DOCSLIB.ORG

Some Terms Used in Agrarian History a GLOSSARY I by R

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Some Terms Used in Agrarian History a GLOSSARY I by R Some Terms used in Agrarian History A GLOSSARY i By R. A. BUTLIN EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION RARIAN history, like other branches of learning, not infrequently ~ finds itself bedevilled in discussion and exposition by ambiguity in the terms employed. Either the terms themselves lack precision, or the writer uses them in a sense different from that commonly under- stood, and feels safe in doing so because there is no generally accepted standard. The glossary which follows has been drafted by Mr Butlin at my invitation, as a first step towards the adoption of an agreed terminology. It deals principally with the language of open-field husbandry, and therefore should be regarded as a first instalment, to be followed later perhaps by a glossary of terms used in modern farming. The definitions it offers are pro- visional; readers who disagree with them are invited to propound alternative definitions of their own. It is published in the hope that after discussion and revision it will find acceptance with writers in this REVIEW and contributors to the now in progress. r: i Agrarian History of England and Wales ED., A.H.R. ACRE. See LANDMEASUREMENT. BUTT. A section in a common arable field AGISTMENT. The pasturing of one per- which has been shortened by the irregular son's animals on another's land on payment of shape of the field, and is therefore shorter a due. In relation to common land, it signifies than the others in the shott. the letting to another of a commoner's right CALMING. The reaping of stubble left in to pasture his stock (but not a right APPEN- the arable field after the ears of corn have been DANT). reaped. APPENDANT. See COMMON,Right of. CATTLEGAIT. See STINT. APPURTENANT. See COMMON, Right of. COMMON APPENDANT. A right of com- ASSART. A piece of land, taken from waste mon given by law to the freeholders of a or forest, cleared of trees, and converted into manor (those who held land granted as free- arable (from French verb essarter,to grub up). hold arable by the lord of the manor before BALK (BAULK). An unploughed piece of the Statute of Quia Emptores in I29o) to de- land in a common arable field, with various pasture their commonable animals on the uses: as an access path, by which a tenant waste of the manor. At a later date, the right could reach his land (known as a FOOTBALK) ; a was limited to those commonable animals boundary between shotts, strips, and other which were "levant and couchant" on the units of arable; or merely places which are tenement, i.e. those commonable animals iIi! unsuitable for cultivation. Balks were often which could be maintained throughout the ii i ~: grazed by tethered animals. winter on the land to which the right was BEASTGAIT. See STINT. appendant. After 129o, the right could be J/., ii,: BOVATE. See LANDMEASUREMENT, claimed by prescription only. !l :~ii 98 :1 ~ I I, '11 i! It!' SOME TERMS USED IN AGRARIAN HISTORY 99 COMMON APPURTENANT. A right of important of the rights of common. This common of pasture which depends on express includes Common Appendant, Common grant by the owner of the soil or on prescrip- Appurtenant. Common in gross, Common tion, and is attached to a particular holding. pur cause de vicinage, and Common of The right may be granted to a person who is Shack. not a customary tenant of the manor, e.g. a COMMON OF PISCARY. The right to fish freeholder who is a tenant in fee simple, and in waters belonging to another person. may exist in respect of animals other than COMMON OF SHACK. The right of cus- commonable animals, and in respect of land tomary tenants and freeholders to pasture which was not part of the ancient arable land their commonable animals over the arable and of the manor. meadow land of the manor between harvest COMMON ARABLE. Arable land, con- and seed-time, or over the parts of the manor tained in common fields, which became com- which were temporarily lying fallow. monable after harvest. COMMON OF TURBARY. The right to COMMON FIELD. Land cultivated in take peat or turf for fuel. common, including arable and meadow land. COMMON PASTURE. Land used exclu- COMMON-FIELD HUSBANDRY. See sively for pasture by manorial tenants. The FIELD SYSTEMS. soil may be vested in the lord of the manor, or COMMON IN GROSS. A right to have in undivided shares in the owners of the pas- grazing and other rights in the waste irre- ture right. Because the pasture could, in most spective of any ownership of land, for the instances, be grazed by a limited number of right is annexed to a man's person, either by animals (see STINT),and often for only part