary point ofview Turkish into considerationwhendecisionsweremade ons about theimpact of hostilitieswiththe over theOttoman’s position,buttheBritish ce theBritish policy. First of all,Ottoman 169 s partlymotivatedby netration oftheO

Hirtzel,aSecretaryofthePolitical 168 171 In1914aswellduringthe ish sentimentswerespread. the BritishtroopsatShut-al- Inhisreasoning the British e Turks andGermans hoped (London: Mandarin Mandarin (London: ttoman inview empire ttoman propagandato the concerns about theconcernsabout 170

CEU eTD Collection 178 177 176 175 174 of theBritishempire toriseinrevolt Muslims residentinEnglandattheGerman Pr abstracts from aresolutionof “theBritishMo estrangement betweenEnglandand Turkey. Bengali are reported to haveexpressed allegi policy ofGermany andinvolving Turk supported theOttoman duringtheBalkanwarsweregiven awordincondemningthe empire influence. careful tomake itclearthat Turkey was Wingate werededicated toGermany, heandhis staff inprivateconversations “werealways where heexplained thecausesofwarwithGermany. notables onhiswaybackfrom CairotoKhartum, andthepublicreception atOmdurman, Army, heldfrequentmeetings seniorEgyptianofficers with and Germany SirReginald Wingate, theGovernor-Gen and theSudantriedtoprepar India. “British Moslems: Declaratio Moslems: “British “TheChoice of the Turks”, “TheSudan And The War. UnanimousLoyalty”, “TheSudan And The War. UnanimousLoyalty”, James, 174 Taking intoconsiderationsthe A different strategywasusedregardingthe the country to whom they owed allegiance and owedallegiancemean andcontemptible towhomthey take a and advantageofthecountry enough proveto attemptBritish Islamic falsetotheirreligionandcowardly subjectswould to Wordsthe anger couldnotbefoundtoexpress British Empire willdeclinetolisten Mussulmams whodwell under itsflag, wefeel thereligiousliberty,reside. Recognizing equity Faith upon towhatever country Our Holy enjoy under whoseprotectionwe ustobeloyal

Raj 176 , p.445; Menteshashvili, Menteshashvili, , p.445;

The Times,The n of Unflinching loyalty”, loyalty”, Unflinching n of

e the publicopinion for it. Af Irak, p.9. 1914, 28, August isexpressed. The resolutiondeclares: probability of war, theBritis p.83. ey inwar. Inale to the wickedbehestsofGermany The Times, The Times, 33 177 steadily driftingtowa ess threateningtoinci ance totheBritish crown anddisapproval of slems Association”, inwhichindignation of BothTheTimes andTheObserver The Observer, Muslims ofIndia. The IndianMuslims who eral ofSudanandtheSirdar Egyptian December 29, 1914, p.7. December 29, 1914, p.7. December 29, 1914, 175 confident that our brethren throughout the and justice accorded by Englandtothe by andjusticeaccorded felt at Germany’sfelt daringto proclaim that tter totheGrant Vizi Though thespeechesofSirReginald 5. p. 1914, 30, August ter theoutbreakof warwith with theprinciplesheiksand h authoritiesinIndia,Egypt te theIslamic population r” undertheGerman . 178

er theMuslims of quote CEU eTD Collection 179 Ottoman sides,torefrainfrom takingpreventi Empire, and despiteofthemilitary preparat of Russiaasanally. Thus, GreatBritainwas to fear. InBritish politics, the newspapers simultaneously functionedaspr Muslim opinionandtocausetheir unrest,anddiscussingthereas issues were treated inpublic.Bypredicting th provoke problems intheterritoriesunderBritis the hostilepropagandathatappealedtoreligious threat totheBritish empire, these concerns infl recognize itmight causesome impact. Though L subjects. Contemporary sourcesputmore ef directly that Turkey’s entrytowarmi of Turkey’sneutrality. Memoirs, threat. Various sourcesindiffer Caliph ontheMuslims ofIndia,EgyptandtheSudanwasperceivedinBritainasapotential the positionofRussia,theywerenotignor religious feelingsofBritishMuslim subjects “Moslems And The Empire. An Offer of Service”, Thus, thoughduringtheperiodofOttomanneutralityconcernsabout which had accorded them civil and religious liberty andwhich hadaccordedthem protection civil andreligiousliberty

Islamic threat was considered less ent waysreflecttheawareness of writtenafterwards whenthethreatnolongerexisted, state ght provokeproblems theBritishMuslim among opaganda, arguing that ed. In August-October 1914, theimpact ofthe The Times,The 34 ve actionsthatcouldaffect Muslim opinion. definitely wereconsideredlessimportant than ions undertakenbyboth theBritish and the uenced hiscables, making him payattention to h control.Newspaperar fort incondemning thethreatanddonot trying topreserve neutralityof the Ottoman e failure of theenemies plantostir upthe solidarity of Muslims, andcouldbe usedto ouis Malletdidnotsp September 25, 1914, p.9. this threatduring theperiod

ons ofthissupposedfailure important than the position in facttherewas . 179 ticles revealhowthese

eak abouttheIslamic

nothing

CEU eTD Collection devoted”. dominations, arereligious Mussulmans, suffering underthetyrannyofforeign against ourCaliphate,towhichmillions of France neverforamoment ceasedharbouring ill-will war itwasproclaimed that“Russia,England,and feelings oftheMuslims. In and proclamation ofjihadappealedtothereligious mentioned thatboththeOttoman declarationofwar Ottoman onitssubjects,itshouldbe empire concerns abouttheeffect counteract theSultan-Caliph’s infl Sultan-Caliph onNovember11, 1914. This ch Ottoman declaration of waronthe Allies and 183 182 181 180 whom IhavesummonedbysacredFetva toasupreme struggle,depend onyourvictory”. sultan emphasized that“theveryexis declaration thewarwasreferredtoassacredand supreme. made againsttheCaliphate, andtherefore later inthe present warwascalled toputanendtheattacks ruptured. October 30,1914,diplomatic relationsbetween 2.2. TheBritishRefutingoftheSultan’s calltojihad. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. “Proclamation by Sultan V, ” in “The Rupture With Turkey”, available from In regardtothepres After theattackof Turkish fleetonth The Sultan’ 180 181 OnNovember 7,1914theruptureofdiplomatic relationswasfollowedbythe The argument wascontinuedthatthe http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/mehmed_fetva.htm s calltojihadwassupported bythefetvaissuedsheikh-ul-Islam Essad the sultan’s declarationof The Times ent studyandtheBritish ly andwhole-heartedly ofhostilitywiththe

uence appearedbeforetheofficial proclamation ofwar. , December 11,P.7. 1914, tence ofourempire, andof300,000,000Moslems 35 e RussianportsofOdessaand Theodosia, on the proclamation of jihad onbehalf of the Great BritainandtheOttoman empire were ronology showswhysome measuresto Source Records of the Great War, Vol.III; 182 Intheaddress tothearmy , accessedMay 25, 2007. 183

CEU eTD Collection revolution inIndia. Sultan’s proclamation wouldawaken thefana 189 188 187 186 185 184 George Antonius aspateofsubsidiaryliteratu and furtherleafletdissemination Muslimtroopsinenemy among armies, Wilhelmstrasse orderedcopiesoftheproclamati the pilgrims inMecca. This means theHoly War for the wholeIslamic world”. Fetwa willbedistributedthr fight totheuttermost againstEngland,Russia, Islam haspublished aFetwa according towhich for Caliphate”. Majesty theSultanmust summonMussulmans in 15, 1914theGerman foreignministry cabledth Ottoman neutrality. enemy countries,andcouldprovoketheeffect th of thestruggleindefenseIslam, itwasthe sin. conformity withthesacred wordsof theKoran”. annihilating Islam”, mustpa France,andEngland,thecountrieswhich“aimed countries, especiallysubjectsofRussia, at norms ofbehavior. Thus, inaveryrhetorical questions abouttheproperunderstandingof Effendi. The fetvawas structured according to Ulrich Trumpener, “The Kaiser onthe'Holy War'”, Fromkin, from: Cunningham,“Wrong”, Quoted p.242. Ibid. “Issuance of Ottoman Fetva by Essad Effendi, Sheik-Ul-Islam, November 1914” in 1968), p.117;Fromkin, May 25, 2007. 2007. 25, May Great War, Vol. III; available from 185 Moreover, itisknownthatsucheffect wa Though boththeSultan’s proclamation and th Peace 186 , p.109. , p.109. Fromkin maintains thatinGerman Germanythe and OttomanEmpire, 1914-1918 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 187

Peace, The Times quotedthereportof“theGe oughout theentireMahomedan worl (New (New York, p.109. 1990),

The TimesThe rticipate intheHolywarproclaimed bytheCaliph“in http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/ottoman_fetva.htm , November 19, 1914, p.8. 1914, 19, , November 36 second onethataddressedMuslims livinginthe re actually didfollow theformal utterances and form thefetva proclaimed thatMuslims of all s alsohopedforbytheGermans. On August on to be forwarded toBerlinfortranslation on tobeforwarded andFrancetheoppressorsofIslam. This 184 e ambassador inConstantinople,that“His e British feared of during the period of the e Britishfearedofduringtheperiod ticism ofIslam andleadtolarge-scale every Musulman must, asareligiousduty, thetraditionalform, asanswersto the Asia, India,Egypt,and Africa toholywar prescriptions ofIslamregardingcertain And therefusal tojoin itisqualified as e fetvaemphasizedth ForeignMinistryitwashopedthat rman Press”that“Sheikh-ul- d, andisnowproclaimed to Source Records ofthe 189 e sacredcharacter andaccordingto , accessed 188 The CEU eTD Collection 191 190 them according to theirarguments, and nottheau and news-reports international declarations, speechesof prominen the policyofstate the Muslim leaders, therefore theirpublication in articles reproduced somedeclarations orte articles devoted tothat issueappeared dur threat ofMuslim responsetothe discussion willbebased mainly on Sultan’s calltojihadduringthemonths thatimmediately followeditsproclamation. The into thewar. Therefore, in thispartof the chapterIwillconsider whatwasdonetorefute the did notcameassurprise for the British butwasconsidered evenbefore the Ottomanentry Should notsomething havebeen do the Arab revolt, whichoccurred 2yearsafter Ottoman propaganda. The suggestion thatthemain correspondence withthe sharifofMeccaw jihad. revolt of1916werethekey-factor sharif ofMeccawhothus didnotsupportthe Su Antonius, Janet Wallach, andBasilLiddell Hart hostilities withtheOttoman empire duringthe especially, astherehadbeencertainanxiet Muslim population,wouldundertakesome meas was “smuggled intoEgypt,theSudan,Indi Wallach, Antonius, 191 Thus, itwouldbelogicaltosupposethat Similar linesofargumentation canbeobs Butthisinterpretation seems tobenotsufficient. Itseems doubtful thatsecret Desert Arab, , p.150; Liddell Hart, p.141. p.141. The Times providesuswith. Therefore it in thisquestion.

sultan’s callwasdeal Lawrence, s that helped the British tocounteract the Sultan’s call to ne earlier?Especially, aswe The Times, a, Persia,and Afghanistan andbeyond”. ing only October-December 1914).Mostofthese p. 43-44; Antonius, legrams received bytheBritishgovernmentfrom 37 the Sultan’s callseems notveryprobable either. ould beenoughtocounteractactive German- y abouttheMuslim reactiontothepossible previous months. Some scholars,likeGeorge t statesmen, addressesofMuslim authorities, the British empire whichhadconsiderable which devotedmuch attentiontohowthe suggest that the correspondence with the suggestthatthecorrespondencewith ltan’s callwithhisauthority andthe Arab The Times shouldberegardedasapartof erved inallthose diversedocuments as thority that issued them. Itispossible to step inrefutingSultan’ ures tocounteractthiscalljihad, t withintheBritis Arab seems more prope , pp.143-145. know, thatthecalltojihad h empire (nearly 50 s calltojihadwas r toapproach 190

CEU eTD Collection were nottheenemies ofIslam. the Caliph’s calltoarmswasarguing thatthe A annihilating Islam, andtheMuslims hadtodefe 196 195 194 193 192 into twoparties and thereas endeavour tosecuretheascenda not awarin whichtheChristia summary ofan there isnotasingleMoslem swor Mahomedans aregallantlyfighting fortheKing-Em Times threatened inthis warand Islam wasnotinperil. allies”. with itsspiritual leaders. Heranger isdirect emphasized thatGreatBritainhad“noquarrel with the Turks. war andthat Britishfought notwith theenemies of Christianity, not withtheMuslims, but George statedthattherewasnothing worsethan and these were not Muslims withwhom theBr 2.2.1. Arguing thatGreatBritain isnotanenemy ofIslam. Ottoman either. empire Britain, andthatshewasnotanenemyofIslam; distinguish twomain linesofargumentation: “TheSudan And The War. UnanimousLoyalty”, “TheBetrayal of Islam”, “The Aga Khan's Messageto Moslems”, “TheSudan And The War. UnanimousLoyalty”, Devid Lloyd George, Knigoizdatelstvo M.V.Popova,Knigoizdatelstvo p.69. 1916), itwasargued: “Therehasbeen nomenace to Sometimes itwasstated directly that thepr As oneofthemain pointsof theCaliph’s call tojihad wasthat Allies aimed at 193 Intheappealto theIndian Muslims Aga

article by some prominent Muslimof th 192 Inthesame manner Wingate, theGovernor-General oftheSudan Rechi, proiznesennye za vremya voiny. Cherez uzhasy k pobede The Times, on fortheirdeadlystrifehasnothingtodowithreligion”.

ns arefightingagainstMoslems ncy ofonefaithovertheother. November3, 1914, p.7. d inalltheranks of Germany.” The Times, The Times, The Time ed solely against the Germans andtheir Turkish 38 November4, 1914, p.8. 1) thatitwas notareligiouswarforGreat and2)thatitwasnotareligiouswarforthe with theMahomedan world,with Islam, or itish were atwarwith. Forinstance, Lloyd nd it,oneof themain strategies of refuting todecide religious issues bythemeans of llied forces andGreatBritaininparticular esent warhasnothing to dowithreligion, , December 29, 1914,p.8. 194 Islam. The bestproof peror, forthe Tsar, andforFrance,while Khan stated thatnoIslamic interest was December 29, 1914, p.8. December 29, 1914, InanearlyNovember articleof e Sudan,“anyman canseethatthisis from religious motives, inan The Christianshavedivided 195 According to According is that thousandsof (Petrograd: (Petrograd: The Times 196

The CEU eTD Collection 199 198 197 General ofSudanalsoproclaimed that: Mesopotamia, ifthereisnointerfer British orIndianmolestation ofMecca,Medi Government ofIndiaissuedgeneralassurances powers inregardtotheimmunity assurances. November 6,1914theGovernment ofIndia issued adeclarationthatmaintained: Islam andtheMuslims istheproclamation of The strongest andthemostemphasized argument in “evidences” oftheBritishfriend Marian Kent, “Asiatic “Asiatic Kent, Turkey, Marian 1914-1916”, “The HolyPlaces. Declaratio Thisisthe official textof 1914, p.7. http://books.google.com/books?id= P. - 1977). Press, University Cambrige from: available 439, Indian Government”, 36,M1 But whether the religious ch as for over one hundred and fifty years shehadgua years as foroveronehundredandfifty she willshelterandprotect allMahomedans and andin maintenanceon othersthe ofthesanctity ofGreatBritainwillremainThe worldpolicy But afewdayspriortothisinternati Further itwas stated,that and shrinesin question. forces solongas Military there isnointerferenc places andJeddahwillbeimmuneattack from Government inthiswar whichnoquestion part of his Majesty’s Moslem mostloyal subjectsastothe attitude of hisMajesty’s Mesopotamia, andthe Port ofJeddah, in order public announcement inregardtothe Holy his Excellency, the Viceroy isauthorizedby , accessed 08.05.2009; “ 198 Thus, thisdeclarationis The Times, the Declaration reproducedin n by then by Indian Government”, 197 І ndian Moslemndian Loyalty. Not aReligious War”,

November 6, 1914, p.7. 1914, 6, November

VJ08 ly attitudetoIslam werepr the governments ofFrancea of theHollyplaces ofIslam. AAAAIAAJ&prints aracter ofthewarwasdeni ence withpilgrimages from India. British ForeighBritish under Sir EdwardPolicy Grey also referred toasthe jointdeclaration of the Allied 39 onal declaration, on 2-3 November 1914the onal declaration,on2-3November na, theportofJeddahandHolyPlaces Places of Arabia, includingthe Holy Shrines of immunity oftheHoly to theGulfsheikhs,thattherewouldbeno his Majesty Government to make Government thefollowing to his Majesty unchanged. Shewillmaintain, ever andenforce The Times of religious characterisinvolved. These holy thatmay there beno misunderstanding on the violability of the Holy Places. oftheHoly violability As previously, within her bordersin the same way e with pilgrimse with from Indiatotheholy places The Times, favoroftheBritish ec=frontcover&dq=Edwa rded the interests of the sixty-two millionsrded theinterestsofsixty-two or molestation by the British Naval and theBritishNavaland molestation by or : “The: thePlaces. Declarationby Holy ovided tosupportthestatement. November6, 1914, p.7. nd Russia havegivensimilar ed explicitly or not, the The Times, places ofIslam. On 199 friendly attitudeto rd+grey&hl=ru#PPA4 The Governor- November 4, (Cambrige: CEU eTD Collection 206 205 204 203 202 201 200 1913 wascollectingmoney insupportoftheSultan. was alsoexpressedbyreligiousorganizations from attacks ormolestation and for obtaining such assurances from allies. The appreciation assurances giventoMuslim subject India Moslem League”expresseditsdeepgr Holy places ofIslam weremet with gratitudeinIndia. Muslims. knows wearenotonwar withIslam” and theBr that duetothedeclarationof “our common declaration”. reported tohisgovernment that Wahhabi leaderIbnSaudstat reports aboutther could bewonduringthewarwithOttoman em considered asameans withth sources, whichsuggestsitshould them. the Muslim Holyplacesissuedbythe Ententepo “Indian Moslem Loyalty”, Moslem Loyalty”, “Indian Moslem Loyalty”, “Indian “”, Graves, “The Betrayal ofIslam”, “The Sudan and the War. Unanimous Loyalty”, Times, Times, Sin'aya kniga 201 The argument aboutinviolability oftheHoly In the Aga Khanmessage andoneof of MahomedansourIndianempire.[...] She Philip Gravesobserved,thatafterlearningfrom PercyCoxaboutthedeclaration Sir manner thefacilitiesforPilgrimageand

November4, 1914, p.8. 204 The Life, The

The Times correspondentalsoobservedthatassu , p.34. , p.34. The Times, p.187. eaction ofMuslimsto thedeclaration. The Times, November 12, 1914, pp.12-13. 1914, pp.12-13. 12, November The Times, The Times, 203

ed hispro-Britishposition. LordCurzoninaspeech beforetheParliament acknowledged, inviolability of the Holyplaces e helpof whichtheappreciation andloyalty of theMuslims the propagandaofjihadfailedinIndiaduetosuccess November 3, 1914, p.7; “The Aga Khan's Message to Moslems”, have beenascribedaspecial November 12, 1914, p.7. November 12, 1914, p.7. s astotheimmunity of the Holy places of Islam in Arabia The Times, The Times articles the guaranties of immunityof 40 for the practiceoftheMahomedanreligion. such asKhuddam-i-Kaaba Society, whichin atitude to the British Government forthe atitude totheBritishGovernment wers areopposed toGerman planstocontrol pire. This canbesuggestedonthebasesof will continueto improve possible inevery December29, 1914,p.7. itish could besureinloyaltyofIndian 206 places ofIslamisoftenrepeatedinthe The declarationisalsoreportedtobe 205 202

The Times alsoreportedthat“All The RussiancouncilinCalcutta rances as to inviolability of the rances astoinviolabilityofthe ofIslam “theworldofIslam meaning. Isupposethatitwas 200

