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Nursing with the Grenfell Mission in Northern Newfoundland and Labrador, 1939-1981

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Nursing with the Grenfell Mission in Northern Newfoundland and Labrador, 1939-1981 Nursing with the Grenfell Mission in Northern Newfoundland and Labrador, 1939-1981 by Maria Heidi Coombs-Thorne BA (Hons), Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1998 MA, Queen's University, 2001 A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy In the Graduate Academic Unit of History Supervisor: Linda Kealey, PhD (History) Examining Board: Penny Ericson, Prof. Emeritus (Nursing), Chair David Frank, PhD (History) Sasha Mullaly, PhD (History) External Examiner: Kathryn McPherson, PhD (History), York University This dissertation is accepted by the Dean of Graduate Studies UNIVERSITY OF NEW BRUNSWICK August 2010 © Maria Heidi Coombs-Thorne 2010 Library and Archives Bibliotheque et Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du 1+1 Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-87682-4 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-87682-4 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library and permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par I'lnternet, preter, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans le loan, distrbute and sell theses monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, sur worldwide, for commercial or non­ support microforme, papier, electronique et/ou commercial purposes, in microform, autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in this et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. Ni thesis. Neither the thesis nor la these ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci substantial extracts from it may be ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement printed or otherwise reproduced reproduits sans son autorisation. without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne sur la Privacy Act some supporting forms protection de la vie privee, quelques may have been removed from this formulaires secondaires ont ete enleves de thesis. cette these. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans in the document page count, their la pagination, il n'y aura aucun contenu removal does not represent any loss manquant. of content from the thesis. Canada Dedicated to my family. ii ABSTRACT The Grenfell Mission was a philanthropic social and medical aid organization in remote areas of northern Newfoundland and Labrador, 1893-1981. Nurses were an integral part of the organization and the health services it provided. This dissertation focuses on 498 nurses (primarily British) who worked with the Mission between 1939 and 1981. It applies gender and class analyses to archival material, print documents and oral histories to uncover the varied experiences of nursing with the Grenfell Mission. The nurses were considered to have attained an appropriate bourgeois character through their nurse training, and indeed many nurses assumed middle-class language, attitudes and behaviour in their interactions with the local people. In this sense, nursing with the Grenfell Mission was a formative experience in terms of class identity. The nursing experience was also influenced by the messages of the official Grenfell discourse, especially as portrayed through the Mission's quarterly magazine, Among the Deep Sea Fishers. Through this discourse, the Mission presented its singular image of the quintessential Grenfell nurse - a strong, independent woman who would have a greater chance of success on the Coast but who also understood the importance of their matemalist traits within the fibre of a middle-class, philanthropic health care organization. However, in providing health services to the people of northern Newfoundland and Labrador, there was often a disconnect between the myth of the Grenfell Mission as presented in the official Grenfell discourse and the realities of nursing in such unusual circumstances. Nursing activities on the Coast were sometimes at variance with the Grenfell Mission's official discourse and its middle-class matemalist message. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I sincerely thank my supervisor Linda Kealey, for providing continual support, encouragement and guidance; and my examining committee, Kathryn McPherson, Penny Ericson, David Frank and Sasha Mullaly, for providing constructive feedback and editorial expertise. I also thank Lianne McTavish for my field in the history of medicine. For assisting with my primary research, I thank Greg Walsh, Elizabeth Fewer and the staff at the Provincial Archives of Newfoundland and Labrador, The Rooms; Bert Riggs and Linda White at Archives and Special Collections, Memorial University; Gary Newell at the International Grenfell Association Archives in St. Anthony; and those retired Grenfell nurses who shared their experiences with me through interviews. For funding my various research trips and conference presentations, I thank the University of New Brunswick's School of Graduate Studies, the Department of History, the Graduate Student's Society, and the Canadian Association for the History of Nursing. And for overall financial support, I thank the Hannah Institute for the History of Medicine, the SSHRC/NSERC-funded project "Coasts Under Stress: The Impact of Social and Environmental Restructuring on Environmental and Human Health in Canada," and the Department of History at the University of New Brunswick. Finally, I thank my husband, Blair Thorne and my family and friends. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Dedication ii Abstract iii Acknowledgements iv Table of Contents v List of Tables vii List of Figures vii Map of the Coast viii Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Historiography 3 History of Health Care in Newfoundland and Labrador 5 History of Medical Missions 14 Nursing History 20 Nursing with the Grenfell Mission 35 Chapter 2: History of the Grenfell Mission, 1892-1981 40 Philanthropic Origins and Secularization 52 Health Care Initiatives during Commission of Government 64 Increasing Medical Personnel 64 Increasing Medical Facilities 65 Tuberculosis 66 Improving Child Health 67 Dietary Reform 67 The Second World War 69 Confederation 1949 77 Summary 84 Chapter 3: Among the Deep Sea Fishers - A Promotional Vehicle for the 86 Grenfell Mission's Middle-Class Dominant Discourse Middle-Class Dominant Discourse 90 The People Poverty 92 Local Ignorance 100 Aboriginal Population 105 The Mission Social Guidance and Progress 111 Quality of Services 119 v Official Endorsement 122 The Nurses Characteristics 126 Activities 129 Summary 138 Chapter 4: "She seems a fairly venturesome girl" - Balancing Personal 141 Motivations with the Grenfell Agenda Personal Motivations 152 In Search of Adventure 153 Religion and Philanthropy 162 Career Experience and Advancement 170 Relationships, Marriages and Class 176 Marriage and the Grenfell Mission Response 184 Summary 196 Chapter 5: "There is no one to turn to for help" - The Work Experience of 199 Nursing With the Grenfell Mission Standard Nursing Duties 203 Midwifery/Obstetrics 207 Public Health 215 Dentistry 226 Domestic Chores 233 Administration 240 Supplementary Duties 247 Summary 251 Chapter 6: Challenging the "Truths" of the Grenfell Mission Discourse 254 Conflict with Members of the Community 255 Local Gratitude in the Fishers 256 Nurses' Relations with Members of the Community 261 Racial and Cultural Differences 268 Non-Medical Participation of Nurses in the Community 269 Conflict with Other Nurses 272 Nurses as Cooperative and Congenial in the Fishers 272 Conflict with other Nurses 273 Conflict with the Physicians 282 Nurses' Deference to Physicians in the Fishers 282 Conflict with Grenfell Physicians 288 Resistance to Paternalism 296 Summary 302 Conclusion 304 Bibliography 310 Appendix 337 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Relief for Labrador, 1936-47 48 Table 2.2: Household Amenities, Percentages 49 Table 2.3: Medical Superintendents of the Grenfell Mission, 1892-1981 51 Table 2.4: Hospital Construction Grants 78 Table 2.5: Grants to Support the Purchase of Equipment 79 Table 2.6: Cost Distribution of the Air Ambulance Service 81 Table 4.1: Most Common Training Schools, 1929-80 144 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: "Labrador Feast" 63 Figure 2.2: A Dance in Goose Bay, 1959 73 Figure 3.1: Among the Deep Sea Fishers 87 Figure 3.2: "Mrs. Martin of Sandwich Bay, Labrador" 95 Figure 3.3: "Patchwork Patient" 97 Figure 3.4: Innu Women Netting Snowshoes 106 Figure 3.5: Girls of the St. Anthony Orphanage 113 Figure 3.6: Boys of the St. Anthony Orphanage 114 Figure 3.7: "Shakespeare at St. Anthony" 115 Figure 3.8: Nurse Barnard and a "Labrador Cradle" 137 Figure 4.1: British, Canadian and American Nurses, 1938-46 150 Figure 4.2: Travel by Dogsled 155 Figure 4.3: Marital Status upon Application, 1936-80 181 Figure 4.4: Marriage Status upon Application, Trends 1936-80 182 Figure 4.5: Grenfell Nurses by Age on Application, 1936-80 183 Figure 4.6: Traceable Marriages after Nursing with the Mission, 1936-80 190 Figure 4.7: Marriages Associated with the Grenfell Mission Experience, 192 1939-81 vii <*R om . ' : «0 OTHER A f •%*. ?*' >>, * », ' V r vnr >f» J «e tOCATfON or 7K£ M(7Tfl£jBMM£fiAYMSMO(HAt.l tA * Hu *> "ItJU.* Of WAUTIOU. NI«S ,-t.;ry: *s ; •wtttr RIVER il/' Gf LABRADOR ST MARYS BLANC SA MV^X to#- CORNER BM0*r^HUM8FRM«m<oj^oFAI.lJ&- NEWFOUNDLAN I) f I i/—V ADSF 47(04): Frontispiece. viii CHAPTER ONE Introduction The Grenfell Mission was established in 1893 in response to the lack of basic health care and the difficult living conditions that Wilfred Thomason Grenfell witnessed on his visit to the Coast of Labrador a year earlier. Under Grenfell's direction, the Mission became a paternalistic and philanthropic system of health care designed to reach people living in isolated coastal communities in northern Newfoundland and Labrador.
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