of grant to him and his heirs by deed, or it may the year, the common pasture tended to be be claimed by prescription. land of better quality than the common waste. COMMON LAND. Land subject to com- COMMON PUR CAUSE DE VICINAGE mon rights. exists where there are adjoining wastes be- COMMON MEADOW. Land, cropped for longing to different manors, and tenants hav- hay, which reverted, once the hay had been ing a right of pasture over one of the wastes lifted (usually at Laminas-tide), to the whole are allowed to pasture their animals on the community; then commonable animals were waste of the other. The right is a permissive pastured on it. The common meadow was one, and overcomes the problem of excess often low-lying alluvial land, adjoining a litigation for trespass. stream or river. If the ownership of the indi- COMMON, RIGHT OF. A right of com- vidual portions was not fixed, the strips of mon is the right which one or more persons meadow might be allotted by rotation or by have to make use of, or take produce from, the lot. See DOLE MEADOW, LOT MEADOW. land of another. In most instanr2es the owner COMMON OF ESTOVER. The common of the Soil was the lord of the manor, who also right, appurtenant or in gross, to take wood enjoyed rights of common thereon. 1 The from the waste or woods of a manor. This waste of the manor was vested in the lord in right includes: Plowbote, the right to take fee simple, but normally subject to customary wood to repair ploughs, carts, and farm common rights. In the arable and meadow implements; Firebote, the right to take tree the strips of the customary tenants were loppings for fuel; Hedgebote (or Heybote), the vested in fee simple of the lord of the manor, right to take wood for the repair of fences and holding of the Crown, but these tenants had gates; Housebote, the right to take wood to exclusive possession, subject to common repair a house. rights. When the common arable and meadow COMMON OF PASTURE. The most were thrown open for pasturing of common- 1 Some common lands are not in manors, e.g. the common lands of an ancient borough, or of a 'reputed manor'. See Royal Commission on Commc,n Land, I955-8, Report, Cmd 46z, p. I7o. j 100 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY REVIEW able animals, the ownership of the soil did attached to a house, which was almost in- not change, but the rights of pasture were variably enclosed. Crofts are occasionally common rights, because each tenant exer- located within common fields. See TOFT AND cised rights over land other than his own. It is CROFT. necessary to make the distinction between DEMESNE. (i) A feudal term, as in the the rights of common, and sole or exclusive phrase 'in demesne as of fee', meaning a rights (see SOLE VESTUI~and SOLE PASTVRe). tenement not sub-enfeoffed, i.e. kept in the 4 Common rights evolved through "an in- hands of the owner and descending to his creasing limitation of rights to more sharply lineal and collateral heirs. I defined classes of user. This limitation arose (ii) Agricultural demesne: demesne land is the naturally from the pressure of a growing reserve which the lord of the manor cultivates population upon a fixed supply of land through his own agents so that he may directly throughout historic times. The degree of consume or sell the produce, as distinct from pressure, and hence the chronology of the land held by his tenants. The demesne was limitation of common rights, varied according frequently sub-let, and could be worked by :i to local circumstances. ''1 labour services, by hired labour, or by slaves. COMMON WASTE. This term includes a (iii) ANCIENT DEMESNE. Land which had for- vcide variety of classes of land, all of which merly been royal demesne land, but which were either uncultivated or uncultivable. had subsequently been alienated to other They were used as permanent sources of landowners. 2 grazing for livestock, as sources of fuel, and of (iv) ROYAL DEMESNE. Demesne land which material for repairs of houses and imple- belonged to the Crown. ments, and they also allowed the expansion of ENCLOSURE. The process of delimiting the arable area to take place, by enclosure and land by means of a fence or boundary, thus improvement. removing it, either temporarily or permanent- COMMONABLE LAND. Land commun- ly, from common use. Permanently enclosed ally used for part of the year (arable, meadow, land was not usually subject to common and sometimes common pasture) which, after rights. harvest, was pastured by the commonable ENCLOSURE IN SEVERALTY. The divi- animals until seed-time. sion of common or commonable land among COMMONABLE ANIMALS.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The History of Luttrellstown Demesne, Co. Dublin