The CEU eTD Collection 214 213 212 211 210 209 208 207 on Turkey’s entrytothe warargued thatthere to supporttheideathatwarwasnotaboutreligi the Britishsupportandjoined Nawab of Tonk and Aga-Khan expressedregretthattheOttoman empire didnotappreciate desire thewar. defend heressentialinterests.” a Mahomedan State. […] Shehasenteredthiswarsolely becauseshehasbeenforcedto into thiswar heedlesslyor withtheobjectof ga pursued towards the Turkish empire”. by GreatBritain and that thewa between GreatBritainandtheOttomanempire General oftheSudanSirReginald Wingate before forced step,causedbyhostilityofthelatter, usedforGerman purposes. proclamation tothe Arabs inBasrawhichem neutrality “inspiteofconti amongst our[British]enemies”, conduct bywhich Turkey hasdughergrave forced uponMeagainst Myownwill”. George V stated:“MyMussulman subjectsknow therefore, there wasnothreattoIslam. Forex met withgratitude bythe IndianMuslims soldiersinFrance. “The Aga Khan's Messageto Moslems”, “ “TheSudan And The War. UnanimousLoyalty”, Graves, “British Patience Abused”, “British Patience Abused”, “Parliament: the and King The War”, “The Indian Army InFrance”, Times , Loyalty” І ndian Moslemndian Loyalty. Not aReligious War”, Another argument emphasized thatitwas The specialrelations between theBritishempire andIslam wasalsoanargument used , November 12, 1914, 1914, p.7 12, , November The Life, Life, The The Times,The 213 pp.179-180. pp.179-180. Intheirdeclarationsofloyalty, November 12, 1914, p.7. 1914, p.7. 12, November The Times, The Times, nuous andaggravatedprovocations”. The Times,

the enemies ofGreatBritain. Nawab ofRampur alsopointed 209 r had “frustrated the friendly The Times,The andpointedouttotheBritis November 12, 1914, p.9. November 12, 1914, p.9. The Times November 16, 1914, p.7. 1914, p.7. 16, November 212 208 Hemaintained that “Great Britainhasnotentered Heisreportedtohavepaidspecialattention“the The Times, November 12, 1914, pp.12-13. The Times, , November 4, 1914, p.8; “Indian Moslem Loyalty”, 41 were more Muslims intheBritish empire, than ample, inaspeech beforetheparliament King emphasized thatthiswa ining territoryoradvantageattheexpenseof ous issues. Thus, LloydGeorge inhisspeech phasized thatpresent warwith Turkey wasa with herownhandsandnumbered herself the assembly of ulema aboutastateofwar theassemblyofulema well thatarupturewith Turkey hasbeen not GreatBritainthatstartedthewar, November 4, 1914,p.7;“Indian Moslem the prominentMuslim leaders,suchas December 29, 1914. p.7. December 29, 1914. 214 207

policy GreatBritainhasever out that Great Britain did not out thatGreatBritaindidnot h efforts topreserve friendly 210 SirPercyCoxissueda r hadnotbeensought 211 The Governor- The The CEU eTD Collection 219 218 217 216 215 world of Islam: ithadmore Muslims than the Ot need to defend Islam from theBritish), andthat Britain enjoyed a special position inthe officials and thepress stressedthatthiswasno Ottoman empirehadsomething todowithre against Islam,oneofthestrate the pilgrimage toMeccamore accessible. of Reginald Wingate, thatGreatBritain grante declarations ofloyaltybythe considered morelikely toinfluence theircore Muslim subjectswasalsooften employedby and inthetenets of theMahomedan religion”. the country. The Kadisandothershavereceived afreeandthorougheducationinthe Koran men ofreligion. We havebuilt,andgivenassistance forthebuildingofnewmosques allover examples ofspecialcareaboutIslam bytheBr never interferedwithanyman intheexercise to beused inEgyptand Sudan. Wingate reminded theulema oftheSudan thatthe British had accounts ofthecaresand friendlyattitude ofthe showed herselfasatruefriendof appeal fortheMuslims ofIndiareminded them world; EnglandisthetrueandclosefriendofallMahomedans”. “The justice ofEngland embraces ninety millions ofourMohamedan brethrenall over the Muslim power. in theOttoman, thereforeitisBritainnot Turkey “Sudanese Loyalty”, “The Sudan and the War. Unanimous Loyalty”, “ “Sudanese Loyalty”, Lloyd George, Rechi, Loyalty”, Loyalty”, І ndian Moslem Loyalty.ndian Not aReligious War”, Thus, astheOttoman Sultandeclared thatBritainandher allieswere wagingawar The Times 215 Inatelegram totheGovernor-Gener , November 12, 1914, p.7. 1914, p.7. 12, , November The Times p.10. , December 31, 1914, The Times p.69. p.69. , December 31,1914,p.10. grand muftiandtheulema ofth

gies tocounteracthis Muslims andoftheOttoman empire. 219 The Times The Times

42 of hisreligion.Hesuppor 218 d them order andjusticemade education, ligionists andrefutetheCaliph’s appeal. The t Britain that started thewar (so there wasno ligion. To support thisstatement theBritish toman empire, anddidca British totheir Muslim subjectsarereported itish: “Wehave subsid ofthemanyexamples whenGreatBritain Muslim leaders,whoshouldhavebeen The argument abouttheBritish careforits , December29, 1914,p.7. that should bereferred toasthe greatest ,November 4, 1914, p.7;“Indian Moslem appeal wasdenyingthatthewarwith al ElSayed Ali ElMorgani stated: e Sudanrepeatedthearguments 216 BegumofBhopalinher ted hisstatementwith 217 ised andassistedthe re of theirreligious The more detailed CEU eTD Collection 225 224 223 222 221 220 prestige”. a coupleof cruisers. Turkish leaders werecriticized for havingsoldthe interest of Islam for theGerman goldand Islam withoutanyseriousquestionhadshe Chaliphate. Hesuggested,thattheOttoman em Holy Relics;theposition oftheguardiansth journalist listed theadvantages which gavetheOttomans apredominant placeinIslam: the can bethereaHoly warin alliance only in Teutonic mind could appear theid other landswillnevermarch beneaththebanners of aGerman Kaiser”. miscalculation. “Islam hasrisenandgoneforthto Ottoman neutrality the German attempt tomanipul Ottomans towarwasre-emphasized when Turkey involve theOttoman empireintothewar. Ther newspapers andtheBritishofficials (suchas Wingate) spokeoftheGerman attemptsto obligations ontheMuslims. the declarationofjihadcouldnotberegarded originated notfrom Caliph,butfromthepowers 2.2.2. NotareligiouswarfortheOttomanempire. the bestproofthatBritainremains afriendofIslam inspiteofthepresentwar. needs. The Britishdeclaration ofimmunitytheHolyplacesIsla “The Sudan And The War.Unanimous “TheBetrayal of Islam”, Loyalty”, “TheBetrayal of Islam”, “German Methods In The East”, Battleof “The Lodz”, “The Betrayal ofIslam”, The seconddominant lineofargumentati It isinteresting toobserve, that theargume As itwas discussed earlier, already in 225

The Times 224 The Times The Times The Times Itwasstressed that“thisisthewar forGermaninterests and

, Decemberp.9. 3,1914, The TimesThe , November 3, 1914, p.7. , November 3, 1914, p.7. , November 3, 1914, p.7. with infidels,questionedLordCromer. , December, 15,1914,p.9. ea thatIslam willfollow such aholywar. The Times 43 kept clearofintrigueswithGermany. aslegitimate andthereforeitdidnotputany e HolyCitiesofIslam; acceptedclaims tobe pire might haveenjoyedherprominence in nt about the German intrigue was used both nt abouttheGermanintriguewasusedboth the periodofOttoman neutralitythe that triedtomanipulate him. Insuchacase efore, theGerman intr on aimed toprove that the call tojihad battleinmany cause ate Islam wasdeclared tobeafailure and , December, 29,1914,p.7. did enterthewar. As intheperiodof m wasemphasized as s, butitsdevoteesin igue indrivingthe 220 Itisargued that 222

The Times 221 223 How The

CEU eTD Collection also considered thatthewarwasbei The Times itwasreportedthatsome sectionsof This showsthattheystillregardedhimas 232 231 230 229 228 227 226 history oftheirown. While iden considered asarhetoricalstatement here,itshould be Union andProgress,most ofwhom are of Germans, crypto-Jews “harebrainedyoungMoslems”, andafew Constantinople” therewouldbenoplungingof Turkey intoanadventureundertheleadership of lowbackground. it consists of atheists, Jews (crypto-Jews orJe Turkey’s entry tothewarthat Committeeof Constantinople andthe Holycitiesthere w not ofthebloodtribeKoreish, the Sultanwasawareof howslenderand disput which must overtakehisHouseinconsequence”. articles itwasstatedthat“theSultandoesnotwanttogowar, because heperceives theruin against thewar, thattheGerman officers a Morgani maintained, that declaring thewarwasnottrue willof theSultan,whowas attempted toundermine hisprestige. Thus, such by those,whodidnotquesti “TheSudan And The War. UnanimousLoyalty”, “TheBetrayal of Islam”, “TheBetrayal of Islam”, “TheBetrayal of Islam”, “TheBetrayal of Islam”, “Turkish MistrustOfBulgaria”, “TheBetrayal of Islam”, Loyalty”, Loyalty”, Times ul-Islam's Resignation”, December31, 1914,p.10. Khan's MessagetoMoslems”, Islam”, - P.7; “The Armenian Massacres. Exterminating aRace ”, Compared totheperiod of theOttoman neutralityanewargument appearedafter , September 14, 1915, 1915, p. 7. 14, , September The Times The Times, , June 22, 1916, p.9. 1916, 22, , June December 29,1914. - P.7; “The Rupture with Turkey”, 230 The TimesThe The Times, The Times The Times The Times The Times Itisargued, that“hadtrue The Times

The TimesThe on theauthorityofSult ,

, , , Moslem British of Subjects. “Loyalty The 3, p.7.; 1914, , November Aga September 10, 1915, “Turkey 1915, p.8; 10, September in Faith her Losing Allies ”,

tification ofCUP withatheists November3, 1914, p.7. November3, 1914, “The p.7; Sudan And The War. Unanimous November3, 1914, p.7 November3, 1914, p.7 ng wagednotfortheinterestsofIslam. , November 4, 1914, p. 4, 1914, , November , August 20, 1915, p.5; “Turkey Divided against Herself. Sheikh-

the authority, thoughbeingmanipulated. In1915in ould benobasisfor hisclaims toCaliphate. nd othernon-Muslims forcedtheirwillonhim. crypto-Jews oratheists”. The Times p.7. , December 29, 1914, from whichtheProphetsprang,afterlossof 44 ws from Salonika),and UnionandProgresscan’t speakforIslam, as able werehis claims totheCaliphate: he was the Ottoman society, theofficers and ulema Muslim leadersas Aga-Khan andsharifEl 228 The Times In the same article it was declared that wasdeclared it samearticle the In

8; “SudaneseLoyalty”, remembered thattheseideas hadthe Moslems beenatthehelm in , October 8, 1915, p.5; “The Revolt of an-Caliph, andbythosewho shouldhaveoriginatedwith The Times 232 231 Gypsies andintriguers Though itmight be “theCommittee of , December11, 1914. The TimesThe 227 Inoneofthe , The The 229

226

CEU eTD Collection ul-Islam, and“intheir hearts” stillconsider Abdul Hamid tobetheirCaliph. frequently. Thus itwasstatedthatmany ofhis 236 235 234 233 demonstrates theseviews onMuslim subjectsof theBritishempire werewidespread and to devoteattentionMuslim opinionand enemy these concernswerenotthatstrongin1915.But, war (November-December 1914). This shows thatth number whichappearedduringthe ofarticles number ofarticlesdevotedto 2.3. ThepressontheMuslim opinionin1915. and fortheCaliph. argumentation, whichdeniedthereligiouscharacterofwarbothforBritishempire question. Young Turks, ortheparliament, thelegitimacy tojihadwasbeingputinto ofhiscall Therefore, bypointingtothefactthatSu Caliph, wastheideathatpowerof parliamentary government. such personalindependenceas Abdul Hamid. that thepresentCaliphhadneverenjoyed Turk revolt. and wasreportedfirstbytheBritish Ambassador their policyofsecularization,identificationtheCUP withth “ the Khalifate”, “TheFuture of “The Betrayal ofIslam”, Kedourie, pp.41-43. pp.41-43. І ndian Moslemndian Loyalty. Not aReligious War ”, The circumstances ofaccessionMehmed Vwere alsobeingquestioned, butnotvery The discussion of Muslim opinion was continued in the press in 1915, though the The discussionofMuslimopinionwascontinuedinthepress1915,though Therefore, totheOttomancalljihadth In allthesepointsthebasisfordenyingreligiouscharacterofwarside the 233 Arab Political Memoirs and and Other studies Memoirs Political Arab

The Times 236 The Times

thisissuethroughoutthewhol , November 3, 1914, p.7. , p.9. 24, 1915, April The TimesThe ltan isdependedupontheGerman influence,the 45 first twomonth after the Ottoman entry tothe authority of Abdul Hamid, andhadnever (London., 1974), pp.243-248; Fromkin, Fromkin, pp.243-248; 1974), (London., Caliph shouldbesupremeandindependent. 235 e Britishopposedawell-developedsystem of subjects doubtthevalid inConstantinopleat again, theveryfactthatpresscontinued HisroleasCaliphwasweakenedbythe attempts tomanipulate itissignificant. It , November 4, 1914, p.7. e threatwasfeltmainly in1914,andthat e Jewsalsohad e yearof1915equalstothe ity offetvasheikh- the time ofthe Young 234 Itwasargued, a longhistory, A Peace , CEU eTD Collection similar in content. declarations ofthechiefs in proclamations oftheSultan of 1914. depended notonlyontheenemy propaganda. The ar 244 243 242 241 240 239 238 237 tolimitand theulema ofEgypt thesacrificeonholidayKurbanBairam toonesheepinthe observed withinthecontextof from India. by theincrease of prices duetothe waranddispatching of themajority of military forces affected neitherbytheentryof Turkey intoth the nizam of Hyderabad. on theinviolability ofthe placesofIslam, League, whiletheempire wasindanger. but also torefrain from making politicaldemands andholding the session of theMuslim loyal tothe Britishprotectorate, which they regarded astheir friends. Therefore, the Sultanof Zanzibar called the Muslims toremain the German ambitions, and thateven the Turks di argued thatthiswarwasnotre Times “Loyal India”, “ “Loyal India”, “BritishCare for the TimesHoly Places”,The inIndia”, controversy “Political “Homage Moslems ofBritish to King George”, “A Ibid. Loyal Sultan's Message”, The Times. 1915, p.18 p.18 1915, Timesthe 22, 1915, p.18 Loyal India. TroopsFive in War India”, “Loyal Areas”, Times p.7; The 14, 1915, , January , June 2, 1915, p.5. 1915, 2, , June The main focusofthenewspaperartic Some of thearticles observed the positive impact onMuslimopinionof thedeclaration , December 8, 1915, p.9; “Moslem Loyalty”, 243 237 Inoneofthearticlesth The Times The Times

As thedeclarationsofloyaltyin 239 The appealstoIndian , May 22, 1915, p.18. Egypt”, in order “New p.18; 1915, 22, May , 242 Especially praisedwastheloyalty of IndianMuslims, whichwas NigeriapassedtotheGovernor

The TimesThe ligious, thattheOttoman governme Zanzibar totheMuslims ofEa loyalty ofIndiansubjects. The Times , December 7, 1915, p.8;“The Ag 240 , February 24, 1915, p.5; “ Sultan of Zanzibar's Loyaty”, Loyaty”, Zanzibar's of “ Sultan p.5; 1915, 24, , February , January 23, 1915, p.7; “Loyal India”, e friendly attitudeof th 241 The TimesThe

Muslims in1915calledthem respected and protectedtheirreligion. andappealsofsuch leadersasthe Aga Khanand 46 e warandbytheappealsofpan-Islamists, nor les remained onloyalty. During1915the The TimesThe d notwanttofightw , May 5, 1915, p.9. p.9. 1915, 5, , May 1914, theseproclamations oftheSultan ticles ingeneralcontinuedthediscourse , October 7, 1915, p.7. 244 The decisionofthegovernment The Times st Africa werepublishedtwice -General ofthatcolony were nt sacrificedthecountryfor a Khan on Indian Extremism”, e Khanof is Afghanistan , May 22, 1915, p.19. , May22,1915, p.19. ith the British, whom notonlytobeloyal, The TimesThe , May 22, The TimesThe 238 , May The The The CEU eTD Collection the rational element of theMuslim world. position oftheBritish,“who neverpretended that Afghanistan whichappealedtothemost fana failed werediscussedinTheTimes. The agitation of German and Turkish agentsinPersia and 254 253 252 251 250 249 248 247 246 245 loyalty ofBritish Muslim subjects werewide Ottoman empirethattheGerm in Egypt,IndiaandtheFrenchMorocco, the defeatof England andRussiabytheforcesof Islam, Muslims, whichhadneveroccurred. spread athome neutralcountries th andinthe whether thecaptureofBaghdadwouldnotoffe Muslims, butthedeclarationofprotectorate helpedtoavoidthese. become aweaponinthehandsof hostilepr irrefutable proof. to believeincrimes committedbytheOttomans British. Parliament, thatatthebeginningofwarIslam asaw negative impactofsomeeventsonMuslim op view ofshortagefoodsupplieswasalso “HerrVonKuhlmann Hague”, At The Crescent. Pan-Islamic the “Exploiting Aims”, “ “Loyal India”, “Parliament.House ofLords”, “Story Of A the Fighting Campaign. Turks inMesopotamia”, “New orderin Egypt”, “Parliament.House ofLords. The ArmenianMassacres”, “House OfLords”, “TheSacrificialSheep In War Time”, Times Morocco”, І n Germany To-Day”, In 1915,aswellinthepreviousperiod,Ge If compared tothearticlesof1914itma Therefore, theconcernsaboutinfluence , June 2, 1915, p.5. 246 ItwasalsodiscussedinParliament that The TimesThe , December 28,1915, p.6; “New order inEgypt”, The Times 247 The Times Itwasobservedthattheannexa The TimesThe The Times , May 22, 1915, , May22, p.18 1915, , July 21, 1916, p.10. p.10. 1916, 21, July , The TimesThe

an EmperoradoptedIslam and , May 22, 1915, p.19. p.19. 1915, May 22, , , May 31, 1915, p.5. 1915, May 31, , The Times The TimesThe 251 , December 8, 1915, p.14. , December8, 1915, In1915TheTimes made funofaGerman bookabout The TimesThe 250 appreciatedasasi , October 21, 1915, p.9. 1915, 21, , October , March 20, 1915, p.9; “German Intrigues in Persia”, ItwasobservedthattheGermans fabricatedand 253 47 nd thereligiousfeelingsofMuslims was. tical elements tothe ofsocietywasopposed andtheannouncements inPersiaandthe e storyaboutthelarge-scale uprisingofthe inion wasarticulated. Lord Crewestatedin spread in1914-1915. Intheperiod ofthe opaganda, andhurtthefeelingsofIndian on Armenians, sothey shouldbeprovided they hadaccepted Islam”, andappealed to , April 27, 1915, p.7; “German Intrigues in of thewarwithOttoman empire onthe theMuslims ofIndiamight finditdifficult y beobservedthatin1915thepossible The TimesThe rman attempts tomanipulate Islam that tion ofEgyptinDecember 1914could The TimesThe 252 the German expectationsofriots German the , October 21, 1915, 1915, p.14. 21, , October gn oftheirloyalty. fight for itwithBritain. hole couldturnedagainstthe , July 23, 1915, p.4. The Times , May 22, 1915, p.19. p.19. 1915, May 22, , 248 Itwasdiscussed 245

254 The 249

CEU eTD Collection same, thearticlesin1915rec remain loyalcontinuedinpressthroughout Discussion of German attempts to manipulate Islam andthereasonsfor BritishMuslims to of theHolyplacesby Allies, andtheappeal and fortheCaliph. The specialimportance wasacco argumentation, whichdeniedthereligious characterofthewarbothforBritishempire the Muslimstojihad, theBritish refuted hiscallbyawell-developed system of empire intothewar. When theOttoman empire opinion inIndiaandEgyptwasinformed aboutGerman attempts toinvolvetheOttoman status, thedecisionofdispatchingIndiantr Ottoman neutrality they contributed toBrit decreased, whichalsoconfirms theconclusi that thethreat wasalreadyless

ognized thepossibilitie urgent. Besides,thenumber of on thatthethreatwasalreadylessurgent. oops toEgyptandthePersianGulf. The public 1915. Though thearguments weremostlythe 48 ish policyof preserving the Ottoman neutral s bytheMuslimleadersto finally entered thewarandSultan called rded tothedeclarationofinviolability s ofMuslim discontent,whichsuggests articles permonth significantly theircoreligionists. CEU eTD Collection century, manipulate it. subjects resulted notonly in c to showthattheideaaboutspecialc empire likeGerman-controlled caliph, Muslim l 1915 wasconsidered. ItdealtwithBritish conc 257 256 255 George Buchanan,wasinstructed to inform th Straits andConstantinople shouldbeRussian. Benckendorff, theRussian Ambassador toLondonin1903–16,thatitwasclearthe immediately aftertheOttoman em practically nodoubtsthatafteritsendthe Constantinople andtheStraits toRussiaalreadyin1908. Edward Grey, oneoftheinitiatorsth great Orthodoxstate,werewe was consideredinBritishpoliticsduringthewar. principal factorswhichcontributedtothefactth influence ontheBritishforeignpolicyduring theGreat War canbedistinguished asthe such development possible. The Russianclai before moving tothediscussionofhowithappe Chapter 3:TheIdeaofEstablishing aCaliphatein Arabia in Alan Alan J. P. Taylor, Fromkin, For more details: Tufan Buzp Press, 1971), p.540. p.540. 1971), Press, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3693438 British politics(1914-1916). The ideaofthe Arab Caliphatewasdiscusse In thepreviouschapterinfluenceofth The Russianclaims toConsta 255 butitdid notenjoytheinfluence onBritish politicsuntil the Great War. Thus Peace, p.138. p.138. The Struggle forMastery in , 1848-1918 ı nar “Opposition”, pp. 59-89, availiable at: availiable pp. 59-89, “Opposition”, nar

oncerns abouthisinfluence,but ll-known longbeforethewar. . pire hadenteredthewarkingGeorgepire V told Alexander von ntinople astheformer capital onnection betweentheCali e Anglo-Russian agreement of1907,promised 49 e Russiangovernment thatincase ofvictory ms andLordKitchener’s toConstantinople e Islamic questiononBritishpoliticsin1914- oyalty andjihad.Inthis 257 erns provoked bythewar withthe Ottoman at scheme of establishing the Arab Caliphate city wouldbelongtoRussia.Practically ned, itisnecessarytopointoutwhatmade And theBritish Ambassador to Russia, d inEgyptasearlyendofthe19 , (Oxford-New (Oxford-New , York: University Oxford 256 Thus, duringthewartherewere According toFromkin, Sir of theByzantineempire, the also inBritish attempts to ph andBritishMuslim chapter Iwould like th

CEU eTD Collection figure. Lloyd George characterizes him asrathercont pictures LordKitchener. Inthisveryvolume af second volume ofLloydGeorge’s acknowledged thatforthefirstfewmonthsof War hisinfluencewasparamount. the MiddleEast.EvenLloydGeorge, cr whooften Office. associations. These twoqualitiesmade him anidealcandidate for the Headof the War one handapopularfigure,herooftheempire, andontheotherhandhehadnoparty a positionof the Viceroy) andEgypt(Consul-G Khartoum’), India(Commander-in-Chief in1902–1909,and1910-1911 wasconsideredfor regions oftheempire: theSudan(wherein 262 261 260 259 258 caliphate scheme inBritishpoliticsvarious ways. decision ontheMiddleEastwastobetaken. He this noteto besocharacteristic for thesi Foreign Office Greyminuted: “DoesLord decisive fortheForeignOffice, they reportthat expert ontheMiddleEast. According toFr the promises toRussiawith theconcernsabout the formulation ofBritish waraims intheEast the fateofConstantinoplewouldbe Cassar, David Lloyd George, David Lloyd George, David Lloyd George, George Buchanan, rather a negative characteris As theHeadof War Office heexercisedgreatinfluence onBritish policytowards Lord Kitchener, awellknownmilitary lead Kitchener plannedtoreturnb 261 259 Exceptbeinganinfluentialfigure,dueto

Kitchener's , p.44; Fromkin, Memuary p.146. diplomata 1991), otnosheniya, Mezhdunarodnye (Moskva: War Memoirs War Memoirs War Memoirs War tics on p.752 and p.759.

Peace , Vol.II, (London: Ivor Nicholson & Watson, 1933) pp.750-760, with , Vol.I, p.130. 1938) Limited, OdhamsPress (London: , Vol.I, p.130. 1938) Limited, OdhamsPress (London: settled accordingtoRussianneeds. War Memoirs War ack to Cairoafter thewar, , p.86. , p.86. Kitcheneragree?Ofso,Iapprove”. tuation andthatitcouldbepennedeachtime a 1898hebecame knownas‘LordKitchenerof 50 omkin andCassar, Kitchener’s viewsbecame , andprovoked theBritishattempts toreconcile Muslim attachment totheOttoman empire. roversial, butnodoubts eneral in1911-1914). Du ter dealingwiththedeathofLordKitchener,ter ononeofthecablessendfrom Cairotothe evenstarts witha famous warposter that contributedtothedevelopment of Arab er, spentmost ofhiscareerinMuslim

hiscareerKitchenerwasregarded asan iticized LordKitche therefore reliedonhisstaff 258 great andinfluential e to it he was on the e toithewasonthe ner inhismemoirs, This contributed to 262 They regard They 260 The CEU eTD Collection alike”. more urgentinterest inthematter of the when KitchenerheldapostofConsul-Govern 264 263 considered thepresent alliancetobetemporal. empire, Kitchenerstillregard Caliphate alreadyduringth caliphate. not SirEdward Grey, who suggestedthem tohintthegrandsharifatopportunityof Arab Storrs andClayton senttheirreportstoLord in Constantinopledisappeared,butasweshalls had. Itmay beargued, thatCairostaff gained there, which thusgained more influence onthe BritishMiddle Eastern affairs than itever Cox, Cox, Buzp And finally, havingspent somany yearsinth Lord Kitchenerreturn 264 Idea, ı nar “Opposition”,nar pp. 59-89.

p.79. p.79. e reignof II. Abdul Hamid ed toLondonfrom Cairo,whereth

Russia asthe principal enem Caliphate among imperial powersandMuslims Kitchener, nottheForei 51 influenceonForeignof or inEgypt“coincidedwitharenewedand ee inthesubsequentpartsofthischapter, e Eastdefendingthein

263 As Steven Coxpointsout,aperiod ere weretalks y andrivalofBritain, gn Office. And itwashe, fice as British embassy terests ofBritish about the Arab CEU eTD Collection departments oftheBritishgovernment involved were alreadyundertaken,but December 1914whencertainstepsinestablishi entered Britishpoliticsduring the Great War. Itwillbedevoted totheperiod of September- 268 267 266 265 other measures undertaken tocounteract the argument, his memorandum couldhavebeenconsid considered tobeanimporta that Britain prohibi Holy places despiteofthewar. important that the sharif ofMeccacouldsafegu empire, buthedoubtedwhethertheywouldforg Muslims inIndiaandEgyptmight forgive Br was that the sharif might assist Britaininth Kitchener toenter will notbe used bythe Turks. with thesharif wouldlast,itis possible tobesure thatthe Arabs of Hejazandtheirterritory could crossSinaiPeninsulawerethecamels. the neutrality ofHejazinthecaseGerman a through GilbertClayton withasuggestion that inclined tojointhe CentralPowers, Ronald Arab Caliphate. 3.1. PromotingthesharifofM Fromkin, Storrs, Storrs, Belaya Already inSeptember 1914,whenitbecame In thispart of thechapteritwillbe considered howtheideaof the Arab Caliphate However, ClaytonforwardedStorrs’s notewithamemorandum ofhisownwhichurged , p.138. , p.138. Orientations Orientations Peace, p. 101; Cassar, into conversationwithth , p.154. p.154. , p.148. , ted thepilgrimage, 266

nt issueforMuslim opinion.Bu Kitchener's,

the questionwasnotyetbrought 267 Approximately atthistime Turkish propagandareported 268 ecca asanidealcandidateforthe p . whichshowsthatdisruptionofpilgrimage was 55. 55. e rulerofMeccaforothe Storrs submitted ashort noteto Lord Kitchener 52 e questionofpilgrimage. Claytonargued, that influence oftheOttoman sultanonthe British 265 ggression, becausetheonly timely consultationswithMeccamight secure in itspolicytowardstheMuslim population. ive thedisruptionofpilgrimage. Thus, itwas ng communication withth ard the right ofBritishMuslims tovisit the Heargued thataslongthenegotiations itain wagingthewaragainstOttoman ered inthe previous chaptertogether with clearthattheOttoman empire was t werethisClayton’s main to the attention of the totheattentionof r purposes.Oneofthem kindofvesselthat e sharifofMecca CEU eTD Collection maintained, thatfrom 11 274 273 272 271 270 269 the Holyplaces,sharif (atitleapplied to attention toreligiousf position toassume themantle of theCaliph. Hussein’s descentfrom theProphet’s family, andhispositionofaruler andalsotookcareofthepilgrimage pilgrimages wasstressedaspartofhisideology, from thetime of Abdul Hamid thepossession all Islam […]theman must nobodies,but Mahdis andMullahsImams were argued thatreligiousleadersalreadycaused war. Lowell Thomas, whichmade Thomas EdwardLawrencealegendaryfigurebytheendof much). qualification forholdingtheCa Thus, Toynbee statedthatBritishre of theproposedcandidatematched theway on theprospectsofestablishingan Arab Caliphate. which appearedasearlydur guardian ofHolyplaces,w could bereplaced astheCaliphbyan Arabian le influence, is thatClayton’s memorandum raised Muslims. The reason fordiscussing itsepara Fromkin, Deringil, John Buchan, Lowell Thomas, Toynbee, “Islamic”, p. 32. Fromkin, Peace, October 15, 2008. 2008. 15, October 271 Clayton’s memorandum shouldhavebeenreally InthenovelofJohnBuchan,aBritishpo 270 The cultofbelongingtothebloodth Peace, Well-protected Greenmantle, p.101. p.101. With Lawrence in Arabia p.100. p.100. actor inthe Arab revoltof1916repeat , p.33. th London,1916; available from available London,1916; -12 ould beanobviouscandidate. be oftheKoreish,tr

ing theperiodofOttoman’s th liphate”(though, heobservesitdi century“Koreishiteblood”wa , pp.47-48. , pp.47-48. searches ofthebeginning20 53 thedescendantsofProphet)andmost ferment among theMuslimpopulation:“Your 274 wassignificant. As Fromkin summarizes, of MeccaandMedina, and theprotection of tely frommeans tocounteract thesultan’s theissue, thatin case theOttoman sultan ader friendlytoBritain, emir ofMecca,the Eventheauthors thatdo notpayspecial British imaginedthefeatures ofaCaliph. 273 http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/559 litician, publishedduring thewar, itwas e Prophet,wasobservedinthebookby they hadonlyalocalprestige. To capture the factthatHussein wastheruler of ibe oftheProphethimself”. verypersuasive,becausethefeatures 269 thatHusseinwastheprotectorof Thus, Clayton’s memorandum, neutrality initiateddiscussion s regarded as “an essential s regardedas“anessential d notinfluen of Hejazputhim in th ce thepractice centuryhad , accessed 272 And if CEU eTD Collection influential rulerfrom religiousperspective. 280 279 278 277 276 275 McMahon reportedtoKitcheneronFebruary associate himself orMeccawiththejihad, t British government wouldnotdo,inte hinting atthe Arab Caliphatedoesthevery already reachedMecca, hecriticizeditas“averydangerous correspondence”, whichby December 12,1914 Arthur Hirtzelfrom theIndia Caliphate wasnotdebatedbetween differen impressed byitthathecalledveryimportant. in thematters of Islam. Great War asitcould precipitate of whichthecorrespondence withthesharif God outofallevil race willassume theCaliphateatMeccaor encouraged Husseintocherishambitions ofaCa against us”. and waragainstGreatBritain,hehisfather Constantinople coerce Sultanagainst hiswill, sharif ofMecca,toascertainwhether “should present armed German influencein read thatheshouldsendsecretandcarefully Fromkin, Fromkin, Friedman, Qouted from: Wilson, Qouted from: Hart, Liddell Already onSeptember 24,1914Storrs receivedatelegram from LordKitchener, which During the8months whichfollowedClayton’s memorandum Husseindidnothingto Clayton’s memorandum wasbrought Peace, Peace, 276 Question Lawrence The Memoirs of SirRonald Storrs And inDecember 1914Kitchenerattach p.106. p.106. p.101. which isnooccurring”. , p.65 , p.65 Lawrence, , p.43-44; , p.43-44; Wallach, 278

p.165. p.165. the indignation of theMuslims withthe Britishinterference rfering intheissuesofIslam. Desert, (New York:G.P.Putnam's Sons, 1937), p.163. 275 to EdwardGrey’s attention, 277 p.150. p.150. hus anewHigh CommissionerinEgypt, Henry , andsogoodmay come bythehelpof ofMeccawaskeptunpublishedlongafterthe 54

chosenmessenger to thing, whichtheIndiaOffice thoughtthatthe This shouldbeone ofthedocuments, because and the Sublime Porte,toacts of aggression t Offices anddepartments, thuswhenon 2, 1915thatthesharifhaddonewhatwas and Arabs oftheHejazwouldbewithusor liphate: “It may bethatan Arab of thetrue 279 Office learnedaboutthe message thathad Butatthistime theissueof the Arab ed tohismessage apassagethat 280 Abdullah, the son of the Abdullah, thesonof

and heissaid tobeso CEU eTD Collection rights ontheirterritories. the Caliphweregoodashecouldreconcile Ar Storrs again paid Kitchener’s attention that Hussein’s chances for thegeneral recognition as 286 285 284 283 282 281 the prospectofcapturingConstantinople, Constantinople contributedtothedevel Russia. Thus, Iwanttotracehow theofficial acknowledgment ofRussianclaims to Caliphate wasalsoconnected politics, 1915. ofthe thediscussion Constantinople and Arab CaliphateinBritish 3.2. Theofficial acknowledg position ofCaliphtoattentionMarkSyke Lawrence emphasizedtheneedtoincludeSyriain Arab Caliphate. 2, 1915Storrs alsosubmittedamemorandum in a memorandum wheretheCaliphatewasanin the Sudansharif ElMorgani. Captain G.S.Saymes, Wingate’s ptivate secretary, also submitted through personalcorrespondencewithHussein,whic representatives ofIsla powerful inhimself) whocannotenjoythepr paying propositionforourcarean Thus onJanuary27,1915,Storrs wrote toKitchener, thatthesharif British Residency inCairo continued topromote theestablishment of the Arab Caliphate. andtherewas noneedforimmediateaction. required fromhim, Fromkin, Fromkin, Wilson, Fromkin, Quoted from: Fromkin, Fromkin, On March4, 1915becauseofthestartth As itwas mentioned atthebe Lawrence, Peace, Peace, Peace, Peace, p.169. p.169. p.144. p.144. p.115. p.165-180. p.165-180. m throughouttheworld”. Peace, 285 p.115. They also broughtthe planto

with theideathatConstanti ginning ofthechapterpl d attention thananypurely local Chieftain (however ment ofRussianclaimsto opment ofscheme ofthe Arab Caliphate. s duringhisvisitto 55 tegral partofthepan-Arabscheme. estige ofreceivingtheannualhomage ofthe abian leaderswithout Russian MinisterofForeign Affairs Sergei 282 support oftheCaliphate,whileClaytonand e military campaign in theDardanelles and Wingate promoted theideaofCaliphate h wascarriedthroughreligiousleaderin raise thesharif ofMeccato the nople shouldbeguaranteedto Cairo insummerof1915. 281 an of establis But the members ofthe Butthemembers of Mecca was “a more of Meccawas“amore claiming anypolitical 284 Insummer 1915 hing the Arab 283 OnMay 286

CEU eTD Collection circumstances remain underindependentMussulman domain”. Government havestipulated thattheMusu would become known,hewould Mohammedan power.” Therefore Greywarnedthe and Britain appearedtobe“a because Greyworriedabouttheeffect onMuslimopinioninIndiaifitsterms wererevealed Sazonov inquiredabouttheinclusionof 291 290 289 288 287 state withtheHolyplacesofIslam asitscenter. Turkey-in-Asia after thewarGrey population, butalsothatbytheti in spiteofhissympathies with Russia,Grey by nomeans diedout”. opposition totheopinions andsentiments atone “a complete reversalofthetraditionalpolicy possible proofofitsfriendshipan that byaccepting the Russianproposals the Russia. Nevertheless, in the additional memo demands, certainpromises and inregardtoC other areas,includinga to recognizeRussianclaims, inexchangeof the war. Constantinople tothe public opinion inRussia, their memoirs recallthat Tsar Nicholas IIa ambassador inRussiaGeorge Buchanan and th Quoted from:Fromkin Quoted from:Fromkin Fromkin, B'yukenen, Taylor, A position of theheadof theForeign Office, SirEdwardGrey demonstrates howstrong 288 Struggle Peace, OnMarch12,1915Greyand Asquith withtheapproval oftheopposition agreed , pp.146-147;Paleolog, Memuary, pp.146-147;Paleolog, , pp. 541-542. 541-542. , pp. p.139; p.139; Taylor, , Peace, , Peace, neutral zoneofPersia. 290 Fromkin observesthattheagr p.140. p.140. p.140. Struggle

party tothedistractionof the lastremaining independent d loyalty toRussia, he called alreadyhadanideaofestab announce that“throughoutthene me proposalinrega ofRussian , p. 541. Tzarskaya Rossia, Constantinople totheRussianempire.

Russianacknowledgment ofBritishinterestsin lman Holyplacesand Arabia shall underall 56 nd hisministers referredtotheimportance of had alsotoconsider th randum datedthesame of HisMajesty’s government, andisindirect 289 British Government wasgiving the greatest as reward forthepeople their sacrifices in e FrenchambassadorMauricePaleologuein onstantinople werealreadymade earlierto time universallyheldinEnglandandwhich Greypersonally sympathized withRussian Russians thatif theterms of theagreement p.166-168. p.166-168. eement wastobekeptsecret lishing anindependentMuslim the meeting ofRussiandesires 291 This revealsnotonlythat gotiations, HisMajesty’s e opinionoftheMuslim rd tothesettlement of day, Greyemphasized 287 The British The CEU eTD Collection were doneaboutit,theCaliph. thewarRussiawassureto Thus, ifafter 296 295 294 293 292 Prophet Mohammedwas Arab, accordingtoLord candidate tothecaliphate,wh Arab Caliphatewereconsidered,thewayout wasthatBritainshouldsupportitsown pressure). ForLordKitchener, whorecentlyheld British empire (thetraditional Russian threat Caliph, LordKitchenerconsideredaRussian-contr among thosewhocontinuedtoseeRussiaastheprincipalrivalof Russia, however, unlikeGrey, whotreatedRuss Arabia. Arabia. Inaddition,thepromise Medina made from pointofview areligious destruction of theOttoman Em from British Muslims, Greyfound it reasonable thatBritainhad tocompensate Islam forthe when itwasimportant tosafeRussianpositionasanallywithout provoking theopposition impact onRussia,andcausedhertochangeside he couldnotguaranteeRussiathepossessionof these possibilitiesofbringingtheOttoman empire outofthewar, unacceptable,becausethen because boththe Turks andtheGr accept the supportoftheGreektroops inatta the revoltinConstantinopleMarch1915 togiveConstanti the convictionofneed Fromkin Geoff Simons, Tony Benn, Fromkin Fromkin Fromkin Fromkin Lord Kitcheneralsosharedthebeliefthat , Peace, 294 , Peace, p. 98. , Peace, p.140. , Peace, pp.125-127. , Peace, p. p.151. 138,

p. 97 : fromIraq: to Saddam Sumer

296 ich wouldnotbeassociated was easytofulfill, as nocountr pire byestablishing Muslim stateelsewhere. Mecca and Comparedtotemporarythreadfrom theGerman-controlled eeks had claims onConstantinople. nople toRussiawas.Herefusedbothsupport 57 (secretly discussedwith Talaat bey) possesConstantinople,andunlesssomething impossible forittoappear inotherplace,but ck against Constantinople in December 1915, ck againstConstantinopleinDecember to India,whichwould resultinpermanent Constantinople, whichcouldhaveanegative anoffice inEgypt,wh (London: Macmillan Press Ltd., 1996), p.189. s in the war. But,as during the Balkan wars ian demands withsympathy, Kitchenerwas after thewarConstantinople willbelong to olled Caliphtobeamortaldangerthe Kitchener, itwasadvisabletoencourage with Constantinople. As the y hadclaims forthedesertof Britain intheEast. ere possibilities of the ere possibilitiesofthe 293 made The claims 292 andto 295

CEU eTD Collection 300 299 298 297 Caliphate whenthewarwasover. Hisnotereads: colony inMesopotamia, Hardinge, the Viceroy ofIndia,who wasmore encouraged thediscussionofKitchener’s sche old rivalrywithRussia,France,orbothmight resume, so: views. Inmemorandum from March16,1915Lord Kitchenerwarnedthat rival powers. fleet, wouldhelpBritain toesta Caliphate to the , thecoastlineof whichcouldbecontrolledby British the viewthat hissuccessorsas CAB 24/1/0016, “The Future Settlement of Eastern of Settlement “The Future Turkey CAB24/1/0016, in Asia and p.54-front. March 1915, Arabia”, Eastern of Settlement “The Future Turkey CAB24/1/0016, in Asia and p.50-back. March 1915, Arabia”, Wilson, Fromkin it istoourinterests toseean kingdom Arab The argument abouttheestablishment ofthe During thefollowingdaysofMarch191 amongst millions themany ofourMahommedansubjects Empire’s] positionasthegreatestofMoslem andcontainingwith England, […] British acknowledgment of Russianclaims wasthepushfor Kitchener to promote his event rather than his antagonism. present head is the Sharif, and whoIfeel sure common consent of Islam revert to the descendants appeared anticipated, Enver Pashashoulddi will benoMussulman powerpossessing both temporarily; and when Turkey’s wingshave been clipped as it presumed that they will be, there definitely dissociates himsel subject. Ifthe purely domestic concerns to Mussulmans; butwe havemade no public announcement onthe It hasbeen a principle ofourpolicy toleave the Caliphate to take mattercare ofitself asa of , Peace, p.100. Lawrence, 297

p.179. p.179. de facto possessor of the Holy places is Cali 299 approvedofKitchener’s proposalofestablishment the Arab

blish controlovercaliphandisol Caliphshouldalso f from the Turks, he will 300 in itthechiefMahommedanHoly

58 splace the present Sultan, the Caliphate will by me betweendifferent departments. Charles preoccupied with establishment of Indian would command Bin Saud’s Bin command would such an in support the will and the power toeject him. [...] establishedin Arabia undertheauspicesof States, enhance wouldgreatly ourprestige 5 theCommittee ofImperialdefense Arab Caliphatewasalso usedby Arthur of the Prophet’s family inMecca, ifwhom the be the Arabs. Transfer ofthe seatof ipso facto . 298 ph, and if theGrandSharif of Mecca

ate him from theinfluenceof become Caliphat all events Places. This in[theBritish' afterthewar

If, as If, as CEU eTD Collection Barrow’s suggestionforsupportingtheOttoman em Hirtzel, theSecretaryofth 303 302 301 places. preservation of aMuslimthe pledgedmaintenance politicalentityand of theMuslim Holy in theEast: Council onMarch19,1915EdwardGreyposeda However, heargued: Ottoman Hirtzelacknowledg empire. advantages claimed forBarrow’s scheme were “Comments onSirEdmundBarrow’s Note” Arthur of establishment indirect Quoted from: Wilson, Lawrence of Arabia:authorized the biography Eastern of Settlement “The Future Turkey CAB24/1/0016, in Asia and p.57-front. March 1915, Arabia”, Eastern of Settlement Future “The Turk CAB24/1/0016, 55-front. In furtherdiscussionsGreyalso observedthat Britain’s first requirement wasthe state. independent Muslim subjects that,as Turkey hadhandeditselfoverto wehadsetupanewand the Germans, possible territoriesforan Arab empire. Ifwetookthis standpointto our wecouldsay Moslem question wereansweredintheaffirmative, Mahommedanism oughttohaveapoliticalaswe strong Ought wenottotakeintoaccount feelingintheMoslem thevery worldthat The questionofestablishingthe Arab cali 303 nothing anti-Islamic in our policy, and will acquiesce. Christian intrusion, it seems highly probable that Indian Mussulmans willunderstand that there is to interfere in Arabia, and that theHoly Places uncomfortable period ofsuspense and hesitation; but when it is once realized that we do not intend can belittle doubtwhich waytheir choicewill eventually go. Therewill, doubt, noan be will serve. As accessto the HolyPlaces will depe the power of Turkey toeject him, andIndian Mussulmans willhave to choose which Caliph they proclaims possessor himself oftheHolyPlaces? As has already been pointed out,it willbe beyond Caliphate, if on the fall of Constantinople the Grand Sharif throws off the Turkish yoke and In Arabia and Africa will not the overwhelming LordCrewe,the Secretary ofState for rule likeinEgyptor e PoliticalDepartment oftheIndiaOffice toopposeEdmund

ed thatprobablyinIndiath 59 Arabia, Syria, and Arabia, Syria, Mesopotamia weretheonly based onthe identification of Islam withthe ey in ey in Asia and – pp.54-back March 1915, Arabia”, there and in Mesopotamia aresecure against phate wasdiscussedfurtheratthe War question regarding the Russian desiderata question regardingtheRussiandesiderata pire asaregionalpowerafterthewarand India, presented thetwodifferent views nd on thegoodwill ofthe GrandSharif,there the SudaninMesopotamia. ll as religious existence? […]ll asreligiousexistence? Ifthelatter 302 majority almost certainly be forthe Arab Hirtzelargued thatpolitico-religious