    NORTHERN IRELAND HERITAGE GARDENS TRUST OCCASIONAL PAPER, No 4 (2015) 'Without Rival in our Metropolitan County' - The History of Luttrellstown Demesne, Co. Dublin Terence Reeves-Smyth Luttrellstown demesne, which occupies around 600 acres within its walls, has long been recognised as the finest eighteenth century landscape in County Dublin and one of the best in Ireland. Except for the unfortunate incorporation of a golf course into the eastern portion of its historic parkland, the designed landscape has otherwise survived largely unchanged for over two centuries. With its subtle inter-relationship of tree belts and woodlands, its open spaces and disbursement of individual tree specimens, together with its expansive lake, diverse buildings and its tree-clad glen, the demesne, known as 'Woodlands' in the 19th century, was long the subject of lavish praise and admiration from tourists and travellers. As a writer in the Irish Penny Journal remarked in October 1840: ‘considered in connection with its beautiful demesne, [Luttrellstown] may justly rank as the finest aristocratic residence in the immediate vicinity of our metropolis.. in its natural beauties, the richness of its plantations and other artificial improvements, is without rival in our metropolitan county, and indeed is characterised by some features of such exquisite beauty as are rarely found in park scenery anywhere, and which are nowhere to be surpassed’.1 Fig 1. 'View on approaching Luttrellstown Park', drawn & aquatinted by Jonathan Fisher; published as plate 6 in Scenery
    [Show full text]
  • Grassland Resources and Development of Grassland Agriculture in Temperate China
    124 Rangelands 10(3), June 1988 Grassland Resources and Development of Grassland Agriculture in Temperate China Zhu Tinachen Natural temperate grasslands occupy 2.4 million km2 or one-quarter ofthe area of China. They form a broad beltfrom the plains of the northeast to the Tibetan Plateau of the southwest (Fig. 1). The nature and distribution of thegrassland is determined in large part by the influence of the monsoon. In the north- east where the monsoon is well developed, the grassland owes its existenceto dry conditions in the spring. Westward and southwestward wherethe monsooninfluence is weaker, the grasslandsoccupy higherelevations (to as high as 5,000 m) in response to the semiarid and arid regional climate. Similarly, temperate grasslands occur at high elevations in mountains of the desert region in northwestern China, far beyond the continuous grassland belt. Some 4,000 species offlowering plants comprise thevegetation ofthese temper- ate grasslands.About 200 are important forage species. The livestock population in China is about 130 million Fig. I Steppe zone of China cattle units. Most of the livestock are dependent on these 1.Meadow steppe, 2.Typical steppe. 3.Desert steppe. 4. Shrub steppe. 5. Alpine steppe. natural temperategrasslands. GrasslandTypes responding to climate and distributed in the form of a belt. Meadows are not zonal; they are controlled by local envi- Based on the concept of zonal vegetation, the natural ronments.About 80 ofthe area of is occu- of China can be divided into two percent grassland temperategrasslands major pied by zone steppetypes and about 20 percent by meadow types: steppe and meadow.
    [Show full text]
  • Some Notes on Manors & Manorial History
    SOME NOTES ON MANORS & MANORIAL HISTORY BY A. HAMILTON THOMPSON, M.A.. D.Litt.. F.B.A..F.S.A. Some Notes on Manors & Manorial History By A. Hamilton Thompson, M.A., D.Litt., F.B.A., F.S.A. The popular idea of a manor assumes that it is a fixed geo­ graphical area with definite boundaries, which belongs to a lord with certain rights over his tenants. In common usage, we speak of this or that lordship, almost in the same way in which we refer to a parish. It is very difficult, however, to give the word an exclusively geographical meaning. If we examine one of those documents which are known as Inquisitions post mortem, for example, we shall find that, at the death of a tenant who holds his property directly from the Crown, the king's escheator will make an extent, that is, a detailed valuation, of his manors. This will consist for the most part of a list of a number of holdings with names of the tenants, specifying the rent or other services due to the lord from each. These holdings will, it is true, be generally gathered together in one or more vills or townships, of which the manor may roughly be said to consist. But it will often be found that there are outlying holdings in other vills which owe service to a manor, the nucleus of which is at some distance. Thus the members of the manor of Rothley lay scattered at various distances from their centre, divided from it and from each other by other lordships.