, p.180. , p.180. ese were“convertibleterms”. 301 In the Inthe CEU eTD Collection our influence.” other hand,theKhaliphateweretr might indirectlyassertitselfovertheMohammed Khaliphate might betoagreatextentunder “would alwaysbeunderpressurefrom theirstrongRussianneighbour, withtheresultthat Lord Kitchener approved of theposition of th expressed bythePoliticaland 306 305 304 situation isveryuncertain tomake plansfor th Curzon, whoin1899-1905wasthe Viceroy ofIndia, whether Muslims wouldaccept aCaliph, whow authority overthem, notpoliticalpower. independent Muslim state irrelevant.Intheir beyond the Arabian peninsula,asJeremy Wilson scheme forthecaliphatearoundMeccaandbelieve misunderstandings remained.McMahonandMa an approvalofthescheme Arab ca his kingdom(August1915),thusitwasnotinspireby in thereport,andthatreportwas submitted beforeHussein’s inquiryaboutthebordersof under independentMuslim rule. Mecca should bemaintained, and that Arabia final reporttothe War councilfrom June30,1915 desiderata in Turkey-in-Asia Arab Caliphate. This wasaspecial interdepar Wilson , Aaron Klieman, Fromkin and London: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1970), p.5. Though, ingeneralscheme ofanindependent It might beconcludedthatthede-Bunsen committee also approvedthescheme ofthe pp.144-145. , Peace, pp.144-145. Lawrence, 304 Foundations of British Policy in the the British Policy in of Arab Foundations World: the Cairo Conference 1921 of

p.187, p.193. p.193. p.187, in responsetoalre

the Militarydepartments ofth 305 ansferred to Arabia, itwould Itisimportant, thatthese twostatements areput together liphate bythede-Buns 306 While inIndiaOffice thereremained doubts 60 Russian domination, andtheRussianinfluence opinion Arab leaderscould accepthisspiritual e caliphate, as “we”(allies tmental committee formed toconsider British andtheMuslim Holyplacesshould remain ady knownRussianandFrenchdemands. Its e Political department andstated the Turks an partofthepopulationIndia.If,on observes, consideredGr reads thatassurancesgi xwell, whosupported ill be under theforeign influence. Lord in1915wrotetolo Arab Caliphatewa d thatitsimpact couldbespread far it. Therefore, itmightbeinterpretedas en commitee. e IndiaOffice, discussedabove. remain toagreatextendunder ? British?) are notin rd Cromer, thatthe s accepted,certain ven tothesharifof ey’s formulaofan Lord Kitchener’s (Baltimore CEU eTD Collection a possessionofConstantinople, 310 309 308 307 the bravestargument tochallengethepos used less emphasized German influence on the Caliph (i than probable. could”. The Times andGwynneat states: “We [heandLloydGeorge] atoncepassed Arab, hissuccessorsasCaliphshouldalsobe Arabs. for the Arab CaliphateKitchenersuggestedenc accepting an ideaofthe Arab caliphate. To support this view Iwouldjustremind thatarguing the previouschapter),itmight alsobes Ottoman caliphate,might beregardedasapart connected with Indiaseemnottoopposethescheme, thoughtheyhaddoubtsinitssuccess. establishment ofan Arab caliphateafterth of Britishown aims incurrent warwiththe will accept ifthatreplacement take would the war, and thatevenifIndian Muslims w maintained thatthereligiousprestigeofth certainty, that Muslims wouldaccept it. press in1915. Amery, Fromkin Fromkin John Fisher, 1999), pp.54-56. In 1915whenthescheme ofthe Arab Caliphatewasbeingdebated, Though acampaign inBritishpress in1915,whichquestionedthelegitimacy ofthe 3.3. Doubts aboutthelegitimacyof Thus, theRussian claimsto 310 My Political Life Sothepossibility of thegovernmental infl , Peace, , Peace, (London, Portland: Frank Cass, Frank Portland: (London, Middle East, 1916-19 the in British and Curzon p.100. p.100. p.106. (London: Hutchinson, 1953), 1953), Vol. Hutchinson, (London: p.16. 2, The

therefore evenaifCaliphm Constantinoplestim Morning Post placeinresult offo e presentCaliphremained undamaged inspiteof ill accepthis replacement, uggested that it was preparing the ground for uggested thatitwaspreparingthegroundfor 307 e warwasgenerallyaccepted.Eventhe circles 61 SecretaryofState forIndia, LordCrew, ition ofMehmed V astheCaliphin1914was Ottoman empire,andKitchener’s scheme of of refuting Ottoman calltojihad(discussed in ouraging theviewthatasMohammedwasan , urging them towriteasstronglythey the OttomancaliphateinBritish onourinformation toGeoffrey Dawsonat t wasmentioned onlyin 309 uence onthepressinthisregardismore ulated theinterdep Writing aboutadifferent issue Amery reign inte i ght bereplaced,thereisno it isdoubtfulthatthey rference. artmental discussion The Times articles 5 articles). And if 308

CEU eTD Collection century, sopublicationof his for allMuslims, ShiaandSunnialike. Turkish caliphateemperors ofConstantinople. George Birdwoodgoesevenfurther. Wahhabis, hereminded, hadneverrecognizedthe only asanegativecharacter, for Armenian Due tothemassacres of Armenians which opposing himto Abdul Hamid,asthetrueCaliph,in1915thisargument wasnolongerused. 315 314 313 312 311 sharif’s revolt reads: opinion fortheideaof Arab caliphate. The was foreseenevenbytheMuslims ofIndia. Caliphate wasdebatedintheHouseofLords, that caliphateshouldbetransferred tothesh on dubioustradition ofSelim I,whogotthe not claim. Appropriation ofthe blood ofKoreish,thetribeProphet. And this but they pointedoutthataccording totheprescr exclusively bytheworldofIslam, andthatBritai published in dynasty totheCaliphatewerequestioned. The le “Parliament.House ofLords. Tufan Buzp “The Khaliphate”, the Khalifate”, “TheFuture of in Murder “Wholesale Armenia”, the Armenians”, “T December21, 1915,p.10; Exterminating a Race”, Khalifate”, p.9. However incourseof1915,therightsnot If you keep this inmind andremember what The Indian press,whichIdidn’t accesspe Besides these letters, in April 1915 The Times ı nar, Caliphate”, p.27. of “The Question The Times The TimesThe The Times , April 24, 1915, p.9 The Times , ofcoursestatedthattheissu , December14, 1916,p.9. , , p.9. 1915, 29, April he Armenian Massacres”, he Armenian Minor Theatres of War ”, The Times articles isverydemonstrative.

The Times title of Caliphby theOttoman , October 8, 1915, p.5; “More “More p.5; 1915, 8, Armenian , October Atrocities”, , Khaliphate”, “The p.9; 24, 1915, April 313 , September 30, 1915, p.5; “The Armenian Massacres. Itmay addedthatGeorge be Birdwoodadvocated massacres occurred duringhis reignalso. 315 The Times also reported that thefutureof occurred in1915, Abdul Hamid wasmentioned 62

as probable dissolution of the Ottoman empire as probabledissolutionoftheOttoman empire arif ofMeccaasearl He claimed theircaliphatetobeablasphemy title aftertheconquestofEgyptin1515. iptions ofIslam, aCaliphshouldbe from the declaration ofulema of The TimesThe tters ofGeorge BirdwoodandLordCromer, n shouldnotinterferein The TimesThe the of , Future “The p.12; 1915, 21, April the Indian paperMashrek wroteonSeptember issomething thattheSultanof Turkey can rsonally, wasalsopreparing thepublic anindividualruler, butoftheOttoman , October 8, 1915, p.7; “The Martyrdom of e ofcaliphateshouldbedecided 314

emperors, theycontinue,based y asatthe end of19 The TimesThe Meccainsupportof the affairs ofIslam, The TimesThe , 1915, 29, April 311 ,

312 th

CEU eTD Collection 318 317 316 societies were arrested, bythe time Feisalst his leadershipfrom the Arab secretorganizations. way thereto inquireinDamascus aboutpossi sent hissonFeisaltoConstant become aheadoflarge Muslim state,whicha proposal ofestablishingthe Arab and decidefor entering thewar againsttheOttoman empire. Moreover, ashehadaBritish planning toreplacehim as and the Young Turks. However, inJanuary1915 he foundwritteneviden he didnotintendtodoiteither. Hemaintain attitude toHusseinoccurred. the Ottoman empire inthewar. So,thissub-ch in thesecondhalfof1915Husseincame tobere when therivalrywithRussiawouldrenewmight keep him from usinghisspiritualauthorityagai 1915 –June1916). 3.4. Themovefromthe Arab Calip caliphs fromtheIndian press. Ibid, Ibid, p.174. Fromkin “Proclamation ofthe Ulema Regarding Great War, Vol. IV; from available accessed on 25.03.2007. accessed on25.03.2007. According totheoriginal c In fact,theyborrowtheirarguments that 12th and19th onthesubject ofthedisqualifica If theBritishdidnotexpect religion. Islamic ruleonafirm foundationof true civilizationaccordingtothe nobledictatesof our Islam, will understandthatwehaverisen you , Peace, 316

p.174. p.174. Emir Hejaz after war.

inople, tolearnabouttheplan http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/arabindependence_ulema.htm onsiderations, communicationwi Caliphate, whichheshouldha sharif Husseintoenterthewa Independence from Turkey,Independence 1917”, March ed communicationbothwith 63 opped thereonthewayfrom those Damascus, bility ofobtainingsupportforarebellionunder hate tothe Arab revolt(October Caliphate isinIslam. apter willbedevotedto nst Britain duringthe war, andinthefuture garded asaforcethatcanbeappliedagainst the Ottoman sultans aredisqualified to be be usedforthebenefitofBritain.However, in ordertoavertthesedangersandputthe 317 tion of the Beni Osman to be the Caliphs of Osman tobetheCaliphs tion oftheBeni 318 This made him reconsiderhis position, As most ofthemembers ofsecrets s fortheHejazthereandon r, itshould bementioned that th Husseinwasintended to ve regardedasanoffer to Thus, in1915thesharif SourceRecords the of howthatchangein theBritish inCairo ce that Turks were , CEU eTD Collection was Muslimstate,Caliphate,notanationalone. traditional leader washardly possible, theyhadverydifferent ideasof theState, for Husseinit cooperation betweenthe Arab nationalists ofDa As Bassam Tibbi, whostudiesthe Arab nationalism, observes,beforethattime the ,whichdefinedtheterritories theywantedtobe Arab andindependent. who remained freeagreedtosupportHussein 325 324 323 322 321 320 319 troops suffered heavylosses andthe Commander in the enemy lines. of theirdemands, theymight supportGermany. support Hussein’s uprising.However, hewarned Cairo aboutasecretorganization of Arab offi 1915. Beingadeserterfrom theOttoman army, premature during thewar. ally McMahonproposedtoanswerHusseinth can claim, Secretary of State forIndia Austen Chamberlai them assurpriseandwere ev Residence inCairoencouragedhimtoannounce Protocol, were received inCairo. From kingdom underhisauthority, whichincludedth enough andneededcooperation. Fromkin Fromkin Wilson, Fisher, Wilson, Bassam Tibi, Ibid, On October12,1915Kitchenerwasreportedab British attitudetothesharif’s demands ch So, in August 1915demands from p.175. p.175. Curzon and British imperialism British and Curzon Lawrence, Lawrence, , Peace, , Peace, 322 thisviewwasalsosharedinCairo,butasHusseinconsideredavaluable Arab nationalism: a critical enquiry enquiry critical a nationalism: Arab 325 p.176; p.176; Wilson, p.176; Wilson, p.195. p.195. p.195-196. At that time British forces atthe Dardanelleswerein a deadlock. British 323

Lawrence, Lawrence, aluated asveryexaggerated. , p.54; Wilson, pp.198-200. pp.198-200. pp.198-200. thesharifofMeccaastoborders of Arabian kin and kin and Wilson write,that thoughtheBritish (New (New York: p.115.St.Martin's 1991), Press, 64 , andpassedFeisaladocument knownasthe 324 cers inthe cers Turkish army, whowerereadyto 320 Lawrence, mascus andthesharifofMecca,who wasthe n agreedthatsharifdemanded more thanhe , ifBritainwouldwa a Caliphate,histerritorialdemands came for

at thediscussionofboundarydetailsis al-Faroqi informed theBritishofficials in Butboththesidesin e territoriesmentioned intheDamascus anged after al-Faroqi episode inOctober Chiefof Britishtroops inGallipoli,Ian out powerfulsecret p.195-196; Fromkin, Peace, 321 LordCurzon,andthenew it longwithrecognition 1915werenotstrong organization behind p.174. p.174. 319

CEU eTD Collection that although jihaduntil thenwasafailure, itmight come alive. Around thesame time alsoinOctober1915G proposal totheShereefat that time is ofthegr on theIslamic question.InOctober1915Maxwellwr Hamilton, askedformilitary assistance. 333 332 331 330 329 328 327 326 the Ottoman empire wouldhaveatremendous pr enemy propagandaandaffect Muslim opinion.Insu Townshend atKutdamaged prestigeoftheBri evacuation oftheBritis danger ofarevitalizedjihad,whichcanbe empire wouldriseagainstthesultan. that Britainpromised tosupportthe Arab i started. As Fromkin observes,in Hussein the Britishsupport intheuprising, the victoryoverOttoman empire. representative ofKitche and drawthe Arabs outof thewar”. of SirIanHamilton atGallipoli.Iwasbegged accept sharif’s territorialdemand waspurelymilitary business: “It began atthe urgent request Gallipoli. officers oftheOttoman army seenasan was Fromkin Wilson, Wilson, Fromkin Fromkin Quoted from: Fromkin, Peace, Fromkin Wilson, But exceptpurely military considerations th Both linesofreasoningforthe Arab re 327 , Peace, p.109. Lawrence, Lawrence, Lawrence of Arabia, p.198. , Peace, , Peace, , Peace, A yearlaterMcMahonrecalledthatthed p.185. p.185. p.180. p.166. p.209. p.209. p.211. eatest importance andthat,unlesswe h troopsattheDardanellesandsu ner atthede-BunsenCommittee,that the Arab armies wereakeyto once,wemay havea p.178. p.178.

the Foreign Office agreementwithHusseinwas treated as 328 330

In November ClaytonwaspersuadingMarkSykes,a InNovember 329 326 Thus onbehalfofBr avoidedbythecooperationwith Arabs. The revoltinMecca supported bythe Arab ndependence ifonlythe Arab partofOttoman 65 andthenegotiations by theForeignOffice totakeimmediateaction ilbert Clayton wroteamemorandum arguing, volt werereemphasized, when in1916the tish intheEast. These couldbeusedbythe opportunitytosavetheBritishtroopsin united Islamagainstus”. ere were argument for the Arab revoltbased opaganda valueforthe Allies, nottospeak ch asituationrebellioninanypartof ecision tobackthe Arab movement and ote toLordKitchener:“Ifeelcertain rrender ofthegarrison General make adefinite and agreeable 333

itain McMahonpromised concerning theborders 331 Hestressed the 332

CEU eTD Collection the caliph,Ottoman Sultan,however, theywere in theworld, andtensofmillions ofIndian opposed theideaof Arab revoltarguing, that 339 338 337 336 335 334 promises madeto Husseinto befantastic and fa their sphere of interest. India wasthatpromises toHusseinwerebeing highly unpopular among Indianpilgrims toMecca. charge oftheHolyplacesandpilgrimage, LordHardinge emphasized thatHusseinwas Besides, counteractingthemain argument ofproponentstherevolt– problems inIndia. most probablytakethe side ofthecaliph,a as most oftheforces world politicsmay disturbopinioninIndiaata was nowexercisedbytheBritishresidenceinCairo. dangerous toMuslim sentiments inIndia,espe Government ofIndia. Thus, they subjects, amongwhomthereweremanyMuslimswa post-war perspective,itwasnotsowiththeplan few advantagesofalliancewithBritain,itwas about therevoltinHolyplaces Fromkin Friedman, Wallach, Fromkin Fromkin Wilson, The IndiaOffice andtheGovernment ofIndi The secondissue,whichcausedconcernsof But iftheIndiaOffice seemed tobeacceptin Lawrence , Peace, , Peace, , Peace, Desert, p.153-154. Question, pp.107-108; Klieman, Klieman, pp.107-108; p.110. p.110. , p.204. , p.204. 337 pp.72-73. All these arguments are already familiar to usfrom theprevious chapter. were senttoEurope. 339 This may be thereason,whyth

regardedpoliciesof ofIslam. Butifthe Arabs decidenot inthefavor ofthe Foundations, 336 Muslims areSunnites,whosereligious leader was nd heasaviceroywasnotwillingtoprovoke 66 The Viceroy ofIndia, feared they could rise inanaffective jihad. p.5; Wilson, made regardingtheterrit time whenanydisturbancecouldprovefatal, cially taking intoaccount theinfluencethat tal, andargued thatthere areparts of Turkey Great Britainwasthelargest Islamic empire s ofthe Arab revolt. The loyaltyofIndian 338 a fearedthat thei not Arabs andinth theIndiaOffice andtheGovernment of g thescheme ofthe Arab Caliphateas a 335

bothConstantinopleandCairoequally s apriorityfortheIndiaOffice andthe

Lawrence e Viceroy ofIndiaregardedthe , p.249. , p.249. nvolvement ofMeccain Lord Charles Hardinge e caseofrevoltwould ories thatguardedas that Husseinwasin 334

CEU eTD Collection 341 340 revolt onMuslim opinion. strongly opposedbytheIndiaOffice, whichwas Residency inCairobegan toargue infavorof approved even bythe IndiaOffice. However, whenduetomilitary reasonstheBritish different departments. Itwaspromotedasa 1915, intheirturn,broughtthescheme ofthe Arab Caliphate under theconsiderationof hasnotyetenteredthewar.Ottoman empire as anobviouscandidateforthepositionofa the idea, which beforethatwasconsidered only inCairo. The sharifofMeccawassuggested revolt andanyterritorialpromises made tothe sharif ofMecca. seemed toacceptthe scheme ofthe Arab Calip Cairo, promotedtheideasofboth Arab Cali Muslim subjects,which wasconsidered tobe Office ontheother, justifiedth newly formedthe Arab Bureauontheonehand there wasno intention tofulfill them. of theIndiaOffice, questionedsuchapproach, never existunlesstheywerestup Arabia. Claytonwrote Wingate, thatthefearsof independence, onthebasisthatGovernment unfit forrepresentativeinstitutions. Fromkin Fromkin Thus, thoughotherreasonswerealsoinvolve Therefore, Lord Kitchener brought thescheme , Peace, , Peace, p.186. p.186. p.169.

eir oppositepositionsbyrefere id enoughtocreateit.LordHardi 341 340

Arthur Hirtzelopposedperspectivesof Arab Caliph asearlyinSeptember1914,whenthe 67 Russian demands forConstantinople inMarch part of post-war settlement; therefore itwas as hedidnotapprove a rather strong argument. While the staff in Indiaweregroundless; hate, stronglyopposedtheplansof Arab therevolt of thesharifofMecca,thiswas phate andrevolt,theIndiaOffice whichfirst , and the Government of India and the India , andtheGovernment ofIndiaandthe of Indiawasinterested d, boththeBritishResidencyinCairoand much concernedabouttheeffect ofsuch of the Arab Caliphate toBritish politics; nce totheimpact onBritish nge inalettertotheHead of making promises, if inweakandununited as suchastatewould CEU eTD Collection definitely raisesdoubtsabout threat toIslam. Lawrence memoirs, itisstatedthatforHusseinthe Young Turks wereunbelievers anda success. Lawrence statesthat hewants Wisdom”, bookdevoted a mostly totheprogress ofmilitary operations in Arabia, T. E. Lawrence whichshowedtherevoltassuch.In th Holy Places orofIslam, asitisoftendescribed to argue, thattheinterpretation mainly tothe waythe revolt was presented inthe usually regardedasnationalistic, 348 347 346 345 344 343 342 Jeremy Wilson do mention, thatrevoltappealed difficulty of consolidatingthe Arabs, for theylackedthatnational sentiment. already whenthe Arab bureauwascreated). that hiscolleges didnotsharehisbelief inthe Arab movement interpretation is problematic. After discussing nation several remarksonthe“Arabspir framework, bydefining whothe Arabs were, 4.1.Thereligiousappealofthe Arab revolt. Chapter 4:TheIslamicquestioninBritishpoliticsand Lawrence, Lawrence, Lawrence, Lawrence, Lawrence, Lawrence, Lawrence, press during the press during after.Arab revoltand One ofthereasonsforregarding the revolt The religioussideoftherevoltisrarelyc 345 342 , butevenin“” itcan betraced thatnationalistic Inthefirst chapters Lawrence clearly situates the revoltwithinanationalistic Seven Seven Seven Seven, Seven Seven Seven 348 , p.52. , p.100. , p.59-60. , p..33,p.45. , p.33-38. , p.23. p.25. Lawrence’s biographers, bothcontemporary asLiddellHartandmodern as

to rationalize thecampaign andtoshowhowinevitable wasits of thepressisnotgroundless. interpreting therevol therefore, thoughthispartof it”. Lawrencestatesitwashi 68 howpromising wasthe 343 onsidered inhistoriogr Later onhealsomakes apointaboutthe in thepress) isthefamous memoirs of T. E. thelanguagestheyspeak, British press, Ifind it as Arab (nottherevoltofMecca, e firstfewchaptersof“SevenPillars to religious feelings of the Muslims. toreligiousfeelingsoftheMuslims. t asnationalistic. thechapterwillbedevoted 346 s intentiontocreateanew (thoughhearrivedthere aphy, andtherevoltis Arab cause, hestates necessary firstofall Moreover, even in 344 andmaking 347 This CEU eTD Collection regarding penaltiesand in thecaseofillness orjo Russian frontier, therebyfalsifyingtheclearKo Medina, MeccaorDamascustobreakthefast inthesame wayastroopsfighting onthe the fivevitalpreceptsofIslam, theFast of Ramadan”, ordering thetroopsstationedat the centralnewspapersasaproof the KoranandSunna”,heregardedanarticle “maligning thelifeofProphet”inone bond betweentheOttoman Sultanate the Empire ofIslam”. The sharif “plunged the stateinto thehorrorsof war”,and“causedMoslem heartstoachewithgrieffor Ottoman empireuntil the Society of Uniona Hussein appealed tothereligious the ulema ofHejazinsupport is that the proclamation of Husseinissuedat 349 the motto ofliberation of Islamic worldandagainst the Turkish heretics. not onlyontheauthorslike Tibbi nationalistic accountofthe be takenin theaccount. Therefore, itis nationalistic framework is from Syriabackedthe revoltbecause ofnatio should notinterfereinreligiousissuesofIs Lawrence’s emphasis onthenation time becauseofitsinterference with the issues Furthermore, theBritishcorrespondencewithHusse Liddell Hart, Liddell In theproclamation ofHusseinitisd Luckily, inarguing that therewasalso areligious appealof revolt,itispossibletorely Lawrence , p. 59-60; , p. 59-60; Tibi, inheritance. They “destroyedSultan’s power, robbing him evenofthe surelynotenough,andth revolt isproblematic. urney; innovations touching the

feelingofhisco-believers. statedthat theCUP “proceed ofthat.Heaccusedthe Young Turks fordestroying“oneof orLiddellHart,whichobserve him, issuedayearlater, are Arab, andthewholeMoslem commun al was partlydue to thee p.114. thebeginningofRevolt lam. Therefore, thoughperhapsthenationalists 69 important tokeepinmind thatLawrence’s nd Progresstook overtheadministration, and eclared thatemirs ofMeccasupportedthe nalistic reasoning, cons ranic injunction,whichallowstodosoonly ofIslam. It can alsobesuggestedthat e religioussideofth in isknowntobeke available andalsosuggestthat ed nexttosevertheessential fundamental laws ofIslam xpressed viewsthatBritain thattherevoltstartedunder and theproclamation of ity, towit,adherence idering itwithinthe e revoltshouldalso 349 pt secretforalong Moreimportant, CEU eTD Collection issued ayearlaterwhenperhapstheconditionsweredifferent, itwillbeconsideredlater. Though thereligiousmessage oftheproclamation of 352 351 350 in regardtotherevoltwas around thesame time. correspondent inCairo reportedabouttheMuslims reaction tothesharif’s proclamation more probablethattheproclamation re from itsappearance. itself wasreportedbyReuter andthuspublishedinthe Britishpress almostamonth later Hussein, inwhichheexplainedthereasonsofhisrevolt.It is interesting thattheproclamation received anofficial response. especially appropriate,asthe will proceed tohowtherevoltwastreated in the Britishpress. The focus onthepress seems of IslamintheBritishpress(1916). 4.2. Thecoverageofthe Arab revolt in fulfillment of their duty tous, andsostrengthen thebands of theIslamic brotherhood”. religious duty, trustingthat allourbrother Moslems intheEastand West willpursue thesame Muslims tosupporttheircase:“Thisisthe polic by reasonsconnectedwithrelig real attitudetoreligionandthe Arab people. T at theKaabawhencountrydemanded its Caliphate ofwhichMoslems demand theobserva right tochoosethechiefofhisImperial Cabinet[...],andbreaking “Imperial News Items”, Foreign And “ Of MeccaOn His Revolt. Enver's Betrayal of Islam”, TheTimes “King Hussein's Proclamation, 27 June 1916”, in http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/arab Denounced. Grand Sherifon 's crimes”, The revoltwasfirstreportedbyReuteron Having shown thatthere actually was a religio 351 352 Though itmight besuggestedthatthe The publicannouncement ofthepos articulated inannouncement “p

revolt wasfirstreportedinth ion, andendshisproclamation The Times independence_hussein.htm , September 4, 1916, p.7. 1916, 4, September , ached Cairowiththatdelay, for Source Recordsthe of Great War 70 The ManchesterGuardian independence wascalledtodemonstrate their hus, thesharif almost fully justifies hisrevolt ortherevoltofHolyPlaces y wehaveundertaken inordertofulfillour nce.” The factthatthe Ottoman fired army ulema isevenmore interesting,asitwas June 22,priortotheproclamation of us appealinthegrand sharif’s revolt, I , accessed romulgated among theMoslem ition oftheBritishgovernment delay couldbeintentional,itis , “Turkey p.5, 1916, 25, August e press,andonlyafterwards with theappeal toallthe , p.7. 26, 1916, August

March the constitutionof , Vol. IV, from: available

25, 2007. 2007. 25, The TimesThe 350

CEU eTD Collection maladministration andinactionth Arabia, hasproclaimed Arab independenceof Highness the GrandSherifofMeccasupportedbythe Arab tribesofthe West andCentral correspondent: “A original accountofReuter from correspondentinCairo,butgive theReuter reported inBritish press. Boththearticles begin further articles.OnJune22,1916itwasthefirsttime revoltinMeccawas thenewsof Guardian, asthisdifference between difference bycomparing twoarticles from June22,1916in but neverthelesstheirdiscourseessentiallydiffered. Iwouldliketodemonstrate that 355 354 353 difficulties whichhaveattended theannual pilg firmly establishedovertheHolyplacesofIslam“itistherefore confidently expected thatthe “closely besieged”. The Reuterannouncement ends began onJune 9,andMecca, and Taif werealreadycaptured, whileMedina was expressed the sharifac that theHolyplacesshouldre interference inreligious matters” isstressed, aspirations isacknowledged,but“thefixedpo himself ontheside of the Allies against German the sharif influence, ofMeccadecide revolts against Turkish domination werefrequent colonies wasverycareful inavoidingtherelig communities inBritishColonies”,as Reutercalled it. “MeccaCaptured. Arabs rise against Turkey”, “GreatBritain And The HollyPlaces”, “GreatBritain And The HollyPlaces”, Revolt”, Revolt”, Both localandcentralnewspapers considered The Times , June 22, 1916, p.9 p.9 1916, 22, , June tions wouldmake thepilgrimages moresecure.

main underindependentMuslim e countryhassolongsuffered.” The Times The Times The Times andlocal newspapers isalsoevident in The Manchester Guardian the common enemy. Britishsympathy with Arab , July 28, 1916, p.7. p.7. 28, 1916, , July p.7. 28, 1916, , July 71 as wellas “unalterable d thatthe time forrevolthadcome, andplaced rimage totheholyplacesduringpast yeas Turkey andofOttoman ruleunderwhose with identical accounts oftherevoltreceived uthentic newshasbeenreceivedthathis in Arabia, andthusas Turkey gotunderthe different comments onit. According tothe ious meaning oftherevolt.Itstated,that licy ofGreatBritaintoabstainfrom all up withastatement thatassharif’s ruleis thereligioussignificanceofrevolt, 353 The announcement fortheBritish The Times andTheManchester , June 22, 1916, p.5; “Great , June22,1916, p.5; Arab 355 rule. At theendahopeis Itisstated thattherevolt 354 point” ofBritishpolicy

CEU eTD Collection Guardian article moves totherelation withthequestion of caliphate: The Times readers, sothatthere arenocommentson this issue. Than (Mecca, Medina,and Taif) andpo pilgrimages. Muslim opinionduringthewar, inReuteracco 358 357 356 control MeccaandMedina, andthepilgrimage that “Mohammedans[not Arabs!] began tofeelthat Turkey hadfinallyforfeited the rightto flow ofdeclarationsloyaltyin1914-15wasexpressedby explained bytheresentment ofGerman contro necessary to statewhythe Britishwouldnotinterfere. In of eventsinMeccaonMuslim opini questions of religion. under independentMuslim rule,andthatthe the declarationofNovember, 1914aboutimmunity correspondent. A readerisreminded notofthem subjects. Turkey, and theauthor doesnotbother that this might effect theloyalty of British Muslim So, itdefinitelystatesthatrevoltmight result will nowberemoved”. “Great Arab Revolt”, “MeccaCaptured. Arabs rise against Turkey”, “MeccaCaptured. Arabs rise against Turkey”, Revolt”, Revolt”, The comments of permanent lose would strip the wouldstrip permanent lose Turkishmu rulerof passed intothehandsThey ofthe Turks in1516, The articlein manner.lost inthesame mostacknowledged by Mahometans. The caliphate read] oftheworldand destroy might evenultimately his authority asthe religiouschief The Times , June 22, 1916, p.9 p.9 1916, 22, , June The Times 358 The Times providesanothercontextfor 356 These issuesalreadysuggestthat The ManchensterGuardian Thus, from varietyoftopics the 357 , June 22, 1916, p.9. 1916, 22, , June

rt ofJeddahwere important fo on, andthatthere might be diss The Manchester Guardian The Manchester Guardian 72 l overConstantinople,wh unt therewasmentioned onlythequestion of in thelost of thecaliphate bythesultans of eaning ofthecapturedci of piousMusulmans tothesesacredspots. Government promised nottointerferein when the Sultan first became Caliph, andtheir Caliph, whentheSultanfirstbecame containedexplanationswhythese3cities ch of his prestige in [few words difficultwords to in[few ofhisprestige ch of theHolyplaces,as was acquired by conquest,was acquiredby andmight be which involvedinthediscussionof the authorconsideredinfluence The Times theoriginsof revolt are the Muslims oftheempire, and , June 22, 1916, p.5. “Great , June22,1916,p.5; Arab r Islam, aquestionobviousto the same accountofReuter atisfaction with ties forIslam,butof ich according tothe The Manchenster long as they are longastheyare it, soitis CEU eTD Collection 363 362 361 360 359 respected by Muslims “partlybecauseofhis li the daywhenrevoltwasfirstreported thesharif ischaracterized asvery piousand deeply eventually thrustthe Turks from Mecca”. Moslems of Arabia, of whom theGrandSher Committee ofUnionandProgresscame intothe sharif ofMecca.“Assoonasth Mecca andother Arab leadersdecide claimed thatafullobedienceof Turkey tothe Germans wasthereason whythesharifof exactly whathadhappenedinMecca:theforecast ofthe Aga-Khan turnedintoreality. Itwas of trustee Islam, andevilwillovertakeher”. warned thatbybecoming atool intheGerman hands,theOttoman empire“lost her position message ofthe Aga-Khan totheMuslims inIndiaandotherBritishDominions, wherehe Islam. inregardtorevoltoftheGrandsharif Thus newspapers. Guardian characteristic tothesetwoarticles,can betracedalsointheother articlesof these clearly statedmeaning oftherevoltin Medina and Taif remained faithful.” Mahomet’s death,thedeserttribesrefusedobedienceto Abu Bekr, theSecondCaliph, Mecca, which isalsostressed intheparallelarticle intheManchesterGuardian:“When, after itself.” Nowhere wasresentment more bitterthanin Arabia, and, accordingtoreport, in Mecca “The Revolt ofIslam”, “The Revolt “GreatBritain And The HollyPlaces”, “TheRevolt of Islam”, “MeccaCaptured. Arabs rise against Turkey”, “Great Arab Revolt”, Times June 22, 1916, p.9;“Great ArabRevolt”, The Times 1916, p.7. The sensitiveness tothe Muslim opiniondisplayed by The lostofauthoritytheOttoman rulers First of all 359 , August 28, 1916, p.7. The lastsentence ofthisquotation points tospecialpietycharacteristicMecca, The TimesThe The Times The Times The Times stressedthat the revolt wascause , June 22, 1916, p.9. 1916, 22, , June

, June 22, 1916, p.9; “The Trusteeship Of Islam”, , June, 22, 1916, p.9. e gangofgipsies,aliens, a The Times 360 d tooverthrowthe Turkish yoke.

regard totheissuesofcaliphatein The Manchester Guardian 363 , July 28, 1916, p.7, “The Revolt of Islam”, Inthesame article,wh 73 , June 22, 1916, p.9; “The Fighting in Macedonia”, 361 was opposedtothereligiousauthorityof This wasinterpreted, inthewaythat thisis neage, and because heis ofthetribe if istheprincipalrepresentative,would daylight, itwascert The Times quotedseveraltimesthe d bytheOttoman defectionfrom nd atheistswhodominate the , June 22, 1916, p.5. The Times articleandmore ich wasalsopublishedat 362 ain thattheorthodox

The Times The Manchester , June22, The Times The The , CEU eTD Collection administration orindependen wisely made byhisMajesty’s Government thattheyhadnointention of interfering withthe Parliament thatperhaps thesharifwasenc independent Muslim ruleroftheHolyplaces. Britain wouldnotinterferein reference tothedeclarationon sultan doesnotposses. emphasized featuresof Hussein areexactlyth 372 371 370 369 368 367 366 365 364 Turks accepted therevolt inthemostserious sharif Husseinwasexpectedtobe a responseinthewholeMuslim world. deep waters”, the Holyplacesit“willprofoundl at this stage”, that “thereshouldbenoattemp Medina fromtheaggression. refrain frominterferinginthe sided withtheBritishenemies, refrainedfrom e government alwaystreatedwithsympathy Arab with anecclesiastical tinge”. Koreish, towhichtheProphetbelonged”. “The Revolt ofIslam”, “The Revolt Macedonia”, “TheFightingin ofIslam”, “The Revolt ofIslam”, “The Revolt “GreatBritain And The HollyPlaces”, “Parlament. Lord Selborne And The Cabinet”, ofIslam”, “The Revolt ofIslam”, “The Revolt ofIslam”, “The Revolt “Parlament. Lord Selborne And The Cabinet”, Further inaverycarefulmanner sympathywith And thoughinoneofthefirstarticleson revolt ofthesharifMecca itisstated 370 369 orthatasitbeganinresponsetothe thearticlesin The Times The Times The Times The Times The Times The Times The TimesThe 368

ce ofthepeopleHejaz”. 365 affairs ofIslam andtoprotecttheHolyplaces ofMeccaand

, June 22, 1916. - P.9; “Great Arab Revolt”, June, 22, 1916, p.9. June, 22, 1916, p.9. June, “Great 22,1916,p.9; Revolt”,Arab June, 22, 1916, p.9. June, 22, 1916, p.9. The Times arefullofexpectationsthatastherevolt concerns t toreadinthe[Reuter]ann theuprising,butwaswillingto Thus though the questionof y stirthewholeMahomedan worldandmay leadintovery supported bytheuprisinginKerbella. immunity of theHolyplaces of Islam, itismaintained that The Times , p.7. 1916, 28, August 371 The TimesThe 364 The Times Thus, themost interesti , July 28, 1916, p.7 p.7 28, 1916, , July Itisstatedthat“hispositiontemporal, though ouraged inhisrevoltbythedeclaration“very 74 xpressing it. And thatBr 366 e same, asthefeatures whichtheOttoman manner sinceitmeans thefailure oftheir inspirations, butuntiltheOttoman empire ,June 28, 1916,P.12. , June28,1916,P.12. Lord Cromer evenexpressedaviewin violation ofnorms ofIslam itmust find thesharif’s sideisexpressed. With the ouncement morethanitwarrants 367 Itisstated that theBritish The Times caliphate isomitted, the accept the sharif as an acceptthesharifasan The Times ng isthattherevoltof 372 itain willcontinue to Itisnotedthat the , June 22, 1916, p.9. , June 22, 1916, p.9; CEU eTD Collection the wholeMoslem world” that inConstantinoplethenewsof 381 380 379 378 377 376 375 374 373 mosque, “whichistherealbarometer ofMosl cruelties and disregard ofprecepts ofIslam”. previously sympathized with Turkey arereported community inEgyptwasdeeplymove injoyed more attentioninEgypt,thananyot the revoltwasimportant. The correspondentfr authority oftheCaliph”,whichshowswhyne statement that“Indian Moslems respectthe tem sharif wouldensurethe safety of thepilgrimages. their pilgrimage”,andthatinCalcuttathelo with intenseinterest”,thattheyhad“toolonggroanedundertheexactionsandspolianceof “Indian Moslems arewatching theaction ofth was welcomedinEgypt Caliph andobtaintherecognitionofMoslem wo the Arab revolt”, they“sympathize withGra sharif ofMeccainConstantinople, asulema an Times pretend “Imperial Foreign News And Items”, “Imperial Foreign News And Items”, “India And The Mecca Revolt”, “Great Arab Revolt”, “Moslem World And Mecca Revolt”, “Parlament. Lord Selborne And The Cabinet”, “Tyranny Of The Young Turk. Secret movement for its overthrow. Sympathy with Arab revolt”, “Mecca And The Holy Places ”, “Moslem World And Mecca Revolt”, 1916, p.8. The Times August 7, p.6. 1916, August The Times correspondentfrom Contstantza(theBalkans)

And as“anythingwhichaffected theHolyPlacestouchedverynearlyinterests of ed jihadandthedeclineofth ed , September 4, p.7. , September 1916, , 1916, p.5. 10, August The Times 377 376 andIndia.

The Times

, June 22, 1916, p.9;“India And The Mecca Revolt”, The Times The TimesThe The Times The Times The Times The Times the revoltwerekeptsecretforlong. e spiritual prestigeoftheSultan, , June 26, 1916, p.8. 378 d bytheproclamation ofthesharif, , June 29, 1916, p.7;“German NewsOf The Arab'Treason' ”,

correspondents reported that the news of the revolt correspondents reportedthatthenewsof The Times correspondentinBombay observesthat , September 4, 1916, p.7. 1916, 4, , September p.7. 1916, 4, , September The Times , June 27, 1916, p.7; “Imperial “Imperial p.7; , 27, June 1916, Items”, News Foreign And p.7. 1916, 27, , June nd Sherif,who,theyhope,willproclaimhimself cal Muslims arealsodelightedandhopethatthe 75 em feeling,ismost sy e GrandSherifofMeccaandthe Arab tribes her eventinthewar, d sheikh-ul-Islam thereare“much excited at poral powerofIslam morethanthespiritual 381 tobe“aghastattherevelationsof Turkish om Cairoreportsthatnewsfrom Mecca ws about the attitude of Indian Muslims to ws abouttheattitudeofIndianMuslims to , June28,1916,P.12. The ulemaandstudentsof Al-Azhar rld. 379 predictstherevolt The articleendwithanunexpected 375

mpathetic totheMecca and thattheMuslim 373 The TimesThe thusitis reported 380 374 in supportofthe eventhosewho Moreover, , June 26, The Times The , CEU eTD Collection 384 383 382 acknowledged asatrue CaliphofGodand circulated toprovehis claim tothe Calip places bytheSultanofCons that “inspiteoftheconsiderable and incessant Arab, from thepowerful Arab trib do notobservethenormsofIslam, butthepride Taif, andJeddah,bythespiritualguardianof did nothavecorrespondentsofth Times practically notpaidattention,asit of theseissuestheideacaliphateismore prestige ofthesharifMecca,andalsoabout and thesenewspapers:theyspeakabouttheim first articles whentherevolt was reporte 2 articlesdevotedtothetopicin sympathy withhim. but thatithopesthesharifwillhelpto about immunity oftheholyplaceswasissued, Aga-Khan inthebeginningofwar, andth to precipitatethenegative reac The featuresoftheshar Turks oftheprecepts ofIslam andthroughthelo movement”. “At the Back of the Revolt”, Revolt”, Back of the “Atthe “Miscellany”, “Moslem World And Mecca Revolt”, thistopicwasraisedin Thus, in Thus, Among the“causeswhichledto expulsion The articlesof 382 TheTimes thesharif’s revoltisexplainedthroughtheviolationby Young

The ManchesterGuardian the ManchesterGuardian arefewerinnumber (8-10),andIfoundonly if thatshouldunderlinehi The ManchesterGuardian

articles bycorrespondentsfromem tion itisobservedthatsuch tantinople, and notwithstanding the numerous pamphlets eir owninEgyptorIndia. The Observer e ofKuraish”isstressedmore. The Times is mentioned onlyin2articles, , July 31, 1916, p.3. d, there weresurely similarities between , June, 27, 1916, p.7. pronounced. While theissueofpilgrimages, was renew thepilgrimages, thusexpressingacertain His Propheta Turkish ruler Western Mongolia. 76 at thebeginningofwardeclaration . As itwasobservedwiththeexamples ofthe bribesdistributedtotheguardianof the holy theexpectationsfrom therevolt.Butineach therefore, thegovernment , June, 26, 1916, p.10 hate, thelocalspiritual leaders seldom s religiousprestigearestressed.Butinorder holy placesofIslam” itisstatedthat Turks portance oftheHolyplaces,religious of the Arabs that “the trueProphet wasan st ofindependence totheGerman control. of the Turks from thetownsofMecca, development wasprofessedbythe 384 pire, and these newspapers pire, andthesenewspapers 383 The argument develops, perhapsbecausein willnotinterfere, The TimesThe The

CEU eTD Collection 390 389 388 387 386 385 Sultan thewords: “Yes, [..]wehaveraiseda knife inhandattackingtheSultanandKais revolt. Bystander providesthe same interpretation tothe also spread,forthereiseventhecartoonfromThe advisers”, Berlin has turnedagainst the Kaiserand his revolt wasthat“Theill-fatedholywarproclaimed in According tooneoftheconclusions,meaning ofthe but ingeneral theirconclusi Kerbela, and willalienate many Muslims inIndia, are suggestions thatitwillprovoke the revoltin revolt, than were much moreoptimistic aboutthemeaning ofthe significance. Mecca”. and Prophetinaidofunbelievers Jihad” ismentioned: “ThespectacleofaCaliph unsheathinghisswordinthename of Allah tribe of Koreish. contravention ofthelawIslam, whichlays pretensions totheCaliphate weresnatched by that aCaliph must beofthe Arab tribeofKuraish”. Their booksofjurisprudence,theology The Bystander, Revolt”, Back of the “Atthe Revolt”, Back of the “Atthe “Miscellany”, “Miscellany”, Revolt”, Back of the “Atthe Observer London: Routledge,1995, p.65 p.65 Routledge,1995, London: The ManchersterGuardian andtheObserver 390 387 Onthiscartoonweprobably seethesharifofMecca(oran abstract Arab) with a 389 , June 25, 1916, p. 8. p. 8. 1916, 25, , June So,inregardtothereasonsofth itshouldbesuggested The Times. As well asin The ManchesterGuardian The ManchesterGuardian June 28, 1916, taken from: Roy Douglas, Roy from: taken 28, 1916, June 386 Among thereasons of therevolt “the Sultan’s blunder inproclaiming The ManchesterGuardian The ManchesterGuardian The ManchesterGuardian ons arefarmore decisive.

is contrarytolawandcommon thatthisideawas , July 31, 1916, p.3. , July 31, 1916, p.3. , andhist The Times there 'Holy war' allright,but 77 down thattheCaliphmust bean Arab ofthe force of armsbySultanSelim, arestrictlyin er. The cartoonist putsinto themouth of the ory arealmostunanimous intheirstatement , June, 26, 1916, p.10 , June 26, 1916, p. 10; “The Revolt of Islam”, June, 26, 1916, p.10

The Great War, 1914-191 e revoltthetopicof 388 385

ItissuggestedthatastheOttoman sense from pointofview it emning (?) thewrong itemning(?) 8: the cartoonist's view cartoonist's the 8: Caliphaterequires The , CEU eTD Collection the Ottoman empire, foritcomes notfrom Christian,butfrom Muslim hands. rising inMeccaandtheproclamation ofthesharif 395 394 393 392 391 with thequestions of Muslim loyaltyandthe Caliphate. India andEgypt, may beoffa moral opportunitieswhichifusedwiththe firm Observer articles: “Thequestionraised intheMi spiritual organiza and theholycities, restoring toMoslems their original freedom todetermine theirown destroying Turkey’s claims tothehegemony power, nowthat Turkey isour declaredenemy, inference intheissu with theinstitutionof caliphate: following passageisworthquotingatlongfor “Turkey isdoomed, woundedasshehasbeen in itisalso considered inthearticles of way”. “TheRevolt of Islam”, “Turkey and Arabia”, “Turkey and Arabia”, “Turkey and Arabia”, Revolt”, Back of the “Atthe Thus, the Arab revoltof1916appears intheBr And ifthearticlesof mosthim ofthesecondsacredthreecities. also oftheFaithful, anditdeprives himCommander also theclaim of world,shakesMohammedan heavily acknowledged asSovereignof Hedjazandone of Islam andJerusalem. –Mecca,Medina, action oftheShereefMecca,now The Turkey’s influence intheMoslem isduein world The meaning of therevolt for theOttoman tion andrelations”. es ofreligion,in The Manchester Guardian p.4. 1917, 4, , January The Manchester Guardian p.4. 1917, 4, , January The Manchester Guardian p.4. 1917, 4, , January The Observer The ManchesterGuardian The Times continuedtheofficial li r-reaching influence forgood”.