    [Show full text]
  • Delivering on Net Zero: Scottish Agriculture
    i Delivering on Net Zero: Scottish Agriculture A report for WWF Scotland from the Organic Policy, Business and Research Consultancy Authors: Nic Lampkin, Laurence Smith, Katrin Padel NOVEMBER 2019 ii Contents Executive summary............................................................................................................................................ iii 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 1 2 Portfolio of mitigation measures ............................................................................................................... 3 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 3 2.2 Measuring greenhouse gas emissions and global warming potential .............................................. 3 2.3 Emission reduction measures to be analysed ................................................................................... 5 A. Improved nitrogen fertiliser use ............................................................................................................... 5 2.3.1 M1 (E1, FBC): Improving synthetic N utilisation ........................................................................ 5 2.3.2 M2 (E6): Controlled release fertilisers (CRF) ............................................................................. 6 2.3.3 M3 (E10): Precision applications to crops ................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Mid-Atlantic Native Meadows Guidelines for Planning, Preparation, Design, Installation, and Maintenance
    Mid-Atlantic Native Meadows Guidelines for Planning, Preparation, Design, Installation, and Maintenance Alice Sturm, Mahan Rykiel Associates Stephanie Frischie, Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation Mid-Atlantic Native Meadows Guidelines for Planning, Preparation, Design, Installation, and Maintenance Alice Sturm, Mahan Rykiel Associates Stephanie Frischie, Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation The Xerces Society is a nonprofit organization that protects the natural world by conserving invertebrates and their habitat. Established in 1971, the Society is a trusted source for science-based information and advice and plays a leading role in promoting the conservation of pollinators and many other invertebrates. We collaborate with people and institutions at all levels and our work to protect bees, butterflies, and other pollinators encompasses all landscapes. Our team draws together experts from the fields of habitat restoration, entomology, plant ecology, education, farming, and conservation biology with a single passion: Protecting the life that sustains us. The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation 628 NE Broadway, Suite 200, Portland, OR 97232 Tel (855) 232-6639 Fax (503) 233-6794 www.xerces.org Regional offices from coast to coast The Xerces Society is an equal opportunity employer and provider. Xerces® is a trademark registered in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office Founded in 1983, Mahan Rykiel Associates is a 35-person landscape architecture, urban design, and planning firm located in Baltimore, Maryland. The firm works across scales to imagine and realize projects that enrich the human condition and support vibrant natural systems. Research and discovery guide project development that includes public parks, civic plazas, state infrastructure, mixed-use housing, private residences, healthcare facilities, hotels, and commercial centers.
    [Show full text]
  • Feudalism Manors
    effectively defend their lands from invasion. As a result, people no longer looked to a central ruler for security. Instead, many turned to local rulers who had their Recognizing own armies. Any leader who could fight the invaders gained followers and politi- Effects cal strength. What was the impact of Viking, Magyar, and A New Social Order: Feudalism Muslim invasions In 911, two former enemies faced each other in a peace ceremony. Rollo was the on medieval head of a Viking army. Rollo and his men had been plundering the rich Seine (sayn) Europe? River valley for years. Charles the Simple was the king of France but held little power. Charles granted the Viking leader a huge piece of French territory. It became known as Northmen’s land, or Normandy. In return, Rollo swore a pledge of loyalty to the king. Feudalism Structures Society The worst years of the invaders’ attacks spanned roughly 850 to 950. During this time, rulers and warriors like Charles and Rollo made similar agreements in many parts of Europe. The system of governing and landhold- ing, called feudalism, had emerged in Europe. A similar feudal system existed in China under the Zhou Dynasty, which ruled from around the 11th century B.C.until 256 B.C.Feudalism in Japan began in A.D.1192 and ended in the 19th century. The feudal system was based on rights and obligations. In exchange for military protection and other services, a lord, or landowner, granted land called a fief.The person receiving a fief was called a vassal.
    [Show full text]
  • Livestock Performance for Sheep and Cattle Grazing Lowland Permanent Pasture: Benchmarking Potential of Forage-Based Systems
    agronomy Article Livestock Performance for Sheep and Cattle Grazing Lowland Permanent Pasture: Benchmarking Potential of Forage-Based Systems Robert J. Orr 1, Bruce A. Griffith 1, M. Jordana Rivero 1,* and Michael R. F. Lee 1,2 1 Rothamsted Research, Sustainable Agriculture Sciences, North Wyke, Okehampton, Devon EX20 2SB, UK; [email protected] (R.J.O.); bruce.griffi[email protected] (B.A.G.); [email protected] (M.R.F.L.) 2 University of Bristol, Bristol Veterinary School, Langford, Somerset BS40 5DU, UK * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +44-1837-512302 Received: 29 January 2019; Accepted: 18 February 2019; Published: 21 February 2019 Abstract: Here we describe the livestock performance and baseline productivity over a two-year period, following the establishment of the infrastructure on the North Wyke Farm Platform across its three farmlets (small farms). Lowland permanent pastures were continuously stocked with yearling beef cattle and ewes and their twin lambs for two years in three farmlets. The cattle came into the farmlets as suckler-reared weaned calves at 195 32.6 days old weighing 309 45.0 kg, were ± ± housed indoors for 170 days then turned out to graze weighing 391 54.2 kg for 177 days. Therefore, ± it is suggested for predominantly grass-based systems with minimal supplementary feeding that target live weight gains should be 0.5 kg/day in the first winter, 0.9 kg/day for summer grazing and 0.8 kg/day for cattle housed and finished on silage in a second winter. The sheep performance suggested that lambs weaned at 100 days and weighing 35 kg should finish at 200 days weighing 44 to 45 kg live weight with a killing out percentage of 44%.
    [Show full text]
  • Future Friendly Farming: Seven Agricultural Practices to Sustain People and the Environment Executive Summary
    Future Friendly Farming Seven Agricultural Practices to Sustain People and the Environment Ryan Stockwell and Eliav Bitan August 2011 Future Friendly Farming Seven Agricultural Practices to Sustain People and the Environment Ryan Stockwell and Eliav Bitan August 2011 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to thank the contributions of many people in the development of this report. Julie Sibbing and Aviva Glaser provided guidance and editing. Bill McGuire provided content and consulted on the development of the report. Mekell Mikell provided insightful edits. A number of reviewers provided helpful feedback on various drafts of this report. We appreciate the time everyone took to talk with us about their practices or projects. Finally we would like to thank the Packard Foundation for their support of this project. Table of Contents Executive Summary ...................................................................................1 Introduction ................................................................................................3 CHART: Multiple benefits of agriculture and land management practices ......................................................................4 1. Cover Crops ...........................................................................................5 CASE STUDY: Minnesota Corn and Soybean Farmer Grows Profits, as well as Water Quality and Climate Benefits .........................................................................6 CASE STUDY: Cover Cropping North Dakota Grain and Cattle Farmers Grow Profits, as
    [Show full text]
  • Wildflower Meadows
    Online edition: ISSN 2009-6852 National Biodiversity Data Series No. 13. Print edition: ISSN 2009-6844 How-to-guide Creation and management of a wildfl ower meadow All-Ireland Pollinator Plan e I m 2015-2020 r t p n l e e m C a e t n a t a D t i y o t i n s c r o e o iv rd d i io n B at l ed na by tio th Na e www.biodiversityireland.ie/pollinator-plan How-to-guide 4 “How can I create a What is a wildflower wildflower meadow for meadow? A wildfower meadow is many things to many pollinators?” people. To some, a wildfower meadow is a brightly This is the Pollinator Plan’s most frequently asked coloured feld made up of annual species such as question. If we want to ensure our pollinators poppies and cornfowers (left photo, below). These are there when we need them, providing enough were the “weeds” of cereals such as barley. With food (fowers) is key. Planting a native wildfower selective herbicides and improved seed cleaning meadow can help, but creating a sustainable, practices these species have declined. pollinator friendly meadow is more complex than most people realise. That is why the experts at Other people have in mind the traditional Irish EcoSeeds have collaborated with the Pollinator hay meadow (right photo, below). In the last 50 Plan to help produce this How-to-Guide. It will help years the practice of hay making has declined you plan for and carry out your wildfower project.