, June 25, 1916, p. 8. p. 8. 25, 1916, , June 394 The ManchesterGuardian Which correspondswiththeconclusionofone The ManchesterGuardian. 78 of theMoslem worldand,byliberating Arabia ness anddiscretion dictatedbyourposition in in hermost vitalspot”bytherevolt, it clearlyconnectsthe , June, 26, 1916, p.10 empire, theCaliphate, andBritish interests ddle Eastbythe Arab Revolutionpresents hasa greater interest than ourselves in as King of the Hejas is a heavy blow for asKingoftheHejasisaheavyblowfor part tohercontrolofthethree sacredcitiesof itish pressasanissuehighlyconnected theSultanof Turkey to be Khalif,the of the most sacred, and may soondeprive may and sacred, of themost thepotentreligious personalitiesofthe 393

The Times asanewspaper, which 395

itwasclearlystated that“No ne thatthereshouldbeno meaning oftherevolt It ismaintained that 392 391 The that the CEU eTD Collection Admiralty”. “complied from thepaperssuppliedby War Of remind thatEasternreports werea“weekly resume ofpoliticalandmilitary political affairs”, 400 399 398 397 396 Mecca, The imam Yahya denounced and disapprovedtheattitudeadoptedbyHussein,lateEmir of his proclamation demonstrate that German newspaperpublishedinCons even reportedthatthe viewsof proclamation ofimam Yahya wascirculated “shows tracesof Turkish authorship”. sharif’s revoltwastheimam Yahya of Yemen, “religious fanaticism”. to manipulate pan-Islamism, andthedisposition British religious propaganda connectedwithth propaganda in1914aswell the Ottomans might attempt tomanipulate Islam. Th 4.3.1. Religiousanti-Britishpropaganda. 4.3. Islamaspoliticalfactor straight-forward pointingtotheconnectionof revolt, whilethenewspaperslike enjoyed alsoimperial andinternationalreader CAB/24/143/0007, “Eastern Report No.7”, March 15, 1917, p.100-back. p.100-back. 1917, 15, March No.7”, Report “Eastern CAB/24/143/0007, p.100-back. 1917, 15, March No.7”, Report “Eastern CAB/24/143/0007, p.51-back. 1917, 14, February No.3”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/143/0003, p.51-back. 1917, 14, February No.3”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/143/0003, CAB/24/143/0001,“Eastern ReportNo.1”, February1, 1917, p.8-front. Though, therewasadiscussionofthesour According totheEasternrepor One of theBritishconcerns from thebeginni 400 andadoptedtheviewthatrevoltwa 396

the imam received appreciation in 1917. The Easternreportsof The ManchesterGuardian he appealedtothereligious ts themain proponentofth in theEasternreportsof1917. tantinople) onFebruary20,1917. 397 According to the information from Cairo,the inHejaz,butwasnotknown Aden. 79 the revoltwith the ship wasmore carefulin presentingthe Arab though itispointedout e Arab revolt,theOttoman-German attempts of Muslim populationinvariousregionsto fice, ForeignOffice, ColonialOffice, and ces intheintroducti ng of thewarwasthat Germans and is resulted inBritish attentiontoreligious s infactdisobedienceofGod’s will. andTheObserver 1917 displayatten issue ofCaliphate. feelings ofhi the Osmanischer Lloyd e Muslim critiqueofthe that hisproclamation on, Iwouldliketo 399 The quotesfrom s co-believers. weremore tion toanti- 398 It is is It (a 401

CEU eTD Collection and Italians,notagainstourMoslem brothers”, Turkish government withtheGermans isagainst ourenemies, theEnglish, French,Russians Egypt, theSudanandIndia,underinfidelBritish would leadthe Yemen peopletode of ourcountry, the Yemen […] They may have “They havegonesogarastoopengun-firefromtheseaonsome Islamic placesonthecoast 407 406 405 404 403 402 401 presented inCabinetMemorandum. Government was“aprotectiontothepurityofIs unchangeable bookinregardtoJihadagainst which al-Masur claimed thathewould“carryoutfaithfullywhatGodorderedme inHis Eastern reports.Forexample, it wasBritishintention“torob Turkey of Caliphate wasreportedtohavebeenheldin the Khalifatandto English, revolvedagainsttheOttoman government”, money”. The Ottoman newspaperobserves “late the jehadwhich isadutytoallMoslems, and oneforwhichtheyshouldoffer theirlifeand aggressively againsttheport is noonewho hasnotheardof worship theonlyGod”. claimed thattheironlyobjectwas“tocommit After pointingthattheimam of Yemen portrayed CAB/24/143/0009, “Eastern Report No.9”, March 29, 1917, pp.135 front-back. front-back. pp.135 1917, 29, March No.9”, Report “Eastern CAB/24/143/0009, No.12”, p.156-back. Report “Eastern 1917, 19, April CAB/24/143/0012, p.100-back. 1917, 15, March No.7”, Report “Eastern CAB/24/143/0007, p.52-front. 1917, 14, February No.3”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/143/0003, p.52-front. 1917, 14, February No.3”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/143/0003, p.52-front. 1917, 14, February No.3”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/143/0003, p.52-front. 1917, 14, February No.3”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/143/0003, Examples ofappealingtoIslam insupportof Imperial Government”. 402 Inhisproclamation theirmisrul of Jiddah,[...]bomberedth a letterfrom al-Masur toI what the British Government ha what theBritishGovernment sert theirreligionsubmissively 407 Itwasobservedthatsome leadersin Western desert the Caliphateandhanditoverto Arabs”. April 1917inLausanne,whereitwasargued that 405 80 crimes uponandpersecutethose,whosolely A meeting devotedtothequestionof lam” wasconsideredimportantenoughtobe non-believers”, andstatedthatthe Turkish imagined thattheremenaces andthreats Emir ofMecca,whoincollusion withthe GreatBritainastheenemy ofIslam. He flag” Thus hestated“the allianceofthe 404 and“Yahia hasprovedhisattachment to theOttomans arealsoobservedinthe andhecalled theMuslims to“risefor bn SauddatedJanuary11, 1917,in e Moslem placesonthecoasts”. e overMuslims isstressed: “There s done–howtheyhaveacted ”, “Lookatwhathappensin 406

403

CEU eTD Collection 414 413 412 411 410 409 408 of reachingIndiawithitspropaganda”. of theShiaMohammedans”, andthat“this Turc stimulating rebellion and inEntenteMoslem Areas isbeing built up”. German Eastern policy”.Hesuggests“A Middle regularmachine forthepurposeof who wrotetheappreciationofthisreport, Later on,hestatedthatSami show thatthebasicconcernsunderlying German Emperor. Buchananalsoreportedab shaykh-ul-Islam. Itisobserved a Muslim generalcouncil,whichwasheldin government about“anumerous assemblyofmuja times. InFebruarythe British Ambassador inRussia,George Buchanan,reports the on established acenterof pan-Islamic preaching wasinMorocco. formidable power”. but “Lij Yasu might wellhave succeeded inuniting the Mohamedans andmaking them a preach jihad, CAB/24/143/0004, “Eastern Report No.4”, February 21, 1917, pp.71back – 72-front. CAB/24/143/0001,“Eastern ReportNo.1”, February1, 1917, p.8-front. CAB/24/143/0001,“Eastern ReportNo.1”, February1, 1917, p.10-front. CAB/24/143/0001,“Eastern ReportNo.1”, February1, 1917, p.9-back. CAB/24/144/0014, “Eastern Report No.39”, October 25, 1917, p.136-back. No.12”, p.177-back. Report “Eastern 1917, 19, April CAB/24/143/0012, No.12”, p.167-front. Report “Eastern 1917, 19, April CAB/24/143/0012, The dangerofpan-Islamism isbroughtto Later itwasobservedthat“a Turkish mission wa against theItaliansin Tripoli. help ofSpain;(4)to Morocco withthesecret officers toriseagains invitingtheircompatriots of Turkey andenemy statestorevolt';(2) to (1) thatShaykh-ul-Islamshouldbeinvited to 408 andthatthoughin Abyssinia “theMosl 409 Itwasreported thattheGermans we

hadalreadyleftforIndia. that theideaofassembly s 411

414 his reportwerethesame asin1914: Pan-Islamic sedition inIndia,Egypt andamong the 81 Constantinople under the presidency of former Constantinople underthepresidencyofformer send Hajji Sami to India with letters from Hindoo Hindoo send HajjiSamitoIndiawithlettersfrom o-Persian combinationhasdefinitelyintention publish a new fetwa 'invitingpublish anewfetwa Mussulman subjects out itsprincipal decisi Islamic council“marks afreshstepinthe hids andshaykhs”,whichhadacharacterof continue with all possible energy the holy continue withallpossibleenergywar theholy t England;(3)to organise aninsurrectionin the attentionofGovernment several em dangerisoverforthetime being,” s senttoKerbela, thespiritual centre 412 re spendinggreatsums ofmoney According to W.to Ormsby-Gore, According hould haveoriginatedwiththe 410

ons, whichdefinitely 413

CEU eTD Collection Temple (Khuddam-i-Kaaba). pan-Turainians engagedIndianMuslims inthei Wingate quotedaparagraphfrom No.91of Turanian movements wereincompatible, Turanian movement. Though therearepiecesthatobservepan-Islamism andpan- 422 421 420 419 418 417 416 415 people lived“apartfrom generalcurrentofthe in Muslim NigeriawasobservedintheEastern re Muslim areasareevaluated.Forinstance, theco Moghals, andthereforeone propaganda. Heargued thatIndianMuslims regardedasthedescendantsof were organization, andthatpan-Islamism wasonly Simla alsostatedthatKhuddam-i-Kaabawa Moslems toconstituteaMoslem empirest Turanian clubs,formed expressly toinculcate th of thereportsitismaintained that Germ Africa. Ottoman government pan-Islamic andpan-Tura Turanianism athome andpan-Islamism abroad. Eastern reports. Itisobserved thattheCUP used thetwoideologies simultaneously, pan- Islamism anobstaclefor was Turanian movenment, Indian troopsinMesopotamia CAB/24/144/0015,“Eastern ReportNo.40”, November 1, 1917, p.154-front. CAB/24/144/0001, “Eastern Report No.26”, July 26, 1917, p.3-back p.190-back. 1917, 29, November No.44”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/144/0019, No.28”, “Eastern Report 1917, p.19-front. 9, CAB/24/144/0003, August p.197-back. 1917, 29, November No.44”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/144/0019, CAB/24/144/0001, “Eastern Report No.26”, July 26, 1917, p.3-back CAB/24/25/0082, “Memorandum on Panturanian movenment, September 7, 1917, 365-back; CAB/24/144/0018, “Eastern Report No.43”, November 22, 1917, p.168-front. CAB/24/144/0019, “Eastern Report No.44”, November 29, 1917, p.204-front, p.205-front. p.205-front. p.204-front, 1917, 29, November No.44”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/144/0019, The secondincreaseofattention topan-Islamism comes withthediscussionofpan- It ispartly inthiscontext that the eff 419 Moreover, oftennodistin of the Turkish people. 421

was reportedinNovember 1917. V. P. Vivian, Assistant Director of Criminal Intelligence in ction isobservedbetweenth 416 orwhichinpropagandapurposesstressthatpan- an government wasencouraging“formationof the Kibla retching from MediterraneantoChina”. the ects ofusingIslamic propagandaincertain 82 Muslim worldandhavenottheslightestreal 418 ld receptionofany Turkish orSenussi agents r serviceundertheveilofservantsHoly nian expansioninCentral Asia, Indiaand s ratherpan-Turanian, thanpan-Islamic e beliefthat every effo 422 used tomask thetruenatureof Turkish And thatthe CUP aimed toensure for the ports. It is pointed out that in Nigeria the ports. ItispointedoutthatinNigeriathe 417

, anewspaperpublishedinHedjaz, that theirinner connection isstressedinthe 415

e two.Forexample, inone rt must bemade by 420

CEU eTD Collection and German East Africa. situation incoloniesanddepende of Sokoto. not knowofthe Aga Khan,IndianMuslims, and inte 429 428 427 426 425 424 423 [Fakri Pasha],neutralizehispr characterized inatelegram from Cairoas am empire in1914-1916.Even1917the arriva German interference in matters of religion policy of GreatBritain andinteraction withHejaz. of theOttoman Sultan. Kentconsiders thisdeclaration tolaytheground for thewartime declaration wastoassure theloyalty of Britis declared immunityof theMuslim Holyplac 4.3.2. Immunity oftheHoly placesandpresenceoftheChristian the Sudan,andthatheremostpeopleid “a common groundforpan-Islam”, thatitisinha Mohammedan propagandaandpan-Islamism”. enthusiasm”. There conclusion is made, that populations, separatedbyUganda”,“whosete certain circumstances of Islam thantheaverage Turk or Arab ofNort CAB/24/143/0001, “Eastern Report No.1”, February 1,1917, p.30-back. 1,1917, p.30-back. February No.1”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/143/0001, Marian Kent, “Asiatic Turkey,1914-1916” in CAB/24/144/0013, “Eastern Report No.38”, October 18, 1917, p.128-front. CAB/24/144/0001, “Eastern Report No.26”, July 26, 1917, p.5-front. CAB/24/144/0001, “Eastern Report No.26”, July 26, 1917, p.5-front. CAB/24/143/0008,“Eastern ReportNo.8”, March 22, 1917, p.121-front. CAB/24/143/0008,“Eastern ReportNo.8”, March 22, 1917, p.121-front. Hinsley (Cambrige University Press, 1977), pp. 436-451. 436-451. pp. 1977), Press, University (Cambrige Hinsley rest inor feeling about ma Therefore, inspiteofthe supportin ofthesh It might beremembered thatatthebegi troops inHejazand Mesopotamia. 423 But,“theyare far more fervidbelievers inandvotaries of the essential tenetsof 425 fighting fortheirfaith”. Itisobservedthearearepresented “twolarge Mohammedan

ny questionswhichloom solarge inEasternpolitics”,theydid opaganda andalie nces inEast Africa: theSuda entify themselves primary asMuslims. British Foreigh British EdwardSir under Policy Grey was apointofpropaganda 83 easure “whichwillstiffen thetribes against him h Muslim subjectsandcounteract the influence h Africa. They wouldbe es, bothinHejaz and nning ofthewarGreat 426 there is therefore “a considerable field for nate the city”. regard theSultanof Turkey asequaltoEmir ndency istoadoptIslamwitheaseand bited bythedescendent ItisobservedthatGermanEast-Africa l of22German officers atMedinawas arif ofMecca,itisnotsurprising thatthe 424 428 Another Appendix is AnotherAppendix Italso might beremembered that 429 n, Uganda,BritishEast Africa,

in Mesopotamia. The quitecapable render Britain andherallies against the Ottoman s ofMahdistsfrom devotedtothe 427 / Ed. by F. H.

CEU eTD Collection cross fortaking Meccain Mark Sykesobservedthatthe 437 436 435 434 433 432 431 430 mission inHejaz,Balfour suggestedpostponingthechangeunlessmatters areurgent. suggested changingColonel Wilson’s titlefrom the dreamed ofsomarked anddirectin troop andan“ableMoslem towhichStorrs General”, replied that the Britishhadnever be landedatRabegh, telegraphed thathehad receivedaformal app He islittlelikelytodothisunlesshis affairs are atdesperate pass”. wait “untiltheKingdeclareshimself responsible Moslem worldthatHedjaz had fa Hedjaz, itisstressedthat“it propaganda directedfrom Medina”. the HolyLand,toadvantageof Turkish Sinaioperationsandofpan-Islamic suggested thatthe Turkish offensives inMedina on theirMuslim subjects.In1917 British weresensitivetotheeffect whichthe CAB/24/144/0007,“Eastern ReportNo.32”, September 6,1917, p.65-back. p.44-back. 1917, 14, February No.3”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/143/0003, CAB/24/143/0001,“Eastern ReportNo.1”, February1, 1917, p.16-back. CAB/24/143/0001,“Eastern ReportNo.1”, January 10, 1917, p.5-back. CAB/24/143/0001,“Eastern ReportNo.1”, January 10, 1917, p.5-front. CAB/24/143/0001,“Eastern ReportNo.1”, January 10, 1917, p.1-front. p.79-front. 1917, 28, February No.5”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/143/0005, p.50-front. 1917, 14, February No.3”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/143/0003, At thesame time thedesiretoavoid directinterference inHejaz wascounterbalanced The similar situationoccurred whenth toHisMajesty’s beforeissuebesubmitted must Government. suitable proclamation explainingwhy Christian and(2) Christian troopsinHejaz; presence of for its made arequest Hejaz had(1)inwriting forthe dispatch, andaccepted fullresponsibility that theCabinethaddecidedbrigade should not besentunlessanduntil theKingof 433 hewasreplied The DailyMail would beundesirabletofurnish

publication ofaphotoEgyptia llen underChristianinfluence”. this topicconstantlyappearsin terference in hisinternalaffairs. 430 Speakingaboutthepossibilities of military helpto , wouldprovidethebasi presence oftheir troopsin Hejazwould produce 84 lication from theKingfor aBritish brigadeto e KingofHejazreque wereintendedto“induc had prepared for issue to the Moslem world a for theinductionofChristiansintoHejaz. troops hadbeenlanded,whichproclamation pilgrimage officer into any groundsforsuspicioninthe 434

s forenemypropaganda. n officer, whoreceivedthe 431 theEasternreports.Itis British brigadeshould 435 432 sted for1500Muslim Evenwhen Wingate Evenwhen Wingate e ustolandtroopsin headoftheBritish 437 436

CEU eTD Collection Arab movement. Some reportsfrom Cairoexpres over theHolyPlaces of Islam inth British control”andsuggested onmethodsofgovernment inBaghdad,“andmore precisely He learned abouttheviewofLordCurson’ India knownastheUnitedProvinces,inregard Mesopotamia. Itwasmainly consideredbyJame officers andmen ofIndian French proposedtoformthe Arab battalion, 445 444 443 442 441 440 439 438 forming asubstantialelement inIndian,wases our Mahomedanpopulation”. protectorate overtheseplaces by argued that theShiahadaspecia ascertain the feeling of ourMahom the degreeofBritishcontrolwasnotyetdeci maintenance ofthesovereigntyking mission toHejaz.Itlaidstressontheimportance toFrance, asagreat Moslem Power, of government hadreplied inalengthy notetoth Hejaz inquestionsconcerning are accompanied bysuggestionsthat the Viceroy shouldundertake similar steps. Muslim doctorstoHejazorthepurchasebyth by rivalrywithFrance fortheinfluenceonHuss CAB/24/143/0021, “Eastern Report No.21”, June 21, 1917, p.276-back. CAB/24/143/0021, “Eastern Report No.21”, June 21, 1917, p.276-back. CAB/24/143/0021, “Eastern Report No.21”, June 21, 1917, p.276-back. p.240-front. May31, 1917, No.18”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/143/0018, p.203-back. May10, 1917, No.15”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/143/0015, p.240-back. May31, 1917, No.18”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/143/0018, p.73-back. 1917, 21, February No.4”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/143/0004, CAB/24/143/0003, “Eastern Report No.3”, February 14, 1917, p.44-back; CAB/24/143/0004, “Eastern Report No.4”, February 21, 1917, p. 73-front. p. 73-front. 1917, 21, February No.4”, Report Less attention ispaid tothe presence of 441 Itshouldhavebeencommunicated army toKingHussein.

445 French pilgrimage interests, wasobserved withsuspicion. sed strongdislikeofFrench HeobservedthattheShiasect,dominating inPersiaand l devotionfortheshrinesofKe a Christianpower wouldoffend “thedeepest sentiments of at area– Kerbela, Najaf,etc”. edan fellow-subjects onthepoint”. of HejazandthedefenseMecca”. s committee thatMesopotamia shouldbe “under 85 it wasproposedtosendasmall partyofnative e Frenchgovernment abuildingforpilgrims to thefutureadministration ofMesopotamia. pecially loyal. “When theSharifofMecca’s ein. The reportsaboutth e requestfor thewithdrawal ofthemilitary s Meston,Lieutenant-Governorofthepart ded, hesuggeststhatit“wouldbewellto 439 the British forces intheHoly places of Eventhemission of to theFrench,for“TheFrench ficials whodonotbelievein rbela and Nejef,andthatany 443 Onthe assumption that 444 e dispatchofFrench Inhisnote Meston Algerian notableto 438 442 When the the When