    [Show full text]
  • B. Medieval Manorialism and Peasant Serfdom: the Agricultural Foundations of Medieval Feudalism Revised 21 October 2013
    III. BARRIERS TO ECONOMIC GROWTH IN THE MEDIEVAL ECONOMY: B. Medieval Manorialism and Peasant Serfdom: the Agricultural Foundations of Medieval Feudalism revised 21 October 2013 Manorialism: definitions • (1) a system of dependent peasant cultivation, • in which a community of peasants, ranging from servile to free, received their lands or holdings from a landlord • - usually a feudal, military lord • (2) the peasants: worked those lands at least in part for the lord’s economic benefit • - in return for both economic and military security in holding their tenancy lands from that military lord. Medieval Manorialism Key Features • (1) European manorialism --- also known as seigniorialism [seignior, seigneur = lord] both predated and outlived feudalism: predominant agrarian socio-economic institution from 4th-18th century • (2) Medieval manorialism: links to Feudalism • The manor was generally a feudal fief • i.e., a landed estate held by a military lord in payment and reward for military services • Feudal fiefs were often collections of manors, • servile peasants provided most of labour force in most northern medieval manors (before 14th century) THE FEUDAL LORD OF THE MANOR • (1) The Feudal Lord of the Manor: almost always possessed judicial powers • secular lord: usually a feudal knight (or superior lord: i.e., count or early, duke, etc.); • ecclesiastical lord: a bishop (cathedral); abbot (monastery); an abbess (nunnery) • (2) Subsequent Changes: 15th – 18th centuries • Many manors, in western Europe, passed into the hands of non-feudal
    [Show full text]
  • Dairy Farmer Profitability Using Intensive Rotational Stocking
    Dairy Farmer Profitability Using United States Department of Intensive Rotational Agriculture Natural Stocking Resources Conservation Service Better grazing management Grazing Lands for pastures Technology Institute In 1992, Pennsylvania State University researchers conducted a study of the profitability of dairy farms practicing intensive rotational grazing. The 52 cooperating farmers were selected completely at random, with a stratified random sample statistical design, from among nearly 15 percent, or 350 farmers, practic- ing intensive grazing in a five-county region of northeastern Pennsylvania—Bradford, Tioga, Susquehanna, Wyoming, and Wayne Counties. The results from this study reflect typical use of intensive rotational stocking. The randomness of the sample selection ensures that the results reported here are representative, and can most likely be achieved by the typical farmer. September 1996 For additional copies of this publication, contact— Grazing Lands Technology Institute USDA, Natural Resources Conservation Service P.O. 6567 Fort Worth, Texas 76115 Dairy Farmer Profitability Using Intensive Rotational Stocking Figure 1. In a study of dairy farmer practices in a five-county area of northeastern Pennsylvania, farmers using pasture cut feed costs and increased profit per cow. One of the first representative studies of dairy Why typical dairy farmers adopt farmers practicing intensive rotational stocking was intensive rotational stocking conducted by Pennsylvania State University. The grazing method is defined as rotation of grazing cows In this 1992 study, the main reasons cited by dairy among several small pasture subunits called pad- farmers (fig. 2) for adopting intensive rotational docks versus stocking for continuously grazing one stocking were reduced costs and labor, they had large pasture.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 7 Meadows and Enclosed Pasture
    Meadows and enclosed pasture 7 Definition and location of meadows and enclosed pasture ................................ 7:3 7.1 Definition of meadows and enclosed pasture ....................................... 7:3 7.2 Location and extent of meadows and enclosed pasture .............................. 7:4 Habitats and species of meadows and enclosed pasture in the uplands ..................... 7:5 7.3 Why meadows and enclosed pasture are important ................................. 7:5 7.4 Habitats and species of meadows and enclosed pasture, their nature conservation status and distribution ................................................................... 7:5 7.4.1 Vascular plants ......................................................... 7:5 7.4.2 Bryophytes ............................................................. 7:6 7.4.3 Plant communities ...................................................... 7:6 7.4.4 Birds .................................................................. 7:8 7.4.5 Invertebrates ........................................................... 7:9 7.4.6 Mammals ............................................................. 7:10 7.4.7 Amphibians and reptiles ................................................ 7:10 7.5 Habitat and management requirements of meadow and enclosed pasture species ...... 7:10 Management of upland meadows and enclosed pasture .................................. 7:11 7.6 Managing upland meadows and enclosed pasture ................................. 7:11 7.6.1 Establishing management objectives
    [Show full text]