440

CEU eTD Collection opposition onstrongtheological grounds”. “They havewithstoodallsuggestionsforJiha were unhappyaboutcampaigninMesopotamia, they 452 451 450 449 448 447 446 dangerous place thanHejazduring thepilgrimage pilgrimage in1917tookplacewithout serious problems, though,accordingtohim, amore obstacle inthepilgrimage that year. arrangements forpilgrimagetoMecca,anditregr communiqué, approvedbyChamberlain thattheGovernment ofIndiahadbeenconsidering matter thelongviewisverynecessary”. Haj duringthewarwillhaveverylastingeff made tosecurereasonablefacilities forthej Arabian andIndianpointsofview”. “The maintenance of theHajisoneof themost vital elements inourpolicy, bothfrom the that discussthequestionofpilg arrangements for pilgrimage inthecontext of observedmoreoften. Kerbela, Nejef,Kufawas shrines ofMedinaarereportedonlytwicein1917, of pilgrimage thantothe Christianpresence of theworld. shrines inMesopotamia, Meston agitation againsthim andhisclaims. The assertion ofindependencewasfirstmade toorganize known,anattemptwasbegun an CAB/24/143/0013, “Eastern Report No.13”, No.13”, p.183-back. Report “Eastern 1917, 26, April CAB/24/143/0013, 181-front. – No.13”, pp.180-back Report 1917, “Eastern 26, April CAB/24/143/0013, 181-front. – No.13”, pp.180-back Report 1917, “Eastern 26, April CAB/24/143/0013, CAB/24/143/0020, “Eastern Report No.20”, June 14, 1917, p.272-back. CAB/24/143/0008,“Eastern ReportNo.8”, March 22, 1917, p.119-front; CAB/24/143/0009, “Eastern Report CAB/24/143/0021, “Eastern Report No.21”, June 21, 1917, p.276-back. CAB/24/143/0021, “Eastern Report No.21”, June 21, 1917, p.276-back. No.9”,March 29, 1917, p.133-front. Less attentionispa id intheEasternreportstoc

rimage. Inthereportfrom April argued, wouldmean forthem something similar totheend 450 452 Therefore, itisargued that everyeffort shouldbe InNovember 1917 Mark Sykesobservedthatthe 451 Shiahs tooknopartinthisoutcry”. The Government ofIndiaproposedtoissuethe 447 86 ourney toMecca,as“T intheHolyplaces. Thus, thedamages tothe ect uponourpositionafterthewar, andinthis rivalry withFrance,thereareveryfewreports ButtheChristianprotectorate over the Shia 449 d (orHoly War) andhavejustifiedtheir etted thatshortageofshippingwouldbean Exceptforthepassageswhichdiscuss the canhardly beimagined, as“fanaticism, 448 haveneverraised whiletheconditionofshrines onditions ofshrinesandthequestion 26, 1917itisproclaimed that he keeping open of the he keepingopenofthe a voiceinprotest. 446 Though they Though CEU eTD Collection 456 455 454 453 assist anyone butourenemies; theseditious in “fighting in Africa and elsewhere”, the Viceroy Islam”, anditscopiesshouldbedistributedto Government shouldpublishthe“Proclamation of theHighPriestandreligiousChiefof attempted tooverthrowtheMohammedanreligion”, not against Islam, “butagainst those who suggested that theproclamation ofHusseins controversy”. indulge inpropaganda,orthes would defeatitsobject.” Hestated thatitwa Government wasconvincedthatforittopush and distributingamong the Turks andthe Arabs, independence withthesharif’s signatureorseal, orfacsimile ofthe While theRussianIntelligenceStaff requested on theopinionofitsMuslim subject were observedthroughout1917. was notexhaustedin1916debates. Various r that thenews oftherevoltwerewelcomed inI from theIndiaOffice. Itwasalsoobservedthatfromthefirstreportsinpress itwasclaimed the scheme ofthe Arab caliphate and Arab 4.3.3. IndiaandHejazinthe Easternreports. lust ofplunder, andpoliticalex CAB/24/143/0002,“Eastern ReportNo.2”, February7, 1917, p.40-back. CAB/24/143/0001,“Eastern ReportNo.1”, February1, 1917, p.11-front. p.73-front. 1917, 21, February No.4”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/143/0004, CAB/24/144/0017,“Eastern ReportNo.42, November 16, 1917, p.161-front. In thepreviouschapteraspecialattention The position oftheGovernment rema ofIndia 455 When Culling Carr inthe letter to

citement arealleasily aroused”. upport ofpropagandawithout s, they tried nottointerfere in the questions of religion. howed thattheBritish Government wasfighting uprising, butalso theopposition tothescheme 87 eactions ofIndianMusl ndia. The Easternreports suggestthatthetopic India willmake useofit everyMusliminIndiaandtheIndiansoldiers have desecratedtheHolyPlacesand s “impossible fortheIndianGovernment to observed, that“Mr.Colli the proclamation, eitherpubliclyorsecretly, was paidnotonlytotheissueofpromoting 454 acopyoftheoriginalproclamation of The Morning Post the Viceroy maintained that “the Indian ined thesame asin1915:withtheview 456 andrecommendedtheIndian 453 becoming apartytoreligious

original forreproducing ims ontheHejaz revolt from February 5,1917 as an unveiling of our as anunveilingofour ng Cavelettercannot CEU eTD Collection religious sentim who believethatIndianpro-Tu improved bycounter-propaganda. But inhisview author of Appreciation tothatreportsuggestedth Islam wasindanger, as“theyknow th 463 462 461 460 459 458 457 Bureau” on thenewsthiswasregarded assign lamenting thedisobedienceofGod’s commandsbythe Turks”. Mecca, and “whentheproclamation wasbeingread,the audiencewereweepingand January 27,1917,theleaderofcommunity r Moslem coming outopenlyontheKing’s side”. upheaval inIndiaonKingofHejaz’ different. Itisobserved that“after allthereports which werereceived anticipating an Indian Muslims weretakingthesharif’s side Mecca”; “The SherifofMeccashould beshot”. “Medina isstillinthe handsof have commented that:“InHejaztheBritisharepl Curzon intheHouseofLordsonaffa irs inPersia and Near Eastwas. Eastern reports. Forinstance,thereactionofI dissatisfaction ofitssubjects. of IndianMuslim subjectstriednottointerfer alleged hypocrisy”. CAB/24/143/0012, “Eastern Report No.12”, No.12”, p.166-front. Report “Eastern 1917, 19, April CAB/24/143/0012, CAB/24/143/0006, “Eastern Report No.6”, March 7, 1917, p.93-front. CAB/24/143/0007,“Eastern ReportNo.7”, March 15, 1917, p.99-back. p.102-back. 1917, 15, March No.7”, Report “Eastern CAB/24/143/0007, p.102-back. 1917, 15, March No.7”, Report “Eastern CAB/24/143/0007, p.102-back. 1917, 15, March No.7”, Report “Eastern CAB/24/143/0007, CAB/24/143/0002,“Eastern ReportNo.2”, February7, 1917, p.35-back. Even inthe Attention is paidthat during the Fridayprayer intheChinianmosque, Lahore,on The negative attitudeof IndianMuslims tothe sharif’s revolt wasconsidered inthe ent”. issuesof the Arab Bulletin published inCairo, whichemphasized that 457 461 Thus, theIndiangovernment wasr

rkism hasitsreal roots in hatred of GreatBritain, notin Turkey”; “They[theBritish] s first entering thewar, itisinteresting toseean Indian at the ideawouldpleaseMuhammadans”. 88 ndian students at Oxford to the speech of Lord ndian studentsatOxfordtothespeechofLord e inthematters of religionnottoprovokethe ificant, asthatmosque hadbeen“acenterfor 462 , observed that their original reaction was , observedthattheiroriginalreactionwas 459 aying the same game astheydidinEgypt”;

at thisdeplorablestat ead outtheproclamation ofthesharif EventheHindusstated “It tendstoconfirm theopinionofthose eally concernedabouttheopinion areforcingwaratandnear 463 Inthe “Noteby Arab 458 They are reported to e ofaffairs might be thatthecenterof 460 The CEU eTD Collection learned inKoran shouldbesendfrom IndiatocongratulateKingHussein. 466 465 464 Ottomans, theBritishshould becareful withsup question withinthebroader frameworks of theBr by DavidGeorge Hogarth, aBritishorientalis of them consider thesharifof 4.3.4. TheQuestionofCaliphate. unchanged from 1915. and propaganda. At thesame thepositionofIndiangovernment time, remained in troops tohelpthesharif. request the Turks togetridoftheGermans, an According tothisreporttheretiredMuslim of of defendingtheholyplacesIslam andsupportingthe King’s claims tothecaliphate”. similar inorganization tothe Anjuman Khudda in Hejaz”.Hesuggestedtothesharifthat“an news ofthe Arab revolt, heproceeded to Arabia of thepan-Islamic societyKhudda General Staff reportedthatMubarik Ali, aretired tribes”. border totakepartintheJi preaching ofJihadandsince1915,severalMoslem CAB/24/143/0006, “Eastern Report No.6”, March 7, 1917, p.97-back. CAB/24/143/0006, “Eastern Report No.6”, March 7, 1917, p.97-back. No.12”, pp.166-front-back. Report “Eastern 1917, 19, April CAB/24/143/0012, The Times abouttheenthusiasm ofIndianMuslim However, unexpectedly warm reactiontothesh There arealsoseveralreportsth The question of caliphate isconsidered in Thus, asthatMuslim totherevo reaction 464

465 Itisobserved,thathealso had against uswiththe“Hindu stani Fanatics”andthefrontier

MeccaasthefutureCaliph,but m-i-Kaaba atLucknow, hadde at argue, that as Britain invented or the Caliphateof the 89 associationof Mohamm m-i-Kaaba, shouldbefoundedforthepurpose d asktheBritishGovernment tosendMuslim lt wasnotunanimous evenin1917,thenews porting thesharif’s claimsandthattheyhave t, and Arnold J. Toynbee thatconsiderthe in ordertoseeforhimself thestateofaffairs ficial supposedthatthisassociationshould a greatnumber oftheEasternreports.Most itish politics andthehistorical development. official ofHyderabadinalettertothehead studentsfrom Lahorehavecrossedthe arif revolt wasalso reported. The Indian s might beconsideredasexaggeration suggested thatadeputationofmen there arealsoseveralarticles scribes that“onhearingthe edans ofallcountries, edans 466

CEU eTD Collection 474 473 472 471 470 469 468 467 of thereportsitisstated: the Ottomans wouldoffer Husseinthepositionof assumption of theCaliphate suggested theCUP removed most oftheulema from Constantinopleinor claims tocaliphatebestrongenough their allegiance”. help; andshould theOttoman Sultansurvive, new Caliphunlessanduntilhe observed that “Thegeneral consent ofthe Arabs, however, willnoteasily beaccorded toa strongest ofhisclaims tothecaliphate–possessionofKaaba”. gravitate”, center towhichPan-Islamism kinderedideaseither and consciou that “Islam iscentred in Mecca, placeswould intime“the guardian oftheHoly become hold theHolyplaceswouldbe“technically position oftheguardian oftheHolyplaces. the righttodecideuponfateof CAB/24/143/0012, “Eastern Report No.12”, No.12”, p.154-front. Report “Eastern 1917, 19, April CAB/24/143/0012, CAB/24/143/0007,“Eastern ReportNo.7”, March 15, 1917, p.112-back. p.224-back. May17, 1917, No.16”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/143/0014, CAB/24/144/0015,“Eastern ReportNo.40”, November 1, 1917, p.154-back. CAB/24/143/0020, “Eastern Report No.20”, June 14, 1917, p.246-back. CAB/24/143/0021, “Eastern Report No.21”, June 21, 1917, p.276-back. CAB/24/144/0001, “Eastern Report No.26”, July 26, 1917, p.5-front. CAB/24/143/0005, “Eastern Report No.5”, February Report No.6”, March 7, 1917, p.93-front. The assumption thatthesharifofMeccawoul It isworthpayingattention thatthe Britis endeavour to come toterms with the King ofthe Hedjaz, offering him andhisdescendants the Accordingwell-informedto a agent itisreportedthat the Turkish Government hasdecided to form ofspiritual authority without any temporal power. resort the Turks may try tocompound with the King of the Hedjaz by offering him ashadowy The discussion inSwitzerland regarding the Caliphat 470 andthatthe Arab revolthadalready “divestedtheOttoman Sultan of the 472

bytheKingofHejaz.

has proved himself conspicuousl has provedhimself andtheSovereign oftheHolyCitiesIslam the Turkish capitalandthatshould. adequate tomaintain the Caliphate”, 90 28, 1917, p.79-front; CAB/24/143/0006, “Eastern CAB/24/143/0006, p.79-front; 1917, 28, It is statedthat an Arab kingdom would which influence theOttoman policy. Onceitwas non-Arab Moslems willbe h officials in1917 consideredthesharif’s caliph towinhim totheirside. Thus, inone d acquireacaliphaterested mainly onhis e are interesting.may It bethatinthe last 473 474 ex officio

Several times itwasreported that y powerful withoutChristian Caliph”. 467 sly orunconsciously

der toanticipatean slowtotransfer 469 471 Itisobserved Though itis is the natural 468 andthat CEU eTD Collection undirectly bebroughtundernon-Moslem infl assured political independence”, “Therecogn exercise ofthespiritualpowercannot beassu 482 481 480 479 478 477 476 475 nor theestablishment of aCaliphisanybusinessof aChristianPower”,butthe British “approve” an Arab Caliphateisconsidered. Hogarth observedthat“neitherthenomination no conditionscouldtheSultanof Turkey was maintained that“Autonomous Arabia would any interest inthematter”. independent kingdom; thequestionofCalipha Turkish liberalpartyresidingin the terms ofpeacesuggested byvarious Turkish is barren in theextreme”. any otherChristian Powercanobtaintherec in of hisobtainingrecognitionasCaliphbySunnis essence oftheCaliphateisin conquest ofEgypt,isneverlikelytobeworthmuchagain”. suffered byMameluke SultansofCairobetweenthefallBaghdadandOttoman acquainted withIslamic tradition toknowth that “KingHuseinisveryunlikelytolookatsuchaproposal”, Hejaz of aspiritual Caliphatewithout temporal CAB/24/143/0014, “Eastern Report No.16”, May 17, 1917, p.224-front. p.224-front. May17, 1917, No.16”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/143/0014, No.28”, “Eastern Report 1917, p.21-back. 9, CAB/24/144/0003, August CAB/24/143/0022, “Eastern Report No.22”, June 28, 1917, p.280-front. CAB/24/143/0021, “Eastern Report No.21”, June 21, 1917, p.277-front. No.12”, p.154-front. Report “Eastern 1917, 19, April CAB/24/143/0012, No.12”, p.154-front. Report “Eastern 1917, 19, April CAB/24/143/0012, p.225-front. May17, 1917, No.16”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/143/0014, No.12”, p.158-front. Report “Eastern 1917, 19, April CAB/24/143/0012, However, accordingtotheauthorsof theEa In thenotebyDavidGeorge Hogart The conditionsofthefutureruleoverHeja Caliphate with spiritual powers only. 478 480 Inadifferent placeCromer is dependent temporal power, andw

While in theterms ofpeacecommunicatedby it Genevasuggestedthat“Hej 475 submit tothelossofcaliphate”.

h entitled“The NextCaliphate” ognition byMoslems ofa uences wouldbestronglyresented”. 91 at anysuch titular Caliphate,such aswas red unlessKhalifisplacedinapositionof ision ofaKhalifw power wouldnotbesucc z andthequestionofcaliphatewereamong te beingsettledbyMoslems whoalonehad not beundertheKingofHejaz,and stern reportstheseproposalstotheKingof parties. Reshid Pasha, who spoke for the parties. ReshidPasha,whospokeforthe Indiaorelsewhere. Any ideathatweor 477 quotedonthei az wouldberecognizedasan Itisobservedthat“thewhole 476 ithout thisther andthathe“issufficiently Caliph ofourchoosing ho coulddirectlyon 482 essful. Itisstated the possibility to 481 ssue: “thedue e isnochance

479

CEU eTD Collection 489 488 487 486 485 484 483 movement isadouble-edgedweapon, whichmight Dualism. that undersuccessfulcircumstances thatmight Ottomans continued toattach importance to their pan-Islamic policy. suggested, thatassuchproposals ecclesiastic authorityintheHejazwerere Baghdad asthecapitaloffuturecaliphate. might beregardedastheproper capitalsof do soregardhim”. “approving” the Arab caliphateitwas “perfectly reasonableforus “Moslems asawholedonotre pretense thattheCaliphateisonlyspiritu Moslems topraypubliclyforanOttoman Caliph”. be atoneandthesame timeapproving' his subject to change, as “ifformally approached Sultan, even whenastate ofwarexistsbetween Government ofIndia”,whichdidnotinterfere acknowledgment wascharacterized ofCaliph of aCaliph assuch byaChrist suggested thatwhenmessage wasframed, it committed byamessage senttotheemir of CAB/24/144/0019, “Eastern Report No.44”, November 29, 1917, p.201-front. CAB/24/144/0019, “Eastern Report No.44”, November 29, 1917, p.201-front. p.200-back. 1917, 29, November No.44”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/144/0019, p.206-back. 1917, 29, November No.44”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/144/0019, p.225-front. May17, 1917, No.16”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/143/0014, p.224-back. May17, 1917, No.16”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/143/0014, p.224-front. May17, 1917, No.16”, “Eastern Report CAB/24/143/0014, Hogarth observed that the“negative attitude” Therefore, thoughIdidnotmanage tocover A. J. Toynbee inhisanalyticalnoteconsider 488 Therefore, he statedthat “from thepointof viewof Britishinterests” the Arab 485 InanothernotebyHogarthhear

ian powerwouldbeanovelty”. gard aCaliphasanalogousto were made tothesharifof 92 486 al headship, and though he maintained that al headship,andthoughhemaintained that by anewCaliph,wecouldhardly, forexample, cognized under theOttoman suzerainty. He Meccato“approve” an Arab Caliphate. He “theHashimite Caliphate”,andsuggested with thepractice of prayingfor the Ottoman him andGreatBritain.Butthis attitude wasa

resultinsomething like Austro-Hungarian Caliphate andcontinuingtosuffer Indian was notrealizedthat“anyofficial 'approval' by “the negative attitude adopted by the by “thenegativeattitudeadoptedthe 484 ed thepossibilityifHussein’s politicaland beusedbytheOttoman pan-Islamism.

of theBritish wasrooted intheofficial all thetopicsconnect gued thatneitherMeccanorDamascus 483 Mecca, thisshowedthatthe HogarthconsideredBritish to saythatwe,forourpart, ”, heargued thatin 487 Toynbeesupposed ed totheIslamic 489

CEU eTD Collection 492 491 490 not beenmisled bytheBritishwithdrawal from theDardanelles andunfortunate episode of are exceedingly shrewdpeople, and theirpoli Mecca wasakindofcompensation. As, itwasstated British inthe East(thedefeat atthe Dardanel Mecca in1916. Though thedifference isalsoevident. The year 1916was notsuccessfulfor Baghdad isperhapsthe topicthatwasin1917accordedtherolesim is notforthe Turkish Jannissariesto ulema (whichgivespraisesforthesharif Hussein Times loyalty), demands forhome rule, 1916 giveswayforthediscussionofhomeru the previousyearsofwar, buttheirfocusisdifferent. as acontinuationofthepastdiscussions. They preservesome similarities withthearticlesof changed alotin1917,sothatitisquiteproblematic tosaywhethertheyshouldbeconsidered provided Islamic questionwithpoliticalsignifi 4.4. ChangesincoveringofIslamTheTimes in1917. Eastern reports. enough evidencetodemonstrate th question inthisoverviewoftheissuesdiscus “Turkey Under The 'Janissaries'. “India And Empire”, Times the Programme”, Congress “Indian Times August 15, 1917, p.7. p.7. 15, 1917, August Times November 6,1917,p.4;“Indian Demand”, thereisonlyonearticledevotedthe Arab Contrary totheattention whichthe Arab revolt enjoyedintheEasternreports, in While theEasternreportsin1917continuedto But much attentionis paid The concernsforloyaltyofIndianMuslims, , December 1, 1917, P.7. , January 2, 1918, p.7; “Home Rule For India”, the Timesthe , October, “Mr. 31,1917,p.5; Orthodox protest from Mecca”,

490 to occupationofBaghdadand andsome commentsagainstimmediate actions. decideuponthequestionofcaliphate). at theIslamic questionwas consideredimportant inthe , August 1, 1917, p.5; “Mr. Montagu's Visit To India”, the Timesthe 93 , January 4, 1918, p.5; “Mrs. Besant and India”, India”, “Mrs. Besant and 4, p.5; 1918, , January tical judgment isgenerallysound. They have sed intheEasternreports,Ithinkprovided the Timesthe les, andsurrender atKut) andtherevolt of cance, themannerofnewspaperarticles revolt, which reproduces the proclamation of revolt, whichreproducestheproclamation of asveryreligiouspers forwhichtheyweresopraisedin1914- Gokhale's Political Testament”, payattentiontoal in oneofthearticles: le forIndia(likea , January 3, 1917, p.7; “Indian reform”, “Indian 3,1917, p.7; , January the Timesthe Jerusalem. The occupation of occupation Jerusalem. The , March 7, 1917, p.5. on, andargues thatit l thoseissues,which ilar totherevoltof ppreciation of that ppreciation ofthat “The Arab leaders 492

the Timesthe the Timesthe 491

the , the The The , CEU eTD Collection Prosperous city, andacenterof 500 499 498 497 496 495 494 493 appreciated. Baghdad waswelcomedinJassywhereits “Islam looksnolongertowardsStanbul”. Baghdad thathehasproclaimed aHoly War”, butit Musulman ecclesiasticofConstantinople,issaid defeat inMesopotamia. one ofthearticlesisdevotedto“important Times little importance, but itis“a great disaster to Turkish arms andprestige”. Ottoman InTheManchesterGuardian empire. expected to produceagreatimpact on theMus Indians. beginning of thewarthat Turks havenothingin high moral qualitiesofthesharif Mecca Arabs' superioritytothe Turks (asitis Turkish rule,andwasturnedtopoverty. Bu idea ofthecaliphate.Nowitwasstressedth discourses. Firstofall,thecapture ofBaghda great number ofreportsaboutcapturesth Kut”. “Satisfaction in Rumania”, in “Satisfaction TheTimes “The Hindenburg Line”, “Turkish concentration in Asia Minor”, “The Fall of Bagdad”, The Arab World: Future, its and Past Its “The Fall of Bagdad”, Caliphs”, the Cityof “Baghdad. The “The Revolt of Islam”, Future”, 493 theimportanceattached tothe fall of Baghda Second, theoccupation ofBaghdadaswell But itisto benoticed, thatthere existedalso thesimilarities between thesetwo While theyear1917wasdefinitelysucce The TimesThe 500

, March 30, 1917, p.7; “Victory At Baghdad”, The Manchester Guardian, The Manchester Guardian, The Times 498 The Times The otherarticleobservesthat

, June 22, 1916, p.9. 1916, 22, , June ,March 22, 1917, p.9. The TimesThe learningwhere“culture famed”, ,March 17, 1917, p.6. The TimesMarch, 17, 1917, p.6. The TimesThe March, 30, 1917.P.7. - evenstatedinoneof thearticles), , March 12, 1917, p.10; “The Arab World: Its Past and its 499 e citiesistheclea March 12, 1917, p.4. 1917, 12, March p.4. 1917, 12, March 94 t thepastgreatnessofBagdadwastosignify Itisevenobserved,thatthenewsoffall d, astherevoltofMeccawasconnectedto in 1916,orLloydGeorge’s suggestion atthe councils” heldinConsta itisobserved thatstrategically Baghdad isof lim worldand toinflue common withthehighly-educated Arabs and at Baghdadwasthecityofcaliphs. “moral effect” onMuslim worldwas tohavebeensoperturbedbythefallof d intheOttoman isstressed. empire Thus, ssful from themilitary pointofview, a therevoltofsharifMeccawas is suggestedthat“helittlelate”,as The TimesThe “the Sheikh-ul-Islam, theprincipal rest signoft , March 12, 1917, p.9. 1917, 12, March , 495 nce the prestigeofthe whichgotunderthe ntinople inregardto 497 hat. Inarticles ofThe 496 as well as the 494

CEU eTD Collection beginning ofthewarinBerlin not scrupletoexpresstheircontemptfor “in spiteofthisofficial outwa 507 506 505 504 503 502 501 progress from enthusiasm tomistrust inGerman Kaiser, of the“German intrigue”. Thus, there appear articles devoted to Turkish mission tothe Muslim opinion. not appearin “wished thatthe Turks shouldbedrivenoutofEurope”, Jerusalem, whenthesufferings ofbelievers worldtakes to he Power ofthe Times evens similar inmeaning received opposite evaluations.“The Jewish Word isquotedin when theauthor proceeds tothe Turkish article Jerusalem iscalled“theproudestof Syrians”. dominions. To -toGreeksand allwhomheoppresses Armenians, to Arabs, Jews,andto the tyrannyof Turk isdoomed rights shouldberespected. usually just generally stated thatJerusalem is the meaning of thisvictoryfor theMuslim worl only for Islam, butalsofor Christianity andJudaism, inthearticles devoted tothisoccasion “Kaiserin Constantinople”, “Berlin To-Day”, “Turkish Cruelties”, “News inbrief”, “Viceroy in Palestine”, “Jerusalem”, Forexample: “Jerusalem”, p.7. thatwiththecapture of Jerusalem “the The captureofJerusalem enjoyedevenmore The relations between theOttoman empire a 506 502 andKaiser’s visittoConstantinople Among more interestingcomments onthecap The Times The Times duringthepreviousyearsbecaus The TimesThe The Times The Times The TimesThe , December 11, 1917, p.7. , December12, 1917,p.8. The Times , June 15, 1917, p.5. The TimesThe 501 , February 21, 1917, p.3. 1917, 21, , February

Itisalso commentedthatthe fall of Jerusalem is“asignthat rd showofrespectfor Turkey , March 30, 1917, p.7. there wereheld lectures devoted tothe Ottoman empire,the , December 11, 1917, p.8;“Jerusalem”, rself athirdreligiousdignity”. , October 17, 1917, 1917, p.7. 17, , October endthatthedawnofanew contest he saysit“devastatedthe land”. were described,theBishop ofLondonpublicly Caliph Omar’s conquests”,andafewlineslater 95 the thirdof theMuslim holycities,and Muslim greatest Christian and the greatestMahomedan d is less emphasized. In regard to Islam it was d islessemphasized. InregardtoIslamitwas Turkish ally”,andgoesontorecallasatthe 507 -Turkish relations. The attention, butasthecitywasimportantnot The twoalsocomments firstofthe on nd Germany arereported 505 ture ofJerusalem,isthatinone astatement thatdefinitely could , theGermans inconversationdo e ofitspossibleeffect onthe freedom isrisingoverhis 504 The Times Beforethecapture of author observes,that , December, 11, 1917, not in the terms 503 Thus, two Thus, The The CEU eTD Collection troops tofast,and17 Arabs wereshotin hispartfortheirrefusal toobeyit. newspaper, wheretheeyewitnesstellsthatshei treatment of Islam. Thus There werearticlesdevoted tothebadtreatment, “making itveryplaintotheGermans that 514 513 512 511 510 509 508 brought “'fetva' from sayingthat Sheikh-ul-Islam witnesses tell about the decreestokill Armenian Armenian refugees,living inMuslim families in Baghdad. Islam andMuslims. Onereportsthatnowas Fetishism revived”. Christianity istobeabolished in Turkey; Arabs aretoberobbedoftongueandleadin religious tothe Young Turk, wholacksthosepositiv “The 'CleanFighting Turk'” theauthoropposes pigs, andkeptastrictwatchoverjudges schools whereKoranistaught,forbadetheriteof Germans abovealltransgressed againstourbe “victorious British forces”. Germans toIslam inEast Africa, wherebyth publishes atranslationfrom aletterprintedin thousands. courses for Turkish werefull,andinthebook-shops Turkish grammarsweresoldin “The Armenian Tragedy”, “The'Clean Fighting Turk”, “Germany As OppressorIslam”, Of “Germany As OppressorIslam”, Of “TurkishCruelty To Arab Troops”, “Turkish Cruelties”, “Berlin To-Day”, Baghdad”, A number ofarticlesisdevoted tothe mi But notonlyisthemistreatment ofMuslim 508 The Times Butfrightenedby“thissuddenaffec The Times 513 The Times , June 22, 1917, p.5. 1917, 22, June , There arealso2articlesabout The Times , June 15, 1917, p.5. The Times 511 The Times publishesatranslationofanarticleinEgyptian , February 21,1917,p.3;“Turkish Ty Inthe letteraMuslim from Da

The TimesThe The Times The Times , June 21, 1917, p.5. 1917, 21, June , , February 20, 1917, p.7. p.7. 1917, 20, , February , September 3, 1917, p.4. , March, 13, 1917, p.5. March, 13, 1917, p.5. nd imams, ill-usedthem”. and“shamefully Turkey isforthe Turks”, heobserves. Islam istobeoverthrownandShamanism and 96 streatment ofMuslims and byGermans Turks. Baghdad iscapturedit at moment “German tigers”werehunted by kh-ul-islam issuedafetvathatforbiddenthe in Algiers abouthostileattitudesof nevolent religiouslaw” g; the Armenians aretobeexterminated; Armenians hadshedMuslim bloodandthat circumcision, compelled thenativestorear 509 theOld Turk, asreallyintelligentand s, oneof thewitnesses recalls, thatthey populationpaidattention.Inthearticle andarticles that emphasized thehostile e features.Heargues, thatforthem “the tion”, the Turks passedvariouslaws Armenian atrocities,whichmention ranny. Treatment ofsubject races in r-es-Salaam complains that “the 514 Intheother two Muslim , forbiddentoopen possible to rescue possibletorescue 510

The Times also 512

CEU eTD Collection Enver and Talaat bey”. prominent Mohamedan agitatorswere inconstant close touch withtheconductors An authorof alettertotheeditorof 520 519 518 517 516 515 should bebutinawidercontext: be theaim oftheGermanintrigueinPersia.It “unchecked centerofanti-Brit zone of Morocco isreported tobeaproblem astheBritish can't afford toestablish of Caliphate totheGerman politics. published inJapan,theyvisite go in1915toBerlin. There t Spanish Morocco.Some IndianMuslims deporte liable tothedeathpenalty if theysheltered Armenians”. it islawful tokillthem”, “The Conduct Of The War”,Conduct “The “German Spies”, “Germans In Spanish Morocco”, “German Aid To Indian “TheMurder ofaRace”, Sedition”, “TheMurder ofaRace”, I wouldsuggestthatthisquotationpoin was tobuildthe Baghdad Railway world tolook upon him friend. astheirtrueandonly The principal instrument' ofthispolicy mee addressed agreat afterwards Jerusalem, and This plotdated asfarback1890s,whenthe' was tobe menaced;Straits; Persia wastobe Egypt out thisplan,[] Turkey wasto taking from thehege inIndiaand us Great Britain for theextensionofherpowertoIndianO knowledgethe war thatbefore common It was However, the German intrigue appears inanum the Timesthe 519 The TimesThe TimesThe 515 , February, 26, 1917, p.7. The discontentinthe the Timesthe andthatat Trebizond Muslims we ogether withth

d thehouseofBaronOppenheim, the Timesthe ish andanti-FrenchintrigueamongsttheMoslem people”. the Timesthe , January 1, 1917, p.8. , January 1, 1917, p.8. of some more ofthe seditious IndianJournals, whilst become herslavein order thatshe might obtaincontrol of the ,February 21, 1917, p.10. . 517 520 , October 11, 1917, p.8. The Times , May 19, 1917, p.5. p.5. , May19, 1917, Fewmonths ofSpanish laterthe“Germanization”

e editorof ts toGerman pan-Islamic aspirations. 97 issuggestedthatGerm region oftheIndianfron cean with a view to strikingatthedominion with aviewto of cean d in1907byLordMorley, werereportedto states:“ItisknownthatGermans werein began Germany hadbegan Germany beenengagedinintriguing communication withsuchGerman tools as German intomade Emperor a theatricalentry ting and toldthe300millionsting oftheMoslem controlled; bestirredup. Afghanistan wasto mony oftheEasternworld.Inordertocarry mony ber ofarticlesdevoted Islam Fraternity,ananti-Britishpaper 516

re warnedthat“theywouldbe known forbringingtheidea an intrigueinPersia tier isproclaimed to toPersia,India, 518

CEU eTD Collection 521 all. Moreover, itpractically didnot of caliphateandtheMu continued to consider the revolt as thecentralto it couldresultinthetransfer revolt wasnotanobstacleforMuslim loyalty, and the framework ofitsunderstandin of theMuslims. Therefore, itisnotsurprising reduced theconcernsabout the the winner. Thus, as 1917wastheyearofBritish as there isa probabilityof themilitary defeat smoke” itisargued thatthestatecannotbesure New YorkTimes probable explanationofthischange,tomy poi government and theadoptionofdifferent views bytheBritishgovernment. The most discourse intheEasternreportsdidnotcha Though theremight besuggestedavariety of re articles refertoIslam Muslims and notaspoliticalcategories,but by thephenomenon whichK. Karpat callsthepo the publicationsofpreviousyears. The star and,crescentonthecover”. of 1906,aboutBritishcruelty, a countries entitled“TheNeutialityof Indiato steamships, withthedescription of thethose items: abrochureintended tothe neutral “The Prize Court”, There isareportaboutthousa Arguments oftheproclamation ofthesharif The lackofconcernsabout from 12,1916.Inthatarticleentitled March “Islam lurks the Timesthe slim loyalty. But thepressin1917 , June 29, 1917, p.4. p.4. 1917, 29, June ,

loyalty of BritishMuslims. 521 of theseatcaliphate. Th nd apamphlet entitled“Islam’s Muslim opiniondiffer thenewspaperarticlesof1917from

g oftheIslamic question,with attribute anypolitical significance nds ofpropagandistpamphlets publications of1914-1916couldbecharacterized England”, apamphletontheDenshawiincident 98 that the British pressin1916 observed itwithin nge means thatitwasnot , for inthatcase theMu nt ofviewissuggestedbythearticle theBritish politicsin in theloyaltyofitsMu victories in the Middle East, it should have victoriesintheMiddleEast,itshouldhave of Meccaappealed toth the localnewspapersstatingexplicitly that liticization of asons toexplainthat,thefact did not speak about the revolt at did notspeakaboutthe revolt at e Easternreportsof1917also Glory”, with“aflaming red Islam, while in 1917 the Islam, whilein1917the seized onboardtheneutral The Times stressingthat to religiousissues. slims wouldsidewith religious andcultural. regard tothequestion slim subjectsaslong thechangeof e religious feelings behind thebattle The The CEU eTD Collection that thescheme of the Arab Caliphate, that before thewar wasconsidered onlyinCairo Muslim leaders totheircoreligionists. declaration of theinviolability of theHoly both forthe Britishempire andfortheCaliph. by awell-developedsystemofargumentation, whic empire entered thewarand Sultan calledthe Muslims tojihad,theBritishrefuted hiscall about theGerman attemptstoinvolvetheOtto preserving theOttoman neutralstatus. The publicopinioninIndiaandEgyptwasinformed some activepolicywiththeobjectofwinning widespread. ButasRussiawasaBritishallyinthe current war, theseconcernsresulted notin probable war withthe Ottoman empireonth change thesituationbypromoting thetran about theinfluenceofCaliphonloyalty resulted indissatisfaction of BritishMuslim subjectsduring the Balkan wars. Russian agreement of1907,Brita authority oftheCaliphwasusedbyBritishtocopewithunrest.Butdue Anglo- them originated with the attachment of British Mu uprisings in theMuslimpartsof Ottoman BythebeginningofGreat empire. Wa leadership of Caliphwassignificant for theBritish empire, thathadmore Muslims, thanthe changes whichoccurredwithin spiritual leadershipoftheCaliph. This unders Conclusion. On theeveofGreat War theBritishconsidered Islamtobeaunityunderthe At thesame time themove ofLordKitchene When in August 1914thewarstartedinEuro During theGreat War theseideasresultedin empirethatappealed tothe in couldnotcontinuetosu the Muslim worldduringthe19 sfer oftheCaliphateto Arabia. places bythe Allies, andtheappeals bythe 99 man empire intothewar. When Ottoman the The specialimportance wasaccorded tothe BritishMuslim subjectsandtheattempt to e loyaltyof BritishMuslim subjectswere tanding wastheresultofinternational Ottoman onBritishside,butonlyin empire slim subjects to the Caliphate, in othersthe r theBritishhadbothexperienceof twoseparatedevel r topowerin1914contributed tothefact h deniedthereligiouscharacterofwar pe, theconcernsaboutinfluenceof pport theOttoman empire, which religious sentiments. Some of th century. The spiritual opments: the concerns CEU eTD Collection Muslim subjects. suggested theBritishvictories in 1917didnotattributethepoliticalsignifican the Britishpolitics inregard tothequestion of caliphate and theMuslim loyalty. Butthepress Caliphate. refrain from statingexplicitly that therevoltmight result in thetransfer of the seatof result of the German interference inthematters empire stressed thatrevolt wasnotanobstacl question. understanding oftheIslamic way therevolt wasconsideredintheBritishpressdetermined bythepre-war the proclamation ofsharifM Muslim subjects. the Ottoman Caliph,whiletherewerealsoconcernsaboutthe effect revolt on ofthe British supposed tobeascheme forpost-warsettleme opinion. that discussionboththesidesusedarguments abouttheinfluenceofrevoltonMuslim began toargue fortherevoltofsharif departments, whichapprovedofthescheme. It March 1915broughtthescheme ofthe Arab Ca obvious candidatetoassume theCaliphate. empire hadnotyetenteredthewar, Claytonsuggestedthat thesharifofMeccawasan entered theBritishpolitics. Inasecretme

The Easternreportsof1917alsocontinuedto Though the Arab revoltisusuallyconsidered These twoseparate lines of Britishpolicycoincided after the Arab revolt. What was in 1917reducedtheir ecca appealedtothereligious The Times, morandum inSeptember 1914,whentheOttoman Mecca, thattheIndiaOffice opposedtheplan.In 100 e fortheMuslim loyalty, andwasapredictable The Russian demands for Constantinoplein The Russiandemands for nt wasusednowtoundermine theprestigeof was onlywhentheBritishResidencyinCairo ofIslam. While thelocalnewspapersdidnot ce tothequestionsof liphate undertheconsid as national,itshould whichwascirculatedthroughoutthe consider therevoltascentralto concerns aboutthe feelings oftheMuslims. The religion. Itmight be be remembered that eration ofdifferent loyalty ofBritish CEU eTD Collection

“Proclamation oftheUlema RegardingIndepe “Proclamation bySultanMehmed V, 1914”in November * 16, 1915. CAB/24/1/0012, “Alexanretta andMesopotamia Cabinet Papers: Sin'aya kniga.Sborniktainyhdocumentovizvl Belaya kniga ovoines Turtsiyei: Diplomatic Correspondence respecting events leadingtothe rupture of relations with Turkey Diplomatic correspondence: The Art ofthePossible:DocumentsonGreat PowerDiplomacy, 1814-1914 “King Hussein’s Proclamation, 1916”,inSource 27June Records oftheGreat War “Issuance ofOttoman FetvabyEssadEffe Collections ofdocuments: I. PrimarySources: Bibliography. Cabinet papers available at May-June 2010 2010 May-June http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/cabinetpa http://www.firstworldwar.com/s Records oftheGreat War, Vol. IV. Available at: accessed onMarch25,2007. accessed onMarch25,2007. Vol. III. Available at: archives oftheformerMi inostrannyh del(TheBlueBook.Collection Knigoizdatelstvo M.V.Popova, 1914. England respecting eventsleadingtothe voine s Turtsiyei (The White Bookonwar R.R.Menning. New York, 1996. March 25,2007. Available at: http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/ottoman_fetva.htm Records oftheGreat War 1914. Availableat *

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CEU eTD Collection Lee, Hee-Soo.“Abdulhamid IIandhisPan-Islamic PolicyintheEast Asia” in S. Klieman, Aaron Kinross, Lord Kaul, Chandrika.“War andGovernment Publicity”in Kayal Karpat, Kemal H. James, Lawrence. James, Lawrence. Fromkin, David. Oliver-Dee, Sean. The Menteshashvili, Albert. Liddell Hart,BasilHenry. Kent, Marian.“GreatBritainand Kent, Marian.“Asiatic Turkey, 1914-1916”in Kent, Marian. Kedourie, Elie. HarperCollins Publishers,2002. Empire, 1908-1918. Community intheLateOttomanState. London: Routledge&KeganPaul,1973. Ottoman-Turkish Civilization 1921. BaltimoreandLondon: The JohnsHopkinsPress,1970. October 20,2008. http://books.google.com/books?id=mmPSSu9K Available at: India, c.1880-1922.Manchester:ManchesterUniv of ModernMiddleEast Legend]. Cambridge:DaCapoPress,1937. Legend]. 660. Ym1Po8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Kent+empire&lr=&hl=ru#PPP1,M1 http://books.google.com/books?id=OQTm- End oftheOttomanEmpire. Harperand RowPublishersInc.,1976. ritish+press+and+India&lr=&hl=ru#PPA126,M1 London: Lexingtonbooks, 2009. / Ed.byF. H.Hinsley. Cambrige UniversityPress,1977.pp.436-451. ı , Hasan. . The OttomanCenturies: Oil andEmpire. BritishPoli Arabs and Young Turks: Ottomanism, Ar Arab PoliticalMemoirsandOtherStudies. A PeacetoEnd All Peace:theFallof Raj: The MakingandUnmakingofBritishIndia. The RiseandFalloftheBritishEmpire. Foundations ofBritish Policyinthe The Politicization ofIslam:The Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Caliphate Question. The British GovernmentandIslamicGovernance Irakvgodyangliyskogo mandata. Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1997. Lawrence of Arabia [ColonelLawrence: The Manbehindthe . New York: Avon 1990. Books, the EndofOttoman Empire” in , ed.byK.Çiçek(Ankara: Yeni Turkiye ,2000),pp.659- London:FrankClass,

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CEU eTD Collection Wallach, Janet. Trumpener, Ulrich. Toynbee, Arnold Joseph. “TheIslamic Tibi, Bassam. Taylor, Alan J.P. TheStruggle forMasteryinEurope, 1848-1918 Simons, Geoff and Tony Benn. Shaw, S.J.andShaw, E.K. Satia, Priya. Said, Edward W. DetermineHow CoveringIslam:HowtheMediaandExperts We Seethe Said, Edward W. Culture andImperialism Said, Edward W. Orientalism Omar Khan,Saad.“‘The CaliphateQuestion’: British Views andPolicy towardsPan-Islamic Read, Donald.ThePowerofNews:theHistoryReuters,1849-1989 Rauf, “Pan-IslamismAbdul. andtheNorth West Potter, Simon J.NewsandtheBritish World. The Emerge Özcan, Azmi. Perry, Glen. Doubleday, 1996. University Press,1968. International1925 Affairs University Press,1971. 1996. Cambridge UniversityPress,1992. Reform, revolutionandrepublic:therise Empire inthe Rest ofthe World. Politics andtheEndofOttoman Empire University Press,1992. stripped%20-%20Khan%20-%20The%20Caliphate%20Question.pdf PERCEPTION%28abdulrauf%29%5B2%5D.pdf http://www.sam.gov.tr/percepti 1918)” April16, 2010. 1876-1922. Oxford,2003. Availiable at: New York, Köln,1997. Sciences Spies in Arabia: The Great War andtheCulturalFoundationsofBritain’s Covert Perceptions Arab Nationalism:aCritical Enquiry. Pan-Islamism: IndianMuslims, The MiddleEast:fourteen 24:4: pp.1-25. Desert Queen. The Extraordinary LifeofGertrude Bell. Middle East. Germany andtheOttomanEmpire, 1914-1918 London: Routledge&KeganPaul,1981. Vol. 12(Winter 2007):pp.21-42. Available at: . New York: Vintage Books,1979. History oftheOttomanEmpire andModern Turkey. Iraq:from SumertoSaddam . London: Oxford University Press,1927. . London:OxfordUniversity V.1. Availiableat: Oxford: Oxford University Press,2008. Oxford:OxfordUniversity ons/volum Islamiccenturies. . London: Vintage Books,1994. World sincethePeaceSettlement” in 107 the OttomansandBritain,1877-1924. e12/winter/winter-002- FrontierProvinceofBritishIndia(1897- ofModern Turkey, 1808-1975.Cambridge: http://i-epistemology.net/attachments/922_ajiss24-4- ”, New York: St.Martin’s Press,1991. The American JournalofIslamicSocial http://www.oxfordscholarship.com , accessed April 18,2010. nce ofanImperialPress System New Jersey, 1997. . London:Macmillan PressLtd., , accessed on May 27,2010. on , May accessed . Oxford-New York: Oxford . Princeton:Princeton

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Mandarin Paperbacks, 1990. Lawrence of Arabia: the Authorized Biographyof T.E.Lawrence. 108 London: CEU eTD Collection 525 524 523 522 considered inthetable. these accountsarenottakenintoconsidera As eachofthereportsprovidesinformation about Table 3: The Islamicquestion intheEasternreports (1917)–1. Table 2: The topicsof Manchenster Guardian,and The Observer Table 1: The quantityofarticles Appendix: Tables onthesources. mention theissue Quantity of reportsthat discuss theissue Quantity of reportsthat Muslim opinion 8 Home rule India and The Observer Guardian The Manchester The Times August-October German sedition, India and Hejaz, articles on 2 are included cruelties not Armenian number this on details The Including 5articles on Armenian massacres, wh islamization. islamization. 6 +13 + Jerusalem Baghdad 2 59620 (Ottoman neutrality) 8 - the Times 2 34 13 27 9 are considered in Table 2.

7 awards, deaths Cultural news: celebrations, Christian troops in the Holy places articlesin1917connected devoted totheIslamicquestionin 1914 525 tion. OnlytheissuesconnectedtoIslam are ich are included as they mention Abdul Hamid and , as they do not raise not , asthey of questions do religion. during1914-1917. December 1914 November- 50 8

109 the progress ofthe Arab revolt,in thetable Question ofpilgrimage 2 case Armenian to thequestion ofIslam. 1915 1916 51 7 524 522 3 49 The Times, The 16 propaganda andIslam Turkey, Germany, enemy Caliphate 45 1917 - 523

CEU eTD Collection “-” theissueisnotdiscussed “+/-” theissue ismentioned “+” theissue isdiscussed Table 4: The Islamicquestion intheEasternreports (1917)–2. 33, September 14, 1917 32, September 6,1917 29,1917 31, August 23,1917 30, August 16,1917 29, August 9,1917 28, August 27, August 2,1917 26, July1917 25; July19,1917 24; July11, 1917 23; July5,1917 22; June28,1917 21; June21,1917 20; June14,1917 18; May31,1917 17; May24,1917 16; May17,1917 15; May10,1917 14; May3,1917 13; April 26,1917 12; April 19,1917 11; April 12,1917 1917 4, 10; April 9; March29,1917 8; March22,1917 7; March15,1917 6; March7,1917 5; February28,1917 4; February21,1917 3; February14,1917 2; February7,1917 1; February1,1917 1; January10,1917 Muslim opini Eastern reportNo.,date + + + + - + + - + + + + + - - + - - + - - + + + - - +/- + - +/- - - - Caliphate Question ofpilgrimage on 110 - + - + - - + + ------+ - - - +/- - +/- - - + - - + ------+ + - - - - + +/- + - - - + - + - - - + - - - + + - +/- - - + - +/- - - CEU eTD Collection

46, December 13,1917 - 45, December 6,1917 29,1917 44, November 22,1917 43, November 16,1917 42, November 8,1917 41, November 1,1917 40, November - 39, October25,1917 38, October18,1917 37, October11, 1917 36, October4,1917 35, September 26,1917 + 34, September 19,1917 + + + + + - + + + - - + 111 - - - + - - + ------+ + - - - + +/- - - -

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